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{{Short description|Theory advanced by social scientists to explain facts about the social world}}
{{for|the journal|Sociological Theory (journal)}}
{{Sociology}}
A '''sociological theory''' is a {{Wikt-lang|en|supposition|i=no}} that intends to consider, analyze, and/or explain objects of [[social reality]] from a [[Sociological imagination|sociological perspective]],<ref name=":2">Macionis, John and Linda M. Gerber. 2010. ''Sociology'' (7th Canadian ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: [[Pearson Education]]. {{ISBN|978-0-13-700161-3}}.</ref>{{Rp|14}} drawing connections between individual concepts in order to organize and substantiate [[Sociology|sociological knowledge]]. Hence, such knowledge is composed of complex theoretical frameworks and [[methodology]].<ref>Boundless team. "[https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-sociology/chapter/theoretical-perspectives-in-sociology/ Theoretical Perspectives in Sociology]". Sociology [<nowiki/>[[Open educational resources|OER]] course]. ''Boundless Sociology''. Portland: Lumen Candela.</ref>

These theories range in scope, from concise, yet thorough, descriptions of a single social process to broad, inconclusive [[paradigm]]s for analysis and [[interpretation (philosophy)|interpretation]]. Some sociological theories explain aspects of the social world and enable prediction about future events,<ref>{{cite web|last=Keel|first=Robert|title=What is Sociological Theory?|url=http://www.umsl.edu/~keelr/3210/3210_lectures/what_is_soc_theory.html.html|publisher=Robert Keel|access-date=29 February 2012}}{{dead link|date=May 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}}</ref> while others function as broad perspectives which guide further sociological analyses.<ref>{{cite book|author=Craig J. Calhoun|title=Classical sociological theory|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6mq-H3EcUx8C&pg=PA1|access-date=2 March 2011|year=2002|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|isbn=978-0-631-21348-2|pages=1–}}</ref>

Prominent sociological theorists include [[Talcott Parsons]], [[Robert K. Merton]], [[Randall Collins]], [[James Samuel Coleman]], [[Peter Blau]], [[Niklas Luhmann]], [[Immanuel Wallerstein]], [[George Homans]], [[Theda Skocpol]], [[Gerhard Lenski]], [[Pierre van den Berghe]] and [[Jonathan H. Turner]].<ref name=":0">{{cite journal |last=Sanderson |first=Stephen K. |year=2005 |url=https://www.asanet.org/sites/default/files/savvy/sectiontheory/documents/Perspectives-2005-Aug.pdf |title=Reforming theoretical work in sociology: A modest proposal |journal= Perspectives: A Newsletter of the ASA Theory Section |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=1–4 See p. 1 }}</ref>

==Sociological theory vs. social theory==
{{See also|Social theory}}
Kenneth Allan (2006) distinguishes sociological theory from [[social theory]], in that the former consists of [[Abstraction|abstract]] and [[Testability|testable]] propositions about society, heavily relying on the [[scientific method]] which aims for [[Objectivity (philosophy)|objectivity]] and to avoid passing [[value judgment]]s.<ref>Allan, Kenneth. 2006. {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mf2BxB149KsC|title=Contemporary Social and Sociological Theory: Visualizing Social Worlds|year=2006|isbn=9781412913621|edition=2nd|url-access=limited|last1=Allan|first1=Kenneth|publisher=Pine Forge Press }} Thousand Oaks, CA: [[SAGE Publishing|Pine Forge Press]]. {{ISBN|978-1-4129-1362-1}}. Retrieved 25 April 2020. p. 10.</ref> In contrast, ''social theory'', according to Allan, focuses less on explanation and more on [[Social commentary|commentary]] and [[critique]] of [[Modernity|modern society]]. As such, social theory is generally closer to [[continental philosophy]] insofar as it is less concerned with [[Objectivity (philosophy)|objectivity]] and derivation of testable propositions, thus more likely to propose [[Normative statement|normative judgments]].<ref name=":0" />

Sociologist [[Robert K. Merton]] ([[Social Theory and Social Structure|1949]]) argued that sociological theory deals with [[Mechanism (sociology)|social mechanisms]], which are essential in exemplifying the 'middle ground' between social law and description.<ref name=":3">[[Robert K. Merton|Merton, Robert K.]] 1968 [1949]. ''[[iarchive:robert k merton social theory and social structure/mode/2up|Social Theory and Social Structure]]'' (enlarged ed.). New York: [[Free Press (publisher)|Free Press]] – via [[Internet Archive]]. {{ISBN|978-0029211304}}. [https://archive.org/stream/robert_k_merton_social_theory_and_social_structure/Robert%20K.%20Merton-Social%20Theory%20and%20Social%20Structure-The%20Free%20Press%20_%20Collier%20MacMillan%20%281968%29_djvu.txt Full text].</ref>{{Rp|43–4}} Merton believed these social mechanisms to be "social processes having designated consequences for designated parts of the social structure."<ref>[[Peter Hedström (sociologist)|Hedström, Peter]], and [[Richard Swedberg]]. 1998. ''[https://assets.cambridge.org/97805215/96879/excerpt/9780521596879_excerpt.pdf#p6 Social Mechanisms An Analytical Approach to Social Theory]''. Stockholm University: [[Cambridge University Press]]. {{ISBN|9780521596879}}. p. 6.</ref>

Prominent social theorists include:<ref name=":0" /> [[Jürgen Habermas]], [[Anthony Giddens]], [[Michel Foucault]], [[Dorothy E. Smith|Dorothy Smith]], [[Roberto Mangabeira Unger|Roberto Unger]], [[Alfred Schütz]], [[Jeffrey Alexander]], and [[Jacques Derrida]].

There are also prominent scholars who could be seen as being in-between social and sociological theories, such as:<ref name=":0" /> [[Harold Garfinkel]], [[Herbert Blumer]], [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]], [[Pierre Bourdieu]], and [[Erving Goffman]].

==Classical theoretical traditions<!--'Classical sociology' and 'Classical social theory' redirect here-->==
{{Details|History of sociology}}
The field of [[sociology]] itself is a relatively new discipline and so, by extension, is the field of sociological theory. Both date back to the 18th and 19th centuries, periods of drastic [[social change]], where societies would begin to see, for example, the emergence of [[Industrialisation|industrialization]], [[urbanization]], [[democracy]], and [[History of capitalism|early capitalism]], provoking (particularly Western) thinkers to start becoming considerably more aware of [[society]]. As such, the field of sociology initially dealt with broad historical processes relating to these changes.

Through a well-cited survey of sociological theory, [[Randall Collins]] (1994) retroactively labels various theorists as belonging to four theoretical traditions:<ref>[[Randall Collins|Collins, Randall]], ed. 1994. {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/foursociological0000unse|title=Four Sociological Traditions: Selected Readings|year=1994|isbn=978-0-19-508702-4 |url-access=limited|last1=Collins |first1=Randall }} New York: [[Oxford University Press]] – via [[Internet Archive]]. {{ISBN|9780195087024}}. {{OCLC|782169682}}.</ref> [[Structural functionalism|functionalism]], [[Conflict theories|conflict]], [[symbolic interactionism]], and [[Rational choice theory|utilitarianism]].<ref>[[Steven Barkan|Barkan, Steven E.]] 2010. {{Cite web|url=https://scholar.flatworldknowledge.com/books/2/preview|title=Chapter 1: Sociology and the Sociological Perspective|url-access=limited}} In ''Sociology: Understanding and Changing the Social World'' (brief ed.). Boston: FlatWorld. {{ISBN|978-1-4533-2720-3}}. Retrieved 25 April 2020.</ref>

While modern sociological theory descends predominately from ''functionalist'' ([[Émile Durkheim|Durkheim]]) and ''conflict''-oriented ([[Karl Marx|Marx]] and [[Max Weber|Weber]]) perspectives of [[social structure]], it also takes great influence from the ''symbolic interactionist'' tradition, accounting for theories of [[pragmatism]] ([[George Herbert Mead|Mead]], [[Charles Cooley|Cooley]]) and [[Microsociology|micro-level structure]] ([[Georg Simmel|Simmel]]). Likewise, ''[[Utilitarianism|utilitarian]]'' theories of [[Decision theory|rational choice]] (equivalent here to "[[social exchange theory]]"), although often associated with either [[ethics]] or [[economics]], is an established tradition within sociological theory.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hechter |first1=Michael |last2=Kanazawa |first2=Satoshi |title=Sociological Rational Choice Theory |journal=Annual Review of Sociology |date=August 1997 |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=191–214 |doi=10.1146/annurev.soc.23.1.191 |s2cid=14439597 }}</ref><ref>[[James Samuel Coleman|Coleman, James Samuel]], and [[Thomas Fararo|Thomas J. Fararo]], eds. 1992. ''Rational Choice Theory: Advocacy and Critique''. ''Key Issues in Sociological Theory'' 7. New York: SAGE. {{ISBN|9780803947610}}.</ref>

Lastly, as argued by [[Raewyn Connell]] (2007), a tradition that is often forgotten is that of ''[[social Darwinism]]'', which applies the logic of [[Evolution|biological evolution]] to the social world.<ref>[[Raewyn Connell|Connell, Raewyn]]. 2007. [https://books.google.com/books?id=QZ_rAAAAMAAJ Southern Theory: The Global Dynamics of Knowledge in Social Science]. London: [[Polity (publisher)|Polity Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-745-64249-9}}. [https://lifeclub.org/books/southern-theory-raewyn-connell-review-summary Lay summary] via ''Life Club''.</ref> This tradition often aligns with classical functionalism and is associated with several founders of sociology, primarily [[Herbert Spencer]], [[Lester F. Ward]] and [[William Graham Sumner]]. Contemporary sociological theory retains traces of each of these traditions, which are by no means mutually exclusive.

===Structural functionalism===
{{Main|Structural functionalism}}{{Anchor|Functionalism}}
A broad historical paradigm in sociology, ''structural functionalism'' addresses [[social structure]]s in its entirety and in terms of the necessary functions possessed by its constituent elements. A common parallel used by functionalists, known as the ''organic'' or ''biological analogy''<ref>"[https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/organic-analogy Organic Analogy]''.''" ''A Dictionary of Sociology''. Oxford: [[Oxford University Press]] (2020). via [[Encyclopedia.com]].</ref> (popularized by [[Herbert Spencer]]), is to regard [[Social norm|norms]] and [[institution]]s as 'organs' that work toward the proper-functioning of the entire 'body' of society.<ref>[[John Urry (sociologist)|Urry, John]]. 2000. "Metaphors". ''Sociology Beyond Societies: Mobilities for the Twenty-First Century''. London: [[Routledge]]. {{ISBN|978-0-415-19089-3}}. [https://books.google.com/books?id=ogyDBobOHVEC&pg=PA23 p.&nbsp;23] – via [[Google Books]].</ref> The perspective was implicit in the original sociological [[positivism]] of [[Auguste Comte]], but was theorized in full by Durkheim, again with respect to observable, structural laws.

Functionalism also has an [[Anthropology|anthropological]] basis in the work of theorists such as [[Marcel Mauss]], [[Bronisław Malinowski]], and [[Alfred Radcliffe-Brown]], the latter of whom, through explicit usage, introduced the "[[Structuralism|structural]]" prefix to the concept.<ref>Porth, Eric, Kimberley Neutzling, and Jessica Edwards. n.d. "[https://anthropology.ua.edu/theory/functionalism/ Functionalism]". ''Anthropological Theories''. Tuscaloosa, AL: College of Arts & Sciences, [[University of Alabama]]. [https://web.archive.org/web/20111105202737/http://www.as.ua.edu/ant/Faculty/murphy/function.htm Archived] from the original on 2011-11-05. Retrieved 25 April 2020.</ref> Classical functionalist theory is generally united by its tendency towards the biological analogy and notions of [[Sociocultural evolution|social evolutionism]]. As [[Anthony Giddens|Giddens]] states: "Functionalist thought, from Comte onwards, has looked particularly towards biology as the science providing the closest and most compatible model for social science. Biology has been taken to provide a guide to conceptualizing the structure and the function of social systems and to analyzing processes of evolution via mechanisms of adaptation…functionalism strongly emphasizes the pre-eminence of the social world over its individual parts (i.e. its constituent actors, human subjects)."<ref>[[Anthony Giddens|Giddens, Anthony]]. "The Constitution of Society" in ''The Giddens Reader'', edited by P. Cassell. [[Macmillan Publishers|MacMillan Publishers]]. p. 88.</ref>

===Conflict theory===
{{Main|Conflict theories}}
''Conflict theory'' is a method that attempts, in a scientific manner, to provide causal explanations to the existence of conflict in society. Thus, conflict theorists look at the ways in which conflict arises and is resolved in society, as well as how every conflict is unique. Such theories describe that the origins of conflict in societies are founded in the unequal distribution of resources and power. Though there is no universal definition of what "resources" necessarily includes, most theorists follow [[Max Weber]]'s point of view. Weber viewed conflict as the result of [[Social class|''class'']], [[Social status|''status'']], and [[Power (social and political)|''power'']] being ways of defining individuals in any given society. In this sense, power defines standards, thus people abide by societal rules and expectation due to an inequality of power.<ref>Allen, Kenneth D., ed. 2007. "[https://us.corwin.com/sites/default/files/upm-binaries/13636_Chapter7.pdf Conflict: Lewis Coser, Ralf Dahrendorf, Randall Collins] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221111091834/http://us.corwin.com/sites/default/files/upm-binaries/13636_Chapter7.pdf |date=2022-11-11 }}". Pp. 211–41 in ''The Social Lens: An Invitation to Social and Sociological Theory''. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. {{ISBN|9781412914093}}.</ref>

[[Karl Marx]] is believed to be the father of '''[[social conflict theory]]''', in which ''[[social conflict]]'' refers to the struggle between segments of society over valued resources.<ref>Aghababa, Hossein. 2011. "[https://web.archive.org/web/20130303023317/http://www.independentfilmreviews.com/there-will-be-blood/ There Will Be Blood]." ''Independent Film Reviews''. Archived from the [http://www.independentfilmreviews.com/there-will-be-blood/ original] on 3 March 2013.</ref> By the 19th century, a small population in the West had become ''capitalists'': individuals who own and operate factories and other businesses in pursuit of profits, owning virtually all large-scale means of production.<ref>Sharma, Shashikant N. 2016. ''New Perspectives in Sociology and Allied Fields''. EduPedia Publications. {{ISBN|9781535065221}}.</ref> However, theorists believe that capitalism turned most other people into industrial workers, or, in Marx's terms, [[Proletariat|''proletarians'']]: individuals who, because of the structure of capitalist economies, must sell their labor for wages. It is through this notion that conflict theories challenge historically dominant ideologies, drawing attention to such power differentials as class, gender and race. Conflict theory is therefore a [[Macrosociology|macrosociological]] approach, in which society is interpreted as an arena of inequality that generates conflict and social change.<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|15}}

Other important sociologists associated with social conflict theory include [[Harriet Martineau]], [[Jane Addams]], and [[W. E. B. Du Bois]]. Rather than observing the ways in which social structures help societies to operate, this sociological approach looks at how "social patterns" cause certain individuals to become dominant in society, while causing others to be oppressed.<ref name=":2" /> Accordingly, some criticisms to this theory are that it disregards how shared values and the way in which people rely on each other help to unify society.<ref name=":2" />

===Symbolic interactionism===
{{Main|Symbolic interactionism|Dramaturgy (sociology)|Antipositivism|Phenomenology (sociology)}}
[[Symbolic interaction]]—often associated with [[interactionism]], [[phenomenological sociology]], [[dramaturgy (sociology)]], and [[Antipositivism|interpretivism]]—is a sociological approach that places emphasis on subjective ''meanings'' and, usually through analysis, on the empirical unfolding of social processes.<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|16}} Such processes are believed to rely on individuals and their actions, which is ultimately necessary for society to exists. This phenomenon was first theorized by [[George Herbert Mead]] who described it as the ''outcome of collaborative joint action''.

The approach focuses on creating a theoretical framework that observes society as the product of everyday interactions of individuals. In other words, society in its most basic form is nothing more than the shared reality constructed by individuals as they interact with one another. In this sense, individuals interact within countless situations through symbolic interpretations of their given reality, whereby society is a complex, ever-changing mosaic of subjective ''[[Meaning-making|meanings]]''.<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|19}} Some critics of this approach argue that it focuses only on ostensible characteristics of social situations while disregarding the effects of culture, race, or gender (i.e. social-historical structures).<ref name=":2" />

Important sociologists traditionally associated with this approach include [[George Herbert Mead]], [[Herbert Blumer]], and [[Erving Goffman]]. New contributions to the perspective, meanwhile, include those of [[Howard S. Becker|Howard Becker]], [[Gary Alan Fine]], [[David Altheide]], Robert Prus, Peter M. Hall, David R. Maines, as well as others.<ref name=Salvini2019>{{cite journal |last1=Salvini |first1=Andrea |title=The Methodological Convergences between Symbolic Interactionism and Constructivist Grounded Theory |journal=Przegląd Socjologii Jakościowej |date=31 August 2019 |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=10–29 |id={{ProQuest|2415490468}} |doi=10.18778/1733-8069.15.3.02 |doi-access=free |hdl=11089/33694 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> It is also in this tradition that the radical-empirical approach of ''[[ethnomethodology]]'' emerged from the work of [[Harold Garfinkel]].

===Utilitarianism===
{{Main| Utilitarianism|Rational choice theory|Exchange theory}}
 
Utilitarianism is often referred to as [[Social exchange theory|exchange theory]] or [[rational choice theory]] in the context of sociology. This tradition tends to privilege the [[Agency (sociology)|agency]] of individual rational actors, assuming that, within interactions, individuals always seek to maximize their own self-interest. As argued by [[Josh Whitford]] (2002), rational actors can be characterized as possessing four basic elements:<ref>[[Josh Whitford|Whitford, Josh]]. 2002. "Pragmatism and the untenable dualism of means and ends: Why rational choice theory does not deserve paradigmatic privilege." ''[[Theory & Society]]'' 31:325–63.</ref>

# "a knowledge of alternatives;"
# "a knowledge of, or beliefs about the consequences of the various alternatives;"
# "an ordering of preferences over outcomes;" and 
# "a decision rule, to select amongst the possible alternatives."

Exchange theory is specifically attributed to the work of [[George C. Homans]], [[Peter Blau]], and Richard Emerson.<ref>Emerson, Richard M. 1976. "Social Exchange Theory." ''[[Annual Review of Sociology]]'' 2(1): 335–62.</ref> Organizational sociologists [[James G. March]] and [[Herbert A. Simon]] noted that an individual's [[bounded rationality|rationality is bounded]] by the context or organizational setting. The utilitarian perspective in sociology was, most notably, revitalized in the late 20th century by the work of former [[American Sociological Association|ASA]] president [[James Samuel Coleman]].

==Basic theory==

Overall, there is a strong consensus regarding the central theoretical questions and the key problems that emerge from explicating such questions in sociology. In general, sociological theory attempts to answer the following three questions: (1) What is action?; (2) What is social order?; and (3) What determines social change?

In the myriad of attempts to answer these questions, three predominantly theoretical (i.e. not empirical) issues emerge, largely inherited from classical theoretical traditions. The consensus on the central theoretical problems is how to ''link'', ''transcend'' or ''cope with'' the following "big three" dichotomies:<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vQbjnVBKRAkC&pg=PP1|title = Rational Choice Theory: Resisting Colonization|isbn = 9780415242714|last1 = Archer|first1 = Margaret Scotford|last2 = Tritter|first2 = Jonathan Q.|year = 2000| publisher=Psychology Press }}</ref>

#'''[[Subjectivity]]''' and '''[[Objectivity (philosophy)|objectivity]]''': deals with ''knowledge''.
#[[structure and agency|'''Structure''' and '''agency''']]: deals with ''agency''.
#[[synchrony and diachrony|'''Synchrony''' and '''diachrony''']]: deals with ''time''.

Lastly, sociological theory often grapples with a subset of all three central problems through the problem of integrating or transcending the divide between [[Microsociology|micro-]], [[Mesosociology|meso-]] and [[Macrosociology|macro]]-level social phenomena. These problems are not altogether empirical. Rather, they are [[Epistemology|epistemological]]: they arise from the conceptual imagery and analytical analogies that sociologists use to describe the complexity of social processes.<ref name=":1" />

===Objectivity and subjectivity===
{{Main|Objectivity (science)|Subjectivity and objectivity (philosophy)}}

The issue of ''subjectivity'' and ''objectivity'' can be divided into a concern over (a) ''the general possibilities of social actions''; and (b) ''the specific problem of social scientific knowledge''. In regard to the former, the '''''subjective''''' is often equated (though not necessarily) with "[[Individualism|the individual]]" and the individual's intentions and interpretations of the "objective". The '''''objective''''', on the other hand, is usually considered to be any public/external action or outcome, on up to society {{Wikt-lang|en|writ large|i=no}}.

A primary question for social theorists is how knowledge reproduces along the chain of subjective-objective-subjective. That is to say, how is '''''[[intersubjectivity]]''''' achieved?<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schütz |first1=Alfred |title=Collected Papers I. The Problem of Social Reality. |date=1967 |publisher=Martinus Nijhoff |location=The Hague}}</ref> While, historically, [[Qualitative research|qualitative methods]] have attempted to tease out subjective interpretations, [[Quantitative research|quantitative survey methods]] also attempt to capture individual subjectivities. Moreover, some qualitative methods take a radical approach to objective description ''[[in situ]]''.

Insofar as subjectivity & objectivity are concerned with (b) the specific problem of social scientific knowledge, such concern results from the fact that a sociologist is part of the ''very object'' they seek to explain, as expressed by Bourdieu:<ref>[[Pierre Bourdieu|Bourdieu, Pierre]]. 1992. "The Problem of Reflexive Sociology." In ''An Invitation to Reflexive Sociology''. p 235.</ref>

{{blockquote| How can the sociologist effect in practice this radical doubting which is indispensable for bracketing all the presuppositions inherent in the fact that she is a social being, that she is therefore socialized and led to feel "like a fish in water" within that social world whose structures she has internalized? How can she prevent the social world itself from carrying out the construction of the object, in a sense, through her, through these unself-conscious operations or operations unaware of themselves of which she is the apparent subject| Pierre Bourdieu|"The Problem of Reflexive Sociology"|source=''An Invitation to Reflexive Sociology'' (1992), p. 235}}

===Structure and agency===
{{Main|Structure and agency}}
Structure and agency (or '''[[determinism]] and''' '''[[Voluntarism (philosophy)|voluntarism]]''')<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SMbNRp5EseMC&pg=PA65|title=Realist Social Theory: The Morphogenetic Approach|isbn=9780521484428|last1=Archer|first1=Margaret S.|last2=Archer|first2=Margaret Scotford|date=19 October 1995|publisher=Cambridge University Press }}</ref> form an enduring [[Ontology|ontological]] debate in social theory: "Do social structures determine an individual's behaviour or does human agency?" In this context, [[agency (sociology)|''agency'']] refers to the capacity of an individual to act independently and make free choices, whereas [[social structure|''structure'']] relates to factors that limit or affect the choices and actions of the individual (e.g. [[social class]], [[religion]], [[gender]], [[Ethnic group|ethnicity]], etc.).

Discussions over the primacy of either structure and agency relate to the core of sociological [[ontology]], i.e. "what is the social world made of?", "what is a cause in the social world", and "what is an effect?".<ref>{{Cite book|author=Giddens, Anthony|title=The Constitution of Society|publisher=University of California Press|year=1996|isbn=978-0-520-05728-9|location=California|pages=14–19}}</ref> A perennial question within this debate is that of "[[social reproduction]]": how are structures (specifically structures that produce inequality) reproduced through the choices of individuals?

===Synchrony and diachrony===
{{Main|Synchrony and diachrony}}
Synchrony and diachrony (or '''statics and''' '''dynamics''') within social theory are terms that refer to a distinction emerging out of the work of [[Levi-Strauss]] who inherited it from the linguistics of [[Ferdinand de Saussure]].<ref name="Lizardo, Omar 2010">[[Omar Lizardo|Lizardo, Omar]]. 2010. "Beyond the antinomies of structure: Levi-Strauss, Giddens, Bourdieu, and Sewell." ''[[Theory & Society]]'' 39(6):651–88.</ref> The former slices moments of time for analysis, thus it is an analysis of static social reality. Diachrony, on the other hand, attempts to analyze dynamic sequences. Following Saussure, synchrony would describe social phenomena at a specific point of time, while diachrony would refer to unfolding processes in time. In [[Anthony Giddens]]' introduction to ''Central Problems in Social Theory'', he states that, "in order to show the interdependence of action and structure...we must grasp the time space relations inherent in the constitution of all social interaction." And like structure and agency, time is integral to discussion of [[social reproduction]]. In terms of sociology, historical sociology is often better positioned to analyze social life as diachronic, while survey research takes a snapshot of social life and is thus better equipped to understand social life as synchronic. Some argue that the synchrony of social structure is a methodological perspective rather than an ontological claim.<ref name="Lizardo, Omar 2010" /> Nonetheless, the problem for theory is how to integrate the two manners of recording and thinking about social data.

==Contemporary theories==
The contemporary discipline of sociology is theoretically multi-paradigmatic,<ref>Abend, Gabriel. 2008. "The meaning of 'Theory'." ''[[Sociological Theory (journal)|Sociological Theory]]'' 26(2).</ref> encompassing a greater range of subjects, including [[community|communities]], [[organization]]s, and [[Interpersonal relationship|relationship]]s, than when the discipline first began.<ref>[[Craig Calhoun|Calhoun, Craig J.]] 2002. {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6mq-H3EcUx8C&pg=PA5|title=Classical sociological theory|isbn=9780631213482|url-access=limited|last1=Calhoun|first1=Craig|last2=Gerteis|first2=Joseph|last3=Moody|first3=James|last4=Pfaff|first4=Steven|last5=Schmidt|first5=Kathryn|last6=Virk|first6=Indermohan|date=10 April 2002|publisher=Wiley }} New York: [[Wiley-Blackwell]]. {{ISBN|978-0-631-21348-2}}. Retrieved 2 March 2011. p. 5.</ref>

=== Strain theory / Anomie theory ===
{{Main|Strain theory (sociology)|Anomie|l1 = Strain theory}}
Strain theory is a theoretical perspective that identifies ''[[anomie]]'' (i.e. normlessness) as the result of a society that provides little moral guidance to individuals.<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|134}}

[[Émile Durkheim|Emile Durkheim]] (1893) first described [[anomie]] as one of the results of an inequitable [[division of labour]] within a society, observing that social periods of disruption resulted in greater anomie and higher rates of suicide and crimes.<ref>Durkheim, Emile. 1893. ''[[The Division of Labour in Society]].''</ref><ref>Greek, Cecil E. 2005. "[https://web.archive.org/web/20120515201731/https://www.criminology.fsu.edu/crimtheory/week8.htm Anomie]." ''CCJ 5606 - Criminological Theory'' [course page]. Tallahassee: [[Florida State University]]. Archived from the [https://www.criminology.fsu.edu/crimtheory/week8.htm original] on 2012-05-15. Retrieved 26 April 2020.</ref> In this sense, broadly speaking, during times of great upheaval, increasing numbers of individuals "cease to accept the moral legitimacy of society," as noted by sociologist Anthony R. Mawson (1970).<ref name=":4">Mawson Anthony R. 1970. "Durkheim and Contemporary Pathology." [[British Journal of Sociology]] 21:298–313.</ref>

[[Robert K. Merton]] would go on to theorize that anomie, as well as some forms of [[Deviance (sociology)|deviant behavior]], derive largely from a disjunction between "culturally prescribed aspirations" of a society and "socially structured avenues for realizing those aspirations."<ref>Macionis, John J. 2012. ''Sociology'' (14th ed.). Boston: [[Pearson Education|Pearson]]. {{ISBN|978-0-205-11671-3}}.</ref>

=== Dramaturgy ===
{{Main|Dramaturgy (sociology)|l1 = Dramaturgy}}
Developed by [[Erving Goffman]],<ref group="lower-roman">{{Google Scholar id|id=rahhbn0AAAAJ|name=Erving Goffman}}.</ref> dramaturgy (aka '''dramaturgical perspective''') is a particularized paradigm of symbolic interactionism that interprets life to be a performance (i.e. a ''drama''). As "actors," we have a status, i.e. the part that we play, by which we are given various roles.<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|16}} These roles serve as a script, supplying dialogue and action for the characters (i.e. the people in reality).<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|19}} Roles also involve props and certain settings. For example, a doctor (the role), uses instruments like a heart monitor (the prop), all the while using medical terms (the script), while in their doctor's office (the setting).<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|134}}

In addition, our ''performance'' is the "presentation of self," which is how people perceive us, based on the ways in which we portray ourselves.<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|134}} This process, known as ''[[impression management]]'', begins with the idea of personal performance.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lyons |first1=Kathleen Doyle |last2=Tickle-Degnen |first2=Linda |title=Dramaturgical Challenges of Parkinson's Disease |journal=OTJR: Occupation, Participation and Health |date=January 2003 |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=27–34 |doi=10.1177/153944920302300104 |s2cid=151753150 }}</ref>

=== Mathematical theory ===
{{Main|Mathematical sociology}}
Mathematical theory (aka '''formal theory''') refers to the use of [[mathematics]] in constructing social theories. Mathematical sociology aims to sociological theory in formal terms, which such theories can be understood to lack. The benefits of this approach not only include increased clarity, but also, through mathematics, the ability to derive theoretical implications that could not be arrived at intuitively. As such, models typically used in mathematical sociology allow sociologists to understand how predictable local interactions are often able to elicit global patterns of social structure.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Berger |first1=Joseph |title=Theory and Formalization: Some Reflections on Experience |journal=Sociological Theory |date=November 2000 |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=482–489 |doi=10.1111/0735-2751.00113 |id={{ProQuest|213319895}} |jstor=223332 |s2cid=143554857 }}</ref>

=== Positivism ===
{{Main|Positivism (sociology)|l1 = Positivism}}
Positivism is a philosophy, developed in the middle of the 19th century by [[Auguste Comte]], that states that the only authentic knowledge is [[Science|scientific knowledge]], and that such knowledge can only come from positive affirmation of theories through strict a [[scientific method]].<ref>Cohen, Louis; Maldonado, Antonio (2007). "Research Methods In Education". ''British Journal of Educational Studies'' (Routledge) 55(4): 9.</ref> Society operates according to laws just like the physical world, thus [[Introspection|introspective]] or [[intuition]]al attempts to gain knowledge are rejected. The positivist approach has been a recurrent theme in the history of [[Western philosophy|western thought]], from antiquity to the present day.

=== Postmodernism ===
{{Main|Postmodernism|Postmodern criminology}}
Postmodernism, adhering to anti-theory and anti-method, believes that, due to human subjectivity, discovering [[Objectivity (philosophy)|objective truth]] is impossible or unachievable.<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|10}} In essence, the postmodernist perspective is one that exists as a counter to [[modernism|modernist]] thought, especially through its mistrust in [[Grand theory|grand theories]] and ideologies

The objective truth that is touted by modernist theory is believed by postmodernists to be impossible due to the ever-changing nature of society, whereby ''truth'' is also constantly subject to change. A postmodernists purpose, therefore, is to achieve understanding through observation, rather than data collection, using both micro and macro level analyses.<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|53}}

Questions that are asked by this approach include: "How do we understand societies or interpersonal relations, while rejecting the theories and methods of the social sciences, and our assumptions about human nature?" and "How does power permeate social relations or society, and change with the circumstances?"<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|19}} One of the most prominent postmodernists in the approach's history is the French philosopher [[Michel Foucault]].<ref group="lower-roman">See: {{Google Scholar id|id=AKqYlxMAAAAJ|name=Michel Foucault}}; and [[Michel Foucault bibliography]].</ref>

=== Other theories ===

*'''[[Antipositivism]]''' (or '''Interpretive sociology''') is a theoretical perspective based on the work of Max Weber, proposes that social, economic and historical research can never be fully empirical or descriptive as one must always approach it with a conceptual apparatus.<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|132}}
*'''[[Critical theory]]''' is a lineage of sociological theory, with reference to such groups as the Frankfurt School, that aims to critique and change society and culture, not simply to document and understand it.<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|16}}
*'''[[Engaged theory]]''' is an approach that seeks to understand the complexity of social life through synthesizing empirical research with more abstract layers of analysis, including analysis of modes of practice, and analysis of basic categories of existence such a time, space, embodiment, and knowledge.
*'''[[Feminism]]''' is a collection of movements aimed at defining, establishing, and defending equal political, economic, and social rights for women.<ref>{{cite web|title=Feminism – Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com|access-date=12 June 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170922151722/https://www.merriam-webster.com/|archive-date=22 September 2017}}</ref> The theory focuses on how [[gender inequality]] shapes social life.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Hird|first=Myra J|title=New Feminist Sociological Directions|journal=The Canadian Journal of Sociology|year=2003|volume=28|issue=4|pages=447–462|issn=0318-6431|doi=10.2307/3341837|jstor=3341837}}</ref> This approach shows how sexuality both reflects patterns of [[social inequality]] and helps to perpetuate them. Feminism, from a [[social conflict]] perspective, focuses on gender inequality and links sexuality to the domination of women by men.<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|185}}
**[[Intersectionality]] is a [[Sociology|sociological]] [[analysis|framework]] used to analyze how individuals' and groups' social and political identities combine to produce unique experiences of [[discrimination]] and [[social privilege|privilege]]. This approach expands upon the perspectives of first- and second-wave feminism, which primarily focused on the experiences of white, middle-class women, by incorporating the distinct experiences of women of color, economically disadvantaged women, immigrant women, and other marginalized groups.
*[[Field theory (sociology)|'''Field theory''']] examines social fields, which are social environments in which competition takes place (e.g., the field of electronics manufacturers). It is concerned with how individuals construct such fields, with how the fields are structured, and with the effects the field has on people occupying different positions in it.
*'''[[Grounded theory]]''' is a systematic methodology in the social sciences involving the generation of theory from data. With a largely [[Qualitative research|qualitative]] method, the goal of this approach is to discover and analyze data through [[Comparative research|comparative analyses]], though it is quite flexible in its use of techniques.<ref name=Salvini2019/><ref name=":5">{{cite journal |last1=Martin |first1=Patricia Yancey |author-link=Patricia Yancey Martin |last2=Turner |first2=Barry A. |title=Grounded Theory and Organizational Research |journal=The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science |date=April 1986 |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=141–157 |doi=10.1177/002188638602200207 |s2cid=143570174 }}</ref>
*'''[[Middle-range theory (sociology)|Middle-range theory]]''' is an approach to sociological theorizing aimed at integrating theory and empirical research. It is currently the de facto dominant approach to sociological theory construction, especially in the United States. Middle range theory starts with an empirical phenomenon (as opposed to a broad abstract entity like the social system) and abstracts from it to create general statements that can be verified by data.<ref name=":3" />
*'''[[Network theory]]''' is a structural approach to sociology that is most closely associated with the work of [[Harrison White]], who views norms and behaviors as embedded in chains of social relations.<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|132}}
*'''[[Phenomenology (sociology)|Phenomenology]]''' is an approach within the field of sociology that aims to reveal what role human awareness plays in the production of social action, social situations and social worlds. In essence, phenomenology is the belief that society is a human construction.<ref>[[Alfred Schutz|Schutz, Alfred]]. 1967. ''The Phenomenology of the Social World.'' Evanston, IL: [[Northwestern University Press]].</ref> The social phenomenology of [[Alfred Schütz]] influenced the development of the [[social constructionism]] and [[ethnomethodology]]. It was originally developed by [[Edmund Husserl]].<ref>Smith, Davis Woodruff. 2013 [2003]. "[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/phenomenology/ Phenomenology]" (revised ed.). ''[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]''.</ref><ref>[[Robert Sokolowski|Sokolowski, Robert]]. 2000. ''Introduction to Phenomenology''. New York: [[Cambridge University Press]].</ref>
*'''[[Postcolonialism]]''' is a postmodern approach that consists of the reactions to and the analysis of colonialism.<ref group="lower-roman">See: [[Edward Said|Said, Edward]]. 1978. [[Orientalism (book)|''Orientalism'']]. New York: Pantheon. {{ISBN|978-0394428147}}.</ref><ref>Go, Julian, ed. 2013. ''[https://www.emerald.com/insight/publication/doi/10.1108/S0198-8719(2013)24 Postcolonial Sociology]. Political Power and Social Theory'' 27. West Yorkshire, UK: [[Emerald Group Publishing|Emerald Publishing]]. {{ISBN|978-1-78190-603-3}}.</ref>
*'''[[Pure sociology]]''' is a theoretical paradigm, developed by [[Donald Black (sociologist)|Donald Black]], that explains variation in social life through [[social geometry]], meaning through locations in social space. A recent extension of this idea is that fluctuations in social space—i.e., ''social time''—are the cause of social conflict.<ref>[[Donald Black (sociologist)|Black, Donald]]. 2011. ''Moral Time''. Oxford: [[Oxford University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-19-973714-7}}.</ref>
*'''[[Rational choice theory]]''' models social behavior as the interaction of utility maximizing individuals. "Rational" implies cost-effectiveness is balanced against cost to accomplish a utility maximizing interaction. Costs are extrinsic, meaning intrinsic values such as feelings of guilt will not be accounted for in the cost to commit a crime.<ref>[[Peter Hedström (sociologist)|Hedström, Peter]], and Charlotta Stern. 2008. "Rational Choice and Sociology." ''[[The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics]]'' (2nd ed.).</ref>
*'''[[Social constructionism]]''' is a sociological theory of knowledge that considers how social phenomena develop in particular social contexts.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Swedberg |first1=Richard |title=Max Weber's Interpretive Economic Sociology |journal=American Behavioral Scientist |date=April 2007 |volume=50 |issue=8 |pages=1035–1055 |doi=10.1177/0002764207299352 |s2cid=144653563 }}</ref>
**'''[[Thomas theorem]]''' refers to situations that are defined as real are real in their consequences.<ref name=":4" /> Suggests that the reality people construct in their interaction has real consequences for the future. For example, a teacher who believes a certain student to be intellectually gifted may well encourage exceptional academic performance.<ref name=":5" />
*'''[[Socialization]]''' refers to the lifelong social experience by which people develop their human potential and learn culture. Unlike other living species, humans need socialization within their cultures for survival.<ref name=":2" /> Adopting this concept, theorists may seek to understand the means by which human infants begin to acquire the skills necessary to perform as a functional member of their society<ref>Billingham, Marilyn. 2007. "Sociological Perspectives." P. 336 in ''BTEC National Health and Social Care'' 1, edited by B. Stretch and M. Whitehouse. Oxford: [[Heinemann (publisher)|Heinemann]]. {{ISBN|978-0-435-49915-0}}.</ref>
*'''[[Social exchange theory]]''' proposes that interactions that occurs between people can be partly based on what can be gained or lost by being with others. For example, when people think about who they may date, they'll look to see if the other person will offer just as much (or perhaps more) than they do. This can include judging an individual's looks and appearance, or their social status.<ref name=":2" />

=== Theories of social movements ===
[[File:Martin Luther King Jr National Historic Site (36233249121).jpg|alt=text|thumb|249x249px|[[Martin Luther King Jr.|MLK Jr.]] after giving his "[[I Have a Dream]]" speech in 1963's [[March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom]]. The [[Civil rights movement|U.S. Civil Rights Movement]] is one of the most famous social movements of the 20th century.]]
{{Main|Social movement theory}}

*[[Collective action]] / [[Collective behavior]]
*[[Relative deprivation]]
*[[Value-added theory]]
*[[Resource mobilization]]/[[political opportunity]]
*[[Framing (social sciences)|Framing]] (frame analysis theory)
*[[New social movements]]
* New [[cultural theory|culture]]<ref group="lower-roman">Including theories by [[James M. Jasper]], [[Jeff Goodwin]], et al.</ref>

===Theories of science and technology===
{{Main|Sociology of scientific knowledge}}

*[[New institutionalism|Institutional sociology]] of science
*[[Social construction of technology]]
*[[Actor-network theory]]
*[[Normalization process theory]]
*[[Theories of technology]]

[[File:Scale of justice 2.svg|thumb|200px|alt=text|'''Criminology''': the scientific study of crime and criminals]]

==Theories of crime==
{{Main|Criminology}}
The '''general theory of crime''' refers to the proposition by [[Michael R. Gottfredson]] and [[Travis Hirschi]] (1990) that the main factor in criminal behaviour is the individual's lack of [[self-control]].<ref>[[Michael R. Gottfredson|Gottfredson, Michael R.]], and [[Travis Hirschi]]. 1990. ''A General Theory of Crime''. Stanford: Stanford University Press. [https://www.academia.edu/10463369/A_General_Theory_of_Crime Lay summary] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191019045704/https://www.academia.edu/10463369/A_General_Theory_of_Crime |date=2019-10-19 }} by Wahba, Julia via [[Academia.edu]].</ref><ref>Bernard, Thomas J. 2007. "[https://www.britannica.com/topic/A-General-Theory-of-Crime A General Theory of Crime]." ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]].''</ref>

Theorists who do not distinguish the differences that exist between criminals and noncriminals are considered to be classical or [[Control theory|control theorists]]. Such theorists believe that those who perform deviant acts do so out of enjoyment without care for consequences. Likewise, positivists view criminals actions as a result of the person themselves instead of the nature of the person.<ref>Wahba, Julia. 2014. ''[https://www.academia.edu/10463369/A_General_Theory_of_Crime Reading and Evaluation Grid of the book: A General Theory of Crime] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191019045704/https://www.academia.edu/10463369/A_General_Theory_of_Crime |date=2019-10-19 }}''. Montreal: [[Université de Montréal]]. – via [[Academia.edu]].</ref>

=== Labeling theory ===
{{Main|Labeling theory}}
The essential notion of ''labeling theory'' is that deviance and conformity result not so much from what people do as from how others respond to these actions.<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|203}} It also states that a society's reaction to specific behaviors are a major determinant of how a person may come to adopt a "deviant" label.<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|204}} This theory stresses the relativity of deviance, the idea that people may define the same behavior in any number of ways. Thus the labelling theory is a micro-level analysis and is often classified in the social-interactionist approach.<ref>Trueman, C. N. 2015. "[http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/labelling_theory.htm The Labelling Theory]." ''The History Learning Site''. Retrieved 25 Apr 2020.</ref>

=== Hate crimes ===
{{Main|Hate crime}}
A hate crime can be defined as a criminal act against a person or a person's property by an offender motivated by racial, ethnic, religious or other bias. Hate crimes may refer to race, ancestry, religion, sexual orientation and physical disabilities. According to [[Statistics Canada]], the "Jewish" community has been the most likely to be victim to hate crimes in Canada in 2001–2002. Overall, about 57% of hate crimes are motivated by ethnicity and race, targeting mainly Blacks and Asians, while 43% target religion, mainly Judaism and Islam. A relatively small 9% is motivated by sexual orientation, targets gays and lesbians.<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|208–9}}

Physical traits do not distinguish criminals from non criminals, but genetic factors together with environmental factors are strong [[Crime prediction|predictors]] of adult crime and violence.<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|198–9}} Most psychologists see deviance as the result of "unsuccessful" socialization and abnormality in an individual personality.<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|198–9}}

=== Psychopathy ===
{{Main|Psychopathy}}
A ''psychopath'' can be defined as a serious criminal who does not feel shame or guilt from their actions, as they have little (if any) sympathy for the people they harm, nor do they fear punishment.<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|199}} Individuals of such nature may also be known to have an [[antisocial personality disorder]]. [[Robert D. Hare]], one of the world's leading experts on psychopathy, developed an important assessment device for psychopathy, known as the ''Psychopathy Checklist'' (revised). For many, this measure is the single, most important advancement to date toward what will hopefully become our ultimate understanding of psychopathy.<ref name=":6">Halpern, Diane, Wayne Weiten, and Doug McCann. 2010. ''Psychology Themes & Variations'' (2nd Canadian ed.). Nelson Education.</ref>{{Rp|641}}

Psychopaths exhibit a variety of maladaptive traits, such as rarity in experience of genuine affection for others. Moreover, they are skilled at faking affection; are irresponsible, impulsive, hardly tolerant of frustration; and they pursue immediate gratification.<ref name=":6" />{{Rp|614}} Likewise, '''containment theory''' suggests that those with a stronger conscience will be more tolerable to frustrations, thus less likely to be involved in criminal activities.<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|198–9}}

=== White-collar crime ===
{{Main|White-collar crime}}
[[Edwin Sutherland|Sutherland]] and [[Donald Cressey|Cressey]] (1978) define white-collar crime as crime committed by persons of high social position in the course of their occupation.<ref>[[Edwin Sutherland|Sutherland, Edwin]], and [[Donald Cressey]]. 1978. ''Criminology'' (10th ed.). Philadelphia: [[Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|Lippincott]]. {{ISBN|9780397473847}}. {{OCLC|340285607}}. p. 44.</ref> The white-collar crime involves people making use of their occupational position to enrich themselves and others illegally, which often causes public harm. In white-collar crime, public harm wreaked by false advertising, marketing of unsafe products, embezzlement, and bribery of public officials is more extensive than most people think, most of which go unnoticed and unpunished.<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|206}}

Likewise, '''[[corporate crime]]''' refers to the illegal actions of a corporation or people acting on its behalf. Corporate crime ranges from knowingly selling faulty or dangerous products to purposely polluting the environment. Like white-collar crime, most cases of corporate crime go unpunished, and many are not never even known to the public.<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|206}}

=== Other theories of crime ===

*[[Differential association]]: Developed by [[Edwin Sutherland]], this theory examines criminal acts from the perspective that they are learned behaviours.<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|204}}
*[[Control theory (sociology)|Control theory]]: The theory was developed by [[Travis Hirschi]] and it states that a weak bond between an individual and society itself allows the individual to defy societal norms and adopt behaviors that are deviant in nature.<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|204–5}}
*[[Rational choice theory]]: States that people commit crimes when it is rational for them to do so according to analyses of costs and benefits, and that crime can be reduced by minimizing benefits and maximizing costs to the "would be" criminal.
*Social disorganization theory: States that crime is more likely to occur in areas where social institutions are unable to directly control groups of individuals.
*[[Social learning theory]]: States that people adopt new behaviors through observational learning in their environments.<ref>Weiten, Wayne. 2010. ''Psychology: Themes & Variations'' (8th ed.). Belmont, CA: [[Wadsworth publishing|Wadsworth]]. p. 532.</ref>
*[[Strain theory (sociology)|Strain theory]]: States that a social structure within a society may cause people to commit crimes. Specifically, the extent and type of deviance people engage in depend on whether a society provides the means to achieve cultural goals.<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|197}}
*[[Subcultural theory]]: States that behavior is influenced by factors such as class, ethnicity, and family status. This theory's primary focus is on [[juvenile delinquency]].
*[[Organized crime]]:<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|206}} a business that supplies illegal goods or services, including sex, drugs, and gambling. This type of crime expanded among immigrants, who found that society was not always willing to share its opportunities with them. A famous example of organized crime is the [[Italian Mafia]].

==See also==
{{Portal|Society}}
* [[Sociological imagination]]
*[[Index of sociology articles]]
* [[List of sociologists]]
*[[Bibliography of sociology]]
* [[List of sociology journals]]
* [[Outline of sociology#Branches of sociology|Branches of sociology]]
* [[Timeline of sociology]]
*[[History of the social sciences]]

==References==

=== Notes ===
{{reflist|group=lower-roman}}

=== Citations ===
{{reflist|1=30em|refs=
<!-- ALL OF THESE ARE UNUSED REFERENCES TO MESSAGE AT BOTTOM -->
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<ref name="Black, Donald 2011">{{cite book|author=Donald Black|title=Moral Time|year=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-973714-7}}</ref>
<ref name="Calhoun2002-5">{{cite book|author=Craig J. Calhoun|title=Classical sociological theory|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6mq-H3EcUx8C&pg=PA5|access-date=2 March 2011|year=2002|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|isbn=978-0-631-21348-2|pages=5–|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130618011627/http://books.google.com/books?id=6mq-H3EcUx8C&pg=PA5|archive-date=18 June 2013}}</ref>
<ref name="Gerber, John J 2010 pp. 132">Macionis and Gerber, John J. and Linda M. (2010). ''Sociology'', 7th Canadian Edition. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, USA: Pearson Education, Inc.. p. 132. {{ISBN|978-0-13-700161-3}}.</ref>
<ref name="Macionis and Gerber 2010 203">{{cite book|last=Macionis and Gerber|first=John J. and Linda M.|title=''Sociology'', 7th Canadian Edition|year=2010|publisher=Pearson Education, Inc.|location=Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, USA|isbn=978-0-13-700161-3|pages=203}}</ref>
<ref name="Macionis and Gerber 2010 206">{{cite book|last=Macionis and Gerber|first=John J. and Linda M.|title=''Sociology'', 7th Canadian Edition|year=2010|publisher=Pearson Education, Inc.|location=Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, USA|isbn=978-0-13-700161-3|pages=206}}</ref>
<ref name="Macionis, Gerber 2010 198–199">{{cite book|last=Macionis, Gerber|first=John, Linda|title=''Sociology'', 7th Canadian Ed|year=2010|publisher=Pearson Canada Inc.|location=Toronto, Ontario|pages=198–199}}</ref>
<ref name="Macionis, Gerber 2010 206">{{cite book|last=Macionis, Gerber|first=John, Linda|title=''Sociology'', 7th Canadian Ed|year=2010|publisher=Pearson Canada Inc.|location=Toronto, Ontario|pages=206}}</ref>
<ref name="Macionis, Gerber 2010 53">{{cite book|last=Macionis, Gerber|first=John, Linda|title=''Sociology'', 7th Canadian Ed|year=2010|publisher=Pearson Canada Inc.|location=Toronto, Ontario|pages=53}}</ref>
<ref name="Macionis, Gerber 2010 pp. 134">Macionis, Gerber, John, Linda (2010). ''Sociology'', 7th Canadian Ed. Toronto, Ontario: Pearson Canada Inc.. pp. 134.</ref>
<ref name="Macionis, Gerber 2010 pp. 16">Macionis, Gerber, John, Linda (2010). ''Sociology'', 7th Canadian Ed. Toronto, Ontario: Pearson Canada Inc.. pp. 16.</ref>
<ref name="Macionis, John J. 2011">Macionis, John J., and Linda M. Gerber. Sociology. Toronto: Pearson Canada, 2011. Print.</ref>
<ref name="MacionisandGerber2011-10">{{cite book|author=John J. Macionis and Linda M. Gerber|title=Sociology Seventh Canadian Edition|year=2011|publisher=Pearson Education, Inc.|isbn=978-0-13-700161-3|pages=10}}</ref>
<ref name="Psychology themes & variations 2nd Canadian Ed">{{cite book|last1=Halpern|first1=Diane|last2=Weiten|first2=Wayne|last3= McCann|first3=Doug|title=Psychology themes & variations 2nd Canadian Ed|year=2010|publisher=Nelson Education Ltd.|location=United States of America|pages=614}}</ref>
<ref name="Sociology 7th Canadian Ed">John J. Macionis, Linda M. Gerber, ''Sociology'', Seventh Canadian Edition, Pearson Canada</ref>
<ref name="Sociology 14th Edition">{{cite book |title=Sociology, 14th Edition |last=Macionis |first=John J. |year=2012 |publisher=Pearson |location=Boston |isbn=978-0-205-11671-3 |page=197}}</ref>
<ref name="Sociology 7th Canadian Ed37">{{cite book|last=Macionis, Gerber|first=John, Linda|title=Sociology, 7th Canadian Ed|year=2010|publisher=Pearson Canada Inc.|location=Toronto, Ontario|page=204}}</ref>
<ref name="Sociology 7th Canadian Ed38">{{cite book|last=Macionis, Gerber|first=John, Linda|title=Sociology, 7th Canadian Ed|year=2010|publisher=Pearson Canada Inc.|location=Toronto, Ontario|pages=204}}</ref>
<ref name="Sociology 7th Canadian Ed39">{{cite book|last=Macionis, Gerber|first=John, Linda|title=Sociology, 7th Canadian Ed|year=2010|publisher=Pearson Canada Inc.|location=Toronto, Ontario|pages=204–205}}</ref>
<ref name="Sociology 7th Canadian Ed40">{{cite book|last=Macionis, Gerber|first=John, Linda|title=Sociology, 7th Canadian Ed|year=2010|publisher=Pearson Canada Inc.|location=Toronto, Ontario|pages=199}}</ref>
<ref name="Sociology 7th Canadian Ed41">{{cite book|last=Macionis, Gerber|first=John, Linda|title=Sociology, 7th Canadian Ed|year=2010|publisher=Pearson Canada Inc.|location=Toronto, Ontario|pages=208, 209}}</ref>
<ref name="Sociology 7th Canadian Edition">{{cite book|last=Macionis and Gerber|first=John J. and Linda M.|title=Sociology, 7th Canadian Edition|year=2010|publisher=Pearson Education, Inc.|location=Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, USA|isbn=978-0-13-700161-3|pages=14}}</ref>
<ref name="Sociology">{{cite book|last=Gerber|first=John J. Macionis, Linda M.|title=Sociology|publisher=Pearson Canada|location=Toronto|isbn=978-0-13-700161-3|pages=15|edition=7th Canadian|year=2011}}</ref>
<ref name="Sociology5">{{cite book|last=Macionis|first=John|title=Sociology|year=2010|publisher=Pearson|isbn=978-0-13-700161-3|pages=185}}</ref>
<ref name="aghababa">{{cite web |last=Aghababa |first=Hossein |website=Independent Film Reviews |title=There Will Be Blood |date=October 4, 2011 |url=http://www.independentfilmreviews.com/there-will-be-blood/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130303023317/http://www.independentfilmreviews.com/there-will-be-blood/ |archive-date=March 3, 2013}}</ref>
<ref name="contemporary">Mawson A. R., Durkbeim and contemporary social pathology. Br. J. Soc. 21:298-313, 1970. "The Anomie Deviant Behavior Connection: The Theories of Durkheim, Merton, and Srole"</ref>
<ref name="fsu">Template:{{cite web |url=https://www.criminology.fsu.edu/crimtheory/week8.htm |title=Archived copy |access-date=2012-02-23 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120515201731/https://www.criminology.fsu.edu/crimtheory/week8.htm |archive-date=2012-05-15}}</ref>
<ref name="interpretive">Swedberg, Richard (2007). "Max Weber's Interpretive Economic Sociology". American Behavioral Scientist 50(8): 1035-1055. ISSN 0002-7642.</ref>
<ref name="organizational">Patricia Yancey Martin & Barry A. Turner, "Grounded Theory and Organizational Research," ''The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science'', vol. 22, no. 2 (1986), 141.</ref>
<ref name="psychology">Weiten, W. (2010). Psychology: themes & variations (8th ed.). Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth/Cengage Learning pp. 532.</ref>
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<ref name="sociology13">Macionis, John J. (2012). ''Sociology'', 14th Edition. Boston: Pearson. {{ISBN|978-0-205-11671-3}}.</ref>
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}}

==Introductory reading==
* Adams, B. N., and R. A. Sydie. 2001. ''Sociological Theory''. [[Pine Forge Press]].
* Bilton, T., K. Bonnett, and P. Jones. 2002. ''Introductory Sociology''. [[Palgrave Macmillan]]. {{ISBN|0-333-94571-9}}.
* Babbie, Earle R. 2003. ''The Practice of Social Research'' (10th ed.). Wadsworth: [[Thomson Learning]]. {{ISBN|0-534-62029-9}}.
* Goodman, D. J., and G. Ritzer. 2004.  ''Sociological Theory'' (6th ed.). [[McGraw Hill]].
* Hughes, M., C. J. Kroehler, and J. W. Vander Zanden. 2001. ''Sociology: The Core''. McGraw-Hill. {{ISBN|0-07-240535-X}}. [https://web.archive.org/web/20021023161044/http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/007240535x/student_view0/chapter1/chapter_summary.html Lay summary (chapter 1)].
* Germov, J. 2001. "A Class Above the Rest? Education and the Reproduction of Class Inequality." Pp.&nbsp;233–48 in ''Sociology of Education: Possibilities and Practices'', edited by J. Allen. Tuggerah, NSW: Social Science Press. {{ISBN|1-876633-23-9}}.

===External links===

*[https://web.archive.org/web/20121012025727/http://www.asanet.org/sections/theory.cfm American Sociological Association - Section on Theory]
*[http://www.social-theory.eu European Sociological Association: Social Theory Research Network (RN29)]
*[http://www.isa-sociology.org/rc16.htm International Sociological Association: Research Committee on Sociological Theory (RC16)]
*''[https://web.archive.org/web/20110902084749/http://asanet.org/journals/st/index.cfm Sociological Theory]'' [academic journal].
* Teng Wang, [https://socialphenomenasite.wordpress.com/ Social Phenomena]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sociological Theory}}
[[Category:Sociological terminology]]
[[Category:Sociological theories| ]]
[[Category:Philosophy of social science]]