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{{Short description|Lifelong process of inheriting and disseminating norms, customs and ideologies}}
{{Merge from |Self socialisation |date=September 2025 }}
{{about|the sociological concept|other uses|Socialization (disambiguation)}}
{{Use American English|date = March 2019}}
{{Sociology}}
In [[sociology]], '''socialization''' (or '''socialisation''') is the process through which individuals [[Internalization (sociology)|internalize]] the [[Norm (social)|norms]], [[Convention (norm)|customs]], [[Value (ethics)|values]] and [[Ideology|ideologies]] of their [[society]]. It involves both learning and teaching and is the primary means of maintaining social and cultural continuity over time.<ref name="Clausen">Clausen, John A. (ed.) (1968) ''Socialisation and Society'', Boston: [[Little Brown and Company]]</ref>{{rp|5}} It is a lifelong process that shapes the behavior, beliefs, and actions of adults as well as of children.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | article=socialization | encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica | edition=Student and home | publication-place=Chicago |date=2010}}</ref><ref name="Cromdal2006">{{Cite book |last=Cromdal |first=Jakob |author-link=Jakob Cromdal |year=2006 |chapter=Socialization |editor=K. Brown |title=Encyclopedia of language and linguistics |location=North-Holland |publisher=Elsevier |pages=462–66 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/00353-9|isbn=978-0-08-044854-1 }}</ref>

Socialization is closely linked to [[developmental psychology]] and [[behaviorism]].<ref>Billingham, M. (2007) ''Sociological Perspectives'' p. 336. In Stretch, B. and Whitehouse, M. (eds.) (2007) Health and Social Care Book 1. Oxford: Heinemann. {{ISBN|978-0-435-49915-0}}</ref> Humans need social experiences to learn their culture and to survive.<ref>{{cite book | last1=Macionis | first1=John J. | last2=Gerber | first2=Linda Marie | date=2010 | title=Sociology | edition=7th Canadian | publication-place=Toronto | publisher=Pearson Canada | isbn=978-0-13-800270-1 | oclc=434559397}}</ref>

Socialization may lead to desirable outcomes—sometimes labeled "[[Morality|moral]]"—as regards the society where it occurs.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Valavi |first1=Parvaneh |last2=Harouni |first2=Nooshafarin Soleimani |last3=Moghadam |first3=Masoud Safaei |date=2022-11-26 |title=The lived experience of parents from educating morality to their children Phenomenological study |journal=Journal of Education and Health Promotion |language=en |volume=11 |page=354 |doi=10.4103/jehp.jehp_1053_21 |pmc=9818687 |pmid=36618474 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Individual views are influenced by the society's consensus and usually tend toward what that society finds acceptable or "normal. Socialization provides only a partial explanation for human beliefs and behaviors, maintaining that [[Agency (sociology)|agents]] are not [[Tabula rasa|blank slates]] [[Nature versus nurture|predetermined by their environment]];<ref>[[Steven Pinker|Pinker, Steven]]. ''[[The Blank Slate]]''. New York: [[Penguin Books]], 2002.</ref> scientific research provides evidence that people are shaped by both social influences and [[Genetics|genes]].<ref>Dusheck, Jennie, "The Interpretation of Genes". ''[[Natural History (magazine)|Natural History]]'', October 2002.</ref><ref name="Carlson">Carlson, N.R.; et al. (2005) ''Psychology: the science of behavior''. Pearson (3rd Canadian edition). {{ISBN|0-205-45769-X}}.</ref><ref>[[Matt Ridley|Ridley, M.]] (2003) ''[[Nature Via Nurture: Genes, Experience, and What Makes us Human]]''. [[HarperCollins]]. {{ISBN|0-00-200663-4}}.</ref><ref>[[Drew Westen|Westen, D.]] (2002) ''Psychology: Brain, Behavior & Culture''. [[Wiley & Sons]]. {{ISBN|0-471-38754-1}}.</ref>

Genetic studies have shown that a person's [[Gene-environment correlation|environment interacts with their genotype]] to influence behavioral outcomes.<ref>{{cite journal | author-link1=Kenneth Kendler | last1=Kendler | first1=Kenneth S. | last2=Baker | first2=J. H. | journal=[[Psychological Medicine (journal)|Psychological Medicine]] | volume=37 | issue=5 | pages=615–26 | year=2007 | title=Genetic influences on measures of the environment: a systematic review | pmid=17176502 | doi=10.1017/S0033291706009524 | s2cid=43598144}}</ref>

== History ==
{{See also|History of sociology}}
Notions of [[society]] and the [[state of nature]] have existed for centuries.<ref name="Clausen"/>{{rp|20}} In its earliest usages, socialization was simply the act of socializing or another word for [[socialism]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Fourier and his partisans|work=The London Phalanx|date=6 September 1841|page=505|language=en|hdl=2027/pst.000055430180}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Gentleman's Magazine|date=1851|publisher=F. Jefferies|page=465|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lBU2AQAAMAAJ&q=edenism+savageism&pg=PA465|access-date=2 April 2017|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=socialization, n.|website=OED Online|date=March 2017|publisher=Oxford University Press|url=http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/183747|access-date=2 April 2017}}</ref><ref name="Martin">{{cite thesis|last1=St. Martin|first1=Jenna|title="Socialization": The Politics and History of a Psychological Concept, 1900-1970|type=Master's Thesis|date=May 2007|url=http://wesscholar.wesleyan.edu/etd_mas_theses/2|access-date=2 April 2017|publisher=Wesleyan University|language=en}}</ref> Socialization as a concept originated concurrently with sociology, as sociology was defined as the treatment of "the specifically social, the process and forms of socialization, as such, in contrast to the interests and contents which find expression in socialization".<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Simmel|first1=Georg|author-link=Georg Simmel|title=The Problem of Sociology|journal=The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science|date=1 January 1895|volume=6|issue=3|pages=52–63|doi=10.1177/000271629500600304|jstor=1009553|s2cid=143284719|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1448678}}</ref> In particular, socialization consisted of the formation and development of social groups, and also the development of a social state of mind in the individuals who associate. Socialization is thus both a cause and an effect of [[social relation|association]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Giddings|first1=Franklin Henry|author-link=Franklin Henry Giddings|title=The theory of socialization. A syllabus of sociological principles.|date=1897|publisher=The Macmillan company|location=New York|pages=1–2|url=https://archive.org/stream/cu31924030235091#page/n17/mode/2up|access-date=2 April 2017}}</ref> The term was relatively uncommon before 1940, but became popular after [[World War II]], appearing in dictionaries and scholarly works such as the theory of [[Talcott Parsons]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Morawski|first1=Jill G.|last2=St. Martin|first2=Jenna|title=The evolving vocabulary of the social sciences: The case of "socialization".|journal=History of Psychology|date=2011|volume=14|issue=1|page=2|doi=10.1037/a0021984|pmid=21688750|url=https://works.bepress.com/jmorawski/7/download/|access-date=2018-04-20|archive-date=2017-09-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170922034840/https://works.bepress.com/jmorawski/7/download/|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

== Stages of moral development ==
{{Main|Lawrence Kohlberg's stages of moral development}}
[[Lawrence Kohlberg]] studied moral reasoning and developed a theory of how individuals reason situations as right from wrong. The first stage is the pre-conventional stage, where a person (typically children) experience the world in terms of pain and pleasure, with their moral decisions solely reflecting this experience. Second, the conventional stage (typical for adolescents and adults) is characterized by an acceptance of society's conventions concerning right and wrong, even when there are no consequences for obedience or disobedience. Finally, the post-conventional stage (more rarely achieved) occurs if a person moves beyond society's norms to consider abstract ethical principles when making moral decisions.{{sfn|Macionis|Gerber|2010|p=108}}

== Stages of psychosocial development ==
{{Main|Erikson's stages of psychosocial development}}
[[Erik Erikson|Erik H. Erikson]] (1901–1993) explained the challenges throughout the life course. The first stage in the life course is infancy, where babies learn trust and mistrust. The second stage is toddlerhood where children around the age of two struggle with the challenge of autonomy versus doubt. In stage three, preschool, children struggle to understand the difference between initiative and guilt. Stage four, pre-adolescence, children learn about industriousness and inferiority. In the fifth stage called adolescence, teenagers experience the challenge of gaining identity versus confusion. The sixth stage, young adulthood, is when young people gain insight into life when dealing with the challenge of intimacy and isolation. In stage seven, or middle adulthood, people experience the challenge of trying to make a difference (versus self-absorption). In the final stage, stage eight or old age, people are still learning about the challenge of integrity and despair.<{{sfn|Macionis|Gerber|2010|p=111}} This concept has been further developed by Klaus Hurrelmann and Gudrun Quenzel using the dynamic model of "developmental tasks".<ref>Hurrelmann, Klaus and Quenzel, Gudrun (2019) Developmental Tasks in Adolescence. London/New York: Routledge</ref>

== Behaviorism ==
{{See also|Reciprocal socialization}}
[[George Herbert Mead]] (1862–1930) developed a theory of social [[behaviorism]] to explain how social experience develops an individual's self-concept. Mead's central concept is the self: It is composed of self-awareness and [[self-image]]. Mead claimed that the self is not there at birth, rather, it is developed with social experience. Since social experience is the exchange of symbols, people tend to find meaning in every action. Seeking meaning leads us to imagine the intention of others. Understanding intention requires imagining the situation from the other's point of view. In effect, others are a mirror in which we can see ourselves. Charles Horton Cooley (1902-1983) coined the term [[looking glass self]], which means self-image based on how we think others see us. According to Mead, the key to developing the self is learning to take the role of the other. With limited social experience, infants can only develop a sense of identity through imitation. Gradually children learn to take the roles of several others. The final stage is the generalized other, which refers to widespread cultural norms and values we use as a reference for evaluating others.{{sfn|Macionis|Gerber|2010|p=109}}

===Contradictory evidence to behaviorism===
Behaviorism makes claims that when infants are born they lack social experience or self. The social pre-wiring hypothesis, on the other hand, shows proof through a scientific study that [[social behavior]] is partly inherited and can influence infants and also even influence foetuses. Wired to be social means that infants are not taught that they are social beings, but they are born as prepared social beings.

'''The social pre-wiring hypothesis''' refers to the [[ontogeny]] of [[social relation|social interaction]]. Also informally referred to as, "wired to be social". The theory questions whether there is a propensity to [[social actions|socially oriented action]] already present ''before'' birth. Research in the theory concludes that newborns are born into the world with a unique [[genetics|genetic]] wiring to be social.<ref name="Wired">{{cite journal|title=Wired to Be Social: The Ontogeny of Human Interaction|date=7 October 2010|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=5|issue=10|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0013199|pmid=20949058|pmc=2951360|first=Umberto |last=Castiello|display-authors=etal|article-number=e13199|bibcode=2010PLoSO...513199C|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Circumstantial evidence supporting the social pre-wiring hypothesis can be revealed when examining newborns' behavior. Newborns, not even hours after birth, have been found to display a preparedness for social interaction. This preparedness is expressed in ways such as their imitation of facial gestures. This observed behavior cannot be contributed to any current form of socialization or [[social construction]]. Rather, newborns most likely [[heredity|inherit]] to some extent social behavior and [[identity (social science)|identity]] through genetics.<ref name="Wired"/>

Principal evidence of this theory is uncovered by examining Twin pregnancies. The main argument is, if there are social behaviors that are inherited and developed before birth, then one should expect twin foetuses to engage in some form of social interaction before they are born. Thus, ten foetuses were analyzed over a period of time using ultrasound techniques. Using kinematic analysis, the results of the experiment were that the twin foetuses would interact with each other for longer periods and more often as the pregnancies went on. Researchers were able to conclude that the performance of movements between the co-twins was not accidental but specifically aimed.<ref name="Wired"/>

The social pre-wiring hypothesis was proved correct, "The central advance of this study is the demonstration that 'social actions' are already performed in the second trimester of [[Gestational age (obstetrics)|gestation]]. Starting from the 14th week of gestation twin foetuses plan and execute movements specifically aimed at the co-twin. These findings force us to predate the emergence of social behavior: when the context enables it, as in the case of twin foetuses, other-directed actions are not only possible but predominant over self-directed actions."<ref name="Wired"/>

== Types ==
=== Primary socialization ===
{{Main article|Primary socialization}}
Primary socialization occurs when a [[child]] learns the attitudes, values, and actions appropriate to individuals as members of a particular culture. Primary socialization for a child is very important because it sets the groundwork for all future socialization. It is mainly influenced by immediate family and friends. For example, if a child's mother expresses a [[discriminatory]] opinion about a minority or majority group, then that child may think this behavior is acceptable and could continue to have this opinion about that minority or majority group.

=== Secondary socialization ===
Secondary socialization refers to the process of learning what is the appropriate behavior as a member of a smaller group within the larger society. Basically, it involves the behavioral patterns reinforced by socializing agents of society. Secondary socialization takes place outside the home. It is where children and adults learn how to act in a way that is appropriate for the situations they are in.<ref name="newportsouthwales.net">{{cite web|last1= Mirjalili|first1=Seyyed Mohammad Ali|last2=Abari|first2=Ahmad Ali Foroughi |last3=Gholizadeh|first3=Azar|last4=Yarmohammadian|first4=M. Hossein|date= 2016 |title=Analysis the Status of Socialization Variables in the Iran High School Textbooks with Emphasize on Motahari's Thoughts|url= https://www.researchgate.net/publication/309539125 |access-date=9 November 2020}}</ref> Schools require very different behavior from the home, and children must act according to new rules. New teachers have to act in a way that is different from pupils and learn the new rules from people around them.<ref name="newportsouthwales.net" /> Secondary socialization is usually associated with teenagers and adults{{citation needed|date=June 2023}} and involves smaller changes than those occurring in primary socialization. Examples of secondary socialization may include entering a new profession or relocating to a new environment or society.

=== Anticipatory socialization ===
{{Main|Anticipatory socialization}}
Anticipatory socialization refers to the processes of socialization in which a person "rehearses" for future positions, occupations, and social relationships. For example, a couple might move in together before getting married in order to try out, or anticipate, what living together will be like.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.sparknotes.com/sociology/socialization/|title= SparkNotes: Socialization}}</ref> Research by Kenneth J. Levine and Cynthia A. Hoffner identifies parents as the main source of anticipatory socialization in regard to jobs and careers.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Levine | first1 = K.J. | last2 = Hoffner | first2 = C.A. | year = 2006 | title = Adolescents' conceptions of work: What is learned from different sources during anticipatory socialization? | journal = Journal of Adolescent Research | volume = 21 | issue = 6| pages = 647–69 | doi = 10.1177/0743558406293963 | s2cid = 145667784 }}</ref>

=== Resocialization ===
{{Main|Resocialization}}
Resocialization refers to the process of discarding former behavior-patterns and reflexes while accepting new ones as part of a life transition. This can occur throughout the human life-span.{{sfn|Schaefer|Lamm|1992|p=113}} Resocialization can be an intense experience, with individuals experiencing a sharp break with their past, as well as a need to learn and be exposed to radically different norms and values. One common example involves resocialization through a total institution, or "a setting in which people are isolated from the rest of society and manipulated by an administrative staff". Resocialization via total institutions involves a two step process: 1) the staff work to root out a new inmate's individual identity; and 2) the staff attempt to create for the inmate a new identity.{{sfn|Macionis|Gerber|2010|pp=120-121}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Martin |first=Samuel D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iRbRVsvOiFAC |title=How to Achieve Total Enlightenment: A Practical Guide to the Meaning of Life |date=1 January 2009 |publisher=Andrews McMeel Publishing |isbn=978-0-7407-8680-8 |publication-place=Kansas City |page=44 |chapter=Self-Help or Personal Development Groups |quote=Similar to Gurdjieff's philosophy, the Landmark Forum teaches that we must break out of our traditional habits in order to see and act differently [...]. [Seminars] are highly controlled and teachers seek to break students down emotionally and then build them back up. |access-date=15 June 2023 |orig-date=2005}}</ref>
Other examples include the experiences of a young person leaving home to join the military, or of a religious convert internalizing the beliefs and rituals of a new faith. Another example would be the process by which a [[transgender| transgender person]] learns to function socially in a dramatically altered gender-role.

=== Organizational socialization ===
{{Main|Onboarding}}
[[File:Organizationalsocializationmodel.jpg|thumb|Organizational socialization chart]]
Organizational socialization is the process whereby an employee learns the knowledge and skills necessary to assume his or her role in an organization.<ref>{{cite thesis | url=http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:his:diva-4281 | title=Introduktion – Integration?: Om introduktionsprogrammets betydelse för integration av nyanställda | trans-title=Introduction – Integration?: On the introduction programs' importance for the integration of new employees | first=Alvenfors | last=Adam | date=1 January 2010 | language=sv | degree=Bachelor | publication-place=Sweden | publisher=University of Skövde}}</ref> As newcomers become socialized, they learn about the organization and its history, values, jargon, culture, and procedures. Acquired knowledge about new employees' future work-environment affects the way they are able to apply their skills and abilities to their jobs. How actively engaged the employees are in pursuing knowledge affects their socialization process.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Kammeyer-Mueller | first1=J.D. | last2=Wanberg | first2=C.R. | year=2003 | title=Unwrapping the organizational entry process: Disentangling antecedents and their pathways to adjustment | journal=Journal of Applied Psychology | volume=88 | issue=5 | pages=779–94 | doi=10.1037/0021-9010.88.5.779 | pmid=14516244 | citeseerx=10.1.1.318.5702}}</ref> New employees also learn about their work group, the specific people they will work with on a daily basis, their own role in the organization, the skills needed to do their job, and both formal procedures and informal norms. Socialization functions as a [[Control system (disambiguation)|control system]] in that newcomers learn to internalize and obey organizational values and practices.

=== Group socialization ===
{{See also|Group dynamics}}
[[File:Duck Duck Goose.jpg|thumb|Group socialization]]
Group socialization is the theory that an individual's peer groups, rather than parental figures, become the primary influence on [[personality]] and behavior in adulthood.<ref name="J Harris">{{cite journal | last1 = Harris | first1 = J.R. | year = 1995 | title = Where is the child's environment? A group socialization theory of development | journal = Psychological Review | volume = 102 | issue = 3 | pages = 458–89 | doi= 10.1037/0033-295x.102.3.458 | s2cid = 349830 }}</ref> Parental behavior and the home environment has either no effect on the social development of children, or the effect varies significantly between children.<ref name="Maccoby">Maccoby, E.E. & Martin, J.A. (1983). Socialization in the context of the family: Parent-child interaction. In P.H. Mussen (Series Ed.) & E.M. Hetherington (Vol. Ed.), Handbook of Child Psychology: Vol. 4. Socialization, personality, and social development (4th ed., pp. 1–101). New York: Wiley.</ref> Adolescents spend more time with peers than with parents. Therefore, peer groups have stronger correlations with personality development than parental figures do.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Bester | first1 = G | year = 2007 | title = Personality development of the adolescent: peer group versus parents | journal = South African Journal of Education | volume = 27 | issue = 2 | pages = 177–90 }}</ref> For example, twin brothers with an identical genetic heritage  will differ in personality because they have different groups of friends, not necessarily because their parents raised them differently. Behavioral genetics suggest that up to fifty percent of the variance in adult personality is due to genetic differences.<ref>McGue, M., Bouchard, T.J. Jr., Iacono, W.G. & Lykken, D.T. (1993). Behavioral genetics of cognitive stability: A life-span perspectiveness. In R. Plominix & G.E. McClearn (Eds.), Nature, nurture, and psychology (pp. 59-76). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.</ref> The environment in which a child is raised accounts for only approximately ten percent in the variance of an adult's personality.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Plomin | first1 = R. | last2 = Daniels | first2 = D. | year = 1987 | title = Why are children in the same family so different from one another? | doi = 10.1017/s0140525x00055941 | journal = Behavioral and Brain Sciences | volume = 10 | issue = 3| pages = 1–16| pmid = 21807642 | pmc = 3147063 }} Reprinted in {{cite journal | pmc = 3147063 | pmid= 21807642 | doi= 10.1093/ije/dyq148 | volume= 40 | issue= 3 | title= Why are children in the same family so different from one another? | date= June 2011 | journal= Int J Epidemiol | pages= 563–82 | last1 = Plomin | first1 = R | last2 = Daniels | first2 = D}}</ref> As much as twenty percent of the variance is due to measurement error.<ref>Plomin, R. (1990). Nature and nurture: An introduction to human behavioral genetics. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.</ref> This suggests that only a very small part of an adult's personality is influenced by factors which parents control (i.e. the home environment). Harris grants that while siblings do not have identical experiences in the home environment (making it difficult to associate a definite figure to the variance of personality due to home environments), the variance found by current methods is so low that researchers should look elsewhere to try to account for the remaining variance.<ref name="J Harris"/> Harris also states that developing long-term personality characteristics away from the home environment would be evolutionarily beneficial because future success is more likely to depend on interactions with peers than on interactions with parents and siblings. Also, because of already existing genetic similarities with parents, developing personalities outside of childhood home environments would further diversify individuals, increasing their evolutionary success.<ref name="J Harris"/>

==== Stages ====

Individuals and groups change their evaluations of and commitments to each other over time. There is a predictable sequence of stages that occur as an individual transitions through a group: investigation, socialization, maintenance, resocialization, and remembrance. During each stage, the individual and the group evaluate each other, which leads to an increase or decrease in commitment to socialization. This socialization pushes the individual from prospective to new, full, marginal, and ex member.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Moreland|first1= Richard L.|last2= Levine|first2= John M.|title= Socialization in Small Groups: Temporal Changes in Individual-Group Relations|journal=Advances in Experimental Social Psychology|date=1982|volume=15|pages=137–92|doi=10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60297-X|isbn= 978-0-12-015215-5}}</ref>

'''Stage 1: Investigation'''
This stage is marked by a cautious search for information. The individual compares groups in order to determine which one will fulfill their needs (''reconnaissance''), while the group estimates the value of the potential member ([[Recruitment (disambiguation)|''recruitment'']]). The end of this stage is marked by entry to the group, whereby the group asks the individual to join and they accept the offer.

'''Stage 2: Socialization'''
Now that the individual has moved from a prospective member to a new member, the recruit must accept the group's culture. At this stage, the individual accepts the group's norms, values, and perspectives (''assimilation''), and the group may adapt to fit the new member's needs (''accommodation''). The acceptance transition-point is then reached and the individual becomes a full member. However, this transition can be delayed if the individual or the group reacts negatively. For example, the individual may react cautiously or misinterpret other members' reactions in the belief that they will be treated differently as a newcomer.

'''Stage 3: Maintenance'''
During this stage, the individual and the group negotiate what contribution is expected of members (''role negotiation''). While many members remain in this stage until the end of their membership, some individuals may become dissatisfied with their role in the group or fail to meet the group's expectations (''divergence'').

'''Stage 4: Resocialization'''
If the divergence point is reached, the former full member takes on the role of a marginal member and must be resocialized. There are two possible outcomes of resocialization: the parties resolve their differences and the individual becomes a full member again (''convergence''), or the group and the individual part ways via expulsion or voluntary ''exit''.

'''Stage 5: Remembrance'''
In this stage, former members reminisce about their memories of the group and make sense of their recent departure. If the group reaches a consensus on their reasons for departure, conclusions about the overall experience of the group become part of the group's ''tradition''.

=== Gender socialization ===
{{See also|Sociology of gender#Gender and socialization|Social construction of gender|Role theory}}
Henslin contends that "an important part of socialization is the learning of culturally defined [[gender roles]]".{{sfn|Henslin|1999|p=76}} Gender socialization refers to the learning of behavior and attitudes considered appropriate for a given sex: boys learn to be boys and girls learn to be girls. This "learning" happens by way of many different agents of socialization. The behavior that is seen to be appropriate for each gender is largely determined by societal, cultural, and economic values in a given society. Gender socialization can therefore vary considerably among societies with different values. The family is certainly important in reinforcing [[gender roles]], but so are groups - including friends, peers, school, work, and the [[mass media]]. [[Social group]]s reinforce gender roles through "countless subtle and not so subtle ways".{{sfn|Henslin|1999|p=76}} In peer-group activities, [[Stereotype|stereotypic]] gender-roles may also be rejected, renegotiated, or artfully exploited for a variety of purposes.<ref name="Cromdal2011">{{Cite book |last= Cromdal |first= Jakob |author-link= Jakob Cromdal |year= 2011 |chapter= Gender as a practical concern in children's management of play participation |editor= S.A. Speer and E. Stokoe |title=Conversation and Gender |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=296–309}}</ref>

[[Carol Gilligan]] compared the moral development of girls and boys in her theory of gender and moral development. She claimed that boys have a justice perspective - meaning that they rely on formal rules to define right and wrong.{{sfn|Gilligan|1982}}{{sfn|Gilligan|1990}} Girls, on the other hand, have a care-and-responsibility perspective, where personal relationships are considered when judging a situation. Gilligan also studied the effect of gender on self-esteem. She claimed that society's socialization of females is the reason why girls' self-esteem diminishes as they grow older. Girls struggle to regain their personal strength when moving through adolescence as they have fewer female teachers and most authority figures are men.{{sfn|Macionis|Gerber|2010|p=109}}

As parents are present in a child's development from the beginning, their influence in a child's early socialization is very important, especially in regard to gender roles. Sociologists have identified four ways in which parents socialize gender roles in their children: Shaping gender related attributes through toys and activities, differing their interaction with children based on the sex of the child, serving as primary gender models, and communicating gender ideals and expectations.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Epstein | first1 = Marina | last2 = Ward | first2 = Monique L | year = 2011 | title = Exploring parent-adolescent communication about gender: Results from adolescent and emerging adult samples | journal = Sex Roles | volume = 65 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 108–18 | doi= 10.1007/s11199-011-9975-7 | pmc = 3122487 | pmid= 21712963}}</ref>

Sociologist of gender [[Raewyn Connell|R.W. Connell]] contends that socialization theory is "inadequate" for explaining gender, because it presumes a largely consensual process except for a few "deviants", when really most children revolt against pressures to be conventionally gendered; because it cannot explain contradictory "scripts" that come from different socialization agents in the same society, and because it does not account for conflict between the different levels of an individual's gender (and general) identity.<ref>{{cite book|last1= Connell|first1= R.W.|author-link1 = Raewyn Connell |title= Gender and power: society, the person and sexual politics|url= https://archive.org/details/genderpowersocie00conn_0|url-access= registration|date= 1987|publisher=Stanford Univ. Press|location= Stanford|isbn= 978-0-8047-1430-3|pages= [https://archive.org/details/genderpowersocie00conn_0/page/191 191–94]}}</ref>

=== Racial socialization ===
Racial socialization, or [[racial-ethnic socialization]], has been defined as "the developmental processes by which children acquire the behaviors, perceptions, values, and attitudes of an [[ethnic group]], and come to see themselves and others as members of the group".<ref>Rotherman, M., & Phinney, J. (1987). "Introduction: Definitions and perspectives in the study of children's ethnic socialization". In J. Phinney & M. Rotherman (Eds.), ''Children's ethnic socialization: Pluralism and development'' (pp. 10-28). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.</ref> The existing literature conceptualizes racial socialization as having multiple dimensions. Researchers have identified five dimensions that commonly appear in the racial socialization literature: cultural socialization, preparation for bias, promotion of mistrust, egalitarianism, and other.<ref name="Hughes">{{cite journal | last1 = Hughes | first1 = D. | last2 = Rodriguez | first2 = J. | last3 = Smith | first3 = E. | last4 = Johnson | first4 = D. | last5 = Stevenson | first5 = H. | last6 = Spicer | first6 = P. | year = 2006 | title = Parents' ethnic-racial socialization practices: A review of research and directions for future study | journal = Developmental Psychology | volume = 42 | issue = 5 | pages = 747–770 | doi = 10.1037/0012-1649.42.5.747 | pmid= 16953684| citeseerx = 10.1.1.525.3222 }}</ref> Cultural socialization, sometimes referred to as "pride development", refers to parenting practices that teach children about their racial history or heritage.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Jagers |first1=Robert J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pHp0DwAAQBAJ |title=Manhood Development in Urban African-American Communities |last2=Watts |first2=Roderick J. |date=24 October 2018 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-317-72085-0 |edition=reprint |quote=Factor 3 represents items and attitudes that endorse the teaching of pride and knowledge of African-American culture to children and is entitled Pride Development Socialization (PDS). |access-date=15 June 2023 |orig-date=1997}}</ref>
Preparation for bias refers to parenting practices focused on preparing children to be aware of, and cope with, discrimination. Promotion of mistrust refers to the parenting practices of socializing children to be wary of people from other races. Egalitarianism refers to socializing children with the belief that all people are equal and should be treated with common humanity.<ref name="Hughes" /> In the [[United States]], white people are socialized to perceive race as a [[zero-sum game]] and a black-white binary.<ref>{{cite web |last1= Gil De Lamadrid |first1= Daniel |title= The Whiteness of Prejudice Plus Power |url= https://www.academia.edu/82085111 |website=Academia|date=2022}}</ref>

=== Oppression socialization ===
Oppression socialization refers to the process by which "individuals develop understandings of power and political structure, particularly as these inform perceptions of identity, power, and opportunity relative to gender, racialized group membership, and sexuality".<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title= Political sociology: Oppression, resistance, and the state.|last1=Glasberg|first1=Davita Silfen|last2= Shannon|first2= Deric|publisher= Thousand Oaks: Pine Forge Press |year=2011|page=47}}</ref> This action is a form of [[political socialization]] in its relation to power and the persistent compliance of the disadvantaged with their oppression using limited "overt coercion".<ref name=":0" />

===Language socialization===
Based on comparative research in different societies, and focusing on the role of language in child development, [[linguistic anthropology|linguistic anthropologists]] [[Elinor Ochs]] and [[Bambi Schieffelin]] have developed the theory of language socialization.<ref name="language">{{multiref2
| Schieffelin, Bambi B.; Ochs, Elinor (1987). ''Language Socialization across Cultures''. Volume 3 of ''Studies in the Social and Cultural Foundations of Language''. Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|0521339197|978-0521339193}}
| Schieffelin, Bambi B. (1990). ''The Give and Take of Everyday Life: Language, Socialization of Kaluli Children''. P CUP Archive, {{ISBN|0521386543|978-0521386548}}
| Duranti, Alessandro; Ochs, Elinor; Schieffelin, Bambi B. (2011). ''The Handbook of Language Socialization'', Volume 72 of Blackwell Handbooks in Linguistics. John Wiley & Sons, {{ISBN|1444342886|978-1444342888}}
}}</ref>
They discovered that the processes of [[enculturation]] and socialization do not occur apart from the process of [[language acquisition]], but that children acquire language and culture together in what amounts to an integrated process. Members of all societies socialize children both ''to'' and ''through'' the use of language; acquiring competence in a language, the novice is by the same token socialized into the categories and norms of the culture, while the culture, in turn, provides the norms of the use of language.

=== Oversocialization ===
'''Oversocialization''' refers to the excess internalization of societal expectations, norms, and values such that a person loses their individuality. Oversocialization operates at both the conscious and unconscious levels, shaping individuals' beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors in ways that maintain the status quo. Oversocialization can lead to alienation, disempowerment, and a lack of personal autonomy.<ref name="Shenghuan"/>

The term was coined by [[Dennis Wrong]] in 1961.<ref name="Shenghuan">{{cite book |title=The ECPH Encyclopedia of Psychology |date=17 July 2025 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-981-97-7874-4 |page=1048 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tfQ9EQAAQBAJ&dq=oversocialization&pg=PA1048 |access-date=1 February 2025 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Planned socialization ===
Planned socialization occurs when other people take actions designed to teach or train others. This type of socialization can take on many forms and can occur at any point from infancy onward.<ref name="Baldwin 2001">{{cite web |url= http://www.soc.ucsb.edu/faculty/baldwin/classes/soc142/scznDEF.html | last=Baldwin | first=John | date=July 2001 | title=What is the socialization process? | type=Course content for Sociology 142: Socialization | publisher=University of California, Santa Barbara | access-date=2012-10-04 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20121025103616/http://www.soc.ucsb.edu/faculty/baldwin/classes/soc142/scznDEF.html |archive-date=2012-10-25 }}</ref>

=== Natural socialization ===
Natural socialization occurs when infants and youngsters explore, play and discover the social world around them.{{sfnq|Baldwin|2001|q=Natural socialization occurs when infants and youngsters explore, play and discover the social world around them.}} Natural socialization is easily seen when looking at the young of almost any mammalian species (and some birds).{{sfnq|Baldwin|2001|q=Natural socialization is easily seen when looking at the young of almost any mammalian species (and some birds).}}
On the other hand, planned socialization is mostly a human phenomenon;{{sfnq|Baldwin|2001|q=Planned socialization is mostly a human phenomenon [...].}} all through history, people have made plans for teaching or training others.{{sfnq|Baldwin|2001|q=[...] all through history, people have been making plans for teaching or training others.}} Both natural and planned socialization can have good and bad qualities: it is useful{{for whom|date=June 2023}} to learn the best features of both natural and planned socialization in order to incorporate them into life in a meaningful way.{{sfnq|Baldwin|2001|q=Both natural and planned socialization can have good and bad features: It is wise to learn the best features of both natural and planned socialization and weave them into our lives.}}

=== Digital socialization ===
Digital socialization refers to the process through which individuals acquire cultural norms, values, and behaviors via digital interactions. Unlike traditional socialization, which primarily occurs through face-to-face interaction, digital socialization takes place in online environments such as [[social media]] platforms, virtual communities, and other digital communication channels.

==== Beneficial aspects ====
The italian sociologist [[Antonio Casilli]] has examined how digital socialization complements rather than replaces offline interactions. He argues that digital environments create a "hybrid sociability" where online and offline interactions are interconnected. This perspective challenges the assumption that digital communication isolates individuals, instead emphasizing the ways in which people use digital tools to maintain and expand their social networks. He has highlighted how [[social capital]] is built and maintained through [[Digital platform (infrastructure)|digital platforms]], as individuals engage in online communities that provide both bonding and bridging connections. Digital interactions have also been described as a form of "reciprocal grooming," where sharing content, commenting, and reacting to posts serve as mechanisms for maintaining social ties.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pacé |first=Serge |date=2011-01-03 |title=Antonio A. Casilli, Les liaisons numériques. Vers une nouvelle sociabilité ? |url=https://journals.openedition.org/lectures/1230 |journal=Lectures |language=fr |doi=10.4000/lectures.1230 |issn=2116-5289|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

The impact of [[social media]] on socialization has also been widely studied, with findings suggesting that digital platforms influence identity formation, belonging, and community participation. The ability to curate [[Digital identity#Social aspects|digital identities]] allows individuals to shape their online presence, affecting how they are perceived by others. Digital socialization extends beyond personal relationships to include political engagement, professional networking, and knowledge exchange. As digital interactions become more embedded in daily life, they contribute to the reshaping of social norms and collective behaviors.<ref>{{Citation |last=Beaudouin |first=Valérie |title=Les dynamiques des sociabilités |date=2009 |page=21 |url=https://imt.hal.science/hal-00479579v1 |access-date=2025-04-01 |publisher=FYP |language=fr}}</ref>

Moreover,  relationship between digital and offline sociability within a cultural community in a mid-sized French city has been examined,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Guéraut |first=Élie |date=2017-05-16 |title=Quand les sociabilités numériques consolident les frontières sociales:Enquête sur le « milieu culturel » d'une ville moyenne |url=https://shs.cairn.info/revue-sociologie-2017-1-page-39?lang=fr |journal=Sociologie |language=fr |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=39–56 |doi=10.3917/socio.081.0039 |issn=2108-8845|url-access=subscription }}</ref> showing that social media, particularly Facebook, does not radically transform social structures but rather reinforces preexisting social divisions. Online interactions, while broadening access to social networks, tend to mirror and consolidate the boundaries already present in offline spaces. 

==== Challenging aspects ====
Despite its benefits, digital socialization presents certain challenges. [[Algorithmic curation]] plays a central role in shaping digital socialization, offering personalized content but also introducing notable challenges. The rise of algorithm-driven content has been associated with the creation of "[[Filter bubble|filter bubbles]]" where individuals are exposed primarily to information that reinforces their existing beliefs. However, some scholars argue that similar mechanisms exist outside the digital sphere, as individuals in physical social environments also tend to surround themselves with like-minded people, reinforcing their existing perspectives. Social structures such as residential segregation, workplace affiliations, and educational institutions contribute to the formation of ideological and cultural bubbles that limit exposure to diverse viewpoints. This phenomenon raises concerns about ideological polarization and the potential narrowing of perspectives. Additionally, [[cyberbullying]] and online harassment have been identified as negative consequences of digital interaction, with some studies linking these experiences to psychological distress and social exclusion. Privacy concerns also play a significant role in discussions about digital socialization, as the collection and use of personal data in digital environments raise ethical questions about surveillance, data security, and the commercialization of social interactions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nguyen |first1=Godefroy Dang |last2=Lethiais |first2=Virginie |date=2016-03-24 |title=Impact des réseaux sociaux sur la sociabilité:Le cas de Facebook |url=https://shs.cairn.info/revue-reseaux-2016-1-page-165?lang=fr |journal=Réseaux |language=fr |volume=195 |issue=1 |pages=165–195 |doi=10.3917/res.195.0165 |issn=0751-7971}}</ref>

Others have examined the impact of digital technologies on contemporary sociability from a different lens, showing how online platforms redefine social interactions and shape the construction of social ties. While digital tools facilitate communication and strengthen certain social connections, they also reinforce existing social boundaries. Digital sociability is shaped by preexisting social structures, as online interactions often mirror offline inequalities rather than eliminating them. Factors such as socioeconomic status, education, and cultural capital influence individuals' digital socialization experiences. Furthermore, different digital spaces contribute to varying forms of social interaction, from reinforcing close-knit communities to facilitating [[Interpersonal ties#Weak tie hypothesis|weak-tie]] networks that provide access to new information and opportunities.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Velkovska |first=Julia |date=2020 |title="Sociabilitées Numériques" |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/353357847 |journal=Ed. Réseau Canopé}}</ref>

=== Political socialization ===
{{main|Political socialization}}
Socialization produces the economic, social, and political development of any particular country. The nature of the compromise between nature and nurture also determines whether society is good or harmful.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Amaechi |first=Dr (Mrs) Louisa Ngozi |title=Socialization, Genetic Issue in Nigeria and Nation Building |url= https://www.ijrhss.org/papers/v8-i8/1.pdf |access-date=11 May 2023 |website=International Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Studies | quote = The economic, social and political development of any given nation is the product of socialization. Society is good or bad also is determined by the nature of nature-nurture compromise.}}</ref>  Political socialization is described as "the long developmental process by which an infant (even an adult) citizen learns, imbibes and ultimately internalizes the political culture (core political values, beliefs, norms and ideology) of his political system in order to make him a more informed and effective political participant."<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last= Odoemelam |first= Uche Bright |title= POLITICAL SOCIALIZATION AND NATION BUILDING: THE CASE OF NIGERIA |url= https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/328023596.pdf |access-date=11 May 2023 |website=European Scientific Journal}}</ref>

A society's political culture is inculcated in its citizens and passed down from one generation to the next as part of the political socialization process. Agents of socialization are thus people, organizations, or institutions that have an impact on how people perceive themselves, behave, or have other orientations. In contemporary democratic government, political parties are the main forces behind political socialization.<ref name=":2" />

Developing nations can transfer agricultural technology and machinery like tractors, harvesters, and agrochemicals to enhance the agricultural sector of the economy through socialization.<ref>{{Cite web |last= Amaechi |first= Dr (Mrs) Louisa Ngozi |title= Socialization, Genetic Issue in Nigeria and Nation Building |url= https://www.ijrhss.org/papers/v8-i8/1.pdf |access-date= 11 May 2023 |website=International Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Studies | quote = Through socialization process, developing countries like Nigeria can now transfer agricultural technology and equipment like tractor, harvesters, and agro-chemical materials to improve the agricultural sector of Nigerian economy.}}</ref>

=== Positive socialization ===
Positive socialization is the type of social learning that is based on pleasurable and exciting experiences. Individual humans tend to like the people who fill their social learning processes with positive motivation, loving care, and rewarding opportunities. Positive socialization occurs when desired behaviors are reinforced with a reward, encouraging the individual to continue exhibiting similar behaviors in the future.<ref name="Baldwin 2001" />

=== Negative socialization ===
Negative socialization occurs when socialialization agents use punishment, harsh criticisms, or anger to try to "teach us a lesson"; and often we come to dislike both negative socialization and the people who impose it on us.<ref name="Baldwin 2001" /> There are all types of mixes of positive and negative socialization, and the more positive social learning experiences we have, the happier we tend to be—especially if we are able to learn useful information that helps us cope well with the challenges of life.{{citation needed|date=June 2023}} A high ratio of negative to positive socialization can make a person unhappy, leading to defeated or pessimistic feelings about life.<ref name="Baldwin 2001" />

[[Bullying]] can examplify negative socialization.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Price |first=Stuart |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kOwpAQAAMAAJ |title=Brute Reality: Structures of Representation in 'The War on Terror' |date=15 March 2010 |publisher=Pluto Press |isbn=978-0-7453-2080-9 |publication-place=London |page=53 |quote=Acts of violence and forms of bullying contribute to the negative socialisation imposed on soldiers, representing an acclimatisation to the production of lethal force; the internalised resentment and anger of the recruit is directed outwards [...]. |access-date=15 June 2023}}</ref>

==Institutions==
{{Main article|Institutions}}
In the social sciences, institutions are the [[social structure|structures]] and [[social mechanism|mechanisms]] of [[social order]] and [[cooperation]] governing the [[behavior]] of [[individual]]s within a given human [[social collectivity | collectivity]]. Institutions are identified with a [[social purpose]] and permanence, transcending individual [[human]] lives and intentions, and with the making and enforcing of [[social norm | rule]]s governing cooperative human behavior.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |article-url=http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2014/entries/social-institutions/ |encyclopedia=[[The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] |first=Seumas |last=Miller |article=Social institutions |editor-first=Edward N. |editor-last=Zalta |date=21 December 2014 |orig-date=2007 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |issn=1095-5054 | quote = The term, 'social institution' is somewhat unclear both in ordinary language and in the philosophical literature [...]. However, contemporary sociology is somewhat more consistent in its use of the term. Typically, contemporary sociologists use the term to refer to complex social forms that reproduce themselves such as governments, the family, human languages, universities, hospitals, business corporations, and legal systems. A typical definition is that proffered by Jonathan Turner (Turner 1997: 6): 'a complex of positions, roles, norms and values lodged in particular types of social structures and organising relatively stable patterns of human activity with respect to fundamental problems in producing life-sustaining resources, in reproducing individuals, and in sustaining viable societal structures within a given environment.'}}
</ref>

== Productive processing of reality ==
From the late 1980s, sociological and psychological theories have been connected with the term socialization. One example of this connection is the theory of [[Klaus Hurrelmann]]. In his book ''Social Structure and Personality Development'',<ref name= "Hurrelmann 1989/2009">Hurrelmann, Klaus (1989, reissued 2009). ''Social Structure and Personality Development''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press</ref> he develops the model of ''productive processing of reality''. The core idea is that socialization refers to an individual's [[personality development]]. It is the result of the productive processing of interior and exterior realities. Bodily and mental qualities and traits constitute a person's inner reality; the circumstances of the social and physical environment embody the external reality. Reality processing is productive because human beings actively grapple with their lives and attempt to cope with the attendant developmental tasks. The success of such a process depends on the personal and social resources available. Incorporated within all developmental tasks is the necessity to reconcile personal individuation and social integration and so secure the "I-dentity".<ref name= "Hurrelmann 1989/2009" />{{rp|42}} The process of productive processing of reality is an enduring process throughout the life course.<ref>Hurrelmann, Klaus; Bauer, Ullrich (2018). ''Socialisation During the Life Course''. London/New York: Routledge</ref>

==See also==
<!--New links in alphabetical order please-->
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|
* {{anl|Acculturation}}
* {{anl|Behavioral enrichment}}
* {{anl|Behavioral sink}}
* {{anl|Cultural assimilation}}
* {{anl|Discourse}}
* {{anl|Functional illiteracy}}
* {{anl|Indoctrination}}
* {{anl|Memetics}}
* {{anl|Positive psychology}}
* {{anl|Respect}}
* {{anl|Sharing}}
* {{anl|Shyness}}
* {{anl|Social integration}}
* {{anl|Social skills}}
* {{anl|Socialization of animals}}
* {{anl|Structure and agency}}
* [[TPI-theory]]
* {{anl|Truth}}
* {{anl|Value (personal and cultural)}}
}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Library resources box
|by=no
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|others=no
|about=yes
|label=Socialization}}
{{refbegin}}
* Bayley, Robert; Schecter, Sandra R. (2003). <!-- TITLE? -->Multilingual Matters, {{ISBN|1853596353|978-1853596353}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Bogard | first1 = Kimber | year = 2008 | title = Citizenship attitudes and allegiances in diverse youth | journal = Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology | volume = 14 | issue = 4| pages = 286–96 | doi=10.1037/1099-9809.14.4.286| pmid = 18954164 }}
* Duff, Patricia A.; Hornberger, Nancy H. (2010). ''Language Socialization: Encyclopedia of Language and Education'', Volume 8. Springer, {{ISBN|9048194660|978-9048194667}}
* Kramsch, Claire (2003). ''Language Acquisition and Language Socialization: Ecological Perspectives – Advances in Applied Linguistics''. Continuum International Publishing Group, {{ISBN|0826453724|978-0826453723}}
* McQuail, Dennis (2005). ''McQuail's Mass Communication Theory'': Fifth Edition, London: Sage.
* Mehan, Hugh (1991). ''Sociological Foundations Supporting the Study of Cultural Diversity.'' National Center for Research on Cultural Diversity and Second Language Learning.
* White, Graham (1977). ''Socialisation'', London: Longman.
{{refend}}

{{Conformity}}
{{Evolutionary psychology}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Socialization| ]]
[[Category:Conformity]]
[[Category:Deviance (sociology)]]
[[Category:Sociological terminology]]
[[Category:Majority–minority relations]]