View source for Sinitic languages

{{Short description|Branch of Sino-Tibetan languages}}
{{Distinguish|Semitic languages}}
{{For|other languages spoken in China|Languages of China}}

{{Infobox language family
| name          = Sinitic
| altname       = Chinese
| region        = [[East Asia]], [[Southeast Asia]], [[Central Asia]], [[North Asia]]
| protoname     = Proto-Sinitic
| familycolor   = Sino-Tibetan
| child1        = [[Chinese language|Chinese]]
| child2        = [[Macro-Bai languages|Macro-Bai]] (?)
| iso5          = zhx
| glotto        = sini1245
| glottoname    = Sinitic
| glotto2       = macr1275
| glottoname2   = Macro-Bai
| ethnicity     = Sinitic peoples
| map           = Map of sinitic languages full-en.svg
| mapcaption    = Map of Sinitic languages in China
}}

The '''Sinitic languages'''{{efn|From Late Latin {{lang|la|Sīnae}}, 'the Chinese', probably from Arabic {{tlit|ar|Ṣīn}} 'China', from the Chinese dynastic name [[Qin dynasty|Qin]]. (''[[OED]]''). In 1982, [[Paul K. Benedict]] proposed a subgroup of Sino-Tibetan called "Sinitic" comprising [[Bai language|Bai]] and Chinese.{{sfnp|Wang|2005|p=107}} The precise affiliation of Bai remains uncertain{{sfnp|Wang|2005|p=122}} and the term ''Sinitic'' is usually used as a synonym for Chinese, especially when viewed as a language family rather than as a language.{{sfnp|Mair|1991|p=3}}}} ({{zh|t=漢語族|s=汉语族|p=Hànyǔ zú}}), often synonymous with the '''Chinese languages''', are a [[language group|group]] of East Asian [[analytic language]]s that constitute a major branch of the [[Sino-Tibetan language family]]. It is frequently proposed that there is a primary split between the Sinitic languages and the rest of the family (the [[Tibeto-Burman languages]]). This view is rejected by some researchers{{sfnp|van Driem|2001|p=351}} but has found phylogenetic support among others.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Menghan |last2=Yan |first2=Shi |last3=Pan |first3=Wuyun |last4=Jin |first4=Li |title=Phylogenetic evidence for Sino-Tibetan origin in northern China in the Late Neolithic |journal=Nature |year=2019 |volume=569 |issue=7754 |pages=112–115 |doi=10.1038/s41586-019-1153-z |pmid=31019300 |bibcode=2019Natur.569..112Z |s2cid=129946000 |issn=1476-4687}}</ref>{{sfnp|Sagart|Jacques|Lai|Ryder|2019}} The [[Macro-Bai languages]], whose classification is difficult, may be an offshoot of [[Old Chinese]] and thus Sinitic;<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|van Driem|2001|p=403}} states "{{langn|zh-Latn|Bái}} ... may form a constituent of Sinitic, albeit one heavily influenced by Lolo–Burmese."</ref> otherwise, Sinitic is defined only by the many [[varieties of Chinese]] unified by a shared historical background, and usage of the term "Sinitic" may reflect the linguistic view that [[Chinese language|Chinese]] constitutes a family of distinct languages, rather than variants of a single language.{{efn|See {{Harvcoltxt|Enfield|2003|p=69}} and {{Harvcoltxt|Hannas|1997}} for examples. The Chinese terms often translated as 'language' and 'dialect' do not correspond well to those translations. These are {{zhi|c=語言|p=yǔyán}}, corresponding to [[macrolanguage]] or [[language cluster]], which is used for Chinese itself; {{zhi|c=方言|p=fāngyán}}, which separates mutually unintelligible languages within a {{tlit|zh|yǔyán}}; and {{zhi|c=土語|p=tǔyǔ}} or {{zhi|c=土話|p=tǔhuà}}, which corresponds better to the familiar Western linguistic use of 'dialect'.{{sfnp|Bradley|2012|p=1}}}}

==Population==
Over 91% of the Chinese population speaks a Sinitic language, of whom about three-quarters speak a Mandarin variety.<ref name="other">{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Routledge Encyclopedia of the Chinese language|title=Mandarin and other Sinitic languages|pages=605–628|year=2017|publisher=Routledge|location=Oxford|last1=Chan|first1=Sin-Wai|last2=Chappell|first2=Hilary|last3=Li|first3=Lan}}</ref> Estimates of the number of global speakers of Sinitic branches as of 2018–2019, both native and non-native, are listed below:<ref name="ethnologue china">{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/subgroups/chinese|title = Chinese| work=Ethnologue }}</ref> Note that the numbers are uncertain due to uncertainty in the population estimates of China. 

{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Branch !! Speakers 
!{{abbr|pct.|percent}}
|-
| [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]] ||1,118,584,040 
|{{percentage|1,118,584,040|1,521,943,700|2|pad=yes}}
|-
| [[Yue Chinese|Yue]] ||85,576,570 
|{{percentage|85,576,570 |1,521,943,700|2|pad=yes}}
|-
| [[Wu Chinese|Wu]] ||81,817,790 
|{{percentage|81,817,790 |1,521,943,700|2|pad=yes}}
|-
| [[Min Chinese|Min]] ||75,633,810 
|{{percentage|75,633,810 |1,521,943,700|2|pad=yes}}
|-
| [[Jin Chinese|Jin]]||47,100,000 
|{{percentage|47,100,000 |1,521,943,700|2|pad=yes}}
|-
| [[Hakka Chinese|Hakka]]||44,065,190 
|{{percentage|44,065,190 |1,521,943,700|2|pad=yes}}
|-
| [[Xiang Chinese|Xiang]] ||37,400,000 
|{{percentage|37,400,000 |1,521,943,700|2|pad=yes}}
|-
| [[Gan Chinese|Gan]] ||22,200,000 
|{{percentage|22,200,000 |1,521,943,700|2|pad=yes}}
|-
| [[Huizhou Chinese|Huizhou]] ||5,380,000 
|{{percentage|5,380,000 |1,521,943,700|2|pad=yes}}
|-
| [[Pinghua Chinese|Pinghua]] ||4,130,000 
|{{percentage|4,130,000 |1,521,943,700|2|pad=yes}}
|-
| [[Dungan language|Dungan]]|| 56,300
|{{percentage|56,300|1,521,943,700|3|pad=yes}}
|-
!Total
!1,521,943,700
!100%
|}

==Languages==
{{further|List of varieties of Chinese}}
[[File:ChineseInST.svg|thumb|L1 speakers of Chinese and other Sino-Tibetan languages according to ''[[Ethnologue]]'']]

Dialectologist [[Jerry Norman (sinologist)|Jerry Norman]] estimated that there are hundreds of mutually unintelligible Sinitic languages.{{sfnp|Norman|2003|p=72}}  They form a [[dialect continuum]] in which differences generally become more pronounced as distances increase, though there are also some sharp boundaries.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|pp=189–190}} The Sinitic languages can be divided into Macro-Bai languages and Chinese languages, and the following is one of many potential ways of subdividing these languages. Some varieties, such as [[Shaozhou Tuhua]], are hard to classify and thus are not included in the following briefs.

===Macro-Bai languages===
{{Main|Macro-Bai languages}}
This is a language family first proposed by linguist [[Zhengzhang Shangfang]],<ref>{{cite journal|lang=zh|script-title=zh:蔡家话白语关系及词根比较|last=Zhengzhang|first=Shangfang|year=2010|script-journal=zh:研究之乐|issue=2|pages=389–400|publisher=Shanghai Educational Publishing House}}</ref> and was expanded to include Longjia and Luren.<ref>{{cite book|lang=zh|script-title=zh:蔡家的語言|date=1984|author=貴州省民族識別工作隊語言組}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=貴州省民族識別工作隊|title=南龍人（南京-龍家）族別問題調查報告|date=1984}}</ref> It likely split off from the rest of Sinitic during the [[Old Chinese]] period.<ref>{{cite journal|title=How Old is the Chinese in Bái?|last=Gong|first=Xun|location=Paris|date=6 November 2015}}</ref> The languages included are all considered minority languages in China and are spoken in the [[Southwest China|Southwest]].<ref>{{cite book|title=貴州省志 民族志|publisher=貴州民族出版社|date=2002|location=Guiyang}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|lang=zh|script-title=zh:白语简志|last1=Xu|first1=Lin|last2=Zhao|first2=Yansun|date=1984|publisher=民族印刷廠}}</ref> The languages are:
* [[Bai language|Bai]]
* [[Cai-Long languages|Cai-Long]]: [[Caijia]], [[Longjia language|Longjia]]{{extinct}}, [[Luren language|Luren]]{{extinct}}
All other Sinitic languages henceforth would be considered Chinese.

===Chinese===
The Chinese branch of the family is classified into at least seven main families. These families are classified based on five main evolutionary criteria:<ref name="other" />
# The evolution of the historical fully muddy ({{zhi|t=全濁|s=全浊|p=quánzhuó}}) initials
# The distribution of rimes across the four tone qualities, as conditioned by voicing and aspiration of initials
# The evolution of the checked ({{zhi|c=入|p=rù}}) tone category
# The loss or retention of coda position plosives and nasals
# The palatalisation of the {{transliteration|zh|jiàn}} initial ({{zhi|c=見母|p=jiànmǔ}}) in front of high vowels
The varieties within one family may not be mutually intelligible with each other. For instance, [[Wenzhou dialect|Wenzhounese]] and [[Ningbo dialect|Ningbonese]] are not highly mutually intelligible. The [[Language Atlas of China]] identifies ten groups:<ref name="atlas">{{cite book|last=Li|first=Rong|date=2012|title=中國語言地圖集}}</ref>
* [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]]
* [[Jin Chinese|Jin]]
* [[Yue Chinese|Yue]]
* [[Hakka Chinese|Hakka]]
* [[Min Chinese|Min]]
* [[Wu Chinese|Wu]]
* [[Huizhou Chinese|Hui]]
* [[Gan Chinese|Gan]]
* [[Xiang Chinese|Xiang]]
* [[Pinghua Chinese|Pinghua]] and [[Shaozhou Tuhua|Tuhua]]
with Jin, Hui, Pinghua, and Tuhua not part of the seven traditional groups.

===Mandarin===
Varieties of Mandarin are used in the [[Western Regions]], the [[Southwest China|Southwest]], [[Huguang]], [[Inner Mongolia]], [[Zhongyuan|Central Plains]] and the [[Northeast China|Northeast]],<ref name="atlas" /> by around three-quarters of the Sinitic-speaking population.<ref name="ethnologue china"/> Historically, the prestige variety has always been Mandarin, which is still reflected today in [[Standard Chinese]].<ref name="diversity">{{cite book|title=Diversity in Sinitic Languages|last=Chappell|first=Hilary M.|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780198723790|date=2015}}</ref> Standard Chinese is now an official language of the [[Republic of China]], [[People's Republic of China]], [[Singapore]] and [[United Nations]].<ref name="other" /> Re-population efforts, such as that of the [[Qing dynasty]] in the Southwest, tended to involve Mandarin speakers.<ref>{{cite book|last=Tsung|first=Linda|date=2014|title=Language Power and Hierarchy: Multilingual Education in China|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing}}</ref> Classification of Mandarin lects has undergone several significant changes, though nowadays it is commonly divided as such, based on the distribution of the historical checked tone:<ref name="atlas" />
* [[Northeastern Mandarin|Northeastern]]
* [[Beijing Mandarin (division of Mandarin)|Beijing]] (sometimes considered part of Northeastern)<ref name="ne beijing 1">{{cite journal|last=Lin|first=Tao|year=1987|title=北京官话区的划分|journal=方言|issue=3|pages=166–172|issn=0257-0203}}</ref><ref name="ne beijing 2">{{cite book|last=Zhang|first=Shifang|year=2010|title=北京官话语音研究|publisher=Beijing Language and Culture University Press|isbn=978-7-5619-2775-5}}</ref>
* [[Jiao-Liao Mandarin|Jiaoliao]] (sometimes "Peninsular")
* [[Ji-Lu Mandarin|Jilu]] (sometimes "Northern")
* [[Central Plains Mandarin|Central Plains]] (or "Zhongyuan")
* [[Lan-Yin Mandarin|Lanyin]] (sometimes "Northwestern" and considered part of Central Plains)
* [[Jin Chinese|Jin]] (often considered a top-level group due to the [[Language Atlas of China]])
* [[Southwestern Mandarin|Southwestern]] (sometimes "Upper Yangtse")
* [[Jianghuai Mandarin|Jianghuai]] (or "Lower Yangtze", sometimes "Huai", "Southern" or "Southeastern")<ref name="diversity" />
as well as other lects, which do not neatly fall into these categories, such as Mandarin [[Junhua]] varieties.

Varieties of Mandarin can be defined by their universally lost -m final, low number of tones, and smaller inventory of [[classifier (linguistics)|classifiers]], among other features. Mandarin lects also often have rhotic [[erhua]] rimes, though the amount of its use may vary between lects.<ref name="other" /> Loss of checked tone is an often cited criterion for Mandarin languages, though lects such as Yangzhounese and Taiyuannese show otherwise.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
! rowspan=2| !! colspan=7|Mandarin !! colspan=4|Non-Mandarin !! rowspan=2|Gloss
|-
! Beijing !! Jinan !! Zhengzhou !! Xi'an !! Taiyuan !! Chengdu !! Nanjing !! Guangzhou !! Meizhou !! Xiamen !! Anyi
|-
| {{zhi|c=音}} || {{IPA|in}} || {{IPA|iẽ}} || {{IPA|iən}} || {{IPA|iẽ}} || {{IPA|iəŋ}} || {{IPA|in}} || {{IPA|in}} || {{IPA|iɐm}} || {{IPA|im}} || {{IPA|im}} || {{IPA|im}} || 'sound'
|- 
| {{zhi|c=心}} || {{IPA|ɕin}} || {{IPA|ɕiẽ}} || {{IPA|siən}} || {{IPA|ɕiẽ}} || {{IPA|ɕiəŋ}} || {{IPA|ɕin}} || {{IPA|sin}} || {{IPA|sɐm}} || {{IPA|sim}} || {{IPA|sim}} || {{IPA|ɕim}} || 'heart'
|}

====Northeastern and Beijing Mandarin====
Northeastern Mandarin is spoken in [[Heilongjiang]], [[Jilin]], most of [[Liaoning]] and northeastern [[Inner Mongolia]], whereas Beijing Mandarin is spoken in northern [[Hebei]], most of [[Beijing]], parts of [[Tianjin]] and [[Inner Mongolia]].<ref name="atlas" /> The two families' most notable features are the heavy use of [[rhotic vowel|rhotic]] [[erhua]] and seemingly random distribution of the dark checked tone, and generally having four tones with the contours of high flat, rising, dipping, and falling.
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
|+ Tone contour of historically dark checked tone ({{zhi|c=陰入}}) characters
! rowspan=2| !! colspan=4|Northeastern/Beijing !! colspan=5|Other !! rowspan=2|Gloss
|-
! Harbin !! Changchun !! Shenyang !! Beijing !! Heyuan !! Chaozhou !! Suzhou !! Hefei !! Wuhan
|-
| {{zhi|c=客}} || ˨˩˧ || ˥˧ || ˨˩˧ || ˥˧ || ˥ || ˨˩ || ˥˥ || ˥ || ˨˩˧ || 'guest'
|-
| {{zhi|c=八}} || ˦˦ || ˦˦ || ˧˧ || ˥˥ || ˥ || ˨˩ || ˥˥ || ˥ || ˨˩˧ || 'eight'
|-
| {{zhi|c=北}} || ˨˩˧ || ˨˩˧ || ˨˩˧ || ˨˩˧ || ˥ || ˨˩ || ˥˥ || ˥ || ˨˩˧ || 'north'
|}
Northeastern Mandarin, especially in Heilongjiang, contains many loanwords from Russian.<ref name="harbin">{{cite book|title=哈爾濱方言詞典|last=Yin|first=Shichao|publisher=江蘇教育出版社|date=1997}}
</ref>
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
! Term !! Pronunciation !! Meaning !! Origin
|-
| {{zhi|c=卜留克}} || {{zhi|p=bǔliúkè}} || '[[rutabaga]]' || {{lang|ru|брюква}} ''bryukva''
|-
| {{zhi|c=馬神}} || {{zhi|p=mǎshén}} || 'machine' || {{lang|ru|машина}} ''mashina''
|-
| {{zhi|c=巴籬子}} || {{zhi|p=bālízi}} || 'jail' || {{lang|ru|полиция}} ''politsiya''
|}
Northeastern Mandarin lects can be divided into three main groups, namely Hafu (including [[Harbin dialect|Harbinnese]] and [[Changchun dialect|Changchunnese]]), Jishen (including [[Jilin dialect|Jilinnese]] and [[Shenyang dialect|Shenyangnese]]), and Heisong. Notably, the extinct [[Taz language]] of [[Russia]] is also a Northeastern Mandarin language. Beijing is sometimes included in Northeastern Mandarin due to its distribution of the historical dark checked tone,<ref name="ne beijing 1" /><ref name="ne beijing 2" /> though is listed as its own group by others, often due to its more regular light checked tones.<ref name="atlas" />

====Jilu Mandarin====
Jilu Mandarin is spoken in southern Hebei and western [[Shandong]],<ref name="atlas" /> and is often represented with [[Jinan dialect|Jinannese]].<ref name="dict">{{cite book|title=漢語方言詞彙|date=1995|publisher=语文出版社|author=北京大學中國語言文學系}}</ref> Notable cities that use Jilu Mandarin lects include [[Cangzhou]], [[Shijiazhuang]], [[Jinan]] and [[Baoding]].<ref>{{cite book|title=河北省志 方言志|publisher=方志出版社|date=2005|last1=Wu|first1=Jizhang|last2=Tang|first2=Jianxiong|last3=Chen|first3=Shujing}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=山東方言研究|date=2002|issue=3|last=Qian|first=Zengyi}}</ref> Characteristically Jilu Mandarin features include merging the dark checked into the dark level tone, the light checked into light level or departing based on the [[manner of articulation]] of the [[initial (linguistics)|initial]], and vowel breaking in ''tong'' rime series' ({{zhi|c=通攝}}) checked-tone words, among other features.

Jilu Mandarin can be classified into Baotang, Shiji, Canghui and Zhangli.<ref name="mandarin">{{cite book|title=漢語官話方言研究|last=Qian|first=Zengyi|date=2010|publisher=齊魯書社}}</ref> Zhangli is of note due to its preservation of a separate checked tone.

====Jiaoliao Mandarin====
[[File:Jiaoliao.png|thumb|Distribution of Jiaoliao Mandarin varieties]]
Jiaoliao Mandarin is spoken in the [[Shandong Peninsula|Jiaodong]] and [[Liaodong Peninsula]]e, which includes the cities of [[Dalian]] and [[Qingdao]], as well as several prefectures along the China-Korea border.<ref name="atlas" /> Like Jilu Mandarin, its light checked tone is merged into light level or departing based on the manner of articulation of the initial, though its dark checked is merged into the rising. Its {{zhi|p=rì}} initial ({{zhi|c=日母}}) terms are pronounced with a [[null initial]] (apart from open {{zhi|p=zhǐ}} rime series ({{zhi|c=止攝開口}}) finals), unlike the {{IPA|/ʐ/}} of Northern and Beijing Mandarin.<ref>{{cite book|title=牟平方言詞典|last=Luo|first=Futeng|date=1997|publisher=江蘇教育出版社}}</ref>

Based on, for example, the pronunciation of the [[Palatalization (sound change)|palatalized]] {{zhi|p=jiàn}} initial ({{zhi|c=見母}}),<ref name="atlas" /> Jiaoliao Mandarin can be divided into Qingzhou, Denglian and Gaihuan areas.<ref name="mandarin" />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
! !! Yantai !! Weihai !! Qingdao !! Dalian !! Gloss
|-
| {{zhi|c=交}} || {{IPA|ciau}} || {{IPA|ciau}} || {{IPA|tɕiɔ}} || {{IPA|tɕiɔ}} || 'to hand in'
|-
| {{zhi|c=見}} || {{IPA|cian}} || {{IPA|cian}} || {{IPA|tɕiã}} ||{{IPA|tɕiɛ̃}} || 'to see'
|}

====Central Plains and Lanyin Mandarin====
Central Plains Mandarin is spoken in the [[Zhongyuan|Central Plains]] of [[Henan]], southwestern [[Shanxi]], southern [[Shandong]] and northern [[Jiangsu]], as well as most of [[Shaanxi]], southern [[Ningxia]] and [[Gansu]] and southern [[Xinjiang]], in famous cities such as [[Kaifeng]], [[Zhengzhou]], [[Luoyang]], [[Xuzhou]], [[Xi'an]], [[Xining]] and [[Lanzhou]].<ref>{{cite book|title=洛陽方言研究|last=He|first=Wei|publisher=社會科學文獻出版社|date=June 1993}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=徐州方言詞典|publisher=江蘇教育出版社|last1=Su|first1=Xiaoqing|last2=Lü|first2=Yongwei|date=December 1996|isbn=7534328837}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=西寧方言詞典|last=Zhang|first=Chengcai|date=December 1994|publisher=江蘇教育出版社|isbn=7534322936}}</ref> Central Plains Mandarin lects merge the historical checked tones with a lesser muddy ({{zhi|c=次濁}}) and clear ({{zhi|c=清}}) initial together with the rising tone, and those with a fully muddy ({{zhi|c=全濁}}) initial are merged with the light level tone.<ref name="atlas" />

Lanyin Mandarin, spoken in northern Ningxia, parts of Gansu, and northern Xinjiang, is sometimes grouped with Central Plains Mandarin due to its merged lesser light and dark checked tones, though it is realised as a departing tone.

Subdivision of Central Plains Mandarin is not fully agreed upon, though one possible subdivision sees 13 divisions, namely Xuhuai, Zhengkai, Luosong, Nanlu, Yanhe, Shangfu, Xinbeng, Luoxiang, Fenhe, Guanzhong, Qinlong, Longzhong and Nanjiang.<ref>{{cite book|title=中原官話分區|last=He|first=Wei|location=Beijing|publisher=中國社會科學院語言研究所}}</ref> Lanyin Mandarin, on the other hand, is divided as Jincheng, Yinwu, Hexi, and Beijiang. The [[Dungan language]] is a collection of Central Plains Mandarin varieties spoken in the former [[Soviet Union]].

====Jin====
[[File:Jinyufen qu.png|thumb|Distribution of Jin varieties]]
Jin is spoken in most of [[Shanxi]], western [[Hebei]], northern [[Shaanxi]], northern [[Henan]] and central [[Inner Mongolia]],<ref name="atlas" /> often represented by [[Taiyuan dialect|Taiyuannese]].<ref name="dict" /> It was first proposed as a lect separate from the rest of Mandarin by [[Li Rong (linguist)|Li Rong]], where it was proposed as lects in and around Shanxi with a checked tone, though this stance is not without disagreement.<ref name="gailun">{{cite book|last=Hou|first=Jing|title=現代漢語方言概論|publisher=上海教育出版社|date=2002|page=46}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|date=1998|last=Wang|first=Futang|title=漢語方言語音的演變和層次|location=Beijing|publisher=語文研究}}</ref> Jin varieties also often has disyllabic words derived from syllable splitting (分音詞), through the infixation of {{IPA|/(u)əʔ l/}}.<ref name="other" />

{{fs interlinear|indent=2
|笨 {} 薄 愣
|pəŋ꜄ → pəʔ꜇ ləŋ꜄
|'stupid'}}

{{fs interlinear|indent=2
|滾 {} 骨 攏
|꜂kʊŋ → kuəʔ꜆ ꜂lʊŋ
|'to roll'}}

As per the Language Atlas by Li, Jin is divided into Dabao, Zhanghu, Wutai, Lüliang, Bingzhou, Shangdang, Hanxin, and Zhiyan branches.<ref name="atlas" />

====Southwestern Mandarin====
Spoken in [[Yunnan]], [[Guizhou]], northern [[Guangxi]], most of [[Sichuan]], southern [[Gansu]] and [[Shaanxi]], [[Chongqing]], most of [[Hubei]] and bordering parts of [[Hunan]], as well as [[Kokang]] of Myanmar and parts of northern [[Thailand]], Southwestern Mandarin speakers take up the most area and population of all Mandarinic language groups, and would be the eighth most spoken language in the world if separated from the rest of Mandarin.<ref name="atlas" /> Southwestern Mandarinic tends to not have [[retroflex consonant]]s, and merges all checked tone categories together. Except for [[Minjiang dialect|Minchi]], which has a standalone checked category, the checked tone is merged with another category. Representative lects include [[Wuhan dialect|Wuhannese]] and [[Sichuanese (language)|Sichuanese]], and sometimes [[Kunming dialect|Kunmingnese]].<ref name="dict" />

Southwestern Mandarin tends to be split into Chuanqian, Xishu, Chuanxi, Yunnan, Huguang and Guiliu branches. Minchi is sometimes separated as a remnant of Old Shu.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Zhou|first=Jixu|journal=語言研究|issue=3|date=2012|title=南路話和湖廣話的語音特點}}</ref>

====Huai====
[[File:Dialect Map of Lower Yangtze Mandarin.png|thumb|Distribution of Huai varieties]]
Huai is spoken in central [[Anhui]], northern [[Jiangxi]], far western and eastern [[Hubei]] and most of [[Jiangsu]].<ref name="atlas" /> Due to its preservation of a checked tone, some linguists believe that Huai ought to be treated as a top-level group, like Jin. Representative lects tend to be [[Nanjing dialect|Nanjingnese]], [[Hefei dialect|Hefeinese]] and [[Yangzhou dialect|Yangzhounese]].<ref name="dict" /> The Huai of Nanjing has likely served as a national prestige during the Ming and Qing periods,<ref>{{cite book|title=漢語方言學大詞典|publisher=廣東教育出版社|date=2017|page=150|isbn=9787554816332}}</ref> though not all linguists support this viewpoint.<ref>{{cite journal|title=《西儒耳目資》音系基礎非南京方言補證|last=Zeng|first=Xiaoyu|journal=語言科學|date=2014|issue=4}}</ref>

The Language Atlas divides Huai into Tongtai, Huangxiao, and Hongchao areas, with the latter further split into Ninglu and Huaiyang. Tongtai, being geographically located furthest west, has the most significant Wu influence, such as in its distribution of historical voiced plosive series.<ref name="atlas" /><ref>{{cite book|title=南通方言詞典|publisher=江蘇人民出版社|location=Nanjing|last=Tao|first=Guoliang}}</ref><ref name="hangzhou" />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
! rowspan=2| !! colspan=2|Tongtai !! colspan=4|Non-Tongtai
|-
! Nantong !! Taizhou !! Yangzhou !! Hangzhou !! Fuzhou !! Huizhou
|-
| {{zhi|c=地}} || {{IPA|tʰi}} || {{IPA|tʰi}} || {{IPA|ti}} || {{IPA|di}} || {{IPA|tei}} || {{IPA|ti}}
|-
| {{zhi|c=病}} || {{IPA|pʰeŋ}} || {{IPA|pʰiŋ}} || {{IPA|pin}} || {{IPA|biŋ}} || {{IPA|paŋ}} || {{IPA|piaŋ}}
|}

===Yue===
[[File:Ping and Yue dialect map.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Distribution of Yue varieties (including Pinghua)]]
Yue Chinese is spoken by around 84 million people,<ref name="ethnologue china" /> in western [[Guangdong]], eastern [[Guangxi]], [[Hong Kong]], [[Macau]] and parts of [[hainan province|Hainan]], as well as overseas communities such as [[Kuala Lumpur]] and [[Vancouver]].<ref name="atlas" /> Famous lects such as [[Cantonese]] and [[Taishan dialect|Taishanese]] belong to this family.<ref name="other" /> Yue Chinese lects generally possess [[vowel length|long-short distinctions]] in their vowels, which is reflected in their almost universally split dark-checked and often split light-checked tones. They generally also tend to preserve all three checked plosive finals and three nasal finals. The status of Pinghua is uncertain, and some believe its two groups, Northern and Southern, should be listed under Yue,<ref name="guangxi">{{cite journal|last=Lin|first=Yi|title=廣西的粵方言|journal=欽州學院學報|date=2016|issue=6|volume=31|pages=38–42}}</ref> though some reject this standpoint.<ref name="atlas" />

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
|+Checked tone contours in Yue lects
! rowspan=2|Tone !! colspan=2|Dark !! colspan=2|Light
|-
! Short !! Long !! Short !! Long
|-
! Examples !! {{zhi|c=北}} !! {{zhi|c=八}} !! {{zhi|c=入}} !! {{zhi|c=白}}
|-
! Guangzhou
| ˥˥ || ˧˧ || colspan=2|˨˨
|-
! Hong Kong
| ˥˥ || ˧˧ || colspan=2|˨˨
|-
! Dongguan
| ˦˦ || ˨˨˦ || colspan=2|˨˨
|-
! Shiqi
| ˥ || colspan=3|˧
|-
! Taishan
| ˥˥ || ˧˧ || colspan=2|˨˩
|-
! Bobai
| ˥˥ || ˧˧ || colspan=2|˨˨
|-
! Yulin
| ˥ || ˧ || ˨ || ˨˩
|}

Yue is generally split into [[Cantonese]] (which itself contains [[Yuehai Yue|Yuehai]], Xiangshan, and [[Guan-Bao dialect|Guanbao]]), [[Siyi Yue|Siyi]], [[Gaoyang Yue|Gaoyang]], [[Qin-Lian Yue|Qinlian]], [[Wu-Hua Yue|Wuhua]], [[Goulou Yue|Goulou]] (which includes [[Luo-Guang Yue|Luoguang]]), [[Yong-Xun Yue|Yongxun]] and the two Pinghua branches.<ref name="atlas" /> Siyi is generally agreed to be the most divergent, and Goulou is believed to be the one which is closest related to Pinghua.<ref name="guangxi" />

===Hakka===
Hakka Chinese is a direct result of several migration waves from Northern China to the South,<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Hakka People > Historical Background |url=http://edu.ocac.gov.tw/lang/hakka/english/a/a.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190909162739/http://edu.ocac.gov.tw/lang/hakka/english/a/a.htm |archive-date=2019-09-09 |access-date=2010-06-11 |website=edu.ocac.gov.tw |language=en}}</ref> and is spoken in eastern [[Guangdong]], parts of [[Taiwan]], western [[Fujian]], [[Hong Kong]], southern [[Jiangxi]], as well as scattered points in the rest of Guangdong, [[Hunan]], [[Guangxi]] and [[hainan province|Hainan]], along with overseas communities such as in [[West Kalimantan]] and [[Bangka Belitung Islands]] in [[Indonesia]], by an estimated total of 44 million people.<ref name="atlas" /><ref name="ethnologue china" /> Some believe that Hakka is closely related to other groups, such as Gan, Yue, or Tongtai.<ref name="gan hakka 1">{{cite book|last=Peng|first=Xinyi|title=江西客贛語的特殊音韻現象與結構變遷|publisher=國立中興大學中國文學研究所|date=2010}}</ref><ref name="gan hakka 2">{{cite book|last=Lu|first=Guoyao|title=魯國堯語言學論文集·客、贛、通泰方言源於南朝通語說|pages=123–135|publisher=江蘇教育出版社|date=2003|isbn=7534354994}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Sagart|first=Lawrence|date=March 2011|title=Chinese dialects classified on shared innovations}}</ref> Hakka varieties generally have no voiced plosive initials and preserve the historical {{zhi|p=rì}} initial ({{zhi|c=日母}}) as an n-like sound.<ref name="atlas" /><ref name="meixian">{{cite book|title=梅縣方言詞典|last=Huang|first=Xuezhen|publisher=江蘇教育出版社|date=December 1995|isbn=7534325064}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
|+ Realization of the historical {{zhi|p=rì}} initial in Hakka
! !! Meizhou !! Changting !! Hsinchu !! Hong Kong !! Yudu
|-
| {{zhi|c=人}} || {{IPA|ȵin}} || {{IPA|neŋ}} || {{IPA|ȵin}} || {{IPA|<sup>ŋ</sup>ɡin}} || {{IPA|niẽ}}
|-
| {{zhi|c=日}} || {{IPA|ȵit}} || {{IPA|ni}} || {{IPA|ȵit}} || {{IPA|<sup>ŋ</sup>ɡit}} || {{IPA|nie}}
|}

Hakka can be divided into Yuetai, Hailu, Yuebei, Yuexi, Tingzhou, Ninglong, Yuxin and Tonggui.<ref name="atlas" /> [[Meixian dialect|Meizhounese]] is often used as the representative variety of Hakka.<ref name="dict" />

===Min===
[[File:Min Languages.svg|thumb|Distribution of Min varieties in mainland China, Hainan and Taiwan]]
Min Chinese is a direct descendant of Old Chinese, and is spoken in [[Chaoshan]] and [[Zhanjiang]] of [[Guangdong]],
[[Hainan]], [[Taiwan]], most of [[Fujian]] and parts of [[Jiangxi]] and [[Zhejiang]], by around 76 million people.<ref name="ethnologue china" /> Due to significant amounts of migration, many people in [[Southeast Asia]] and [[Hong Kong]] are also able of speaking Min varieties. Lects such as [[Teochew dialect|Teoswa]], [[Hainanese]], [[Hokkien]] (incl. [[Taiwanese Hokkien|Taiwanese]]) and [[Fuzhou dialect|Hokchiu]] are all Min varieties.<ref name="atlas" />

Since Min descended from Old Chinese rather than Middle Chinese, it has some features that would be out of place in other varieties. For instance, some words with the {{zhi|p=cheng}} initial ({{zhi|c=澄母}}) are not affricates in Min. This, interestingly, has led to many languages, such as [[Occitan language|Occitan]], [[Inuktitut language|Inuktitut]], [[Latin language|Latin]], [[Māori language|Māori]] and [[Telugu language|Telugu]], loaning the Sinitic word for 'tea' ({{zhi|c=茶}}) with a plosive. Min varieties also have a very large number of words with [[Literary and colloquial readings of Chinese characters|literary pronunciations]].<ref name="other" />

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
|+Selection of reflexes of the {{zhi|p=cheng}}  initial
! rowspan=2| !! colspan=7|Min !! colspan=3|Non-Min
|-
! Fuzhou !! Quanzhou !! Chaozhou !! Putian !! Jian'ou !! Haikou !! Leizhou !! Lanzhou !! Guiyang !! Changsha
|-
| {{zhi|c=茶}} || {{IPA|ta}} || {{IPA|te}} || {{IPA|te}} || {{IPA|tɒ}} || {{IPA|ta}} || {{IPA|ʔdɛ}} || {{IPA|te}} || {{IPA|tʂʰa}} || {{IPA|tsʰa}} || {{IPA|tsa}}
|-
| {{zhi|c=陳}} || {{IPA|tiŋ}} || {{IPA|tan}} || {{IPA|tʰiŋ}} || {{IPA|tɛŋ}} || {{IPA|teiŋ}} || {{IPA|ʔdaŋ}} || {{IPA|taŋ}} || {{IPA|tʂʰən}} || {{IPA|tsʰən}} || {{IPA|tsən}}
|}

Min can primarily be split into Coastal and Inland Min varieties. The former contains the [[Southern Min]] branches of Quanzhang (Hokkien), Chaoshan (Teoswa), [[Datian dialect|Datian]] and [[Zhongshan dialect|Zhongshan]], the [[Eastern Min]] branches of Houguan and Funing, Qionglei Min, as well as [[Puxian Min]], whereas the latter includes [[Northern Min|Northern]], [[Central Min|Central]] and [[Shaojiang Min]]. Shaojiang Min acts as a transitional area between Min, Gan, and Hakka.<ref name="diversity" /><ref name="gailun" />

===Wu===
[[File:Varieties of of the Wu Chinese (English).png|thumb|Distribution of Wu varieties]]
Wu Chinese is spoken in most of [[Zhejiang]], [[Shanghai]], southern [[Jiangsu]], parts of southern [[Anhui]] and eastern [[Jiangxi]] by around 82 million people.<ref name="atlas" /><ref name="ethnologue china" /><ref name="wu">{{cite book|title=當代吳語研究|publisher=上海教育出版社|last=Qian|first=Nairong|date=1992}}</ref> Many large cities in the [[Yangtze Delta]], such as [[Suzhou]], [[Changzhou]], [[Ningbo]] and [[Hangzhou]], use a Wu variety. Wu varieties generally have a fricative initial in their negators, a three-way plosive distinction, as well as a checked coda preserved as a [[glottal stop]], except for Oujiang lects, where it has become [[vowel length]], and Xuanzhou.<ref name="wu" /><ref name="hangzhou" />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
|+ An example of a tripartite division of plosives
! !! Shanghai !! Suzhou !! Changzhou !! Shaoxing !! Ningbo !! Taizhou !! Wenzhou !! Jinhua !! Lishui || Quzhou
|-
| {{zhi|c=通}} || {{IPA|tʰoŋ}} || {{IPA|tʰoŋ}} || {{IPA|tʰoŋ}} || {{IPA|tʰoŋ}} || {{IPA|tʰoŋ}} || {{IPA|tʰoŋ}} || {{IPA|tʰoŋ}} || {{IPA|tʰoŋ}} || {{IPA|tʰɔŋ}} || {{IPA|tʰaŋ}}
|-
| {{zhi|c=東}} || {{IPA|toŋ}} || {{IPA|toŋ}} || {{IPA|toŋ}} || {{IPA|toŋ}} || {{IPA|toŋ}} || {{IPA|toŋ}} || {{IPA|toŋ}} || {{IPA|toŋ}} || {{IPA|tɔŋ}} || {{IPA|taŋ}}
|-
| {{zhi|c=同}} || {{IPA|doŋ}} || {{IPA|doŋ}} || {{IPA|doŋ}} || {{IPA|doŋ}} || {{IPA|doŋ}} || {{IPA|doŋ}} || {{IPA|doŋ}} || {{IPA|doŋ}} || {{IPA|dɔŋ}} || {{IPA|daŋ}}
|}
[[Shanghainese]], [[Suzhou dialect|Suzhounese]] and [[Wenzhou dialect|Wenzhounese]] are usually used as representatives of Wu.<ref name="dict" /> Wu Chinese varieties generally have a massive number of vowels, which rivals even [[North Germanic languages]].<ref name="shanghai">{{cite book|first=Nairong|last=Qian|date=2007|publisher=上海教育出版社|title=上海話大詞典}}</ref><ref name="suzhou">{{cite book|last=Ye|first=Changling|title=蘇州方言詞典|date=1993|publisher=江蘇教育出版社}}</ref>  The [[Jinhui dialect|Dondac variety]] has been observed to have 20 phonemic monophthongal vowels, according to one analysis.<ref>{{cite news|title=奉贤金汇学校首开"偒傣话"课(图) |url=http://news.sohu.com/20120921/n353701174.shtml|publisher=人民網|access-date=2022-07-22 |archive-date=2022-07-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220722091849/http://news.sohu.com/20120921/n353701174.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Qian Nairong]] divides Wu into [[Taihu Wu|Taihu]] (or Northern Wu), [[Taizhou dialect|Taizhou]], [[Oujiang Wu|Oujiang]], [[Chuqu Wu|Chuqu]] and [[Jinhua dialect|Wuzhou]]. Northern Wu is further divided into Piling, Suhujia, Tiaoxi, Linshao, Yongjiang, and Hangzhou, though Hangzhou's classification is unclear.<ref name="hangzhou" /><ref name="wu" />

===Hui===
Huizhou Chinese is spoken in western [[Hangzhou]], southern [[Anhui]] and parts of [[Jingdezhen]], by around 5 million people.<ref name="atlas" /><ref name="ethnologue china" /> It is identified as a top-level group by the Language Atlas, though some linguists believe in other theories, such as it being a Gan-influenced Wu variety, due to an identifiable basis of Old Wu features.<ref name="other"/><ref>{{cite book|last=Li|first=Rulong|title=漢語方言學|location=Beijing|publisher=高等教育出版社|date=2001|page=17}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Zhengzhang|first=Shangfang|title=皖南方言的分區（稿）|journal=方言|date=1986|issue=1}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Zhang|first=Guangyu|title=東南方言關係總論|journal=方言|date=1999|issue=1}}</ref> Hui varieties are phonologically diverse, and some features are shared with Wu, such as the simplification of diphthongs.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meng|first=Qinghui|title=徽州方言|location=Beijing|publisher=安徽人民出版社|date=2005}}</ref> Hui can be divided into Jishe, Xiuyi, Qiwu, Jingzhan and Yanzhou branches, with Tunxinese and Jixinese being representatives.

===Gan===
Gan Chinese is spoken in northern and central [[Jiangxi]], parts of [[Hebei]] and [[Anhui]] and eastern [[Hunan]], by 22 million people,<ref name="atlas" /><ref name="ethnologue china" /> sometimes believed to be related to Hakka.<ref name="gan hakka 1" /><ref name="gan hakka 2" /> Gan varieties tend to not [[palatalization (sound change)|palatalize]] terms with the {{zhi|p=jian}} initial ({{zhi|c=見母}}) and have an f-like initial in closed {{zhi|p=xiao}} and {{zhi|p=xia}} initial ({{zhi|c=合口曉匣兩母}}) terms, among other features.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Sun|first1=Yizhi|last2=Chen|first2=Changyi|last3=Xu|first3=Yangchun|title=江西贛方言語音的特點|date=2001}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
|+Pronunciation of terms with a {{zhi|p=xia}} or {{zhi|xiao}} initial and closed medial in Gan
! !! Nanchang !! Yichun !! Ji'an !! Fuzhou !! Yingtan
|-
| {{zhi|c=灰}} || {{IPA|ϕɨi}} || {{IPA|fi}} || {{IPA|fei}} || {{IPA|fai}} || {{IPA|fɛi}}
|-
| {{zhi|c=胡}} || {{IPA|ϕu}} || {{IPA|fu}} || {{IPA|fu}} || {{IPA|fu}} || {{IPA|fu}}
|}

Gan can also be divided into Northern and Southern groups. The Northern group was formed during the [[Tang dynasty]], whereas the Southern group was developed based on Northern Gan.<ref name="other" /> The Language Atlas sees Gan divided into Changdu, Yiliu, Jicha, Fuguang, Yingyi, Datong, Dongsui, Huaiyue, and Leizi branches.<ref name="atlas" /> [[Nanchang dialect|Nanchangnese]] is often chosen as the representative.<ref name="dict" /> Shaojiang Min is identified to be influenced or even closely related to Fuguang Gan.<ref>{{cite book|last=Chen|first=Zhangtai|title=閩語研究}}</ref>

===Xiang===
[[File:Classification of Xiang 2005 Bao.png|thumb|Distribution of Xiang varieties in Hunan and Guangxi]]
Xiang Chinese is spoken in central and western [[Hunan]] and nearby parts of [[Guangxi]] and [[Guizhou]] by an estimated 37 million people.<ref name="atlas" /><ref name="ethnologue china" /> Due to migrations, Xiang can be split into New and Old Xiang groups, with Old Xiang having fewer Mandarin-influenced features.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Song|first1=Diwu|last2=Cao|first2=Shuji|title=中國移民史 第五卷：名師其}}</ref><ref name="other" /> Xiang varieties have universally lost their checked codas, but the majority of them still have a unique preserved checked tone contour. Most also have a three-way plosive distinction, like Wu varieties.<ref name="atlas" />

One way of dividing Xiang varieties sees five distinct families, namely Changyi, Hengzhou, Louzhao, Chenxu, and Yongzhou.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bao|first1=Houxing|last2=Chen|first2=Hui|date=2005|title=湘語的分區（稿）}}</ref> [[Changsha dialect|Changshanese]] and one of [[Shuangfeng dialect|Shuangfengnese]] or [[Loudi dialect|Loudinese]] are usually taken as Xiang representatives.<ref name="dict" />

==Internal classification==
[[File:The origin and spread of the Sino-Tibetan language family.png|thumb|After applying the linguistic comparative method to the database of comparative linguistic data developed by [[Laurent Sagart]] in 2019 to identify sound correspondences and establish cognates, phylogenetic methods are used to infer relationships among these languages and estimate the age of their origin and homeland.{{sfnp|Sagart|Jacques|Lai|Ryder|2019|pp=10319–10320}}]]
The traditional, dialectological classification of Chinese languages is based on the evolution of the sound categories of [[Middle Chinese]]. Little comparative work has been done (the usual way of reconstructing the relationships between languages), and little is known about mutual intelligibility. Even within the dialectological classification, details are disputed, such as the establishment in the 1980s of three new top-level groups: [[Huizhou Chinese|Huizhou]], [[Jin Chinese|Jin]] and [[Pinghua]], although Pinghua is itself a pair of languages and Huizhou maybe half a dozen.{{sfnp|Kurpaska|2010|pp=41–53, 55–56}}{{sfnp|Yan|2006|pp=9–18, 61–69, 222}}

Like Bai, the [[Min Chinese|Min]] languages are commonly thought to have split off directly from [[Old Chinese]].{{sfnp|Mei|1970 |p=?}}  The evidence for this split is that all Sinitic languages apart from the Min group can fit into the structure of the ''[[Qieyun]]'', a 7th-century [[rime dictionary]].{{sfnp|Pulleyblank|1984|p=3}} However, this view is not universally accepted.

===Points of contention===
Like many other language families, Sinitic languages have had problems with classification. The following are a few examples.

====Southern China====
Traditionally, the [[Hangzhou dialect|lect of urban Hangzhou]] and [[New Xiang]] of eastern [[Hunan]] are not considered Mandarin.<ref name="atlas"/> However, linguists such as Richard VanNess Simmons and Zhou Zhenhe have observed that these two varieties possess more qualifying features of [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]] languages.<ref name="hangzhou">{{cite book|title=Chinese Dialect Classification: A comparative approach to Harngjou, Old Jintarn, and Common Northern Wu|author=Richard VanNess Simmons|publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Co.|date=1999}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1 = Zhou | first1 = Zhenhe | last2 = You | first2 = Rujie | title = Fāngyán yǔ zhōngguó wénhuà | script-title =zh:方言与中国文化 | trans-title = Dialects and Chinese culture | publisher = Shanghai Renmin Chubanshe | year = 1986}}</ref> For instance, the vowels of the second division of the {{zhi|p=jia}} ({{zhi|c=假}}) initial is often raised and backed in Wu and Xiang, while they are not in Hangzhounese and New Xiang.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
! rowspan=2| !! colspan=3|Traditionally Mandarin !! colspan=4|Traditionally Wu !! colspan=2|Traditionally Xiang !! rowspan=2|Gloss
|-
! [[Beijing dialect|Beijing]] !! [[Nanjing dialect|Nanjing]] !! [[Nantong dialect|Nantong]] !! [[Shanghainese|Shanghai]] !! [[Suzhou dialect|Suzhou]] !! [[Wenzhou dialect|Wenzhou]] !! [[Hangzhou dialect|Hangzhou]] !! [[Changsha dialect|Changsha]] !! [[Shuangfeng dialect|Shuangfeng]]
|-
| {{zhi|c=花}} || {{IPA|xua}} || {{IPA|xuɑ}} || {{IPA|xuo}} || {{IPA|ho}} || {{IPA|ho}} || {{IPA|kʰo}} || {{IPA|hua}} || {{IPA|fa}} || {{IPA|xo}} || 'flower'
|-
| {{zhi|c=瓜}} || {{IPA|kua}} || {{IPA|kuɑ}} || {{IPA|kuo}} || {{IPA|ko}} || {{IPA|ko}} || {{IPA|ko}} || {{IPA|kua}} || {{IPA|kua}} || {{IPA|ko}} || 'melon'
|-
| {{zhi|c=下}} || {{IPA|ɕia}} || {{IPA|ɕiɑ}} || {{IPA|xo}} || {{IPA|ɦo}} || {{IPA|ɦo}} || {{IPA|ɦo}} || {{IPA|ia}} || {{IPA|xa}} || {{IPA|ɣo}} || 'down'
|}

Nantongnese has heavy Wu influence, which has led to it also having raised and backed vowels.

[[Danzhou dialect|Danzhounese]] and [[Maihua]] are both traditionally considered [[Yue Chinese|Yue]] lects.<ref name="atlas"/> Recent research, however, has noted that these are both are more likely unclassified.{{sfnp|Kurpaska|2010|p=73}} Maihua, for example, may be a Yue-[[Hakka Chinese|Hakka]]-[[Hainanese language|Hainanese Min]] mixed language.<ref>{{harvp|Jiang|Ouyang|Zou|2007}}</ref>

Dongjiang Bendihua ({{zhi|c=東江本地話}}) is spoken in and around [[Huizhou]] and [[Heyuan]]. Its classification has always been unclear, though the most common standpoint is that it is considered Hakka.<ref name="atlas"/><ref>{{cite book|date=1991|last=Liu|first=Ruoyun|title=惠州方言志}}</ref>

====Northern China====
The variety spoken in the [[Ganyu District]] of [[Lianyungang]] ({{zhi|c=贛榆話}}) is listed as a variety of [[Central Plains Mandarin]] in the [[Language Atlas of China]],<ref name="atlas"/> though its tonal distribution is more similar to [[Jiao-Liao Mandarin|Peninsular Mandarin]] varieties.<ref>{{cite book|last=Liu|first=Chuanxian|title=赣榆方言志|year=2001|publisher=中华书局|location=Beijing}}</ref>

===Relationships between groups===
[[Jerry Norman (sinologist)|Jerry Norman]] classified the traditional seven dialect groups into three larger groups: Northern (Mandarin), Central (Wu, Gan, and Xiang), and Southern (Hakka, Yue, and Min). He argued that the Southern Group is derived from a standard used in the Yangtze valley during the [[Han dynasty]] (206 BC{{snd}}220 AD), which he called Old Southern Chinese, while the Central group was transitional between the Northern and Southern groups.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|pp=182–183}}  Some [[dialect boundaries]], such as between Wu and Min, are particularly abrupt, while others, such as between Mandarin and Xiang or between Min and Hakka, are much less clearly defined.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|pp=189–190}}

Scholars account for the transitional nature of the central varieties in terms of [[wave model]]s. Iwata argues that innovations have been transmitted from the north across the [[Huai River]] to the [[Lower Yangtze Mandarin]] area and from there southeast to the Wu area and westwards along the [[Yangtze River]] valley and thence to southwestern areas, leaving the hills of the southeast largely untouched.{{sfnp|Iwata|2010|pp=102–108}}

===A quantitative study===
A 2007 study compared fifteen major urban dialects on the objective criteria of [[lexical similarity]] and regularity of sound correspondences, and subjective criteria of intelligibility and similarity.  Most of these criteria show a top-level split with Northern, [[New Xiang]], and [[Gan Chinese|Gan]] in one group and [[Min Chinese|Min]] (samples at Fuzhou, Xiamen, Chaozhou), [[Hakka Chinese|Hakka]], and [[Yue Chinese|Yue]] in the other group.  The exception was phonological regularity, where the one Gan dialect ([[Nanchang Gan]]) was in the Southern group and very close to [[Meixian dialect|Meixian Hakka]], and the deepest phonological difference was between [[Wenzhounese]] (the southernmost Wu dialect) and all other dialects.{{sfnp|Tang|Van Heuven|2007|p=1025}}

The study did not find clear splits within the Northern and Central areas:{{sfnp|Tang|Van Heuven|2007|p=1025}}

* Changsha (New Xiang) was always within the Mandarin group. No Old Xiang dialect was in the sample.
* Taiyuan ([[Jin Chinese|Jin]] or Shanxi) and Hankou (Wuhan, Hubei) were subjectively perceived as relatively different from other Northern dialects but were very close in mutual intelligibility. Objectively, Taiyuan had substantial phonological divergence but little lexical divergence.
* Chengdu (Sichuan) was somewhat divergent lexically but very little on the other measures.

The two [[Wu dialect]]s (Wenzhou and Suzhou) occupied an intermediate position, closer to the Northern/New Xiang/Gan group in lexical similarity and strongly closer in subjective intelligibility but closer to Min/Hakka/Yue in phonological regularity and subjective similarity, except that Wenzhou was farthest from all other dialects in phonological regularity. The two Wu dialects were close to each other in lexical similarity and subjective similarity but not in mutual intelligibility, where Suzhou was closer to Northern/Xiang/Gan than to Wenzhou.{{sfnp|Tang|Van Heuven|2007|p=1025}}

In the Southern subgroup, Hakka and Yue grouped closely together on the three lexical and subjective measures but not in phonological regularity.  The Min dialects showed high divergence, with Min Fuzhou ([[Eastern Min]]) grouped only weakly with the [[Southern Min]] dialects of [[Amoy dialect|Xiamen]] and [[Teochew dialect|Chaozhou]] on the two objective criteria and was slightly closer to Hakka and Yue on the subjective criteria.{{sfnp|Tang|Van Heuven|2007|p=1025}}

==Internal comparison==
{{Main|Varieties of Chinese}}

The following section will be dedicated to comparing non-Bai and non-Cai–Long Sinitic languages. Though all stem from Old Chinese, they have all developed differences with each other.

===Writing system===
[[File:Pa-khek-le Kau-hoe.jpg|thumb|right|alt=POJ inscription|An example of Hokkien written exclusively in the Latin alphabet.]]
Typographically, the vast majority of Sinitic languages use [[Chinese characters|Sinographs]]. However, some varieties, such as [[Dungan language|Dungan]] and [[Hokkien]], have alternative scripts, namely [[Cyrillization of Chinese|Cyrillic]] and [[Latin alphabet]]s. Even between varieties which use Sinographs, characters are repurposed or invented to cover for the difference in vocabulary. Examples include {{zhi|c=靚|l=pretty}} in Yue,<ref name="guangzhou">{{cite book|title=廣州方言詞典|publisher=江蘇教育出版社出版|date=1998|last=Bai|first=Wanru|isbn=9787534334344}}</ref> {{zhi|c=𠊎|l=I, me}} in Hakka,<ref name="meixian" /> {{zhi|c=即|l=this}} in Hokkien,<ref>{{cite book|title=廈門方言詞典|publisher=江蘇教育出版社出版|date=1993|last=Li|first=Rong|isbn=9787534319952}}</ref> {{zhi|c=覅|l=to not want}} in Wu,<ref name="shanghai" /> {{zhi|c=莫|l=do not}} in Xiang, and {{zhi|c=嘎|l=ill-tempered}} in Mandarin.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bao|title=長沙方言詞典|first=Houxing|isbn=9787534319983|publisher=江蘇教育出版社出版|date=December 1998}}</ref><ref name="harbin" /> Note that both traditional and simplified characters can be used to write any lect.

===Phonology===
Phonologically speaking, though all Sinitic languages possess [[tone (linguistics)|tones]], their contours and the total number of tones vary wildly, from [[Shanghainese]], which can be analysed to have only two tones,<ref name="shanghai" /> to [[Bobai dialect|Bobainese]], which has ten.<ref>{{cite book|title=廣西漢語方言研究|last=Xie|first=Jianyou|date=2007|publisher=廣西人民出版社}}</ref> Sinitic languages also vary wildly in their phonological inventories and phonotactics. Take for instance {{IPA|/mɭɤŋ/}} ({{zhi|c=門兒|l=door (diminutive)}}) seen in Pingdingnese,<ref name="diversity" /> or {{IPA|/tʃɦɻʷəi/}} ({{zhi|c=水|l=water}}) of Xuanzhounese,<ref>{{cite book|title=安徽宣城（雁翅）方言|last=Shen|first=Ming|date=2016|publisher=中國社會科學出版社}}</ref> which both show syllables which do not follow the (single) consonant-glide-vowel-consonant syllable structure of more well-known lects. Tone sandhi is also a feature which not all lects share. Cantonese, for instance, only has a very weak system,<ref>{{cite book|title=香港粵語詞典|last=Zheng|first=Ding'ou|publisher=江蘇教育出版社|isbn=9787534329425|date=1997}}</ref> whereas Wu varieties not only have complex, intricate systems, which affect almost all syllables, but also uses it to mark for grammatical [[part of speech]].<ref name="shanghai" /><ref name="suzhou" /> Take for instance, this simplified analysis of Suzhounese tone sandhi:<ref>{{cite book|last=Wang|title=蘇州方言語音研究|first=Ping|publisher=華中理工大學出版社|date=August 1996|isbn=7560911315}}</ref>
<div style=display:inline-table>
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+Unchecked Tone Sandhi
!chain length →<br>↓ 1st char tone cat
!2 char
!3 char
!4 char
|-
!dark level (1)
|˦ ꜉
|˦ ˦ ꜉
|˦ ˦ ˦ ꜉
|-
!light level (2)
|˨ ˧
|˨ ˧ ꜊
|˨ ˧ ˦ ꜉
|-
!rising (3)
|˥ ˩
|˥ ˩ ꜌
|˥ ˩ ˩ ꜌
|-
!dark departing (5)
|˥˨ ˧
|˥˨ ˧ ꜊
|˥˨ ˧ ˦ ꜉
|-
!light departing (6)
|˨˧ ˩
|˨˧ ˩ ꜌
|˨˧ ˩ ˩ ꜌
|}
</div>
<div style=display:inline-table>
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Checked tone sandhi
|-
! colspan="2" | chain length →
! rowspan="2" |2 char
! rowspan="2" |3 char
! rowspan="2" |4 char
|-
!2nd char<br>tone cat
!1st char<br>darkness
|-
! rowspan="2" |level (1, 2)
!dark (7)
|˦ ˨˧
|˦ ˨˧ ꜊
|˦ ˨˧ ˦ ꜉
|-
!light (8)
|˨ ˧
|˨ ˧ ꜊
|˨ ˧ ˦ ꜉
|-
! rowspan="2" |rising (3)
!dark (7)
|˥ ˥˩
|˥ ˥˩ ꜌
|˥ ˥˩ ˩ ꜌
|-
!light (8)
|˨ ˥˩
|˨ ˥˩ ꜌
|˨ ˥˩ ˩ ꜌
|-
! rowspan="2" |departing (5, 6)
! dark (7)
|˥ ˥˨˧
|˥ ˥˨ ˧
|˥ ˥˨ ˨ ˧
|-
!light (8)
|˨ ˥˨˧
|˨ ˥˨ ˧
|˨ ˥˨ ˨ ˧
|-
! rowspan="2" |checked (7, 8)
!dark (7)
|˦ ˦
|˦ ˦ ꜉
|˦ ˦ ˦ ˨
|-
!light (8)
|˧ ˦
|˧ ˦ ꜉
|˧ ˦ ˨ ꜋
|}
</div>

===Grammar===
Disregarding phonology, grammar is the feature of Sinitic languages which differ the most. The majority of Sinitic languages do not possess tenses, though exceptions include Northern Wu lects such as Shanghainese and [[suzhou dialect|Suzhounese]], though it is largely breaking down in Shanghainese due to Mandarin influence.<ref name="suzhou" /><ref>{{cite book|author=Qian, Nairong (錢乃榮)|year=2010|title=《從〈滬語便商〉所見的老上海話時態》 (''Tenses and Aspects? Old Shanghainese as Found in the Book Huyu Bian Shang'')|location=Shanghai|publisher=The Chinese University of Hong Kong Press}}</ref> Sinitic languages generally also have no case marking, though lects such as Linxianese and Hengshannese do possess case particles, with the latter expressing it through tone change.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=淮南師範學院學報|date=2021|issue=2|volume=23|title=臨夏方言格標記「哈［XA⁴³］」探究|last=Zhang|first=Qiang|location=Guangzhou}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|journal=湘潭大學學報（哲學社會科學版）|date=July 2019|issue=4|volume=43|title=衡山方言人稱代詞領格變調現象的實質|last1=Liu|first1=Juan|last2=Peng|first2=Zerun}}</ref> Sinitic languages generally have SVO word order and possess classifiers.

Verb usage may be different between Sinitic languages. Notice the double verb marking seen in lects such as [[Beijing dialect|Beijingese]], in these sentences meaning "today I go to Guangzhou":<ref>{{cite book|title=吳語的句法類型特點|date=2001|last=Liu|first=Danqing}}</ref>

{{fs interlinear|indent=2
|top= Beijingese:
| {今 天} 我 到 {廣 州} 去
| {Jīntiān} wǒ dào {Guǎngzhōu} qù |c2=([[pinyin]])
| today 1sg arrive Guangzhou go
|}}

{{fs interlinear|indent=2
|top= Wuxinese:
| {今  阿} 我 {廣  州} 去
| {cin1-a1} ngeu4 {kuaon3-cieu1} chi5 |c2=([[Romanization of Wu Chinese|Wugniu]])
| today 1sg Guangzhou go
|}}

====Indirect object marking====
Sinitic languages tend to vary greatly in how they mark indirect objects. The area which varies tends to be the placement of the indirect and direct objects.<ref name="other" /><ref name="diversity" />

Mandarinic, Xiang, Hui, and Min languages often place the indirect object (IO) before the direct object (DO). Some lects have switched to IO-DO structure due to Mandarin influence, such as [[Nanchang dialect|Nanchangese]] and [[Shanghainese]], though Shanghainese also has the alternative word order.

{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-2}}
{{fs interlinear|indent=2
|top= Beijingese:
|他 給 了 我 一 盒 糖。
|tā gěi le wǒ yī hé táng
|3SG give PERF 1SG one CL sweets
|"He gave me a box of sweets."}}
{{Col-2}}
{{fs interlinear|indent=2
|top= Taiyuanese:
|給 我 一 本 書。
|kei53 ɣə53 iəʔ2 pəŋ53 su11
|give 1SG one CL book
|"Give me a book."}}
{{Col-end}}
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-2}}
{{fs interlinear|indent=2|abbreviations=SPEC:specifier
|top= Changshanese:
|{媽 媽} 誒， 把 我 兩 塊 錢 咯。
|{ma33 ma} ei pa41 ŋo41 lian41 kʰuai41 tɕiɛ̃13 lo
|ma SPEC give 1SG two CL money SPEC
|"Mama, give me two dollars please."}}
{{Col-2}}
{{fs interlinear|indent=2
|top= Nanchangese:
|{你 人} 接 了 佢 三 隻 鍋。
|{꜂n len} ꜀tɕia le ꜂tɕie ꜀san tsaʔ꜆ ꜀wo
|2SG.POL lend PERF 3SG three CL pot
|"You lent him three pots."}}
{{Col-end}}

On the other hand, Gan, Wu, Hakka, and Yue languages tend to place the DO in front of the IO.
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-2}}
{{fs interlinear|indent=2
|top= Yichunnese:
|我 得 本 書 你。
|ŋo34 tɛ42⁻33 pun42 ɕy34 ȵi34
|1SG give CL book 2SG
|"I give a book to you."}}
{{Col-2}}
{{fs interlinear|indent=2
|top= Shanghainese ([[Romanization of Wu Chinese|Wugniu]]):
|撥 對 {鞋 子} 我。
|peq te {gha - tsy} ngu
|give CL shoe 1SG
|"Give me a pair of shoes."}}
{{Col-end}}
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-2}}
{{fs interlinear|indent=2
|top= Yining Pinghua:
|分 個 {梨 子} 你。
|fɐn34 ko33 {lɐi31 tsə53} nə53
|give CL pear 2SG
|"I'll give you a pear."}}
{{Col-2}}
{{fs interlinear|indent=2
|top= Hong Kong Hakka (''Lau's Romanization''):<ref>{{cite book|title=香港客家話研究|last=Lau|first=Chun-Fat|publisher=中華教育|date=November 2021|isbn=9789888760046|location=Hong Kong}}</ref>
|分 塊 {麪 包} 𠊎。
|bín kuài {mèn báu} ngāi
|give CL bread 1SG
|"Give me a piece of bread."}}
{{Col-end}}

====Classifiers====
Like other East Asian languages such as [[Japanese language|Japanese]] and [[Korean language|Korean]], Sinitic languages have a system of [[classifier (linguistics)|classifers]], however, use of classifiers vary greatly in features such as [[definiteness]].<ref name="diversity" /> In Cantonese, for instance, they can be used to mark possession, which is rare in Sinitic while common in Southeast Asia.<ref name="other" />

{{fs interlinear|indent=2
|我 本 書
|ngo5 bun2 syu1
|1SG CL book
|'my book'}}

{{zhi|c=個}} and {{zhi|c=隻}} are the most common generic classifiers cross-linguistically.<ref name="other" /> As previously mentioned, Mandarinic languages tend to have fewer classifiers whereas the Southern non-Mandarinic varieties tend to have more.<ref name="diversity" />

====Demonstratives====
Sinitic languages can vary greatly in their system of [[demonstratives]].<ref name="diversity" /> [[Standard Mandarin]] and other Northeastern varieties have a two-way system: {{zhi|c=這|p=zhè}} (proximal) and {{zhi|c=那|p=nà}} (distal), but this is not the only system found in Sinitic languages.

[[Wuhan dialect|Wuhannese]] has a neutral demonstrative, which can be used regardless of the distance to the deictic center.<ref>{{cite book|last=Zhu|first=Jiansong|title=武漢方言研究|date=1992}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Zhu|first=Jiansong|title=武漢方言詞典|date=May 1995|publisher=江蘇教育出版社|isbn=7534323290}}</ref> Similar systems are found in Northern Wu lects such as Suzhounese and [[Ningbo dialect|Ningbonese]].<ref name="suzhou" /><ref name="diversity" />

{{fs interlinear|indent=2
|{{efn|name=wuhan|This term was not assigned a character.}} 是 生 的 ， {{efn|name=wuhan}} 是 熟 的
|nɤ35 sɿ35 sən55 ti {} nɤ35 sɿ35 səu213 ti
|DEM COP unripe P {} DEM COP ripe P
|}}

In the above sentence, {{IPA|/nɤ³⁵/}} can be translated as both 'this' and 'that'. Though Wuhannese has this system of a one-term neutral system, it also has a two-way proximal-distal system. This is the same for most other lects with a one-term system.

Even within two-way systems, which is the most common system, terms could have developed to mean the opposite distance from the deitic center. Cantonese {{zhi|c=嗰|j=go²}} (distal) and Shanghainese {{zhi|c=搿|j=geq}} (proximal) are both etymologically from {{zhi|c=個}}, for instance.<ref name="guangzhou" /><ref name="shanghai" />

Many Sinitic languages have three-way systems, but the three distances are not always the same ones. For instance, whereas Guangshan Mandarin has a person-oriented proximal, medial, and distal system, Xinyu Gan has a distance-oriented close, proximal, and distal system. Gan especially has many varieties with a three-way system, sometimes even marked with tone and vowel length rather than just changing the term used.<ref name="diversity" /><ref>{{cite book|title=黎川方言詞典|last=Wei|first=Gangqiang|publisher=江蘇教育出版社|date=1995}}</ref>

A small number of varieties possess even four- or five-term demonstrative systems. Take for instance the following:<ref name="diversity" />
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center" cellpadding=5
! !! Dongxiang !! Zhangshu
|-
! Close
| {{IPA|꜀ko}} ||{{IPA|kọ꜆}}
|-
! Proximal
| {{IPA|꜁ko}} || {{IPA|ko꜆}}
|-
! Distal
| {{IPA|꜀e}} || {{IPA|꜃hɛ}}
|-
! Yonder
| {{IPA|꜁e}} || {{IPA|꜃hɛ̣}}
|}

These two lects use tone change and vowel length respectively to distinguish between the four demonstratives.

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

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{{Sino-Tibetan languages}}
{{Chinese language}}

[[Category:Sino-Tibetan languages]]