View source for Siege of Tsingtao

{{short description|Operation during World War I}}
{{more citations needed|date=August 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2017}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict          = Siege of Tsingtao
| partof            = the [[Asian and Pacific theatre of World War I]]
| image             = Battle of Tsingtao Germans.jpg
| image_upright = 1.0
| caption           = German forces during the siege, November 1914
| date              = {{Date range and age in years, months, weeks and days|1914|8|27|1914|11|7}}
| place             = [[Qingdao]], [[Kiautschou Bay Leased Territory|Kiautschou Bay]], [[German colonial empire|German Empire]]
| coordinates       = {{coord|36|4|N|120|23|E|type:event_scale:3000_region:CN|display=inline,title}}
| result            = Anglo–Japanese victory
| territory         = Japanese occupation of [[Qingdao]]
| combatant1        = {{Plainlist|
* {{flagcountry|Empire of Japan}}
* {{flagcountry|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland}}
* '''Naval support:'''
* {{flagcountry|French Third Republic}}
}}
| combatant2        = {{Plainlist|
* {{flagcountry|German Empire}}
* {{flag|Austria-Hungary}}
}}
| commander1        = {{Plainlist|
* {{flagicon|Empire of Japan|army}} [[Mitsuomi Kamio]]
* {{flagicon|Empire of Japan|naval}} [[Sadakichi Kato]]
}}
| commander2        = {{Plainlist|
* {{flagicon|German Empire}} [[Alfred Meyer-Waldeck]] {{surrendered}}
}}
| strength1         = {{Plainlist|
* 24,500
* 1 seaplane carrier
* 5 battleships
* 2 battlecruisers
* 1 protected cruiser
* 2 destroyers
* 2 airplanes
}}
| strength2         = {{Plainlist|
* 3,750{{sfn|Veperdi|2013}}
* 1 protected cruiser
* 1 unprotected cruiser
* 1 torpedo boat
* 4 gunboats
* 2 airplanes
}}
| casualties1       = {{Plainlist|
* 727 killed{{sfn|Denis|2000}}
* 1,335 wounded
* 1 protected cruiser sunk
* 1 destroyer sunk
* 1 battleship damaged
* 1 airplane destroyed
}}
| casualties2       = {{Plainlist|
* 199 killed
* 504 wounded
* 3,047 captured
* 1 protected cruiser scuttled
* 1 unprotected cruiser scuttled
* 1 torpedo boat scuttled
* 4 gunboats scuttled
}}
| casualties3       = <ref name="War Losses and Reparations China">Tang, Chi-hua: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/war-losses-and-reparations-china-2-0/ War Losses and Reparations (China)], in: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home/ 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War]</ref>
| campaignbox       = {{Campaignbox Asian and Pacific Campaign}}{{Campaignbox Command of the Oceans 1914-1917}}{{Japanese colonial campaigns}}
}}

The '''siege of Tsingtao''' ({{langx|de|link=no|Belagerung von Tsingtau}}; {{langx|ja|link=no|青島の戦い}}; {{lang-zh|s=青岛战役|t=青島戰役}}) was the attack on the German port of [[Qingdao]] (Tsingtao) from [[Jiaozhou Bay]] during [[World War I]] by [[Empire of Japan|Japan]] and the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]]. The siege was waged against [[Imperial Germany]] between 27 August and 7 November 1914. The siege was the first encounter between Japanese and German forces, the first Anglo-Japanese operation of the war, and the only major land battle in the [[Asian and Pacific theatre of World War I|Asian and Pacific theatre]] during World War I.<ref>{{Cite journal |author1=刘平 |author2=江林泽 |date=2014 |title=第一次世界大战中的远东战场———青岛之战述评  |trans-title=The Far Eastern Theatre in the First World War - A Review of the Battle of Tsingtao |journal=军事历史研究 |language=zh |issue=4 |page=52 |issn=1009-3451}}</ref>

==Background==
Throughout the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Germany joined other [[Europe]]an powers in a scramble for colonial possessions such as the [[Scramble for Africa]] and the [[Scramble for China]]. As with the other [[world power]]s (including the United States and Japan), Germany began to interfere in Chinese local affairs. After two German missionaries were killed in the [[Juye Incident]] in 1897, China was forced to agree to the [[Jiaozhou Bay Leased Territory]] in [[Shandong]] to Germany in 1898 on a 99-year lease. Germany then began to assert its influence across the rest of the province and built the city and port of Qingdao, which became the base of the German [[East Asia Squadron]] of the ''[[Kaiserliche Marine]]'' (Imperial Navy), which operated in support of the German colonies in the [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]]. Britain viewed the German presence in China with suspicion and leased [[Weihaiwei under British rule|Weihaiwei]], also in Shandong, as a naval port and coaling station. Russia [[leased]] its own station at Port Arthur (now [[Lüshunkou]]) and France at [[Kouang-Tchéou-Wan]]. Britain also began to forge close ties with Japan, and diplomatic relations became warmer, with the [[Anglo-Japanese Alliance]] being signed on 30 January 1902. Japan saw the alliance as a necessary deterrent to its main rival, Russia. Japan demonstrated its potential by its victory in the 1905 [[Russo-Japanese War]]; the alliance continued into World War I.

When the war in Europe began in August 1914, Britain promptly requested Japanese assistance. On 15 August, Japan issued an ultimatum, stating that Germany must withdraw her warships from Chinese and Japanese waters and transfer control of its port of Qingdao to Japan. The next day, Major-General [[Mitsuomi Kamio]], [[General Officer Commanding]] (GOC), [[Japanese 18th Infantry Division|18th Infantry Division]], was ordered to prepare to take Qingdao by force. The ultimatum expired on 23 August, and Japan declared war on Germany. At the beginning of hostilities in Europe, the ships of the East Asia Squadron under Vice Admiral [[Maximilian von Spee]] were dispersed at various Pacific colonies on routine missions. Spee's ships rendezvoused in the [[Northern Mariana Islands]] for coaling. {{SMS|Emden|1906|6}} then headed for the [[Indian Ocean]], while the rest of the squadron made their way to the west coast of [[South America]]. The squadron engaged and destroyed two cruisers of a [[Royal Navy]] squadron at the [[Battle of Coronel]], before itself being destroyed at the [[Battle of the Falkland Islands]] in the South Atlantic.

==German defences==

The [[Boxer Rebellion]], at the beginning of the century, had led Germany to consider the defence of Qingdao. The port and the town were divided from the rest of the peninsula by steep hills. The main line of defence lay along three hills, Mount Moltke, Mount Bismarck, and Mount Iltis, from the ''Kaiserstuhl'' to ''Litsuner'' Heights.{{sfn|Veperdi|2013}} Guarding the left wing was Fort Moltke, on the hill of the same name, with two 9.4 in. (240&nbsp;mm) guns. The heaviest firepower was concentrated in the four 11 in. (280&nbsp;mm) howitzers of Fort Bismarck. On the right wing, Fort Iltis contained two 9.4 in. guns at the hill's summit.<ref>Joseph Trainor (1976). ''War Monthly – Issue 37: Tsingtao 1914'', p. 9. {{ISSN|0307-2886}}.</ref> A second {{convert|17|km|mi|abbr=on}} line of defence was set up along a closer line of steep hills. The final line of defence was along hills {{convert|200|m|ft|abbr=on}} above the town. A network of trenches, batteries, and other fortifications had been built in preparation for the coming siege. Germany had strengthened the defences from the sea by laying mines in the approaches to the harbour and building four batteries and five redoubts. The fortifications were well equipped (though some with obsolete Chinese artillery) and were well manned.

==Prelude==
[[File:Russian battleship Pobeda on the Kronstadt roadstead 1901.jpg|thumb|left|[[Japanese battleship Suwo|''Suwo'']] was the flagship of the Japanese expeditionary fleet during the siege of Tsingtao.]]

On 27 August the [[Imperial Japanese Navy]] (IJN) sent ships under Vice-Admiral [[Sadakichi Kato]], flying his flag in the [[pre-dreadnought battleship]] {{Ship|Japanese battleship|Suwo||2}}, to blockade the coast of Jiaozhou. The British Royal Navy (RN) strengthened the Japanese fleet by sending the [[China Station]]'s pre-dreadnought {{HMS|Triumph|1903|6}} and the [[destroyer]] {{HMS|Usk|1903|6}}. The [[French Navy]] contributed with the cruiser [[French cruiser Dupleix (1900)|Dupleix]], who left the area when Japan assumed responsibility of the blockade on September 9.<ref>Corbett, I, pp. 143, 149, 282, 290, 302, 334, 359; Jordan & Caresse, p. 225</ref> On October 14, the ''Triumph'' was slightly damaged by a German shore battery, killing one member of its crew and injuring two others. The blockading fleet consisted mainly of nearly obsolete warships, though it did at times include a few modern vessels. These included the [[Battleship|dreadnoughts]] {{Ship|Japanese battleship|Kawachi||2}}, {{Ship|Japanese battleship|Settsu||2}}, the [[battlecruiser]] {{Ship|Japanese battleship|Kongō||2}}, her sister [[Japanese battleship Hiei|''Hiei'']], and the [[seaplane carrier]] {{Ship|Japanese seaplane carrier|Wakamiya||2}}, whose airplanes became the first of its kind in the world to attack sea and land targets.{{sfn|Saxon|2000}} These Japanese airplanes would also take part in another military first, a night-time bombing raid.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nick |first=Shepley |title=Red Sun rising: Japan, China and the west 1894-1941 |date=2013 |publisher=Andrews U.K. Ltd |isbn=9781782345848 |location=[Luton] |oclc=828743675 }}</ref>

The [[18th Division (Imperial Japanese Army)|18th Infantry Division]] was the primary Japanese Army formation that took part in the initial landings, numbering some 23,000 soldiers with support from 142 [[artillery]] pieces. They began to land on 2 September at [[Longkou|Lungkow]], which was experiencing heavy floods at the time, and later at [[Laoshan District|Lau Schan]] Bay on 18 September, about {{convert|29|km|mi|abbr=on}} east of Qingdao. China protested against the Japanese violation of her neutrality but did not interfere in the operations.<ref>{{cite news |title=Germans lose possessions in China |url=https://archive.org/stream/independen79v80newy#page/225/mode/1up |newspaper=[[The Independent (New York)]] |date=16 November 1914 }}</ref>

The British Government and the other European great powers were concerned about Japanese intentions in the region and decided to send a small symbolic British contingent from [[Tianjin|Tientsin]] in an effort to allay their fears. The 1,500-man contingent was commanded by Brigadier-General [[Nathaniel Barnardiston (British Army officer)|Nathaniel Walter Barnardiston]] and consisted of 1,000 soldiers of the 2nd Battalion, [[The South Wales Borderers]]; later followed by 500 soldiers of the [[36th Sikhs]].{{sfn|Willmott|2003|p=91}} Following a friendly fire incident, British troops were given Japanese raincoats to wear so they would be more easily identifiable to the Japanese.<ref>''[[The Great War (TV series)|The Great War]]'', Episode 6.</ref><ref>{{cite AV media |people=Rees, Thomas (Oral history) |date=1964 |title=Interview with [10285 Private] Thomas Rees, talking of his experiences at Tsingtao and landing at Gallipoli |medium=Audio recording |language=en |url=https://www.iwm.org.uk/collections/item/object/80004184 |location=London |publisher=[[BBC TV]] and [[Imperial War Museum]] |ref=IWM Catalogue number 4209 }}</ref>
<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.southwalesargus.co.uk/news/13782539.long-view-the-gwent-soldiers-who-fought-alongside-the-japanese/ |title=Long view: The Gwent soldiers who fought alongside the Japanese |last=Wade |first=Martin |date=24 September 1915 |publisher=South Wales Argus |access-date=14 June 2019 |quote=There were problems too of "friendly fire" at least from the Japanese... After this tragedy, the soldiers started to wear a piece of white cloth on their helmets as a means of identification. A better solution came when British soldiers were issued with a Japanese style smock which they wore over their uniform. This at least stopped Japanese sentries firing long enough for them to identify the British as friendly. }}</ref> The grandfather of film director [[Peter Jackson]], William John Jackson (1889-1940) was present at the siege.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A556359297/EAIM?u=anon~ee40fc9&sid=sitemap&xid=076aff7a |title=A WAR BROUGHT TO LIFE |newspaper=Sunday Times |date=30 September 2018 |location=London, UK |via=Gale Academic |access-date=22 November 2023}}</ref>

The Germans responded to the threat against Qingdao by concentrating all of their available East Asian troops in the city. [[Kaiser Wilhelm II]] made the defence of Qingdao a top priority, saying that: {{quote|"...it would shame me more to surrender Tsingtao to the Japanese than Berlin to the Russians".{{sfn|Edgerton|1999|p=227}}}} The German garrison, commanded by naval Captain and Governor [[Alfred Meyer-Waldeck]],{{sfn|Radó|1919|p=41}} consisted of the marines of ''III [[Seebataillon]]'', naval personnel, Chinese colonial troops, and Austro-Hungarian sailors, for a total strength of 3,625 men.{{sfn|Schultz-Naumann|1985|p=204}} He also had a modest complement of vessels, including the [[torpedo boat]] {{SMS|S90||2}}; the decommissioned [[unprotected cruiser]] {{SMS|Cormoran|1892|2}}; the auxiliary cruiser {{SMS|Cormoran|1914|2}}, which was the former captured Russian steamer ''Ryazan'' manned with the crew of cruiser ''Cormoran''; four small [[gunboat]]s: the {{SMS|Iltis|1898|2}}, {{SMS|Jaguar||2}}, {{SMS|Tiger|1899|2}}, and {{SMS|Luchs||2}};{{efn|1=The four gunboats of the East Asia Squadron that had been left at Qingdao were later scuttled by their crews just prior to the capture of the base by Japanese forces in November 1914.}} and the Austro-Hungarian [[protected cruiser]] {{SMS|Kaiserin Elisabeth||2}},{{efn|1=The ship was scuttled after all ammunition had been fired.}} whose crew was initially divided in two: half to man the ship, and half to fight with the German land forces.

On 22 August {{HMS|Kennet|1903|6}} of the China squadron, under the command of Lieutenant Commander F. A. Russell, while routinely monitoring the naval trade routes, encountered and was damaged in action by the German torpedo boat ''S90'', the German gunboat SMS ''Lauting'' and a 4-inch shore battery off Qingdao. She was hit twice from the retreating ''S90''.{{sfn|Veperdi|2013}}
{{clear left}}

==Siege==
[[File:Wakamiya.jpg|thumb|The Japanese seaplane carrier {{Ship|Japanese seaplane carrier|Wakamiya||2}} conducted the world's first naval-launched air raids in September 1914 against German positions in Qingdao.]]
[[File:Imperial Japanese Sailors Coming Ashore at the Siege of Tsingtao 1914.png|thumb|left|Japanese troops coming ashore near Qingdao]]

As the Japanese approached their positions, Meyer-Waldeck withdrew his forces from the two outer defensive lines and concentrated his troops on the innermost line of defence along the hills closest to the town. The Austro-Hungarian cruiser SMS ''Kaiserin Elisabeth'' was stationed in Qingdao at the start of the war. On 2 September 1914 the German gunboat ''Jaguar'' sank the stranded {{ship|Japanese destroyer|Shirotae}}.{{sfn|Radó|1919|p=41}} On 5 September a Japanese reconnaissance airplane scouted the port and reported that the Asian German fleet had departed, the Japanese ordered the dreadnought, pre-dreadnought, and cruiser to leave the blockade.{{sfn|Veperdi|2013}} The next day the second air-sea battle in history took place (the first air-sea battle in history was at the Balkan wars in 1913) when a Farman seaplane launched by the ''Wakamiya'' unsuccessfully attacked the ''Kaiserin Elisabeth'' and the ''Jaguar'' in Qiaozhou Bay with bombs.{{sfn|Donko|2013|pp=4, 156–162, 427}} Early in the siege, the ''Kaiserin Elisabeth'' and German gunboat ''Jaguar'' made an unsuccessful sortie against Japanese vessels blockading Qingdao. Later, the cruiser's 15{{nbhyph}}cm and 4.7{{nbhyph}}cm guns were removed from the ship and mounted onshore, creating the ''Batterie Elisabeth''. The ship's crew took part in the defence of Qingdao. On 13 September the Japanese land forces launched a cavalry raid on the German rear guard at [[Jimo District|Jimo]], which the Germans gave up and retreated. Subsequently, the Japanese took control of [[Jiaozhou City|Jiaozhou]] and the Shandong railway. Lt. Gen. Kamio considered this the point of no return for his land forces and as the weather became extremely harsh he took no risk and fortified the troops at the town, returned the reinforcements that were on the way, re-embarked and landed at Lau Schan Bay.{{sfn|Veperdi|2013}}

On 26 September, Kamio resumed his advance, and the Germans were forced to retreat beyond the river Litsun. The Japanese made good time, crossing the river Paisha early in the day, swiftly crossing the seven-mile lowland plain and reaching the northern bank of the Litsun.<ref name="Joseph Trainor 1976 p. 11">Joseph Trainor (1976). ''War Monthly – Issue 37: Tsingtao 1914'', p. 11. {{ISSN|0307-2886}}.</ref>

On 27 September, Kamio tried to take Prince Heinrich Hill by a frontal assault and was caught in a murderous crossfire. From the summit, the Germans rained down bullets from four [[Maxim gun]]s. Out in the harbour, ''Kaiserin Elisabeth'' and ''Leopard'' shelled the exposed slopes, nearly routing the Japanese right flank. The Japanese assault was saved by the allied fleet.<ref name="Joseph Trainor 1976 p. 11"/> As the siege progressed, the naval vessels trapped in the harbour, ''Cormoran'', ''Iltis'' and ''Luchs'', were [[Scuttling|scuttled]] on 28 September. On 17 October, the torpedo boat ''S90'' slipped out of Qingdao harbour and fired a torpedo which sank the Japanese cruiser {{ship|Japanese cruiser|Takachiho||2}} with the loss of 271 officers and men. ''S90'' was unable to run the blockade back to Qingdao and was scuttled in Chinese waters when the ship ran low on fuel. ''Tiger'' was scuttled on 29 October, ''Kaiserin Elisabeth'' on 2 November, followed finally by ''Jaguar'' on 7 November, the day the fortress surrendered to the Japanese forces.

The Japanese started shelling the fort and the city on 31 October and began digging parallel lines of trenches, just as they had done at the [[siege of Port Arthur]] nine years earlier. Very large 11{{nbhyph}}inch howitzers from land, in addition to the firing of the Japanese naval guns, brought the German defences under constant bombardment during the night, the Japanese moving their own trenches further forward under the cover of their artillery.{{sfn|Willmott|2003|p=91}} The bombardment continued for seven days, employing around 100 siege guns with 1,200 shells each on the Japanese side. While the Germans were initially able to use the heavy guns of the port fortifications to bombard the landward positions of the Allies, they soon ran out of ammunition.{{sfn|Willmott|2003|p=91}} When the artillery ran out of ammunition on 6 November, surrender was inevitable.

The German garrison was able to field only a single [[Etrich Taube]] airplane during the siege flown by Lieutenant [[Gunther Plüschow]]. (A second Etrich Taube piloted by Lt. Friedrich Müllerskowsky crashed early in the campaign.) That airplane was used for frequent reconnaissance flights and Plüschow made several nuisance attacks on the blockading squadron dropping improvised munitions and other ordnance on them. Plüschow claimed the downing of a Japanese [[Farman MF.7|Farman MF.VII]] with his pistol, the first aerial victory in aviation history. Plüschow flew from Qingdao on 6 November 1914 carrying the governor's last dispatches, which were forwarded to Berlin through neutral diplomatic channels.{{efn|1=Plüschow made his way home by August 1915 after a journey lasting nine months via Shanghai, San Francisco, New York, Gibraltar (where he was captured), London (where he escaped from a prisoner of war camp into the neutral Netherlands) and finally to Germany. He continued flying with the naval air service reaching the rank of ''Kapitänleutnant'' (Lieutenant Commander) by the end of the war. He then became a well-known explorer and died in a 1931 crash in Patagonia, Argentina.}}

On the night of 6 November, waves of Japanese infantry attacked the third line of defence and overwhelmed the defenders. The next morning, the German forces, along with their Austro-Hungarian allies, asked for terms.{{sfn|Willmott|2003|p=91}} The Allies took formal possession of the colony on 16 November 1914.

<gallery class="center" widths="250px" heights="250px">
File:BritishTroopsArriveTsingtao1914.jpg|British troops arriving at Qingdao in 1914
File:British, Indian and Japanese soldiers in Tsingtao (Qingdao), China, 1914.jpg|British, Indian and Japanese soldiers in [[Qingdao]], 1914.
File:Siege of Tsingtao, soldiers of IJA 18th division took over german trench Kopie.jpg|Soldiers of the [[18th Division (Imperial Japanese Army)|18th division]], [[Imperial Japanese Army]] occupy an abandoned German trench during the Siege of Tsingtao, 1914
File:Bundesarchiv Bild 134-C1299, Tsingtau, Vorderste deutsche Frontlinie.jpg|German front line at Qingdao 1914; the head cover identifies these men as members of III ''[[Seebataillon]]'' (III Sea Battalion) of Marines.
File:Battle of Tsingtao German Gun.jpg|German gun in the Bismarck Fortress, Qingdao, crumpled by Japanese naval bombardment.
</gallery>

==Aftermath==
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 137-030555, Wilhelmshaven, Rückkehr von Kriegsgefangenen.jpg|thumb|German PoWs returning to [[Wilhelmshaven, Germany]] from Japan in February 1920]]

Though the German garrison was able to hold out for nearly two months despite the naval blockade with sustained artillery bombardment and being outnumbered 6 to 1, the defeat nevertheless temporarily served as a morale booster. The German defenders watched the Japanese with curiosity as they marched into Qingdao but turned their backs on the British when they entered into town.<ref name ="Adelaide Advertiser">''Adelaide Advertiser'', Page 8, "The War" section, subparagraph [http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-page969739 "The China Fight&nbsp;– Australian who was wounded."] summary of interview with Captain M. J. G. Colyer, December 28, 1914</ref> So deep was their anger that some German officers spat in the faces of their British counterparts.<ref name="Adelaide Advertiser" />

Japanese casualties numbered 733 killed and 1,282 wounded; the British had 12 killed and 53 wounded. The German defenders lost 199 dead and 504 wounded.{{sfn|Haupt|1984| p=147}} The German dead were buried at Qingdao, while the remaining soldiers were transported to prisoner of war camps in Japan. During the march to Qingdao and the subsequent siege.<ref name="War Losses and Reparations China">Tang, Chi-hua: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/war-losses-and-reparations-china-2-0/ War Losses and Reparations (China)], in: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home/ 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War]</ref>

Admiral [[Alfred Meyer-Waldeck]] later accused the Japanese military of holding German and Austro-Hungarian POWs in inhumane conditions. The Admiral later alleged that POWs held in Japanese custody "were subjected to the arbitrariness of subordinate authorities in various camps for five long years. Only the German newspapers knew how to talk about '[[Chivalry|chivalrous]] treatment'."

The German troops were interned in Japan until the formal signature of the Versailles peace treaty in 1919, but due to technical questions, the troops were not repatriated before 1920. 170 prisoners chose to remain in Japan after the end of the war.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://tsingtau.info/ |title = Tsingtau - historisch-biographisches Projekt}}</ref>

==See also==
* ''[[Blutmai]]''
* [[Burning of Cork]]
* [[Destruction of Kalisz]]
* [[Japan during World War I]]
* [[Lwów pogrom (1914)]]
* [[Sack of Louvain]]
* [[U-boat campaign]]
* [[Japanese landing at Tsingtao]], January 10, 1938

==Notes==

{{notelist}}

==References==

{{reflist|20em}}

==Sources==
* {{cite book|last=Corbett|first=Julian|authorlink=Julian Corbett|title=Naval Operations to the Battle of the Falklands|edition=2nd|origyear=1938|series=History of the Great War: Based on Official Documents|volume=I|publisher=Imperial War Museum in association with the Battery Press|location=London; Nashville, Tennessee|isbn=0-89839-256-X|year=1997}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.gwpda.org/naval/tsingtao.htm |title=Tsingtao campaign |last1=Denis |first1= Colin |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030503151056/http://www.gwpda.org/naval/tsingtao.htm |archive-date=3 May 2003 |url-status=live |date=2000 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Donko |first1=Wilhelm M. |title=Österreichs Kriegsmarine in Fernost: Alle Fahrten von Schiffen der k.(u.)k. Kriegsmarine nach Ostasien, Australien und Ozeanien von 1820 bis 1914 |publisher=epubli |location=Berlin |date=2013 |isbn=978-3844249125 |language=de }}
* {{cite book |last1=Edgerton |first1=Robert B. |title=Warriors of the Rising Sun: A history of the Japanese military |date=1999 |publisher=Basic books |isbn=978-0813336008 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Haupt |first1=Werner |title=Deutschlands Schutzgebiete in Übersee 1884–1918 |trans-title=Germany's overseas protectorates 1884–1918 |location=Friedberg |publisher=Podzun-Pallas Verlag |date=1984 |isbn=978-3790902044 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Jordan |first1=John |last2=Caresse |first2=Philippe |title=French Armoured Cruisers 1887–1932 |date=2019 |publisher=Seaforth Publishing |location=Barnsley, UK |isbn=978-1-5267-4118-9|name-list-style=amp}}
* {{cite book |title=A világháború naplója |trans-title=Diary of the World War |editor-last1=Radó |editor-first1=Antal |publisher=Lampel R. könyvkiadó |chapter=Csingtao eleste |trans-chapter=The fall of Tsingtao |location=[[Budapest]], Hungary |date=1919 |volume=IV |language=hu }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Saxon |first1=Timothy D. |title=Anglo-Japanese Naval cooperation, 1914–1918 |journal=Naval War College Review |date=2000 |volume=53 |issue=1 |pages=62–93 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Schultz-Naumann |first1=Joachim |title=Unter Kaisers Flagge, Deutschlands Schutzgebiete im Pazifik und in China einst und heute |trans-title=Under the Kaiser's Flag, Germany's protectorates in the Pacific and in China then and today |location=Munich |publisher=Universitas |date=1985 |isbn=978-3800410941 }}
* {{cite web |ref={{harvid|Veperdi|2013}} |url=http://www.mateinfo.hu/irasok/a-navy-csingtao.htm|work=mateinfo.hu |first1=András |last1=Veperdi |title=The protected cruiser SMS Kaiserin Elisabeth in defence of Tsingtao in 1914 |location=[[Budapest]], Hungary |publisher=Hungarian seamen's association |access-date=July 24, 2013 }}
* {{cite book |title=First World War |last1=Willmott |first1=H.P. |publisher=Dorling Kindersley |date=2003 |edition=1st |isbn=978-1405300292 }}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book |last1=Burdick |first1=Charles B. |title=The Japanese siege of Tsingtau |date=1976 |publisher=Archon |location=Hamden, Conn |isbn=978-0208015945 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Dixon |first1=John |title=A Clash of Empires – The South Wales Borderers at Tsingtao, 1914 |date=2008 |publisher=Bridge books |location=Wrexham |isbn=978-1-84494-052-3 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Falls |first1=Cyril |author1-link=Cyril Falls |title=The Great War |url=https://archive.org/details/greatwar00fall |url-access=registration |date=1959 |publisher=Putnam |pages=[https://archive.org/details/greatwar00fall/page/98 98–99] }}
* {{cite book |last1=Hoyt |first1=Edwin P. |author1-link=Edwin Palmer Hoyt |title=The fall of Tsingtao |date=1975 |publisher=Barker |isbn=978-0213165550 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Keegan |first1=John |author1-link=John Keegan |title=The First World War |date=1998 |publisher=Hutchinson |isbn=978-0091801786 }}
* {{cite book |editor-last1=Reynolds |editor-first1=Francis J. |editor-last2=Churchill |editor-first2=Allen L. |last1=Hilditch |first1=A. Neville |title='''XI''' Capture of Tsing-Tao |series=World's war events |volume= I |date=1919 |url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/25962/25962-h/25962-h.htm |publisher=Collier |pages=198–220 }}

==External links==

{{Commons category|Battle of Tsingtao}}
* [http://www.germancolonialuniforms.co.uk/ German Colonial Uniforms]

{{World War I}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Siege Of Tsingtao}}
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving the United Kingdom|Tsingtao]]
[[Category:Naval battles involving the United Kingdom|Tsingtao]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving British India|Tsingtao]]
[[Category:Naval battles of World War I involving Japan|Tsingtao]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving Austria-Hungary|Tsingtao]]
[[Category:Sieges involving Austria-Hungary|Tsingtao]]
[[Category:Naval battles of World War I involving Germany|Tsingtao]]
[[Category:Sieges of World War I|Tsingtao]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1914|Tsingtao]]
[[Category:Massacres in 1914]]
[[Category:Massacres in China]]
[[Category:Massacres committed by Japan]]
[[Category:Naval warfare|Tsingtao]]
[[Category:Battles of the Asian and Pacific Theatre (World War I)|Tsingtao]]
[[Category:Japan in World War I]]
[[Category:World War I crimes by Imperial Japan]]
[[Category:1914 in Japan]]
[[Category:China in World War I]]
[[Category:1914 in Qingdao]]
[[Category:Last stands]]
[[Category:Japanese war crimes in China]]
[[Category:World War I crimes by the Allies]]
[[Category:Sieges involving Germany]]
[[Category:Sieges involving China]]
[[Category:Sieges involving Japan]]
[[Category:Sieges involving the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Sexual violence in World War I|Tsingtao]]
[[Category:Wartime sexual violence in Asia]]
[[Category:World War I massacres]]