View source for Shame

{{Short description|Unpleasant self-conscious emotion}}
{{About|psychological, philosophical, and societal aspects of shame|other uses|Shame (disambiguation)}}

[[File:75 - Musée Rodin - Ève au rocher, grand modèle – Auguste Rodin.jpg|thumb|right|[[Eve]] covers herself and lowers her head in shame in [[Auguste Rodin|Rodin's]] ''Eve after the [[Fall of Man|Fall]]''. ]]

{{Emotion}}

Shame is [[self-conscious]] [[emotion]] often associated with negative [[self-evaluation]]; motivation to quit; and feelings of pain, exposure, [[distrust]], powerlessness, and worthlessness.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last1=Tracy|first1=Jessica|title=Frontiers of social psychology. The self|last2=Robins|first2=Richard|publisher=Psychology Press|year=2007|editor-last=Sedikides|editor-first=C.|pages=187–209|chapter=Self-conscious emotions: Where self and emotion meet}}</ref>

== Definition ==
{{cite check section|date=May 2019}}
Shame is a discrete, basic emotion, described as a [[Moral emotions|moral]] or [[social emotion]] that drives people to hide or deny their wrongdoings.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1">Shein, L. (2018). "The Evolution of Shame and Guilt". PLoSONE, 13(7), 1–11.</ref>
Moral emotions are emotions that have an influence on a person's [[decision-making]] skills and monitors different social behaviors.<ref name=":1" /> The focus of shame is on the self or the individual with respect to a perceived audience. It can bring about profound feelings of deficiency, defeat, inferiority, unworthiness, or [[self-loathing]]. Our attention turns inward; we isolate from our surroundings and withdraw into closed-off self-absorption. Not only do we feel alienated from others but also from the healthy parts of ourselves. The [[Social alienation|alienation]] from the world leads to painful emotions and [[self-deprecating]] thoughts and inner [[anguish]].<ref>Lancer, D. (2014). ''Conquering Shame and Codependency: 8 Steps to Freeing the True You.'' Hazelden Foundation, pp. 12–13, {{ISBN|978-1-61649-533-6}}</ref>
Empirical research demonstrates that it is dysfunctional for the individual and group level.<ref>Tangney, June Price, and Ronda L. Dearing. ''Shame and guilt''. Guilford Press, 2003. {{ISBN|9781572309876}}{{page needed|date=June 2021}}</ref> Shame can also be described as an unpleasant self-conscious emotion that involves negative evaluation of the self.<ref>Parsa, S. (2018). "Psychological Construction of Shame in Disordered Eating". ''New Psychology Bulletin'', 15(1), 11–19.</ref> Shame can be a painful emotion that is seen as a "...comparison of the self's action with the self's standards..." but may equally stem from comparison of the self's state of being with the ideal social context's standard. According to Neda Sedighimornani,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sedighimornani |first=Neda |date=2018-10-09 |title=Shame And Its Features: Understanding Of Shame |journal=European Journal of Social Sciences Studies |volume=3 |issue=3 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1453426 |doi=10.5281/ZENODO.1453426}}</ref> shame is relevant in several psychological disorders such as [[Depression (mood)|depression]], [[Social anxiety disorder|phobia of social interactions]], and even some [[eating disorder]]s.
Some [[measures of guilt and shame|scales of shame]] measure it to assess emotional states, whereas other shame scales are used to assess emotional traits or dispositions- [[shame proneness]].<ref name="Schalkwijk, F. 2016">Schalkwijk, F., Stams, G. J., Dekker, J., & Elison, J. (2016). "Measuring Shame Regulations: Validation of the Compass of Shame Scale". ''Social Behavior and Personality'', 44(11), 1775–91.</ref> "To shame" generally means to actively assign or communicate a state of shame to another person. Behaviors designed to "uncover" or "expose" others are sometimes used to place shame on the other person. Whereas, having shame means to maintain a sense of restraint against offending others (as with [[modesty]], [[humility]], and [[deference]]). In contrast to having shame is to have no shame; behaving without restraint, offending others, similar to other emotions like [[pride]] or [[hubris]].

== Identification and self-evaluation ==
Nineteenth-century scientist [[Charles Darwin]] described shame affect in the physical form of blushing, confusion of mind, downward cast eyes, slack posture, and lowered head;<ref>{{Cite book|last=Charles.|first=Darwin|title=Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals|date=2020|publisher=Digireads.com Publishing|isbn=978-1-4209-6989-4|oclc=1203963155}}</ref> Darwin noted these observations of shame affect in human populations worldwide, as mentioned in his book "[[The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals]]". Darwin also mentions how the sense of warmth or heat, associated with the vasodilation of the face and skin, can result in an even greater sense of shame. More commonly, the act of crying can be associated with shame.

When people feel shame, the focus of their evaluation is on the self or identity.<ref name="Schalkwijk, F. 2016"/> Shame is a self-punishing acknowledgment of something gone wrong.<ref name="Niedenthal, P. M. 2017"/> It is associated with "mental [[Undoing (psychology)|undoing]]". Studies of shame showed that when ashamed people feel that their entire self is worthless, powerless, and small, they also feel exposed to an audience—real or imagined—that exists purely for the purpose of confirming that the self is worthless. Shame and the sense of self is stigmatized, or treated unfairly, like being overtly rejected by parents in favor of siblings' needs, and is assigned externally by others regardless of one's own experience or awareness. An individual who is in a state of shame will assign the shame internally from being a victim of the environment, and the same is assigned externally, or assigned by others regardless of one's own experience or awareness.

A "sense of shame" is the feeling known as [[Guilt (emotion)|guilt]] but "consciousness" or awareness of "shame as a state" or condition defines core/toxic shame (Lewis, 1971; Tangney, 1998). The person experiencing shame might not be able to, or perhaps simply will not, identify their emotional state as shame, and there is an intrinsic connection between shame and the mechanism of denial.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Dolezal|first1=Luna|last2=Lyons|first2=Barry|date=2017-12-01|title=Health-related shame: an affective determinant of health?|journal=Medical Humanities|language=en|volume=43|issue=4|pages=257–63|doi=10.1136/medhum-2017-011186|issn=1468-215X|pmid=28596218|pmc=5739839}}</ref> " The key emotion in all forms of shame is contempt (Miller, 1984; Tomkins, 1967). Two realms in which shame is expressed are the ''consciousness of self as bad'' and ''self as inadequate''.<ref name="GreenbergKoole2013">{{cite book|author1=Jeff Greenberg|author2=Sander L. Koole|author3=Tom Pyszczynski|title=Handbook of Experimental Existential Psychology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g_9dAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA159|year=2013|publisher=Guilford Publications|isbn=978-1-4625-1479-3|page=159}}</ref> People employ negative coping responses to counter deep rooted, associated sense of "shameworthiness".<ref>{{cite book|author1=Edward Teyber|author2=Faith Teyber|title=Interpersonal Process in Therapy: An Integrative Model|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=usHRQnMvD_oC&pg=PA137|year=2010|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-0-495-60420-4|pages=137}}</ref> The shame [[cognition]] may occur as a result of the experience of shame affect or, more generally, in any situation of [[embarrassment]], [[dishonor]], disgrace, inadequacy, [[humiliation]], or [[wikt:chagrin#Noun|chagrin]].<ref>{{Citation |last= Broucek |first= Francis |title=Shame and the Self |publisher=Guilford Press, New York |year= 1991 |isbn= 978-0-89862-444-1 |page=5 }}</ref>

The dynamics of shame and devaluation appear to be consistent across cultures. This has led some researchers to propose the existence of a universal human psychology related to how we assign value and worth. This applies both to us and to others.<ref>Sznycer, Daniel, Dimitris Xygalatas, Elizabeth Agey, Sarah Alami, Xiao-Fen An, Kristina I. Ananyeva, Quentin D. Atkinson et al. "Cross-cultural invariances in the architecture of shame." ''Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences'' 115, no. 39 (2018): 9702–07.</ref>

=== Behavioural expression ===
Physiological symptoms caused by the autonomic nervous system include blushing, perspiration, dizziness, or nausea. A feeling of paralysis, numbness, or loss of muscle tone might set in making it difficult to think, act, or talk. Children often visibly slump and hang their head. In an effort to hide this reaction, adults are more likely to laugh, stare, avoid eye contact, freeze their face, tighten their jaw, or show a look of contempt. In another's presence, there's a feeling of being strange, naked, transparent, or exposed, as if wanting to disappear or hide.<ref>Silvan S. Tomkins (1963). ''Affect Imagery Consciousness'', vol. 2: The Negative Affects. New York: Springer Publishing Company, p. 144. {{ISBN|9780826105424}}.</ref><ref>Lancer, D. (2014). ''Conquering Shame and Codependency: 8 Steps to Freeing the True You.'' Hazelden Foundation, pp. 12–13. {{ISBN|978-1-61649-533-6}}.</ref>
The Shame Code was developed to capture behavior as it unfolds in real time during the socially stressful and potentially shaming spontaneous speech task and was coded into the following categories: (1) Body Tension, (2) Facial Tension, (3) Stillness, (4) Fidgeting, (5) Nervous Positive Affect, (6) Hiding and Avoiding, (7) Verbal Flow and Uncertainty, and (8) Silence.<ref name="France, K. 2017">De France, K., Lanteigne, D., Glozman, J. & Hollenstain, T. (2017). "A New Measure of the Expression of Shame: The Shame Code". ''Journal of Child & Family Studies'', 26(3), 769–80.</ref> Shame tendencies were associated with more fidgeting and less freezing, but both stillness and fidgeting were social cues that convey distress to the observer and may elicit less harsh responses. Thus, both may be an attempt to diminish further shaming experiences. Shame involves global, self-focused negative attributions based on the anticipated, imagined, or real negative evaluations of others and is accompanied by a powerful urge to hide, withdraw, or escape from the source of these evaluations. These negative evaluations arise from transgressions of standards, rules, or goals and cause the individual to feel separate from the group for which these standards, rules, or goals exist, resulting in one of the most powerful, painful, and potentially destructive experiences known to humans.<ref name="France, K. 2017" />

== Comparison with other emotions ==
Distinguishing between shame, [[guilt (emotion)|guilt]], and [[embarrassment]] can be challenging.<ref>{{Citation | title = Are shame, guilt, and embarrassment distinct emotions? | last = Tangney | first = JP |author2=Miller Flicker Barlow | year = 1996 | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | doi = 10.1037/0022-3514.70.6.1256 | volume = 70 | pages = 1256–69 | pmid=8667166 | issue = 6| s2cid = 17024587 }}</ref> They are all similar reactions or emotions in the fact that they are self-conscious, "implying self-reflection and self-evaluation."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tracy |first1=Jessica L. |last2=Robins |first2=Richard W. |date=October 2006 |title=Appraisal antecedents of shame and guilt: support for a theoretical model |journal=Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin |volume=32 |issue=10 |pages=1339–1351 |doi=10.1177/0146167206290212 |issn=0146-1672 |pmid=16963605 |s2cid=10444300 }}</ref>

=== Comparison with guilt ===
{{Further|Guilt (emotion)|Guilt–shame–fear spectrum of cultures}}
[[File:Goya9.jpg|thumb|right|Person hiding face and showing posture of shame (while wearing a [[Sanbenito]] and coroza hat) in [[Francisco Goya|Goya]]'s sketch "For being born somewhere else".  The person has been shamed by the [[Spanish Inquisition]].]]
According to cultural anthropologist [[Ruth Benedict]], shame arises from a violation of cultural or social values while guilt feelings arise from violations of one's internal values.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Benedict |first1=Ruth |last2=Rutland |first2=VT |year=1946 |title=The Chrysanthemum and the Sword: Patterns of Japanese Culture |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3032420 |journal=RAIN |issue=24 |pages=14 |doi=10.2307/3032420 |jstor=3032420 |issn=0307-6776|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Thus shame arises when one's 'defects' are exposed to others, and results from the negative evaluation (whether real or imagined) of others; guilt, on the other hand, comes from one's own negative evaluation of oneself, for instance, when one acts contrary to one's values or idea of one's self.<ref>[http://psych.stanford.edu/~tsailab/PDF/yw07sce.pdf "Cultural Models of Shame and Guilt"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160418071015/http://psych.stanford.edu/~tsailab/PDF/yw07sce.pdf |date=April 18, 2016 }}</ref> Shame is more attributed to internal characteristics and guilt is more attributed to behavioral characteristics.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Bastin |first1=Coralie |last2=Harrison |first2=Ben J. |last3=Davey |first3=Christopher G. |last4=Moll |first4=Jorge |last5=Whittle |first5=Sarah |date=2016-12-01 |title=Feelings of shame, embarrassment and guilt and their neural correlates: A systematic review |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0149763415302876 |journal=Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews |language=en |volume=71 |pages=455–471 |doi=10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.09.019 |pmid=27687818 |s2cid=5954229 |issn=0149-7634|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Thus, it might be possible to feel ashamed of thought or behavior that no one actually knows about (because one is afraid of what they find), and conversely, feeling guilty about the act of gaining approval from others.

Psychoanalyst Helen B. Lewis argued that, "The experience of shame is directly about the self, which is the focus of evaluation. In guilt, the self is not the central object of negative evaluation, but rather the thing done is the focus."<ref>{{Citation |last= Lewis |first= Helen B. |title=Shame and guilt in neurosis |journal= Psychoanalytic Review |publisher=International University Press, New York |year= 1971 |volume= 58 |issue= 3 |pages= 419–38 |pmid= 5150685 |isbn= 978-0-8236-8307-9}}</ref> Similarly, Fossum and Mason say in their book ''Facing Shame'' that "While guilt is a painful feeling of regret and responsibility for one's actions, shame is a painful feeling about oneself as a person."<ref>{{Citation |last1= Fossum |first1= Merle A. |last2= Mason |first2= Marilyn J. |title= Facing Shame: Families in Recovery |publisher= [[W.W. Norton]] |year= 1986 |isbn= 978-0-393-30581-4 |page= [https://archive.org/details/facingshamefamil00merl/page/5 5] |url= https://archive.org/details/facingshamefamil00merl/page/5 }}</ref>

Following this line of reasoning, Psychiatrist Judith Lewis Herman concludes that "Shame is an acutely self-conscious state in which the self is 'split,' imagining the self in the eyes of the other; by contrast, in guilt the self is unified."<ref>{{Citation|title=Shattered Shame States and their Repair |last=Herman |first=Judith Lewis |author-link=Judith Lewis Herman |journal=The John Bowlby Memorial Lecture |year=2007 |url=http://www.cha.harvard.edu/vov/publications/Shattered%20Shame-JHerman.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100705095700/http://www.cha.harvard.edu/vov/publications/Shattered%20Shame-JHerman.pdf |archive-date=July 5, 2010 }}</ref>

Clinical psychologist Gershen Kaufman's view of shame is derived from that of [[affect theory]], namely that shame is one of a set of instinctual, short-duration physiological reactions to stimulation.<ref name=Kauf92>{{Citation |last= Kaufman |first= Gershen |title=Shame: The Power of Caring |edition=3rd |publisher=Schenkman Books, Rochester, VT |year= 1992 |isbn= 978-0-87047-052-3}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last= Nathanson |first= Donald |title=Shame and Pride: Affect, Sex, and the Birth of the Self |publisher=W.W. Norton, NY |year= 1992 |isbn= 978-0-393-03097-6}}{{page needed|date=June 2021}}</ref> In this view, guilt is seen as a learned behavior consisting primarily of self-directed [[blame]] or [[contempt]], and the shame that results from this behavior, making up a part of the overall experience of guilt. Here, [[self-blame]] and [[self-contempt]] mean the application, towards (a part of) one's self, of exactly the same dynamic that blaming of, and contempt for, others represents when it is applied interpersonally.

Kaufman saw that mechanisms such as blame or contempt may be used as a defending strategy against the experience of shame and that someone who has a pattern of applying them to himself may well attempt to defend against a shame experience by applying self-blame or self-contempt. This, however, can lead to an internalized, self-reinforcing sequence of shame events for which Kaufman coined the term "shame spiral".<ref name=Kauf92 /> Shame can also be used as a strategy when feeling guilty, especially when the hope is to avoid punishment by inspiring compassion.<ref>{{cite book|title=Shame and the Origins of Self-esteem: A Jungian Approach|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_VA5rfWW3HIC&pg=PR2|year=1996|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-415-10580-4|pages=2–3}}</ref>

=== Comparison with embarrassment ===

One view of difference between shame and [[embarrassment]] says that shame does not necessarily involve public humiliation while embarrassment does; that is, one can feel shame for an act known only to oneself but to be embarrassed one's actions must be revealed to others. In the field of ethics (moral psychology, in particular), however, there is debate as to whether or not shame is a heteronomous emotion, i.e., whether or not shame does involve recognition on the part of the ashamed that they have been judged negatively by others.

Another view of the dividing line between shame and embarrassment holds that the difference is one of intensity.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Graham|first1=Michael C.|title=Facts of Life: ten issues of contentment|date=2014|publisher=Outskirts Press|pages=75–78|isbn=978-1-4787-2259-5}}</ref> In this view embarrassment is simply a less intense experience of shame. It is adaptive and functional. Extreme or toxic shame is a much more intense experience and one that is not functional. In fact, according to this view, toxic shame can be debilitating. The dividing line then is between functional and dysfunctional shame. This includes the idea that shame has a function or benefit for the organism.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Graham|first1=Michael C.|title=Facts of Life: ten issues of contentment|date=2014|publisher=Outskirts Press|page=62|isbn=978-1-4787-2259-5}}</ref>

[[Immanuel Kant]] and his followers held that shame is heteronomous (comes from others); [[Bernard Williams]] and others have argued that shame can be autonomous (comes from oneself).<ref>Williams, Bernard: Shame and Necessity</ref><ref>Hutchinson, Phil: chapter four of Shame and Philosophy</ref> Shame may carry the connotation of a response to something that is morally wrong whereas embarrassment is the response to something that is morally neutral but socially unacceptable. Another view of shame and guilt is that shame is a focus on self, while guilt is a focus on behavior. Simply put: A person who feels guilt is saying "I did something bad.", while someone who feels shame is saying "I am bad".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Listening to shame |author=Brené Brown |date=16 March 2012 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=psN1DORYYV0&ab_channel=TED|access-date=2021-02-20|via=YouTube}}</ref>

Embarrassment has occasionally been viewed as a less severe or intense form of shame, which usually varies on different aspects such as intensity, the physical reaction of the person, or the size of the present social audience, but it is distinct from shame in that it involves a focus on the self-presented to an audience rather than the entire self.<ref name=":3" /> It is experienced as a sense of fluster and slight mortification resulting from a social awkwardness that leads to a loss of esteem in the eyes of others. Embarrassment has been characterized as a sudden-onset sense of fluster and mortification that results when the self is evaluated negatively because one has committed, or anticipates committing, a gaffe or awkward performance before an audience. So, because shame is focused on the entire self, those who become embarrassed apologize for their mistake, and then begin to repair things and this repair involves redressing harm done to the presented self.<ref name="Niedenthal, P. M. 2017">{{cite book | last1=Niedenthal | first1=Paula M. | last2=Ric | first2=François | title=Psychology of Emotion | chapter=Self-Conscious Emotions | publication-place=New York | publisher=Taylor & Francis Group | date=2017 | edition=2nd | isbn=978-1-84872-511-9 | oclc=954038345 | doi=10.4324/9781315276229-6 | chapter-url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/mono/10.4324/9781315276229-6/self-conscious-emotions-paula-niedenthal-fran%C3%A7ois-ric | chapter-url-access=subscription}}</ref>

One view of difference between shame and embarrassment says that shame does not necessarily involve public humiliation while embarrassment does; that is, one can feel shame for an act known only to oneself but to be embarrassed one's actions must be revealed to others. Therefore shame can only be experienced in private and embarrassment can never be experienced in private.<ref name="Niedenthal, P. M. 2017"/> In the field of ethics (moral psychology, in particular), however, there is debate as to whether or not shame is a heteronomous emotion, i.e. whether or not shame does involve recognition on the part of the ashamed that they have been judged negatively by others. This is a mature heteronomous type of shame where the agent does not judge herself negatively, but, due to the negative judgments of others, suspects that she may deserve negative judgment, and feel shame on this basis.<ref>Turnbull, D. J. (2012). "Shame: In Defense of an Essential Moral Emotion". PhD thesis, Birkbeck, University of London.</ref> Therefore, shame may carry the connotation of a response to something that is morally wrong whereas embarrassment is the response to something that is morally neutral but socially unacceptable.

== Subtypes of shame ==
=== Robert Karen's types of shame ===
Psychologist Robert Karen identified four categories of shame: existential, situational, class, and narcissistic. Existential shame occurs when we become self-aware of an objective, unpleasant truth about ourselves or our situation. Situational shame is the feeling we have when violating an ethical principle, interpersonal boundary, or cultural norm. Class shame relates to social power and pertains to skin color, social class, ethnic background, and gender and occurs in societies that have rigid caste stratifications or disparate classes. Narcissistic shame occurs when our self-image and pride are wounded, affecting how we feel and think about ourselves as an individual, in contrast as a member of a group.<ref>Karen. R. (February 1992). "Shame", ''Atlantic Monthly'', 58</ref><ref>Lancer, D. (2014). ''Conquering Shame and Codependency: 8 Steps to Freeing the True You.'' Hazelden Foundation, pp. 10–11. {{ISBN|978-1-61649-533-6}}.</ref>

=== Joseph Burgo's shame paradigms ===
There are many different reasons that people might feel shame. According to Joseph Burgo, there are four different aspects of shame. He calls these aspects of shame paradigms.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Burgo |first=Joseph |title=Shame: Free Yourself, Find Joy, and Build True Self-Esteem |publisher=St. Martin's Press |date=November 2018 |isbn=9781250151315 |location=New York |pages=56}}</ref>
* '''Unrequited love: "'''Unreciprocated love that causes yearning for more complete love."<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Bringle |first1=Robert G. |last2=Winnick |first2=Terri |last3=Rydell |first3=Robert J. |date=2013-04-01 |title=The Prevalence and Nature of Unrequited Love |journal=SAGE Open |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=215824401349216 |doi=10.1177/2158244013492160 |s2cid=146146550 |issn=2158-2440|doi-access=free |hdl=1805/15150 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
* '''Unwanted exposure:''' Something personal that we would like to keep private is unexpectedly revealed, or when we make a mistake in [a] public [setting]."<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |title=How To Deal With Shame In The Workplace  |url=https://balance.media/shame-in-the-workplace/ |access-date= |website=balance.media|date=22 March 2024 }}</ref>
* '''Disappointed expectation: "'''The feeling of dissatisfaction that follows the failure of expectations or hopes to manifest."<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal |last=W. |first=F. E. |year=1932 |title=Taxation: Federal Instrumentalities: Exemption from State Tax |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1280547 |journal=Michigan Law Review |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=137–138 |doi=10.2307/1280547 |jstor=1280547 |issn=0026-2234|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
* '''Exclusion:''' Being left out of connection or involvement with others or groups that we would like to belong to.<ref name=":10">{{Cite book |last=Burgo |first=Joseph |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V6xvDwAAQBAJ&dq=joseph+burgo+unrequited+love&pg=PR9 |title=Shame : Free Yourself, Find Joy, and Build True Self-Esteem |date=November 2018 |publisher=St. Martin's Press |isbn=978-1-250-15130-8 |edition=1st |location=New York |pages=27 |oclc=1016939846}}</ref>

In his first subdivision of shame he looks into is unrequited love; which is when you love someone but your partner does not reciprocate, or one is rejected by somebody that they like; this can be mortifying and shaming.<ref name=":7" /> Unrequited love can be shown in other ways as well. For example, the way a mother treats her new born baby. An experiment called "The Still Face Experiment" was done where a mother showed her baby love and talked to the baby for a set period of time. She then went a few minutes without talking to the baby. This resulted with the baby making different expressions to get the mother's attention. When the mother stopped giving the baby attention, the baby felt shame. According to research on unrequited love, people tend to date others who are similar in attractiveness, leaving those less attractive to feel an initial disappointment that creates a type of unrequited love in the person.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Baumeister |first1=Roy F. |last2=Wotman |first2=Sara R. |last3=Stillwell |first3=Arlene M. |date=March 1993 |title=Unrequited love: On heartbreak, anger, guilt, scriptlessness, and humiliation. |url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/0022-3514.64.3.377 |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |language=en |volume=64 |issue=3 |pages=377–394 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.64.3.377 |issn=1939-1315|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The second type of shame is unwanted exposure. This would take place if you were called out in front of a whole class for doing something wrong or if someone saw you doing something you did not want them to see. This is what you would normally think of when you hear the word shame.<ref name=":8" /> Disappointed expectation would be your third type of shame according to Burgo. This could be not passing a class, having a friendship go wrong, or not getting a big promotion in a job that you thought you would get.<ref name=":9" /> The fourth and final type of shame according to Burgo is exclusion which also means being left out. Many people will do anything to just fit in or want to belong in society, e.g., at school, work, friendships, relationships, everywhere.<ref name=":10" />

=== Other subtypes ===
* '''[[Addiction shaming]]'''
* '''[[Age shaming]]'''
* '''[[Bottom shaming]]'''
* '''Genuine shame''': is associated with genuine dishonor, disgrace, or condemnation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Myers |first=Lin S. |date=2007-06-14 |title=A Review of: "Shame and Guilt" |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00926230701372124 |journal=Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy |volume=33 |issue=4 |pages=380–382 |doi=10.1080/00926230701372124 |issn=0092-623X|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
* '''False shame''': is associated with false condemnation as in the [[double bind]] form of false shaming; "he brought what we did to him upon himself". Author and TV personality [[John Bradshaw (author)|John Bradshaw]] calls shame the "emotion that lets us know we are finite".<ref>{{Citation |last= Bradshaw |first= John |title= Bradshaw on the Family: A New Way of Creating Solid Self-Esteem |publisher= [[HCI Books|HCI]] |date=  1996 |isbn= 978-1-55874-427-1 |url= https://archive.org/details/bradshawonfamily00brad }}</ref>
* '''[[Fat shaming]]'''
* '''[[Femme shaming]]'''
* '''[[Food shaming]]'''
* '''Secret shame''': describes the idea of being ashamed to be ashamed, so causing ashamed people to keep their shame a secret.<ref>Gilligan, James (1997) ''Violence: Reflections on a National Epidemic'' Vintage Books, New York</ref> Psychiatrist James Gilligan discovered, while working as a prison psychiatrist, that violence is primarily caused by secret shame. Gilligan stated, "...so intense and so painful that it threatens to overwhelm him and bring about the death of the self, cause him to lose his mind, his soul, or his sacred honor"<ref>{{Cite book |first=James |last=Gilligan |title=Violence : reflections on a national epidemic |date=1997 |publisher=Vintage Books |isbn=0-679-77912-4 |oclc=35714306}}</ref>
* '''Internalized shame''': Internalization of shame was first coined by Gershen Kaufman.<ref>Kaufman, G. (1980). ''Shame: The Power of Caring.'' Cambridge, MA: Schenkman Publishing Company, p. 7, 33. {{ISBN|0-87047-007-8}}.</ref> In contrast to an acute short-lived experience of shame, internalized shame reflects deep-seated beliefs of inadequacy that feel permanent and irreversible and are accompanied by words, voices, and images. Internalized shame stems from chronic or less frequent severe experiences of shame occurring with prior trauma or in childhood. It can take over a child's emotions and identity and continue into adulthood or may gradually increase over time.<ref>Tomkins, Silvan S. (1963). ''Affect Imagery Consciousness: The Negative Affects''. New York: Springer Publishing. pp. 302-303. {{ISBN|9780826105424}}.</ref> Once internalized, the original shaming event(s) and beliefs need not be recalled nor be conscious. Later experiences of shame are intensified and last longer. They do not require an external event or another person to trigger associated feelings and thoughts and can cause depression and feelings of hopelessness and despair. It also causes "shame anxiety," which makes people apprehensive about experiencing shame.<ref>Lancer, D. (2014). ''Conquering Shame and Codependency: 8 Steps to Freeing the True You.'' Hazelden Foundation, pp. 14-15, {{ISBN|978-1-61649-533-6}}.</ref>
* '''[[Identity shaming]]'''
* '''[[Kink shaming]]'''
* '''[[Online shaming]]'''
* '''[[Social media shaming]]'''
* '''[[Slut-shaming]]'''
* '''[[Tech shame]]''': describes the shame that employees, particularly younger workers, feel when they have challenges utilizing technology at work.<ref name="Demopoulos">{{cite news |last1=Demopoulos |first1=Alaina |title='Scanners are complicated': why Gen Z faces workplace 'tech shame' |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2023/feb/27/gen-z-tech-shame-office-technology-printers |access-date=14 July 2024 |work=The Guardian |date=28 February 2023}}</ref>
* '''Toxic shame''': describes false, [[pathological shame]]. It was coined by [[Silvan Tomkins]] in the early 60s.<ref>Tomkins, Silvan S. (1963). ''Affect Imagery Consciousness: The Negative Affects. New York: Springer Publishing''. {{ISBN|9780826105424}}.</ref> John Bradshaw states that toxic shame is induced, inside children, by all forms of [[child abuse]]. [[Incest]] and other forms of [[child sexual abuse]] can cause particularly severe toxic shame. Toxic shame often induces what is known as ''complex'' [[Psychological trauma|trauma]] in children who cannot cope with toxic shaming as it occurs and who [[Dissociation (psychology)|dissociate]] the shame until it is possible to cope with.<ref>Bradshaw, John (2005) ''Healing the Shame That Binds You'' (2nd edition) Health Communications, Deerfield Beach, Florida, [https://books.google.com/books?id=JTuDfNyWR7kC&pg=PA101 p. 101] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160828010451/https://books.google.com/books?id=JTuDfNyWR7kC&pg=PA101 |date=August 28, 2016 }}, {{ISBN|0-7573-0323-4}}</ref>
* '''Vicarious shame''': refers to the experience of shame on behalf of another person. Individuals vary in their tendency to experience vicarious shame, which is related to [[neurosis|neuroticism]] and to the tendency to experience personal shame. Extremely shame-prone people might even experience vicarious shame even to an increased degree, in other words: shame on behalf of another person who is already feeling shame on behalf of a third party (or possibly on behalf of the individual proper).<ref>{{Cite journal
|url=https://academic.oup.com/cercor/article/25/8/2065/311252
| journal = Cerebral Cortex | volume = 25
| issue=  8 | date = August 2015
| title = Mentalizing and the Role of the Posterior Superior Temporal Sulcus in Sharing Others' Embarrassment
| first1=Frieder Michel | last1=Paulus
| first2=Laura | last2=Müller-Pinzler
| first3=Andreas | last3= Jansen
| first4=Valeria |last4=Gazzola
| first5=Sören |last5=Krach
| pages= 2065–2075 | doi=10.1093/cercor/bhu011
| pmid = 24518753 | doi-access=free
| hdl=20.500.11755/755be558-40fa-42f7-92e1-13e2e53f7252
| hdl-access=free
}}</ref>
* '''[[Victim shaming]]'''

== Shame and mental illness ==

=== Narcissism ===
It has been suggested that [[narcissism]] in adults is related to defenses against shame<ref name=shame1>{{Cite book|editor= Donald L. Nathanson
|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gyyoS851HYcC&q=%2522Shame%2C%2520the%2520veiled%2520companion%2520of%2520narcissism%2522&pg=PA64
| chapter= 2. Shame, the Veiled Companion of Narcissism
|title=The Many Faces of Shame|date=1987
| first = Léon | last = Wurmser
|publisher=Guilford
| pages = 64–92 | place = New York
|isbn=978-0-89862-705-3|language=en}}</ref> and that [[narcissistic personality disorder]] is connected to shame as well.<ref name=shame2>Gabbard GO, Two subtypes of narcissistic personality disorder. Bull Menninger Clin 1989; 53:527–532.</ref><ref>Young, Klosko, Weishaar: ''Schema Therapy – A Practitioner's Guide'', 2003, p. 375. {{ISBN|978-1-57230-838-1}}</ref> According to psychiatrist [[Glen Gabbard]], [[Narcissistic personality disorder|NPD]] can be broken down into two subtypes, a [[grandiose]], arrogant, thick-skinned "oblivious" subtype and an easily hurt, oversensitive, ashamed "[[hypervigilance|hypervigilant]]" subtype. The oblivious subtype presents for [[Narcissistic supply|admiration]], envy, and appreciation a grandiose self that is the antithesis of a weak internalized self which hides in shame, while the [[hypervigilant]] subtype neutralizes devaluation by seeing others as unjust abusers.<ref name=shame2 />

=== Depression ===
In a meta-analytic review performed in 2011, it was found that there were stronger associations with shame and depression than with guilt and depression.<ref name=":5" /> External shame, or a negative view of the self, seen through other people, had larger effect sizes correlated with depression than did internal shame.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Kim |first1=Sangmoon |last2=Thibodeau |first2=Ryan |last3=Jorgensen |first3=Randall S. |year=2011 |title=Shame, guilt, and depressive symptoms: A meta-analytic review. |url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/a0021466 |journal=Psychological Bulletin |language=en |volume=137 |issue=1 |pages=68–96 |doi=10.1037/a0021466 |pmid=21219057 |s2cid=6285199 |issn=1939-1455|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

== Social aspects ==
[[File:Taunting 0001.jpg|thumb|right|A girl feeling ashamed as two other girls taunt behind her back]]
According to the anthropologist [[Ruth Benedict]], cultures may be classified by their emphasis on the use of either shame (a [[shame society]]) or guilt to regulate the social activities of individuals.<ref>Stephen Pattison, ''Shame:Theory, Therapy and Theology''. Cambridge University Press. 2000. p. 54. {{ISBN|0521560454}}</ref>

Shame may be used by those people who commit [[relational aggression]] and may occur in the workplace as a form of overt social control or aggression. Shaming is used in some societies as a type of [[punishment]], [[shunning]], or [[ostracism]]. In this sense, "the real purpose of shaming is not to punish crimes but to create the kind of people who don't commit them".<ref>{{cite journal|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030202074746/http://www.city-journal.org/html/10_4_bring_back_stigma.html|archive-date=2 February 2003|last=Scruton|first=Roger|title=Bring Back Stigma|url=http://www.city-journal.org/html/10_4_bring_back_stigma.html|journal=City Journal|date=Autumn 2000|volume=10|issue=4|pages=68–75|access-date=12 June 2024|url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Stigma ===
{{See also|Social stigma}}
In 1963, [[Erving Goffman]] published ''[[Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity]]''. For Goffman, the condition when a particular person is excluded from full societal reception is greatly discrediting. This negative evaluation may be "felt" or "enacted". Thus, stigma can occur when society labels someone as tainted, less desirable, or handicapped. When felt, it refers to the shame associated with having a condition and the fear of being discriminated against... when enacted it refers to actual discrimination of this kind.<ref name="Chapple, A. 2004">Chapple, A., Ziebland, S. & McPherson, A. (2004). "Stigma, Shame, and blame experienced by patients with lung cancer: qualitative study". ''British Medical Journal'', 328(7454), 1470–73.</ref> Shame in relation to stigma studies have most often come from the sense and mental consequences that young adolescents find themselves trapped in when they are deciding to use a condom in STD or HIV protection. The other use of stigma and shame is when someone has a disease, such as cancer, where people look to blame something for their feelings of shame and circumstance of sickness. Jessica M. Sales et al. researched young adolescents ages 15–21 on whether they had used protection in the 14 days prior to coming in for the study. The answers showed implications of shame and stigma, which received an accommodating score.<ref name=":6" /> The scores, prior history of STDs, [[demographics]], and [[psychosocial]] variables were put into a [[hierarchical]] [[regression model]] to determine probability of an adolescents chances of using protected sex in the future. The study found that the higher sense of shame and stigma the higher chance the adolescent would use protection in the future.<ref name=":6" /> This means that if a person is more aware of consequences, is more in-tune with themselves and the stigma (stereotypes, disgrace, etc.), they will be more likely to protect themselves. The study shows that placing more shame and stigma in the mind of people can be more prone to protecting themselves from the consequences that follow the action of unprotected sex.<ref name=":6">Sales, J. M., DiClemente, R. J., Rose, E. S., Wingood, G. M., Klein, J. D. & Woods, E. R. (2007). "Relationship of STD-Related Shame and Stigma to Female Adolescents' Condom-Protected Intercourse". ''Journal of Adolescent Health'', 40, 573.</ref>

HIV-related stigma from those who are born with HIV due to their [[maternal]] [[genetics]] have a proneness to shame and avoidant coping. David S. Bennett et al. studied the ages 12–24 of self-reported measures of potential risk factors and three domains of internalizing factors: depression, [[anxiety]], and [[PTSD]]. The findings suggested that those who had more shame-proneness and more awareness of HIV-stigma had a greater amount of depressive and PTSD symptoms. This means that those who have high HIV-stigma and shame do not seek help from interventions. Rather, they avoid the situation that could cause them to find themselves in a predicament of other mental health issues. Older age was related to greater HIV-related stigma and the female gender was more related to stigma and internalizing symptoms (depression, anxiety, PTSD). Stigma was also associated with greater shame-proneness.<ref>Bennett, D. S., Hersh, J., Herres, J. & Foster, J. (2016). "HIV-Related Stigma, Shame, and Avoidant Coping: Risk Factors for Internalizing Symptoms Among Youth Living with HIV?" ''Child Psychology & Human Development'', 47(4), 657–64.</ref>

Chapple et al. researched people with lung cancer in regards to the shame and stigma that comes from the disease. The stigma that accompanies lung cancer is most commonly caused by smoking. However, there are many ways to contract lung cancer, therefore those who did not receive lung cancer from smoking often feel shame; blaming themselves for something they did not do. The stigma effects their opinions of themselves, while shame is found to blame other cancer causing factors (tobacco products/anti-tobacco products) or ignoring the disease in avoidant [[coping (psychology)|coping]] altogether. The stigma associated with lung cancer effected relationships of patients with their family members, peers, and physicians who were attempting to provide comfort because the patients felt shame and victimized themselves.<ref name="Chapple, A. 2004"/>

=== Shame campaign ===
A shame campaign is a tactic in which particular individuals are singled out because of their behavior or suspected crimes, often by marking them publicly, such as [[Hester Prynne]] in [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]]'s ''[[The Scarlet Letter]]''. In the [[Philippines]], [[Alfredo Lim]] popularized such tactics during his term as mayor of [[Manila]]. On July 1, 1997, he began a controversial "spray paint shame campaign" in an effort to stop drug use. He and his team sprayed bright red paint on two hundred squatter houses whose residents had been charged, but not yet convicted, of selling prohibited substances. Officials of other municipalities followed suit. Former Senator Rene A. Saguisag condemned Lim's policy.<ref>{{cite news
| last = Pulta | first= Benjamin B. | url =http://www.sunstar.com.ph/static/man/2003/06/26/news/spray.campaign.debate.heats.up.html
| title= Spray campaign debate heats up
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927200045/http://www.sunstar.com.ph/static/man/2003/06/26/news/spray.campaign.debate.heats.up.html |archive-date=September 27, 2007
|newspaper =SunStar Philippines
| date= June 26, 2003}}</ref> Communists in the 20th century used [[struggle session]]s to handle corruption and other problems.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2012/03/photos-fathers-of-chinese-leaders-at-revolutionary-struggle-sessions/254870/|title=Photos: Fathers of Chinese Leaders at Revolutionary 'Struggle Sessions'|last=Hayoun|first=Massoud|date=2012-03-21|website=The Atlantic|language=en-US|access-date=2019-02-02}}</ref>

[[Public humiliation]], historically expressed by confinement in [[stocks]] and in other public punishments may occur in social media through [[viral phenomenon|viral phenomena]].<ref name=River>{{cite book|author1=Jon Ronson|author-link1=Jon Ronson|title=So You've Been Publicly Shamed|year=2015|publisher=Riverhead Books|isbn=978-1-59448-713-2|pages=44–56}}</ref>

== Research ==
{{See also|Measures of guilt and shame}}

Psychologists and other researchers who study shame use validated [[psychometric testing]] instruments to determine whether or how much a person feels shame.  Some of these tools include the Guilt and Shame Proneness (GASP) Scale,<ref>{{cite journal
| author1=Cohen TR
| author2=Wolf ST
| author3=Panter AT
| author4=Insko CA
| title=Introducing the GASP scale: a new measure of guilt and shame proneness
| journal=J Pers Soc Psychol
| volume=100
| issue=5
| pages=947–66
| date=May 2011
| pmid=21517196
| doi=10.1037/a0022641
| s2cid=18835996
| url=http://repository.cmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2514&context=tepper
| access-date=2018-12-26
| archive-date=2018-02-03
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180203213210/http://repository.cmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2514&context=tepper
| url-status=dead
| url-access=subscription
}}</ref> the Shame and Stigma Scale (SSS), the Experience of Shame Scale, and the Internalized Shame Scale.  Some scales are specific to the person's situation, such as the Weight- and Body-Related Shame and Guilt scale (WEB-SG), the HIV Stigma Scale for [[people living with HIV]] and the Cataldo Lung Cancer Stigma Scale (CLCSS) for people with lung cancer.<ref>{{cite journal
|author1=Cataldo JK |author2=Slaughter R |author3=Jahan TM |author4=Pongquan VL |author5=Hwang WJ | title=Measuring stigma in people with lung cancer: psychometric testing of the cataldo lung cancer stigma scale
| journal=Oncol Nurs Forum
| volume=38
| issue=1
| pages=E46–54
| date=January 2011
| pmid=21186151
| pmc=3182474
| doi=10.1188/11.ONF.E46-E54 }}</ref> Others are more general, such as the Emotional Reactions and Thoughts Scale, which deals with anxiety, depression, and guilt as well as shame.

=== Treatments ===
There has been little research performed on treatment options concerning shame and people who experience this negative, despairing emotion.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |last=Tangney |first=June Price |title=The Self-Conscious Emotions: Shame, Guilt, Embarrassment and Pride |date=2005-01-28 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/0470013494.ch26 |work=Handbook of Cognition and Emotion |pages=541–568 |place=Chichester, UK |publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Ltd |doi=10.1002/0470013494.ch26 |isbn=9780470013496 |access-date=2022-03-13|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Different scientific approaches concerning a treatment have been put forward, using components of psychodynamic and cognitive-behavioral precepts. Unfortunately, the effectiveness of these approaches is not known because the studies have not been run or looked at in depth.<ref name=":4" /> An example of treatment for shame consists of group-based CBT and [[Compassion Focused Therapy]], which patients report have helped them feel connectedness and encouraged to overcome difficult challenges related to shame.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Goss |first1=Kenneth |last2=Allan |first2=Steven |date=July 2009 |title=Shame, pride and eating disorders |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/cpp.627 |journal=Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy |language=en |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=303–316 |doi=10.1002/cpp.627|pmid=19639646 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

==== Empathy ====
[[Brene Brown]] explains that shame (using a metaphor of a petri-dish) only needs three things to grow: [[secrecy]], [[silence]], and [[judgement]]. Shame cannot grow or thrive, in the context (or supportive environment) of [[empathy]]. It is important, that when reaching out for a supportive or empathetic person (i.e. when reaching out to share a story or experience): that we choose the people who have ''earned the right'' to hear our story (i.e. someone trustworthy); share with people with whom we have a relationship that can bear the weight of the story.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Brene|first=Brown|title=The Power of Vulnerability|publisher=Sounds True|year=2012}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Society|Psychology}}
<!-- Please keep entries in alphabetical order & add a short description [[WP:SEEALSO]] -->
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* [[Acquiescence]]
* [[Badge of shame]]
* [[Cognitive dissonance]]
* [[Haya (Islam)]]
* [[Lady Macbeth effect]]
* [[Online shaming]]
* [[Psychological projection]]
* [[Reintegrative shaming]]
* [[Scopophobia]]
* ''[[So You've Been Publicly Shamed]]'', a 2015 book by journalist Jon Ronson about online shaming
{{div col end}}
<!-- please keep entries in alphabetical order -->

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite book |last=Gilbert |first=P. |year=1998 |title=Shame: Interpersonal Behavior, Psychopathology and Culture |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-511480-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Gilbert |first=P. |year=2002 |title=Body Shame: Conceptualisation, Research and Treatment |publisher=Brunner-Routledge |isbn=1-58391-166-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Goldberg |first=Carl |year=1991 |title=Understanding Shame |publisher=Jason Aaronson, Inc. |location=Northvale, NJ. |isbn=0-87668-541-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Hutchinson |first=Phil |year=2008 |title=Shame and Philosophy |location=London |publisher=Palgrave MacMillan |isbn=978-0-230-54271-6}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20081217015247/http://www.palgrave.com/PDFs/0230542719.Pdf Sample chapter].
* {{cite journal |last=Lamb |first=R. E. |title=Guilt, Shame, and Morality | journal = Philosophy and Phenomenological Research | volume = XLIII| issue = 3 |date=March 1983}}
* {{cite book |last=Lewis |first=Michael |year=1992 |title=Shame: The Exposed Self |location=NY |publisher=The Free Press |isbn=0-02-918881-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Middelton-Moz |first=J. |year=1990 |title=Shame and Guilt: Masters of Disguise |publisher=HCI |isbn=1-55874-072-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Miller |first=Susan B. |year=1996 |title=Shame in Context |publisher=Routledge |isbn=0-88163-209-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Morrison |first=Andrew P. |year=1989 |title=Shame: The Underside of Narcissism |publisher=The Analytic Press |isbn=0-88163-082-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Morrison |first=Andrew P. |year=1996 |title=The Culture of Shame |publisher=Ballantine Books |isbn=0-345-37484-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Schneider |first=Carl D. |year=1977 |title=Shame, Exposure, and Privacy |location=Boston |publisher=Beacon Press |isbn=0-8070-1121-5}}
* {{cite encyclopedia  |last=Vallelonga |first=Damian S. |title=An Empirical-Phenomenological Investigation of Being-Ashamed |url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4899-0125-5_6 |editor-last= Valle |editor-first=R. |encyclopedia=Phenomenological Inquiry in Psychology: Existential and Transpersonal Dimensions |date=1998 |location=New York |publisher=Plenum Press |pages=123–155|doi=10.1007/978-1-4899-0125-5_6 |isbn=978-0-306-45543-8 |url-access=subscription }}

== External links ==
{{Commons category}}
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Wiktionary}}
* [https://www.ted.com/talks/brene_brown_listening_to_shame Brene Brown ''Listening to Shame,'' TED Talk, March 2012] 
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080620031102/http://press.princeton.edu/chapters/i7697.html Hiding from Humanity: Disgust, Shame, and the Law]
* [https://www.usatoday.com/news/opinion/editorials/2004-08-31-oppose_x.htm ''Humiliation is Simply Wrong'' (USA Today Editorial/Opinion)]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060514053953/http://www.minou.com/adultsexuality/sex_guilt.htm Sexual Guilt and Shame]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060114054650/http://www.noogenesis.com/malama/shame.html Shame]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050901012419/http://www.birchmore.org/index.html Shame and Group Psychotherapy]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20040820104726/http://www.columbiapsych.com/shame_miller.html Shame and Psychotherapy]
* [http://www.shamestudies.de/ Social usage of shame in historical times]
* [http://www.humiliationstudies.org/documents/ThukralFinalHumiliation.pdf Understanding Shame and Humiliation in Torture]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060131091332/http://www.thememoryhole.org/war/stripped-iraqis.htm US Forces Make Iraqis Strip and Walk Naked in Public]

{{Emotion-footer}}
{{Narcissism}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Emotions]]
[[Category:Moral psychology]]
[[Category:Narcissism]]
[[Category:Shame| ]]