View source for Sexual violence

{{Short description|Sexual act or attempt to obtain a sexual act by violence or coercion}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2025}}
{{Violence against women}}
{{Violence against men}}
{{Sex and the law}}
'''Sexual violence''' is any harmful or unwanted [[Human sexual activity|sexual act]], an attempt to obtain a sexual act through [[violence]] or [[coercion]], or an act directed against a person's sexuality without their [[consent]], by any individual regardless of their relationship to the victim.<ref name="WHO definition">World Health Organization., World report on violence and health (Geneva: [[World Health Organization]], 2002), Chapter 6, pp. 149.</ref><ref name="icc-cpi.int">[Elements of Crimes, Article 7(1)(g)-6 Crimes against humanity of sexual violence, elements 1. Accessed through {{Cite web| url=http://www.icc-cpi.int/en_menus/icc/legal%20texts%20and%20tools/official%20journal/Pages/elements%20of%20crimes.aspx | title=Elements of Crimes  | access-date=19 October 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150506063708/http://www.icc-cpi.int/en_menus/icc/legal%20texts%20and%20tools/official%20journal/Pages/elements%20of%20crimes.aspx | archive-date=6 May 2015}}]</ref><ref name="McDougall 1998">{{harvp|McDougall|1998|loc=para. 21}}</ref> This includes forced engagement in sexual acts, attempted or completed, and may be physical, psychological, or verbal.<ref name="McDougall 1998" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=UN Women |title=FAQs: Types of violence against women and girls |work=UN Women – Headquarters |date=6 December 2023 |url=https://www.unwomen.org/en/what-we-do/ending-violence-against-women/faqs/types-of-violence#:~:text=Sexual%20violence,-Sexual%20violence%20is&text=It%20includes%20acts%20of%20abusive,touching%2C%20incest%2C%20and%20others.}}</ref> It occurs in times of peace and armed conflict situations, is widespread, and is considered to be one of the most [[Psychological trauma|traumatic]], pervasive, and most common [[human rights]] violations.<ref name="Lindsey 2001 57–61">{{harvp|Lindsey|2001|pp=57–61}}</ref><ref name="icrc.org">{{cite web|date=16 October 2013|title=Advancement of women: ICRC statement to the United Nations, 2013|url=http://www.icrc.org/eng/resources/documents/statement/2013/united-nations-women-statement-2013-10-16.htm|access-date=28 November 2013|website=icrc}}</ref>

Sexual violence is a serious public health problem and has profound short- and long-term physical and mental health impacts such as increased risks of sexual and [[Human reproduction|reproductive]] health problems,<ref>{{cite journal | author = Holmes MM | display-authors = etal | year = 1996 | title = Rape-related pregnancy: estimates and descriptive characteristics from a national sample of women | url = | journal = American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology | volume = 175 | issue = 2| pages = 320–324 | doi = 10.1016/S0002-9378(96)70141-2 | pmid = 8765248 }}</ref> [[suicide]], and [[HIV]] infection. [[Murder]] occurring either during a [[sexual assault]] or as a result of an [[honor killing]] in response to a sexual assault is also a factor of sexual violence. Though women and girls suffer disproportionately from these aspects,<ref name="icrc.org"/> sexual violence can occur to anybody at any age; it is an act of violence that can be perpetrated by parents, caregivers, acquaintances and strangers, as well as intimate partners. It is rarely a [[crime of passion]], and is rather an aggressive act that frequently aims to express power and dominance over the victim.

Sexual violence remains highly [[Social stigma|stigmatized]] in all settings, oftentimes dismissed as a [[Women's issues|women's issue]], thus levels of disclosure of the assault vary between regions. In general, it is a widely [[Under-reporting|underreported]] phenomenon, thus available data tend to underestimate the true scale of the problem. In addition, sexual violence is also a neglected area of research, thus deeper understanding of the issue is imperative in order to promote a coordinated movement against it. [[Domestic violence|Domestic sexual violence]] is distinguished from [[Wartime sexual violence|conflict-related sexual violence]].<ref name="Human Security Report 2012">[Human Security Report (2012), Sexual Violence, Education and War: Beyond the mainstream narrative, Human Security Research Group, Simon Fraser University, Canada, Human Security Press]</ref> Often, people who coerce their spouses into sexual acts believe their actions are legitimate because they are married. In times of conflict, sexual violence tends to be an inevitable repercussion of warfare trapped in an ongoing cycle of impunity.<ref>{{cite book|last=International Committee of the Red Cross|title=Women and War|year=2008|publisher=ICRC|location=Geneva|page=12}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|OCHA|2007|pp=57–75}}</ref> Rape of women and of men is often used as a method of warfare ([[war rape]]), as a form of attack on the enemy, typifying the conquest and degradation of its women or men or captured male or female fighters.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Swiss S | display-authors = etal | year = | title = Violence against women during the Liberian civil conflict | url = | journal = Journal of the American Medical Association | volume = 1998 | issue = 279| pages = 625–629 }}</ref> Even if strongly prohibited by [[international human rights law]], [[custom (law)|customary law]] and [[international humanitarian law]], enforcement mechanisms are still fragile or even non-existent in many corners of the world.<ref name="Lindsey 2001 57–61"/><ref name="icrc.org"/><ref name="Physicians for Human Rights 2002">{{cite book|last=Physicians for Human Rights|title=War-related sexual violence in Sierra Leone : a population-based assessment: a report|year=2002|publisher=Physicians for Human Rights|location=Boston, MA|isbn=978-1-879707-37-5}}</ref><ref name="United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs 2007">{{harvp|OCHA|2007}}</ref>

From a historical perspective, sexual violence was considered as only being perpetrated by men against women and as being commonplace and "normal" during both war and peace times from the [[Women in Greece#Women in ancient Greece|Ancient Greeks]] to the 20th century. This led to the negligence of any indications of what the methods, aims and magnitude of such violence was. It took until the end of the 20th century for sexual violence to no longer be considered a minor issue and to gradually become criminalized. Sexual violence is still used in modern warfare as recently as in the [[Rwandan genocide]] and in the [[Gaza war]], targeting both [[Sexual and gender-based violence in the 7 October attack on Israel|Israelis]] and  [[Sexual and gender-based violence against Palestinians during the Israel–Hamas war|Palestinians]].

==Definitions==

===General===
The [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) in its 2002 World Report on Violence and Health defined sexual violence as: "any sexual act, attempt to obtain a sexual act, unwanted sexual comments or advances, or acts to traffic, or otherwise directed, against a person's sexuality using coercion, by any person regardless of their relationship to the victim, in any setting, including but not limited to home and work".<ref name="WHO definition"/> WHO's definition of sexual violence includes but is not limited to rape, which is defined as physically forced or otherwise coerced penetration of the [[vulva]] or [[Human anus|anus]], using a [[Human penis|penis]], other body parts or an object. Sexual violence consists in a purposeful action of which the intention is often to inflict severe humiliation on the victims and diminish human dignity. In the case where others are forced to watch acts of sexual violence, such acts aim at intimidating the larger community.<ref name="ReferenceB" />

Other acts incorporated in sexual violence are various forms of [[sexual assault]]s, such as forced contact between mouth and penis, vulva or anus. Sexual violence can include coerced contact between the mouth and penis, vulva or anus, or acts that do not involve physical contact between the victim and the perpetrator—for example, sexual harassment, threats, and peeping.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/pdf/sv-factsheet.pdf|title=Understanding Sexual Violence|date=2014|website=www.cdc.gov/|access-date=6 May 2016}}</ref>

Coercion, with regard to sexual violence, can cover a whole spectrum of degrees of force. Apart from physical force, it may involve [[psychological intimidation]], [[blackmail]] or other threats – for instance, the threat of physical harm, of being dismissed from a job or of not obtaining a job that is sought. It may also occur when the person being attacked is unable to give consent – for instance, while drunk, drugged, asleep or mentally incapable of understanding the situation.

Such broader definitions of sexual violence are found within international law. The [[Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court]] (ICC) has established in article 7(1)(g) that "rape, sexual slavery, enforced prostitution, forced pregnancy, enforced sterilization, or any other form of sexual violence of comparable gravity" constitutes a crime against humanity.<ref>[Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (ICC), Article 7(g) Crimes against humanity]</ref> Sexual violence is further explained in the ICC's Elements of Crimes, which the Court uses in its interpretation and application of Article 7. The Elements of Crime establishes that sexual violence is:{{blockquote|An act of sexual nature against one or more persons or caused such person or persons to engage in an act of sexual nature by force, or by threat of force or coercion, such as that caused by fear of violence, duress, detention, psychological oppression or abuse of power, against such person or persons or another person, or by taking advantage of a coercive environment or such person's or persons' incapacity to give genuine consent.<ref name="icc-cpi.int" />}}The [[United Nations Special Rapporteur]] on systemic rape sexual slavery and slavery-like practices during armed conflict, in a report in 1998, stipulated that sexual violence is "any violence, physical or psychological, carried out through sexual means by targeting sexuality". This definition encompasses physical as well as psychological attacks aimed at "a person's sexual characteristics, such as forcing a person to strip naked in public, mutilating a person's genitals, or slicing off a woman's breasts".<ref name="McDougall 1998"/> The Special Rapporteur's definition also refers to situations "in which two victims are forced to perform sexual acts on one another or to harm one another in a sexual manner".<ref name="ReferenceB">{{harvp|McDougall|1998|loc=para. 22}}</ref>

The WHO lists a number of examples of circumstances that sexual violence can be committed:<ref name="WHO Ch 6">{{Cite book |last=World Health Organization, Violence Prevention Team |url=https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9241545615 |title=World report on violence and health |date=3 October 2002 |publisher=[[World Health Organization]] |isbn=92-4-154561-5 |editor-last=Krug |editor-first=Etienne G. |pages=147–181 |language=en |chapter=Chapter 6 Sexual violence |type=Report |editor-last2=Dahlberg |editor-first2=Linda L. |editor-last3=Mercy |editor-first3=James A. |editor-last4=Zwi |editor-first4=Anthony B. |editor-last5=Lozano |editor-first5=Rafael}}</ref>
* Systematic rape during armed conflict
* Rape within marriage or dating relationships
* Rape by strangers
* Unwanted sexual advances or sexual harassment, including demanding sex in return for favors
* Sexual abuse of mentally or physically disabled people
* Sexual abuse of children
* [[Forced marriage]] or cohabitation, including the [[Child marriage|marriage of children]]
* Denial of the right to use contraception or to adopt other measures to protect against sexually transmitted infections
* [[Forced abortion]]
* Violent acts against the sexual integrity of women, including [[female genital mutilation]] and obligatory inspection for [[virginity]]
* [[Forced prostitution]] and [[Human trafficking|trafficking of people]] for the purpose of sexual exploitation

A thorough definition is necessary in monitoring the prevalence of sexual violence and studying trends over time. In addition, a consistent definition helps in determining the magnitude of sexual violence and aids in comparing the problem across demographics. Consistency allows researchers to measure risk and protective factors for victimization in a uniform manner. This ultimately informs prevention and intervention efforts.

===Conflict-related and domestic sexual violence===
{{See also|War rape}}
A distinction is made between conflict-related sexual violence and domestic sexual violence:<ref name="Human Security Report 2012"/>
* ''Conflict-related sexual violence'' is sexual violence perpetrated by combatants, including rebels, militias, and government forces. The various forms of sexual violence can be used systematically in conflicts "to torture, injure, extract information, degrade, threaten, intimidate or punish".<ref>[Goetz, Ms. Anne Marie (2008), 'Introduction' at Wilton Park Conference, Women Targeted or Affected by Armed Conflict: What Role for Military Peacekeepers?, 27–28 May 2008]</ref> Sexual violence can in such cases amount to being a weapon of war.<ref>{{Cite web |last=medica mondiale |title=Sexualised wartime violence |url=https://medicamondiale.org/en/violence-against-women/sexualised-wartime-violence |access-date=4 May 2023 |website=medicamondiale.org |language=en}}</ref>
* ''Domestic sexual violence'' is sexual violence perpetrated by intimate partners and by other family/household members, and is often termed ''intimate partner violence.'' This kind of sexual violence is widespread both during conflict and in peacetime. It is commonly believed that incidents of domestic sexual violence increase in wartime and in post-conflict environments.

==Victims==

===Spectrum===
All people can fall victim to sexual violence. This includes women, men, children, and people who define themselves in other terms, e.g., [[transgender]] or non-binary individuals.

Most research, reports and studies focus on sexual violence perpetrated against women and in armed conflicts.<ref>{{Cite web |last=medica mondiale |title=Causes and consequences |url=https://medicamondiale.org/en/violence-against-women/causes-and-consequences |access-date=4 May 2023 |website=medicamondiale.org |language=en}}</ref> The majority of victims are women, but men and children are also victims of sexual violence.<ref>{{harvp|WHO|2003|p=10}}</ref> The crime may be committed in peacetime or during conflict.<ref name="Sivakumaran, Sandesh 2007 pp. 253-276">[Sivakumaran, Sandesh (2007), "Sexual Violence Against Men in Armed Conflict" in European Journal of International Law, Vol. 18, no.2, pp. 253-276]</ref>

It is possible for individuals to be targeted based on sexual orientation or gender-exhibiting behaviour. Such attacks, which are often called "[[corrective rape]]s" have been performed to conform an individual to a heterosexual orientation or to more accepted notions of behaviour for the perceived gender of the victim; asexual individuals are also particularly targeted.

===Domestic sexual violence===
{{main|Sexual violence by intimate partners}}

Domestic sexual violence includes all forms of unwanted sexual activity. It is considered abuse even if the victim may have previously engaged in consensual sexual activities with the perpetrator. Men and women can both fall victim to this type of abuse although women are more often the victims than men, and men perpetrate more often than women.<ref>Smith, M. and Segal, J. (2013). Domestic Violence and Abuse: Signs of Abuse and Abusive Relationships. HelpGuide. Available at: {{cite web|title=Domestic Violence and Abuse|url=http://www.helpguide.org/mental/domestic_violence_abuse_types_signs_causes_effects.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131201131946/http://www.helpguide.org/mental/domestic_violence_abuse_types_signs_causes_effects.htm|archive-date=1 December 2013|access-date=6 December 2013|website=HelpGuide}}</ref> Moreover, [[lesbian]], [[bisexual]], and [[Trans woman|trans women]] are more likely than [[Cisgender|cis]] and [[Heterosexuality|heterosexual]] women to experience intimate partner violence, which includes sexual violence.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Understanding Intimate Partner Violence in the LGBTQ+ Community |url=https://www.hrc.org/resources/understanding-intimate-partner-violence-in-the-lgbtq-community |access-date=29 November 2023 |website=Human Rights Campaign |language=en-US}}</ref> Male persons are more likely to commit domestic sexual violence regardless of gender identity or sexual orientation.<ref>{{Cite web| title=Evidence and Data on Trans Women's Offending Rates | url=https://committees.parliament.uk/writtenevidence/18973/pdf/ | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210113013304/https://committees.parliament.uk/writtenevidence/18973/pdf/ | archive-date=13 January 2021}}</ref>

A 2006 WHO study on physical and sexual domestic violence against women conducted across ten countries found that the prevalence of domestic sexual violence ranged, on average, between 10% and 40%. Domestic sexual violence is also considerably less common than other forms of domestic violence. The variations in the findings across and within countries suggest that this type of abuse is not inevitable and can be prevented.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Garcia-Moreno |first1=C. |last2=Jansen |first2=H. A. |last3=Ellsberg |first3=M. |last4=Heise |first4=L. |last5=Watts |first5=C. H. |date=7 October 2006 |title=Prevalence of intimate partner violence: findings from the WHO multi-country study on women's health and domestic violence |url=https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(06)69523-8/abstract |journal=[[The Lancet]] |url-access=subscription |volume=368 |issue=9543 |pages=1260–1269 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(06)69523-8 |pmid=17027732 |access-date=18 April 2024}}</ref>

===Women===
Sexual violence against women and girls can take many forms and is carried out in different situations and contexts. Women comprise the great majority of victims of sexual violence and live with the possibility of falling victim in common life situations. For instance, a 1987 study concluded that college women reported being the victims of unwanted sex that was the result of men using verbal coercion and physical force to manipulate them into it, and [[Drug-facilitated sexual assault|alcohol or drugs]] to intoxicate them into it.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Speaking of Sexuality|last=Moore|first=Nelwyn|publisher=Oxford University Press, Inc|year=2010|location=New York |page=524}}</ref>

Sexual violence is one of the most common and widespread violations that men subject women to during wartime. It also figures among the most traumatic experiences, both emotionally and psychologically, women suffer during conflict. Sexual violence, in particular rape, is often considered as a method of warfare: it is used not only to "torture, injure, extract information, degrade, displace, intimidate, punish or simply destroy", but also as a strategy to destabilize communities and demoralize other men.<ref>[ICRC (2008), Women and War, pp. 12-13]</ref><ref name="Thomas, Katie 2007 pp. 15-16">[Thomas, Katie (2007), "Sexual violence: weapon of war" in Forced Migration Review, Issue 27, January, pp. 15-16]</ref> The use of sexual violence as a weapon of war was widespread conflicts such as Rwanda, Sudan, Sierra Leone, and Kosovo.<ref name="Thomas, Katie 2007 pp. 15-16" /> The perpetrators of female-directed violence in times of conflict are often armed groups and local men.<ref>[Egeland, January (2007), "International responses" in Forced Migration Review, Issue 27, January, pp. 8-9]</ref>

Sexual violence can also be caused by the consequences of purity cultures, in which sexual activity is associated with impurity and sin.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ott |first=Tabea |date=4 July 2025 |title=Purity cultures and the ideology of 'bodies as property' as form of sexual violence |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13558358.2025.2525613 |journal=Theology & Sexuality |volume=31 |issue=1–3 |pages=54–73 |language=EN |doi=10.1080/13558358.2025.2525613 |issn=1355-8358|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

===Men===
As with sexual violence against women, sexual violence against men can take different forms, and occur in any kind of context, including at home or in the workplace, in prisons and police custody, and during war and in the military.<ref name="WHO Ch 6" /> The practice of sexually assaulting males is not confined to any geographical area of the world or its place of commission, and occurs irrespective of the victim's age.<ref name="Sivakumaran, Sandesh 2007 pp. 253-276"/><ref name="Solangon 2012 pp. 417-442">[Solangon, Sarah and Preeti Patel (2012), "Sexual violence against men in countries affected by armed conflict" in Conflict, Security and Development, 12:4, pp. 417-442]</ref> The various forms of sexual violence directed against males include rape, enforced sterilization, enforced masturbation, and genital violence (including [[Genital modification and mutilation|genital mutilation]]). In addition to the physical pain caused, sexual violence against men can also exploit local ideas of gender and sexuality to cause tremendous mental and psychological anguish for survivors that can last for years following the attack.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Eichert |first1= David|date= 2019|title= 'Homosexualization' Revisited: An Audience-Focused Theorization of Wartime Male Sexual Violence|journal= International Feminist Journal of Politics|volume= 21|issue= 3|pages= 409–433|doi= 10.1080/14616742.2018.1522264|s2cid= 150313647}}</ref>

Male-directed sexual violence is more significant than is often thought. The scope of such crimes continues, however, to be unknown largely because of poor or a lack of documentation. The under- or non-reporting of sexual violence against males may often be due to fear, confusion, guilt, shame and stigma, or a combination thereof.<ref>[Russell, Wynne (2007), "Sexual violence against men and boys" in Forced Migration Review, Issue 27, pp. 22-23]</ref><ref>[Sivakuraman, Sandesh (2005), "Male/Male Rape and the 'Taint' of Homosexuality" in Human Rights Quarterly, Volume 27, Number 4, November 2005, pp. 1274-1306]</ref> Moreover, men may be reluctant to talk about being victim of crimes of sexual violence. In this regard, the way in which societies construct the notion of masculinity plays a role. Masculinity and victimization may be considered incompatible, in particular in societies where masculinity is equated with the ability to exert power, leading to non-reporting.<ref>[<nowiki/>[[Betsy Stanko|Stanko, Elizabeth A.]] and Kathy Hobdell (1993), "Assault on Men: Masculinity and Male Victimization" in British Journal of Criminology, 33(3), pp. 400-415]</ref> The incompatibility between the conventional understanding of masculinity and victimization can arise both with regard to the attack itself and when coping with the consequences of such crimes.<ref>[Mezey, Gillian C. and Michael B. King (2000), "Treatment for Male Victims of Sexual Assault" in G. Mezey and M. B. King (eds.) Male Victims of Sexual Assault]</ref> Because of under- and non-reporting on sexual violence against men, the little evidence that exists tends to be anecdotal.<ref name="Solangon 2012 pp. 417-442"/>

In the case that sexual violence against males is recognized and reported, it is often categorized as "abuse" or "torture". This is considered a tendency to hide sexual assaults directed at men as something else, and it is believed to contribute to the poor- or lack of reporting of such crimes, and can arise from the belief that sexual violence is a women's issue and that men cannot be victims of sexual assaults.<ref name="Sivakumaran, Sandesh 2007 pp. 253-276"/>

===Children===
{{main|Child sexual abuse}}
Sexual violence against children is a form of [[child abuse]]. It includes harassment and rape, as well as the use of children in prostitution or pornography.<ref name="ReferenceUNICEF">{{Cite web|url=https://www.unicef.org/protection/57929_58006.html|title=Sexual violence against children|website=UNICEF|access-date=22 October 2019|archive-date=2 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191102092155/https://www.unicef.org/protection/57929_58006.html}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.csecworldcongress.org/|title=Home Page|website=www.csecworldcongress.org|access-date=22 October 2019}}</ref>

Sexual violence is a serious infringement upon a child's rights, and one which can result in significant physical and psychological trauma to the victim.<ref name="ReferenceUNICEF"/><ref name="ReferenceOHCHR">{{Cite web|url=https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/HRCChildren.aspx|title=OHCHR {{!}} Addressing sexual violence against children|website=www.ohchr.org|access-date=22 October 2019}}</ref> A 2002 WHO study approximated that 223 million children have been victims of sexual violence involving physical contact.<ref>Global Estimates of Health Consequences due to Violence against Children at note 8, based on estimates by G. Andrews et al., Child sexual abuse, chapter 23 in M. Ezzati et al., (2004) Comparative Quantification of Health Risks: Global and regional burden of disease attributable to selected major risk factors (Geneva, World Health Organization, 2004), volume. 2, pp. 1851-1940, and using data of the Population Division of the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs for population under 18 years.</ref> Yet, due to the sensitivity of the issue and the tendency of the crime to stay hidden, the true figure is likely to be much higher.<ref name="ReferenceUNICEF"/><ref name="ReferenceOHCHR"/>

Girls are more frequent targets for sexual abuse than boys. The WHO study found that 150 million girls were abused compared to 73 million boys. Other sources also conclude that girls face a greater risk of sexual violence, including prostitution.<ref>Pinheiro, P. (2006). Rights of the Child: Report of the Independent Expert for the United Nations Study on Violence Against Children. Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. Pp. 11, 13-14, 17.</ref>

==Causes and factors==

===Explanations===
{{main|Causes of sexual violence|Factors associated with being a victim of sexual violence|Paralysis (sexuality)}}
Explaining sexual violence is complicated by the multiple forms it takes and contexts in which it occurs. There is considerable overlap between forms of sexual violence and [[intimate partner violence]]. There are factors increasing the risk of someone being coerced into sex, factors increasing the risk of an individual person forcing sex on another person, and factors within the social environment including peers and family influencing the likelihood of rape and the reaction to it.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Chitiki|first1=Elizabeth|title=Participation in the anti-sexual violence silent protest: a sexual citizenship perspective|date=2018|publisher=Rhodes University|hdl=10962/62916}}</ref>

Research suggests that the various factors have an [[Behavioral addiction|additive effect]], so that the more factors present, the greater the likelihood of sexual violence. In addition, a particular factor may vary in importance according to the life stage.

Some 70% of people who experienced sexual violence were [[Paralysis (sexuality)|paralyzed]] before and during the assault.<ref name="Möller">{{Cite journal |last1=Möller |first1=Anna |last2=Söndergaard |first2=Hans Peter |last3=Helström |first3=Lotti |date=7 June 2017 |title=Tonic immobility during sexual assault – a common reaction predicting post-traumatic stress disorder and severe depression |journal=Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica |volume=96 |issue=8 |doi=10.1111/aogs.13174 |pages=932–938|pmid=28589545 |s2cid=23599650 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The prevailing view amongst scientists is that this form of [[tonic immobility]] occurs in humans when no other options to avoid the sexual violence are available anymore, and the brain paralyses the body in order to allow it to survive with minimal damage.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bracha |first1=H. Stefan |date=2004 |url=https://core.ac.uk/reader/86612 |title=Freeze, Flight, Fight, Fright, Faint: Adaptationist Perspectives on the Acute Stress Response Spectrum |journal=CNS Spectrums |volume=9 |issue=9 |pages=679–680|doi=10.1017/S1092852900001954 |pmid=15337864 |s2cid=8430710 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=van Minnen |first=Agnes |date=2017 |title=Verlamd van angst. Herstellen na seksueel misbruik |location=Amsterdam |publisher=Boom |page=178 |isbn=978-90-2440-898-6}}</ref>

===Risk factors===

The following are individual risks factors:<ref name="cdc.gov">{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/sexualviolence/riskprotectivefactors.html|title=Risk and Protective Factors{{!}}Sexual Violence{{!}}Violence Prevention{{!}}Injury Center{{!}}CDC|website=www.cdc.gov|access-date=6 May 2016|date=11 April 2018}}</ref>
* Alcohol and drug use
* Delinquency
* Empathic deficits
* General aggressiveness and acceptance of violence
* Early sexual initiation
* Coercive sexual fantasies
* Preference for impersonal sex and sexual-risk taking
* Exposure to sexually explicit media
* Hostility towards women
* Adherence to traditional gender role norms
* Hyper-masculinity
* Suicidal behavior
* Prior sexual victimization or perpetration

The following are relationship risk factors:<ref name="cdc.gov"/>
* Family environment characterized by physical violence and conflict
* Childhood history of physical, sexual, or emotional abuse
* Emotionally unsupportive family environment
* Poor parent-child relationships, particularly with fathers
* Association with sexually aggressive, hypermasculine, and delinquent peers
* Involvement in a violent or abusive intimate relationship

The following are community factors:<ref name="cdc.gov"/>
* Poverty
* Lack of employment opportunities
* Lack of institutional support from police and judicial system
* General tolerance of sexual violence within the community
* Weak community sanctions against sexual violence perpetrators

There is also post-catastrophe sexual opportunism. Sexual opportunism during and after catastrophic events is largely unreported. Massive spikes in human trafficking of girls and other humanitarian abuses has been reported in events such as after the devastating [[April 2015 Nepal earthquake]].<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/feature/2017/04/26/preying-disaster-how-human-trafficking-has-spiked-quake-shattered-nepal |title = Preying on disaster: How human trafficking has spiked in quake-shattered Nepal|date = 26 April 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Nepal earthquake survivors are falling prey to human trafficking|url=https://www.pri.org/stories/2016-11-15/nepal-earthquake-survivors-are-falling-prey-human-trafficking|website=TheWorld|date=15 November 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Nepal Earthquake and Human Trafficking|url=https://www.spotlightnepal.com/2017/07/09/nepal-earthquake-and-human-trafficking/|website=SPOTLIGHT}}</ref>

===Perpetrators===
Perpetrators may come from various backgrounds, and they may be someone known by the victim like a friend, a family member, an intimate partner, an acquaintance, or they may be a complete stranger.<ref>{{harvp|WHO|2003|p=7}}</ref> While it is estimated that 93% to 97% perpetrators of sexual violence are men, sexual violence is often erroneously dismissed as a [[Women's issues|women's issue]].<ref>{{Cite web| title=Quick Facts - Sexual Abuse Offenders | url=https://www.ussc.gov/sites/default/files/pdf/research-and-publications/quick-facts/Sexual_Abuse_FY21.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220802015318/https://www.ussc.gov/sites/default/files/pdf/research-and-publications/quick-facts/Sexual_Abuse_FY21.pdf | archive-date=2 August 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.abs.gov.au/media-centre/media-releases/97-cent-sexual-assault-offenders-are-male | title=97 per cent of sexual assault offenders are male {{pipe}} Australian Bureau of Statistics | date=2 February 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/85-002-x/2017001/article/14842-eng.htm | title=Self-reported sexual assault in Canada, 2014 | date=11 July 2017 }}</ref> The primary motivators behind sexually violent acts are believed to be power and control, and not, as it is widely perceived, [[sexual desire]]. Sexual violence is rather a violent, aggressive and hostile act aiming to degrade, dominate, humiliate, terrorize and control the victim.<ref>{{harvp|WHO|2003|p=9}}</ref> Some of the reasons for committing sexual violence are that it reassures the offender about his sexual adequacy, it discharges frustration, compensates for feelings of helplessness, and achieves sexual gratification.<ref>Groth AN. (2000). The rapist's view. In: Burgess AW, ed. Violence through a forensic lens. King of Prussia, PA, Nursing Spectrum.</ref>

Data on sexually violent men are somewhat limited and heavily biased towards apprehended rapists, except in the United States, where research has also been conducted on male college students. Despite the limited amount of information on sexually violent men, it appears that sexual violence is found in almost all countries (though with differences in prevalence), in all socioeconomic classes and in all age groups from childhood on. Data on sexually violent men also show that most direct their acts at women whom they already know.<ref>Heise L, Moore K, Toubia N. Sexual coercion and women's reproductive health: a focus on research. New York, NY, Population Council, 1995.</ref><ref>Violence against women: a priority health issue. Geneva, World Health Organization, 1997 (document WHO/FRH/WHD/97.8).</ref> Among the factors increasing the risk of a man committing rape are those related to attitudes and beliefs, as well as behavior arising from situations and social conditions that provide opportunities and support for abuse.

==Consequences==
{{quote box | width=25em| bgcolor=#B0C4DE |align=left|qalign=left |quote="Sexual and gender-based violence destroys people, it destroys local communities and it is extremely difficult to mend the damage.  That's why we have to do more to prevent it." — ''Norwegian Foreign Minister Ine Eriksen Soreide''<ref name="BT">{{cite news|title=Oslo pledges 100m euros to combat sexual violence|url=https://www.businesstimes.com.sg/government-economy/oslo-pledges-100m-euros-to-combat-sexual-violence|date=May 24, 2019|access-date=August 12, 2019}}</ref>}}

Sexual violence is a serious public health problem and it has both short and long term negative physical and psychological effects on health and well-being.<ref>{{harvp|WHO|2003|loc=Chapter 2: "Sexual violence: prevalence, dynamics and consequences".}}</ref> There is evidence that male and female victims of sexual violence may experience similar mental health, behavioral and social consequences.<ref>Patel V, Andrew G. (2001) Gender, sexual abuse and risk behaviours in adolescents: a cross-sectional survey in schools in Goa. National Medical Journal of India, 14(5):263–67.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Dube SR | display-authors = etal | year = 2005 | title = Long-term consequences of childhood sexual abuse by gender of victim | url = | journal = American Journal of Preventive Medicine | volume = 28 | issue = 5| pages = 430–38 | doi = 10.1016/j.amepre.2005.01.015 | pmid = 15894146 }}</ref><ref>Andrews G et al. (2004) Child sexual abuse. In: Ezzati M, et al., eds. Comparative quantification of health risks: global and regional burden of disease attributable to selected major risk factors. Geneva, World Health Organization.</ref> Watts, Hossain, and Zimmerman (2013) reported that 72.4% of the survivors had at least one gynecological complaint. 52.2% had chronic lower abdominal pain, 27.4% had abnormal vaginal bleeding, 26.6% had infertility, 25.3% had genital sores, and 22.5% had swellings in the abdomen. 18.7% of the participants also had severe psychological and surgical morbidity including alcoholism. 69.4% showed significant psychological distress, 15.8% attempted suicide, 75.6% had at least one surgical complaint. 4.8% of the participants had a positive HIV status.<ref>Watts, C, M. Hossain, C. Zimmerman (2013). In War and Sexual Violence - Mental Health Care for Survivors. The New England Journal of Medicine, 368 (23); 2152-2153</ref>

In child sexual abuse (CSA) cases, the child may develop mental health disorders that can extend into adult life especially if sexual abuse involved actual intercourse.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Jonas S., Bebbington P., McMans S., Meltzer H., Jenkins R., Kuipers E., Cooper C., King M., Brugha T. | year = 2010 | title = Sexual Abuse and Psychiatric Disorder in England: Results from the 2007 Adult Psychiatric Morbidity Survey | url = | journal = Psychol Med | volume = 10 | issue = | pages = 1–11 }}</ref><ref>Cheasty M., Clare A.W., Collins C. (1998) Relation Between Sexual Abuse in Childhood and Adult Depression: Case-Control Study. BMJ.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Briggs L., Joyce P.R. | year = 1997 | title = What Determines Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Symptomatology for Survivors of Childhood Sexual Abuse? | url = | journal = Child Abuse & Neglect | volume = 21 | issue = 6| pages = 575–582 | doi = 10.1016/S0145-2134(97)00014-8 | pmid = 9192145 }}</ref> Studies on abused boys have shown that around one in five continue in later life to molest children themselves.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Watkins B, Bentovim A | year = | title = The sexual abuse of male children and adolescents: a review of current research | url = | journal = Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry | volume = 1992 | issue = 33| pages = 197–248 }}</ref> CSA may lead to negative behavioral patterns in later life, learning difficulties as well as regression of or slower development.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Maniglio R | year = 2009 | title = The Impact of Child Sexual Abuse on Health: A Systematic Review of Reviews | url = | journal = Clinical Psychology Review | volume = 29 | issue = 7| pages = 647–657 | doi = 10.1016/j.cpr.2009.08.003 | pmid = 19733950 }}</ref>

The table below gives some examples of possible physical and psychological consequences of sexual violence:<ref>''For detailed information on consequences of sexual violence see:''<br />Jewkes R, Sen P, Garcia-Moreno C. Sexual violence. In: Krug E, Dahlberg LL, Mercy JA, et al., editors. World Report on Violence and Health. Geneva (Switzerland): World Health Organization; 2002, pp. 213–239 Felitti VJ, Anda RF, Nordenberg D, Williamson DF, Spitz AM, Edwards V, et al. Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults: the Adverse Childhood Experiences study. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 1998;14:245–258. Yuan NP, Koss MP, Stone M. The psychological consequences of sexual trauma. National On-line Resource Center on Violence Against Women. 2006. Available from: {{Cite web| title=The Psychological Consequences of Sexual Trauma | url=http://new.vawnet.org/Assoc_Files_VAWnet/AR_PsychConsequences.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131213004023/http://new.vawnet.org/Assoc_Files_VAWnet/AR_PsychConsequences.pdf | archive-date=13 December 2013 | access-date=7 December 2013}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
| colspan="4" |
'''Examples of fatal outcomes related to sexual violence'''

|-
| colspan="4" |
* Suicide
* Homicide
* AIDS-related

|-
| colspan="4" |
'''Examples of non-fatal outcomes related to sexual violence'''

|-
| colspan="2" |
Physical consequences

| colspan="2" |
Psychological consequences

|-
|
* Unwanted pregnancy
* Infertility
* Sexual dysfunction
* Chronic pelvic pain
* Sexually transmitted infections, including HIV infection and AIDS
* Obesity or anorexia
|
* Urinary tract infections
* Gastrointestinal disorders
* Gynecological and pregnancy complications
* Migraines and other frequent headaches
* Fatigue
* Nausea
|
* Rape trauma syndrome
* Post-traumatic stress disorder
* Social phobias
* Shock
* Increased substance use or abuse;
* Denial
|
* Fear
* Confusion
* Anxiety
* Guilt
* Depression
* Alienation
* Eating disorders
|}
In some cases victims of sexual violence may be stigmatized and ostracized by their families and others.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Mollica RF, Son L | year = | title = Cultural dimensions in the evaluation and treatment of sexual trauma: an overview | url = | journal = Psychiatric Clinics of North America | volume = 1989 | issue = 12| pages = 363–379 }}</ref> Societal perceptions that the victim provoked sexual violence lead to a lack of disclosure of sexual assault which is associated with even more severe psychological consequences, particularly in children.<ref>Ruggiero K.J., Smith D.W., Hanson R.F., Resnick H.S., Saunders B.E., Kilpatrick D.G., Best C.L. (2004) Is Disclosure of Childhood Rape Associated with Mental Health Outcome? Results from the National Women's Study. Child Maltreat. 9(1):62-77</ref> Thus, more interventions are needed in order to order to change societal attitudes towards sexual violence as well as efforts designed to educate those to whom the survivors may disclose the assault.<ref>McNally R.J., Bryant R.A., & Ehlers A. (2003) Does Early Psychological Intervention Promote Recovery from Posttraumatic Stress? American Psychological Society. 4(2): 45-79</ref><ref>Campbell R., Dworkin E., & Cabral G. (2009) An Ecological Model of the Impact of Sexual Assault on Women's Mental Health. Trauma Violence Abuse 10: 225-246</ref>

==Treatment==
In the [[emergency room]], emergency [[contraceptive]] medications are offered to women raped by men because about 5% of such rapes result in pregnancy.<ref name=Varcarolis>{{cite book | author = Varcarolis, Elizabeth| year = 2013 | title = Essentials of psychiatric mental health nursing | location = St. Louis | publisher = Elsevier | pages = 439–442}}</ref> [[Preventative healthcare|Preventative]] medication against [[sexually transmitted infection]]s are given to victims of all types of sexual assault (especially for the most common diseases like [[chlamydia infection|chlamydia]], [[gonorrhea]], [[trichomoniasis]] and [[bacterial vaginosis]]) and a blood serum is collected to test for STIs (such as [[HIV]], [[hepatitis B]] and [[syphilis]]).<ref name=Varcarolis/> Any survivor with abrasions are immunized for tetanus if five years have elapsed since the last immunization.<ref name=Varcarolis/> Short-term treatment with a [[benzodiazepine]] may help with acute anxiety and antidepressants may be helpful for symptoms of [[PTSD]], depression and panic attacks.<ref name=Varcarolis/>

{{See also|Post-assault treatment of sexual assault victims}}Sexual violence survivors who have lasting psychological symptoms as a result of their trauma may seek psychological counseling and therapy.
{{See also|Sexual trauma therapy}}Informal treatment, or support, includes social support, which can provide avenues for social justice engagement.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Scoglio |first1=Arielle A. J. |last2=Lincoln |first2=Alisa |last3=Kraus |first3=Shane W. |last4=Molnar |first4=Beth E. |date=22 October 2020 |title=Chipped or Whole? Listening to Survivors' Experiences With Disclosure Following Sexual Violence |journal=Journal of Interpersonal Violence |volume=37 |issue=9–10 |pages=NP6903–NP6928 |doi=10.1177/0886260520967745 |pmid=33092441 |s2cid=225049608 |issn=0886-2605}}</ref><ref name=":02">{{Cite journal |last1=Guggisberg |first1=Marika |last2=Bottino |first2=Simone |last3=Doran |first3=Christopher M. |date=26 August 2021 |title=Women's Contexts and Circumstances of Posttraumatic Growth After Sexual Victimization: A Systematic Review |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |volume=12 |article-number=699288 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2021.699288 |pmid=34512456 |pmc=8427813 |issn=1664-1078|doi-access=free }}</ref> Themes of self-reflection, social support, and activism aimed at supporting other survivors and preventing sexual violence are associated with improved functioning and facilitating positive change post trauma.<ref name=":02" /> Involvement in anti-sexual violence activism can aid survivors in making sense of the social conditions that contributed to their violation, recover self-confidence, and facilitate peer support, however survivors have also identified burn out to be prevalent in activist work.<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Strauss Swanson |first1=Charlotte |last2=Szymanski |first2=Dawn M. |date=November 2020 |title=From pain to power: An exploration of activism, the #Metoo movement, and healing from sexual assault trauma. |journal=Journal of Counseling Psychology |volume=67 |issue=6 |pages=653–668 |doi=10.1037/cou0000429 |pmid=32212761 |s2cid=214678569 |issn=1939-2168}}</ref>

==Prevention==
{{main| Initiatives to prevent sexual violence}}
The number of initiatives addressing sexual violence is limited and few have been evaluated. The approaches vary with most interventions being developed and implemented in industrialized countries. How relevant they may be in other settings is not well known. Early interventions and the provision of psychological support may prevent or minimize many of the harmful and lasting psychological impacts of sexual assault.<ref>Astbury J, and Jewkes R. (in press) Sexual Violence: A Priority Research Area for Women's Mental Health</ref><ref>Foa E.B., Davidson J.R.T., Frances A., & Ross R. (1999) Expert Consensus Guideline Series: Treatment for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder ''J Clin Psychiatry'' 60 (Suppl 16)</ref><ref>Resnick H., Acierno R.& Waldrop A.E. (2007) Randomized Controlled Evaluation of an Early Intervention to Prevent Post-Rape Psychopathology. ''Behav Res Ther.'' 45(10): 2432-2447</ref><br />The interventions that have been developed can be categorized as follows.

{| class="wikitable" style="margin:auto;"
|-
! colspan="4" | Initiatives to prevent sexual violence
|-
! Individual approaches
! Health care responses
! Community based efforts
! Legal and policy responses
|-
| Psychological care and support
| Medico-legal services
| Prevention campaigns
| Legal reform
|-
| Programmes for perpetrators
| Training for health care professionals
| Community activism by men
| International treaties
|-
| Developmental approaches
| Prophylaxis for HIV infection
| School-based programmes
| Enforcement mechanisms
|-
|
| Centres providing comprehensive care to victims of sexual assault
|
|
|}
[[File:West Midlands Police - Rape and Serious Sexual Offences Campaign (8102670311).jpg|thumb|[[West Midlands Police]] campaign poster against sexual violence]]
There is also a public health approach to prevention. Because sexual violence is widespread and directly or indirectly affects a community as whole, a community-oriented approach encourages not just victims and advocates to spread awareness and prevent sexual violence, but allocates responsibility to wider community to do so as well. The CDC's report on Sexual Violence Prevention: Beginning the Dialogue<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/pdf/svprevention-a.pdf|title=Sexual Violence Prevention: Beginning the Dialogue|website=CDC.gov}}</ref> suggests following its four step model.

# Define the Problem: Collect data about the victims, perpetrators, where it's occurring, and how often it's happening.
# Identify Risk and Protective Factors: Research the risk factors that may put people at risk for victimization of perpetration
# Develop and Test Prevention Strategies: Work with community leaders, practitioners to test different sexual violence prevention strategies
# Ensure Widespread Adoption: Implement and spread awareness about the successful prevention strategies

Child sexual abuse prevention programmes were developed in the United States of America during the 1970s and originally delivered to children. Programmes delivered to parents were developed in the 1980s and took the form of one-off meetings, two to three hours long.<ref name="Babatsikos">{{cite journal | last=Babatsikos | first=Georgia | title=Parents' knowledge, attitudes and practices about preventing child sexual abuse: a literature review | journal=Child Abuse Review | volume=19 | issue=2 | year=2010 | issn=0952-9136 | doi=10.1002/car.1102 | pages=107–129}}</ref><ref name="Hébert">{{cite journal | last1=Hébert | first1=Martine | last2=Lavoie | first2=Francine | last3=Parent | first3=Nathalie | title=An Assessment of Outcomes Following Parents' Participation in a Child Abuse Prevention Program | journal=Violence and Victims | volume=17 | issue=3 | date=1 June 2002 | issn=0886-6708 | doi=10.1891/vivi.17.3.355.33664 | pmid=12102058 | pages=355–372| s2cid=33445782 }}</ref><ref name="Wurtele Moreno Kenny">{{cite journal | last1=Wurtele | first1=Sandy K. | last2=Moreno | first2=Tasha | last3=Kenny | first3=Maureen C. | title=Evaluation of a Sexual Abuse Prevention Workshop for Parents of Young Children | journal=Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma | volume=1 | issue=4 | year=2008 | issn=1936-1521 | doi=10.1080/19361520802505768 | pages=331–340| s2cid=146651342 }}</ref><ref name="Wurtele Kenny 2010 pp. 130–152">{{cite journal | last1=Wurtele | first1=Sandy K. | last2=Kenny | first2=Maureen C. | title=Partnering with parents to prevent childhood sexual abuse | journal=Child Abuse Review | volume=19 | issue=2 | year=2010 | issn=0952-9136 | doi=10.1002/car.1112 | pages=130–152}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://library.nspcc.org.uk/HeritageScripts/Hapi.dll/filetransfer/2018FourStepsToThePreventionOfCSAInTheHome.pdf?CookieCheck=43313.725224213&filename=AA58F75CEDE68892A73FB681FE246B8371684F102152F0AA780A14959D3BCE5767137B3B2A935011CBAEC3068664FF681AA6D2524E357BAB96C006752CCD756759AD77BD1E389823A55CFAAE74B2EE64F46C611AD1724BE1AC500B025490CCB1CD8D9D26B00674E723A731951BB13FBE2976BA14838E6BBB09A4FA52BE735F27D92CBFED7FA6CFFA88BC073F0228EAA69F4D1FE158D846D5D4DD33F8F3466703AC49AD67CE927D87622D067280EF2A231A479B85D0572EF2AABC4480&DataSetName=LIVEDATA|title=Four Steps to the Prevention of Child Sexual Abuse in the Home|last=Williams|first=Mike|date=2018|website=NSPCC}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://library.nspcc.org.uk/HeritageScripts/Hapi.dll/filetransfer/2018WorkingWithACommunityToPreventCSAInTheHome.pdf?filename=AA58F75CEDE68892A73FB681FE246B8371684F102152F0AA780A14959D3BCE5767137B3B2A935011CBAEC3068664FF681AA6D2524E357BAB96C006752CCD756759AD77BD1E389823A55CFAAE74B2EE64F46C611AD1724BE1AC500B025490CCB1CD8D9D26B00674E723A731951BB13FBE2976BA14838E6BBB09A4EB52B96A653DDB0BA5CD78B3E4F0B5A317270E32E79B9F7322E26DEE69E8F9DA1AD4D57D6203CA56A4641A004820ECE9E3EB4F712C3FED9F46CEBCE377C14C55CB2FBCFD7942&DataSetName=LIVEDATA|title=Working with a community to prevent child sexual abuse in the home|last=Williams|first=Mike|date=2018|website=NSPCC|access-date=1 August 2018}}</ref> In the last 15 years, web-based programmes have been developed.

==Statistics==
The below table shows the annual rate of sexual violence reports according to the [[United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime]].<ref name="f967"/>

{{Sticky header}}{{table alignment}}
{| class="wikitable sortable sticky-header col1left" style="text-align:center;"
! Country !! Reported annual<br />sexual violence<br />per 100,000<ref name="f967">{{cite web | title=United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, crime-violent-offences, Category: Sexual violence | url=https://dataunodc.un.org/crime-violent-offences | access-date=18 May 2025}}</ref>  !! Year
|-
| {{flaglist|Albania}} || 4.8 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Algeria}} || 5.2 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Andorra}} || 49.7 || 2019
|-
| {{flaglist|Antigua and Barbuda}} || 115.7 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Argentina}} || 84.6 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Armenia}} || 6.0 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Australia}} || 137.3 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Austria}} || 59.7 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Azerbaijan}} || 0.8 || 2021
|-
| {{flaglist|Bahamas}} || 51.3 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Bahrain}} || 15.6 || 2008
|-
| {{flaglist|Barbados}} || 44.3 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Belarus}} || 9.5 || 2019
|-
| {{flaglist|Belgium}} || 99.2 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Belize}} || 36.7 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Bermuda}} || 144.7 || 2017
|-
| {{flaglist|Bhutan}} || 10.2 || 2017
|-
| {{flaglist|Bolivia}} || 80.2 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Bosnia and Herzegovina}} || 6.2 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Botswana}} || 126.6 || 2014
|-
| {{flaglist|Brazil}} || 28.3 || 2013
|-
| {{flaglist|Bulgaria}} || 9.2 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Burundi}} || 11.7 || 2014
|-
| {{flaglist|Cabo Verde}} || 31.0 || 2018
|-
| {{flaglist|Cameroon}} || 3.2 || 2014
|-
| {{flaglist|Canada}} || 106.1 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Chile}} || 94.1 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Colombia}} || 60.5 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Costa Rica}} || 181.8 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Croatia}} || 21.5 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Cyprus}} || 8.3 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Czech Republic}} || 17.2 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Denmark}} || 113.7 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Dominica}} || 134.7 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Dominican Republic}} || 47.9 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|East Timor}} || 10.6 || 2017
|-
| {{flaglist|Ecuador}} || 86.6 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Egypt}} || 0.1 || 2011
|-
| {{flaglist|El Salvador}} || 107.3 || 2022
|-
| {{flagicon|England}} [[England]] and {{flagicon|Wales}} [[Wales]] || 324.8 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Estonia}} || 31.2 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Finland}} || 109.0 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|France}} || 134.9 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Georgia}} || 11.1 || 2019
|-
| {{flaglist|Germany}} || 62.3 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Ghana}} || 5.7 || 2021
|-
| {{flaglist|Greece}} || 10.2 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Grenada}} || 232.3 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Guatemala}} || 54.4 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Guinea}} || 0.3 || 2007
|-
| {{flaglist|Guyana}} || 36.4 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Honduras}} || 28.9 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Hong Kong}} || 24.5 || 2013
|-
| {{flaglist|Hungary}} || 5.5 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Iceland}} || 130.0 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|India}} || 9.0 || 2013
|-
| {{flaglist|Indonesia}} || 1.6 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Ireland}} || 56.6 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Israel}} || 81.3 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Italy}} || 11.3 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Ivory Coast}} || 3.3 || 2008
|-
| {{flaglist|Jamaica}} || 62.2 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Japan}} || 7.1 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Jordan}} || 8.1 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Kazakhstan}} || 11.4 || 2017
|-
| {{flaglist|Kenya}} || 13.2 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Kosovo}} || 8.7 || 2019
|-
| {{flaglist|Kuwait}} || 18.2 || 2009
|-
| {{flaglist|Latvia}} || 29.3 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Lebanon}} || 0.0 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Liechtenstein}} || 50.5 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Lithuania}} || 6.3 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Luxembourg}} || 45.9 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Macau}} || 21.2 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Madagascar}} || 4.4 || 2015
|-
| {{flaglist|Malaysia}} || 10.4 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Maldives}} || 92.7 || 2017
|-
| {{flaglist|Malta}} || 29.5 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Mauritius}} || 47.5 || 2021
|-
| {{flaglist|Mexico}} || 68.9 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Moldova}} || 18.0 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Monaco}} || 13.4 || 2016
|-
| {{flaglist|Mongolia}} || 21.2 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Montenegro}} || 6.3 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Morocco}} || 16.5 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Mozambique}} || 2.7 || 2009
|-
| {{flaglist|Myanmar}} || 0.0 || 2020
|-
| {{flaglist|Namibia}} || 43.9 || 2021
|-
| {{flaglist|Netherlands}} || 27.5 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|New Zealand}} || 117.2 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Nicaragua}} || 32.4 || 2019
|-
| {{flaglist|Nigeria}} || 1.0 || 2013
|-
| {{flaglist|North Macedonia}} || 7.1 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Northern Ireland}} || 219.9 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Norway}} || 95.3 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Oman}} || 3.2 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Pakistan}} || 2.4 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Palestine}} || 5.8 || 2018
|-
| {{flaglist|Panama}} || 169.2 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Paraguay}} || 89.5 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Peru}} || 70.2 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Philippines}} || 1.8 || 2012
|-
| {{flaglist|Poland}} || 9.1 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Portugal}} || 30.9 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Puerto Rico}} || 35.4 || 2017
|-
| {{flaglist|Romania}} || 16.8 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Russia}} || 12.8 || 2020
|-
| {{flaglist|Rwanda}} || 15.6 || 2013
|-
| {{flaglist|Saint Kitts and Nevis}} || 117.7 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Saint Lucia}} || 102.1 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Saudi Arabia}} || 2.2 || 2019
|-
| {{flaglist|Scotland}} || 247.5 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Senegal}} || 0.9 || 2016
|-
| {{flaglist|Serbia}} || 7.9 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Sierra Leone}} || 10.6 || 2008
|-
| {{flaglist|Singapore}} || 33.9 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Slovakia}} || 10.7 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Slovenia}} || 16.2 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Solomon Islands}} || 24.0 || 2008
|-
| {{flaglist|South Africa}} || 86.9 || 2017
|-
| {{flaglist|South Korea}} || 43.3 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Spain}} || 39.9 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Sri Lanka}} || 11.3 || 2019
|-
| {{flaglist|St. Vincent and Grenadines}} || 125.4 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Suriname}} || 113.7 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Sweden}} || 191.5 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Switzerland}} || 33.7 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Syria}} || 0.3 || 2018
|-
| {{flaglist|São Tomé and Príncipe}} || 0.0 || 2011
|-
| {{flaglist|Tajikistan}} || 2.6 || 2011
|-
| {{flaglist|Tanzania}} || 0.1 || 2015
|-
| {{flaglist|Thailand}} || 7.5 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Trinidad and Tobago}} || 45.9 || 2020
|-
| {{flaglist|Turkey}} || 53.4 || 2014
|-
| {{flaglist|Uganda}} || 50.4 || 2016
|-
| {{flaglist|Ukraine}} || 1.6 || 2020
|-
| {{flaglist|United Arab Emirates}} || 4.9 || 2016
|-
| {{flaglist|Uruguay}} || 20.3 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Vatican City}} || 403.6 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Yemen}} || 0.3 || 2009
|-
| {{flaglist|Zimbabwe}} || 94.5 || 2023
|}

===Estimate of prevalence===
{{main| Estimates of sexual violence}} 
[[File:Diagram showing how rape statistics are formulated.GIF|thumb|upright=1.6|How [[rape statistics]] are formulated and how they correspond to the extent of the problem.]]
Sexual violence is a generally [[Under-reporting#Crime|underreported]] phenomenon, therefore available statistics are unlikely to inform about the true scale of the problem. The available data are scanty and fragmented. Police data, for instance, are often incomplete and limited. Data from medico-legal clinics, on the other hand, may be biased towards the more violent incidents of sexual abuse. In addition, the proportion of people who seek medical services for immediate problems related to sexual violence is also relatively small.

Reasons for non-reporting include shame and embarrassment, fear of not being believed, fear of the perpetrator of the crime, fear of the legal process, or disbelief that the police would be able to do anything to help them.<ref>Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) (1996) Women's Safety Australia 1996, Australian Bureau of Statistics, Canberra</ref> Men are even more reluctant to report sexual violence due to extreme embarrassment and concerns about opinions of other people, their masculinity and the fact that they were unable to prevent the assault.<ref>{{harvp|WHO|2003|p=16}}</ref> Thus information about the extent of sexual violence against males is especially limited. Child sexual abuse is also largely underreported. Most of the data comes from asking adults about their past experiences.<ref>Andrews G, Corry J, Slade T, Issakidis C, and Swanston H. (2004) Comparative risk assessment: child sexual abuse. Final report. Geneva, World Health Organization</ref>

One of the reasons for non-reporting is that children lack independent access to resources. They normally require the cooperation of one of their parents who may refuse to believe their child, or may, in fact, be the perpetrator.<ref>Cook B, David F, Grant A. (2001) Sexual Violence in Australia. Australian Institute of Criminology Research and Public Policy Series No. 36</ref>

Data on sexual violence typically come from police, clinical settings, [[nongovernmental organizations]] and [[survey research]]. The relationship between these sources and the global magnitude of the problem of sexual violence may be viewed as corresponding to an [[iceberg]] floating in water (see diagram).<ref name="ReferenceA">Jewkes R, Abrahams N. The epidemiology of rape and sexual coercion in South Africa: an overview. Social Science and Medicine (in press).</ref> The small visible tip represents cases reported to police. A larger section may be elucidated through survey research and the work of nongovernmental organizations.

The percentage of population which was according to [[statistical survey]]s victim to sexual violence in the previous 12 months is shown below.<ref name="s523">{{cite web | title=United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, dp-sdg-16-1-3, Prevalence rate of sexual violence (%) | website=dataUNODC | url=https://dataunodc.un.org/dp-sdg-16-1-3 | access-date=13 August 2025}}</ref>
{{Sticky header}}{{table alignment}}
{| class="wikitable sortable sticky-header col1left" style="text-align:center;"
! Country !! Female !! Male !! Total !! Year
|-
| {{flaglist|Argentina}}  || 2.7 || 0.4 || 1.7 || 2016
|-
| {{flaglist|Australia}}  || 0.7 || 0.3 || 0.5 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Austria}}  || 1.1 || - || - || 2021
|-
| {{flaglist|Belgium}}  || 1.6 || 0.4 || 1.0 || 2021
|-
| {{flaglist|Brazil}}  || 1.0 || 0.4 || 0.8 || 2019
|-
| {{flaglist|Cameroon}}  || 5.2 || 2.7 || 4.0 || 2018
|-
| {{flaglist|Canada}}  || 3.7 || 0.5 || 2.2 || 2014
|-
| {{flagicon|England}} [[England]] and {{flagicon|Wales}} [[Wales]]  || 4.5 || 1.2 || 2.9 || 2018
|-
| {{flaglist|Finland}}  || 3.0 || 0.5 || 1.7 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|France}}  || 0.9 || 0.2 || 0.5 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Germany}}  || 3.6 || 0.3 || 2.1 || 2020
|-
| {{flaglist|Guatemala}}  || 3.9 || 0.3 || - || 2019
|-
| {{flaglist|Guyana}}  || 1.4 || - || - || 2017
|-
| {{flaglist|Israel}}  || 0.6 || - || 0.4 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Latvia}}  || 9.0 || 0.5 || 5.0 || 2021
|-
| {{flaglist|Luxembourg}}  || 3.8 || 0.9 || 2.3 || 2020
|-
| {{flaglist|Mexico}}  || 2.3 || 0.3 || 1.4 || 2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Peru}}  || 2.2 || - || - || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Philippines}}  || 2.0 || - || - || 2017
|-
| {{flaglist|Portugal}}  || 0.4 || - || 0.3 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Serbia}}  || 0.4 || - || - || 2021
|-
| {{flaglist|Slovenia}}  || 0.7 || 0.2 || 0.4 || 2020
|-
| {{flaglist|South Korea}}  || - || - || 0.5 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|St. Vincent and Grenadines}}  || 5.0 || 24.0 || - || 2021
|-
| {{flaglist|Switzerland}}  || 0.5 || 0.1 || 0.3 || 2021
|-
| {{flaglist|Thailand}}  || - || - || 0.0 || 2016
|-
| {{flaglist|Uganda}}  || 12.7 || 4.0 || - || 2016
|-
| {{flaglist|United States of America}}  || - || - || 0.1 || 2023
|}

==Culture==
Sexual violence occurs in all cultures with varying definitions of what constitutes it.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rozée|first=Patricia|date=1993|title=Forbidden or forgiven? Rape in cross-cultural perspective|journal=Psychology of Women Quarterly|doi=10.1111/j.1471-6402.1993.tb00658.x|s2cid=146700562|volume=17|pages=499–514}}</ref> It is possible that in cultures where man and his manly role are prized better, additional perceived or real power may encourage them to think of their "rights".<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Daley|first1=Ellen|last2=Noland|first2=Virginia|date=2001|title=Intimate Partner Violence in College Students: A Cross-Cultural Comparison|url=http://js.sagamorepub.com/gjhep/article/viewFile/4034/3518|journal=The International Electronic Journal of Health Education|archive-date=26 June 2017|access-date=6 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170626115625/http://js.sagamorepub.com/gjhep/article/viewFile/4034/3518}}</ref> If a woman resists sexual intercourse, it may be perceived as a direct threat by men to their masculinity, triggering a crisis of male identity and contributing to sexual control and violence as it is seen as a way of resolving this crisis. It has been reported that victims who attempt resistance or escape from the situation are more likely to be brutalized by the offender,[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3777345/#ref32 32] thereby giving an inflated sense of power to the abuser as was seen in the New Delhi gang rape case of ''Nirbhaya'' in December 2012. It is likely that in patriarchal cultures, any resistance from the woman victim is perceived by the offender as an insult to his "manhood" further provoking him to resort to more violent means to control the victim.

There is a theory that explains sexual violence as socioculturally constructed which disproves the biological framework that suggests sexual violence is a result of a man's sexual urges. This theory looks to prove that sexual violence is a natural behavior that originates from the "biological propensity to reproduce have a net positive effect on the person's (resorting to sexual violence) reproductive success.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kalra|first1=Gurvinder|last2=Bhugra|first2=Dinesh|date=2013-07-01|title=Sexual violence against women: Understanding cross-cultural intersections|journal=Indian Journal of Psychiatry|language=en|volume=55|issue=3|pages=244–9|doi=10.4103/0019-5545.117139|pmc=3777345|pmid=24082244 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The sociocultural theory takes into account gender power equations, moral values, male dominance, and attitudes toward violence."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sanday|first=Peggy Reeves|date=1 October 1981|title=The Socio-Cultural Context of Rape: A Cross-Cultural Study|journal=Journal of Social Issues|language=en|volume=37|issue=4|pages=5–27|doi=10.1111/j.1540-4560.1981.tb01068.x|issn=1540-4560}}</ref>

==Feminism==
Feminist scholars and activists have made unique contributions to the discourse on sexual violence against women and men
. They have proposed that the root causes of sexual violence lie in the social structure characterized by severe inequality, in which the male is dominant and the female exploited. Feminists also hold that the weak institutional arrangements in place to address consequences of sexual violence, as well as unfair treatment of the victims (or survivors, an alternatively proposed terminology) are direct reflections of the ways in which society regards men, women and the sexual relations between them. Furthermore, feminist critique has led to a closer convergence between feminism and psychology in the study of sexual violence.<ref>Ward, C. A. (1995). Attitudes toward rape: Feminist and social psychological perspectives (Vol. 8). Sage.</ref>

Conveying a connection between gender-based sexual violence and concepts of power-seeking and subordination was pioneered in the 1970s and has proven to be very influential. Within this context, rape has been assessed as a foremost tool of intimidation used by men against women.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.susanbrownmiller.com/susanbrownmiller/html/against_our_will.html|title=Against Our Will|website=www.susanbrownmiller.com|access-date=22 October 2019}}</ref> Similarly, domestic violence can be viewed as a particularly severe form of patriarchal domination and oppression.<ref>Dobash, R. E., & Dobash, R. (1979). Violence against wives: A case against the patriarchy (pp. 179-206). New York: Free Press.</ref>

Some [[feminist views on pornography]] also suggest a link between rape and pornography, by which pornography that degrades, humiliates and exercises violence upon the female body feeds a culture which validates this kind of behavior.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.susanbrownmiller.com/susanbrownmiller/html/antiporno.html|title=AntiPorno|website=www.susanbrownmiller.com|access-date=22 October 2019}}</ref> There are also feminists positing that certain [[feminist pornography|feminist forms of pornography]] could actually stimulate emancipation.<ref>{{Cite news|author=Ruby Sanders|date=25 October 2019|title=Klagen over misstanden, maar zelf betalen voor porno, hó maar|language=nl|trans-title=Complain about abuses, but pay for porn yourself|work=Oneworld|url=https://www.oneworld.nl/lezen/seks-gender/klagen-over-misstanden-maar-zelf-betalen-voor-porno-ho-maar/|access-date=9 March 2020}}</ref>

An intersection of Marxist and feminist theories has been utilized to offer additional insight into the topic of sexual violence. According to this argument, labor and sex are analogous in the roles they play in their respective overarching exploitative systems: both are produced by the exploited person and both are forcefully taken away from them.<ref>MacKinnon, C. A. (1982). Feminism, Marxism, method, and the state: An agenda for theory. Signs, 7(3), 515-544.</ref>

Some feminist scholars have illuminated the idea that all women cannot have uniformly similar experiences of sexual violence or its aftermath. For instance, race and ethnicity are significant determinants of these experiences, which serves to show that approaches that are exclusively feminist or exclusively anti-racist in nature are misguided. Instead, a proposition has been made for use of intersectionality when studying these cases.<ref>Crenshaw, K. (1991). Mapping the margins: Intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against women of color. Stanford law review, 1241-1299.</ref>

Feminist ideas have served as catalysts for transnational movements to combat violence against women, including sexual violence. This agenda has also been adopted by feminist organizations, as illustrated by the current initiative titled the Rape Task Force of the [[National Organization for Women]] (NOW).

Among other countries, feminists and women's rights activists in [[Egypt]] faced extreme challenges in combatting the grave issues of sexual violence. In 2020, the country witnessed an escalated [[Me Too movement|#MeToo movement]]. However, it took a few months for the spark to fade. In 2021, the authorities in Egypt arrested six witnesses of a gang rape case that took place in 2014 at the country's Cairo hotel. It highlighted the difficulties that the rights defenders were facing.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/02/world/middleeast/egypt-metoo-sexual-harassment-ashraf.html|title=The 22-Year-Old Force Behind Egypt's Growing #MeToo Movement|access-date=2 October 2020|website=The New York Times|date=2 October 2020|last1=Walsh|first1=Declan}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.ft.com/content/d8d0f901-4cb8-4b8e-b3ee-e8f88d2c2df5|title=Sexual violence in the Arab world: Egypt case shows the struggle for women's rights|access-date=14 February 2021|website=The Financial Times|date=14 February 2021|last1=Saleh|first1=Heba}}</ref>

==History==
{{Further|History of rape}}
{{More citations needed section|date=September 2022}}

===Antiquity===
{{Further|Raptio}}
The oldest textual references to sexual violence can be traced back to, amongst other cultures, the [[Women in Greece#Women in ancient Greece|ancient Greeks]] and [[Women in ancient Rome|Romans]], where women were seen as property without any rights over their bodies or sexual integrity. Rape of women during peace times was therefore considered as property crime only affecting their owners: the husbands, sons or brothers.<ref>{{cite book|editor1=Anne-Marie de Brouwer |editor2=Charlotte Ku |editor3=Renée G. Römkens |editor4=Larissa J. Herik|title=Sexual violence as an international crime: interdisciplinary approaches|year=1120|publisher=Intersentia|location=Cambridge [etc.]|isbn=978-1-78068-002-6}}</ref> A linguistic clue can still be found in verb ''to rape'', which derives from [[Latin]] ''[[wikt:rapio|rapere]]'', which originally meant 'to steal, seize, rob, carry away'; any infringement or damage to a woman or girl was primarily considered to be an offence against her husband if she was married, or against her father if she was not, and a crime against the community and public morality instead of a crime against the individual woman or girl herself.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rider |first=Anthony Olen |date=1975 |title=Hearsay Evidence: A Comprehensive Manual for the Law Enforcement Officer, Volumes 5-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gWweAQAAMAAJ |location=Huntsville, Texas |publisher=[[Sam Houston State University|Institute of Contemporary Corrections and the Behavioral Sciences]] |page=118 |access-date=9 March 2020}}</ref> Generally speaking, the [[victim blaming|victim was blamed]] for having put the family to shame, especially if she was not married yet and lost her [[virginity]] during the rape; many cultures tried to resolve this by [[marry-your-rapist law|allowing the rapist to marry the victim]] in order to restore the 'family honour' of the latter.<ref name="newsdeeply.com">{{Cite news|last=Dehnert|first=Elspeth|date=22 August 2017|title=As Lebanon, Jordan, Tunisia End 'Marry-Your-Rapist' Laws, Where Next?|work=News Deeply|url=https://www.newsdeeply.com/womenandgirls/articles/2017/08/22/as-lebanon-jordan-tunisia-end-marry-your-rapist-laws-where-next|access-date=16 November 2017}}</ref> During armed conflict sexual violence, particularly rape, was perceived as a normal byproduct of war, as "a socially acceptable behavior well within the rules of warfare".<ref>{{cite book|last=Brownmiller|first=Susan|title=Against our will: men, women, and rape|year=1993|publisher=Fawcett Books|location=New York|isbn=978-0-449-90820-4|edition=1st Ballantine Books}}</ref> In Ancient Greece, women were sometimes the reason for the attack of a city, conquering women as new wives or concubines, legitimate booty, as slaves or as trophies. The fact that sexual violence to women was commonplace during both war and peace times led to the negligence of any indications of what the methods, aims and magnitude of such violence was; it was face- and nameless.<ref>{{harvp|Heineman|2011|p=76}}</ref>

===Middle Ages and early modern period===
The European [[Middle Ages]] strongly reflected a patriarchal view of sexual violence. During times of peace, female spouses had no right to refuse sex with their husbands.<ref>{{cite journal|last=D'Cruze|first=Shani|title=Approaching the History of Rape and Sexual Violence: Notes towards Research|journal=[[Women's History Review]]|year=2011|volume=1|issue=3|page=382|doi=10.1080/09612029300200016|doi-access=free}}</ref> Even though laws punishing rapes existed, sexual violence was usually considered as justified or inconsequential. Usually, depending on the elite's views, which perceived sexual violence as a minor issue, sexual violence was not prosecuted.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ruggiero|first=Guido|title=Sexual Criminality in the Early Renaissance: Venice 1338-1358|journal=Journal of Social History|year=1975|volume=8|issue=4|pages=18–37|doi=10.1353/jsh/8.4.18}}</ref> This view was also transferred to the colonies. In Alta California, for example, the Catholic clergy relied heavily on corporal punishment such as flogging, placing in the [[stocks]] or shackling of [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Amerindian]] women within their programs of Christianization.<ref>{{harvp|Heineman|2011|p=54}}</ref> Within this context of trying to restore a certain social order, women were often the victims of sexual violence if politically active and posing a threat to the existing order.<ref>{{harvp|Heineman|2011|p=136}}</ref> With regard to times of war, jurists, writers and scholars argued that as soon as war is just, no boundaries would be set towards methods used in order to achieve victory. However, with [[Alberico Gentili]] (1552–1608) discussions started that suffering of women should be reduced and rape prohibited during peace and war times. However, this view was not accepted for a long time, as women and children not participating in the fighting were still considered as being the enemy and the patriarchal view on women prevailed during peace and war times.{{citation needed|date=March 2020}}

===Codification of laws of war on gender-related crimes (c. 1800–1945)===
Gradually, over the centuries laws and customs of war changed in direction of a wider understanding of sexual violence and the need to protect potential victims.{{citation needed|date=March 2020|reason=Is this true? Clack 2018 seems to argue that the rise of legal prohibitions on sexual violence and protection of potential victims was rather sudden and recent in the 20th century, with the Lieber Code being a rare outlier.}} During the [[American Civil War]] (1861–1865), the US started to codify the customary rules regulating land-based wars. On 24 April 1863, President [[Abraham Lincoln]] tried to ''inter alia'' regulate the sexual conduct of Union soldiers towards civilians in hostile territory with the [[Lieber Code]], which contained one of the first explicit prohibitions on rape.<ref name="Kuo 2002 306">{{cite journal|last=Kuo|first=Peggy|url=https://scholarlycommons.law.case.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1467&context=jil|title=Prosecuting Crimes of Sexual Violence in an International Tribunal|journal=Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law|year=2002|volume=34|pages=306–307}}</ref> Paragraphs 44 and 47 of the Lieber Code contained provisions prohibiting several crimes including "all rape" by an American soldier in a hostile country against its inhabitants "under the penalty of death, or such other severe punishment as may seem adequate for the gravity of the offense".<ref>{{Cite web|author=Francis Lieber|display-authors=etal|date=24 April 1863|title=The Lieber Code of 1863|url=http://www.civilwarhome.com/liebercode.htm|access-date=10 March 2020|website=civil war home|publisher=United States War Department}}</ref> Thus, the only enforcement mechanisms were the military commanders themselves, having the right to execute the soldiers immediately.<ref name="Kuo 2002 306"/>

Scholars usually interpret Article 46 of the Annex to the Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land of the [[Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907|Second Hague Convention]] (18 October 1907), which stipulated that "Family honour and rights ... must be respected",<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/ihl/WebART/195-200056 |title=Annex to the Convention: Regulations Respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land - Section III: Military Authority over the Territory of the Hostile State - Regulations: Art. 46. |work=IHL databases |publisher=[[International Committee of the Red Cross]] |date=18 October 1907 |access-date=10 March 2020}}</ref> to be an implicit prohibition of sexual assault<ref name="Clack">{{Cite book |last=Clark |first=Janine Natalya |date=2018 |title=Rape, Sexual Violence and Transitional Justice Challenges: Lessons from Bosnia Herzegovina |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e6QzDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT28 |location=Abingdon |publisher=Routledge |page=28 |isbn=978-1-351-71857-8 |access-date=10 March 2020}}</ref> or rape.<ref name="Kuo 2002 306"/> However, because sexual assault was once again conceptualised as a crime of honour against the family instead of a violent crime against the individual person, Clack (2018) regarded this provision as "a step backwards from the Lieber Code".<ref name="Clack"/>
[[File:Control Council Law No. 10 excerpt - rape listed as a crime against humanity.png|thumb|200px|Control Council Law No. 10 (1945) listed 'rape' as a 'crime against humanity'.]]
After [[World War I]], a War Crimes Commission was established in order to bring war criminals before justice.{{citation needed|date=March 2020}} Forced prostitution and rape was seen as grave violation of the customs and laws of war.{{citation needed|date=March 2020}} After [[World War II]] (1939–1945), under the [[International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg]] (IMT) and the [[International Military Tribunal for the Far East]] at [[Tokyo]] (IMTFE), the spectrum of sexual violence as war crime was widened{{citation needed|date=March 2020}} even though rape was not explicitly mentioned in the final verdicts.<ref name="Kuo 2002 306"/><ref name="Clack"/> The transcripts of the trials did contain evidence of rape, sexual slavery, [[Sexual sadism disorder|sexual sadism]], sexual torture, sexual mutilation, forced sterilization, forced abortion, forced nudity, forced pornography and forced prostitution. But only after the Tokyo Tribunal, when Japanese commanders were prosecuted – for the first time based on the chain of command – for not having prevented rape and sexual slavery of [[comfort women]] during the Second World War, was sexual violence gradually considered as a grave war crime in itself.<ref>{{harvp|Campanaro|2002|p=2564}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Argibay|first=Carmen M.|title=Sexual Slavery and the "Comfort Women" of World War II|journal=Berkeley Journal of International Law|year=2003|volume=21|page=387}}</ref> This view was expressed for the first time after Nuremberg and Tokyo in the second series of trials for the prosecution of "lesser" war criminals in [[Allied-occupied Germany]], where the [[Allied Control Council|Allied]] {{interlanguage link|Control Council Law No. 10|de|Kontrollratsgesetz Nr. 10}} (Article II §1.c), enacted on 20 December 1945, explicitly listed rape as constituting a "crime against humanity".<ref>{{cite web|title=Control Council Law No. 10|url=http://avalon.law.yale.edu/imt/imt10.asp|publisher=Yale Law School}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Campanaro|2002|p=2565}}</ref>

===International legal framework (after 1945)===
{{Main|International framework of sexual violence}}
After 1945, an extensive amount of both [[Hard law|hard]] and [[soft law]] instruments have set rules, standards and norms for the protection of victims of sexual offences. These include the [[Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women]] (CEDAW, United Nations 1979);<ref>{{cite web|title=Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (1979), art. 6|url=https://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/text/econvention.htm#article6|access-date=29 November 2013}}</ref> the [[Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action]] (United Nations June 1993); [[Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women]] (United Nations December 1993); the [[Belém do Pará Convention|Inter-American Convention on the Prevention, Punishment and Eradication of Violence Against Women (Belém do Pará Convention)]] ([[Organization of American States]] 1994);<ref>{{cite web|title=Inter-American Convention on the Prevention, Punishment and Eradication of Violence Against Women|url=https://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/instree/brazil1994.html|website=University of Minnesota Human Rights Library|access-date=9 April 2015}}</ref> the [[Maputo Protocol|Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa (Maputo Protocol)]] ([[African Union]] 2003), and the [[Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence|Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence (Istanbul Convention)]] ([[Council of Europe]] 2011).

The resulting, ever growing body of [[international humanitarian law]] (IHL) strongly prohibits sexual violence in all armed conflicts, and [[international human rights law]] (IHRL) and [[international customary law]] strongly prohibit it at all times.<ref name="Lindsey 2001 57–61"/><ref name="icrc.org"/><ref name="Physicians for Human Rights 2002"/><ref name="United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs 2007"/> IHL ensures women are protected through a two-tiered approach, being covered by general (equal protection as men) and specific protections. IHL mandates special protections to women, according to their additional needs when they are more vulnerable, such as widows, the sick and wounded, migrants, the internally displaced, or those held in detention.<ref name="Customary IHL. Rule 134 on Women">{{cite web|title=Customary IHL. Rule 134 on Women|url=http://www.icrc.org/customary-ihl/eng/docs/v1_cha_chapter39_rule134?OpenDocument&highlight=134|publisher=ICRC|access-date=28 November 2013}}</ref> Meanwhile, [[second-wave feminism|second-wave feminists]] launched the [[anti-rape movement]] in the 1960s and 1970s, leading to [[Marital rape laws by country|national legal prohibitions]] on [[marital rape]] by most countries around the world by the 2010s,<ref name="Walby">{{Cite book |last=Walby |first=Sylvia |date=2015 |title=Stopping rape: Towards a comprehensive policy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mgBpDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA123 |location=Bristol |publisher=Policy Press |page=123 |isbn=978-1-4473-5156-6 |access-date=7 October 2019}}</ref> while [[marry-your-rapist law]]s were increasingly abolished in the same decades.<ref name="Sengupta">{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/07/22/world/middleeast/marry-your-rapist-laws-middle-east.html |title=One by One, Marry-Your-Rapist Laws Are Falling in the Middle East |author=[[Somini Sengupta]] |work=The New York Times |date=22 July 2017 |access-date=4 August 2017}}</ref><ref name=hrw-leb>{{Cite web |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2016/12/19/lebanon-reform-rape-laws |title=Lebanon: Reform Rape Laws |work=Human Rights Watch |date=19 December 2016 |access-date=4 August 2017}}</ref>

Groundbreaking [[case law]] both by the ''ad hoc'' Tribunals of [[International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda]] (ICTR) and [[International Criminal Tribunal for former Yugoslavia]] (ICTY) established acts of [[war rape|rape]] and sexual violence as [[Genocide#Crime|crimes of genocide]] and [[crimes against humanity]].<ref>{{harvp|Lindsey|2001|pp=57–58}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Bassiouni|first=M. Cherif|title=The Commission of Experts established pursuant to Security Council resolution 780: Investigating violations of international humanitarian law in the former Yugoslavia|year=1996|publisher=International Human Rights Law Institute, DePaul University|location=Chicago, IL|isbn=978-1-889001-01-2|page=31}}</ref> ICTR's conviction of [[Jean-Paul Akayesu]] for [[genocide]] and [[crimes against humanity]] on 2 September 1998 is the first case in which sexual violence is perceived as an integral part of [[genocide]] as defined in the [[Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide]].<ref name="unictr.org">{{cite web|title=The Prosecutor v. Jean-Paul Akayesu, Case No. ICTR-96-4-T|url=http://www.unictr.org/Portals/0/Case/English/Akayesu/judgement/akay001.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120121023226/http://www.unictr.org/Portals/0/Case/English/Akayesu/judgement/akay001.pdf|archive-date=21 January 2012|access-date=28 November 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=St-Germain|first1=Tonia|url=https://archive.org/details/conflictrelateds0000unse/page/55|title=Conflict-related sexual violence: international law, local responses|last2=Dewey|first2=Susan|publisher=Kumarian Press|year=2012|isbn=978-1-56549-504-3|location=Sterling, Va.|pages=[https://archive.org/details/conflictrelateds0000unse/page/55 55–57]}}</ref> The first trial solely focused on the perpetration of systematic sexual violence ([[rape camps]]) and on [[crimes against humanity]] committed against women and girls was the [[Foča massacres#War crime trials|Foča case]], a ruling before the ICTY.<ref>{{cite web|title=Case information sheet on the Foca Case (Kunarac, Kovac & Vukovic) (IT-96-23 and 23/1)|url=http://www.icty.org/x/cases/kunarac/cis/en/cis_kunarac_al_en.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The Prosecutor v. Dragoljub Kunarac, Radomir Kovac, and Zoran Vukovic, IT-96-23-T& IT-96-23/1-T|url=http://www.icty.org/x/cases/kunarac/tjug/en/kun-tj010222e.pdf}}</ref> The [[Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court|Statute]] of the [[International Criminal Court]] (ICC) also explicitly incorporates rape and other forms of sexual violence in the list of [[war crimes]] and therefore recognizes sexual violence as a grave breach of IHL and of the [[Geneva Conventions]].<ref name="Physicians for Human Rights 2002"/><ref>{{cite web|title=Statute of the International Criminal Court (Rome Statute)|url=http://www.icc-cpi.int/NR/rdonlyres/EA9AEFF7-5752-4F84-BE94-0A655EB30E16/0/Rome_Statute_English.pdf|access-date=28 November 2013|archive-date=25 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210425051546/https://www.icc-cpi.int/nr/rdonlyres/ea9aeff7-5752-4f84-be94-0a655eb30e16/0/rome_statute_english.pdf}}</ref>

The [[UN Security Council]], [[ECOSOC]] and the [[UN Commission on Human Rights]] do not take into account the nature of the conflict with respect to the protection of women in war time.<ref name="Customary IHL. Rule 134 on Women"/> Three reports from the UN Secretary-General and five UN Security Council resolutions specifically address sexual violence. [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1888]] (2009), in particular, created the Office of the Special Representative of the Secretary General for Sexual Violence in Conflict (SRSG-SVC). The Office highlighted six priorities and identified eight priority countries: [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Central African Republic]] (CAR), [[Colombia]], [[Côte d'Ivoire]], [[Democratic Republic of Congo]] (DRC), [[Liberia]], [[South Sudan]], and [[Sudan]]. SRSG-SVC is also engaged in the Middle East ([[Syria]]) and in Asia and the Pacific ([[Cambodia]]).<ref name="un">{{cite web|title=Office of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General for Sexual Violence in Conflict|url=https://www.un.org/sexualviolenceinconflict/about-us/about-the-office/|access-date=28 November 2013}}</ref> Despite strong prohibitions of international law, enforcement mechanisms against sexual violence are fragile or do not exist in many parts of the world.<ref name="Lindsey 2001 57–61"/><ref name="icrc.org"/><ref name="Physicians for Human Rights 2002"/><ref name="United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs 2007"/>

== Today ==
{{See also|Yazidi genocide|Rwandan Genocide|Sexual and gender-based violence in the October 7 attacks|Sexual and gender-based violence against Palestinians during the Gaza war}}
[[File:Cape Town anti-femicide demonstration 04.jpg|thumb|Demonstration against [[sexual violence in South Africa]] following the [[murder of Uyinene Mrwetyana]], 2019]]
Sexual violence against women in modern warfare constitutes a grave violation of human rights, with devastating consequences that persist long after conflicts cease. In conflicts such as the [[Bosnian War]] in the 1990s, women endured widespread sexual violence, including systematic rape camps, as a tool of ethnic cleansing. The [[Rwandan genocide|Rwandan Genocide]] in 1994 also saw the use of sexual violence as a weapon, with an estimated 250,000 to 500,000 women experiencing sexual assault.<ref>Georgia State University ScholarWorks @ Georgia State University Anthropology Faculty Publications Department of Anthropology 2015 Rape as a Weapon of Genocide: Gender, Patriarchy, and Sexual Violence in the Rwandan Genocide https://scholarworks.gsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1013&context=anthro_facpub</ref>

The conflict in Syria has witnessed a disturbing pattern of sexual violence, including rape, forced marriage, and human trafficking. The [[Yazidis|Yazidi]] women in Iraq faced horrific [[Sexual violence in the Iraqi insurgency|atrocities]] at the hands of [[Islamic State|ISIS]], experiencing sexual slavery and systemic violence.<ref>The prosecution at national level of sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV) committed by the Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) The Hague, July 2017 https://www.eurojust.europa.eu/sites/default/files/Partners/Genocide/2017-07_Prosecution-at-national-level-of-sexual-and-gender-based-violence_EN.pdf</ref>

During [[October 7 attacks|Hamas' surprise attack on Israel]], [[Sexual and gender-based violence in the October 7 attacks|acts of sexual violence against Israelis have been reported]], including rape, mutilation and torture.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Epstein |first=Jake |title=Sheryl Sandberg says rape should never be a tool of war and the horrors of the Hamas terror attacks can't be swept under the rug |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/hamas-attacks-horrors-rape-cant-be-war-tool-sheryl-sandberg-2023-11 |access-date=23 November 2023 |website=Business Insider |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=22 November 2023 |title=The battle to highlight crimes against women in Hamas' attack on Israel |url=https://www.calcalistech.com/ctechnews/article/sk8tgmina |access-date=23 November 2023 |website=ctech |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Tapper |first=Jake |date=18 November 2023 |title=Israel investigates sexual violence committed by Hamas as part of October 7 horror |url=https://www.cnn.com/2023/11/17/world/israel-investigates-sexual-violence-hamas/index.html |access-date=23 November 2023 |website=CNN |language=en}}</ref> [[Sexual and gender-based violence against Palestinians during the Gaza war|Similar atrocities have been reported against Palestinians]], including rape, sexualized torture and mutilation.<ref>{{cite press release|url=https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2024/02/israelopt-un-experts-appalled-reported-human-rights-violations-against|title=Israel/oPt: UN experts appalled by reported human rights violations against Palestinian women and girls|date=19 February 2024|location=Geneva, Switzerland|publisher=[[Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240612110226/https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2024/02/israelopt-un-experts-appalled-reported-human-rights-violations-against|archive-date=12 June 2024|url-status=live|access-date=12 June 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2024/feb/22/claims-of-israeli-sexual-assault-of-palestinian-women-are-credible-un-panel-says|title=Claims of Israeli sexual assault of Palestinian women are credible, UN panel says|last=Borger|first=Julian|date=22 February 2024|work=[[The Guardian]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240610145651/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2024/feb/22/claims-of-israeli-sexual-assault-of-palestinian-women-are-credible-un-panel-says|archive-date=10 June 2024|url-status=live|access-date=12 June 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.spiegel.de/international/world/fists-boots-rifle-butts-and-clubs-abuse-of-palestinian-prisoners-in-israeli-detention-facilities-a-724d3f70-2175-4ced-a23d-4452cd81024f|title=Allegations of Abuse of Palestinian Prisoners in Israeli Detention Facilities|last=Schröder|first=Thore|date=7 June 2024|work=[[Der Spiegel]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240608221319/https://www.spiegel.de/international/world/fists-boots-rifle-butts-and-clubs-abuse-of-palestinian-prisoners-in-israeli-detention-facilities-a-724d3f70-2175-4ced-a23d-4452cd81024f|archive-date=8 June 2024|url-status=live|access-date=12 June 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/global-health/terror-and-security/sexual-violence-against-palestinian-women-un-report/|title=Sexual violence against Palestinian women 'may be higher than first thought', says UN expert|last=Cullinan|first=Maeve|date=21 February 2024|work=[[The Daily Telegraph|The Telegraph]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240501112013/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/global-health/terror-and-security/sexual-violence-against-palestinian-women-un-report/|archive-date=1 May 2024|url-status=live|access-date=12 June 2024}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Carla Del Ponte]]
* [[Centres Against Sexual Assault]] Victoria, Australia
* [[Gender-related violence]]
* [[Louise Arbour]]
* [[Post-assault treatment of sexual assault victims]]
* [[Ritual servitude]]
* [[Rwandan genocide]]
* [[Sexual violence in Finland]]
* [[Sexual violence in Papua New Guinea]]
* [[Sexual violence in South Africa]]
* [[Sexual violence in the Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
* [[Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women]]

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

===Bibliography===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite journal |last=Campanaro |first=Jocelyn |year=2002 |title=Women, war and international law: the historical treatment of gender-based war crimes |journal=The Georgetown Law Journal |volume=89 |pages=2557–2592 }}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Heineman |editor-first=Elizabeth D. |year=2011 |title=Sexual violence in conflict zones: from the ancient world to the era of human rights |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |location=Philadelphia, PA |isbn=978-0-8122-4318-5 |edition=1st }}
* {{cite book |last=Lindsey |first=Charlotte |year=2001 |title=Women Facing War |publisher=ICRC |location=Geneva }}
* {{cite book |last=McDougall |first=Gay J. |year=1998 |title=Contemporary forms of slavery: systematic rape, sexual slavery and slavery-like practices during armed conflict |publisher=Final report submitted by Ms. Jay J. McDougall, Special Rapporteur, E/CN.4/Sub.2/1998/13 }}
* {{cite book |author=OCHA |year=2007 |title=The shame of war: sexual violence against women and girls in conflict |publisher=OCHA/IRIN }}
* {{cite book |author=WHO |publisher=World Health Organization |year=2003 |title=Guidelines for medico-legal care for victims of sexual violence |url=http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2004/924154628X.pdf |isbn=978-92-4-154628-7 }}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book|last=Cohn|first=Carol|title=Women and wars|year=2010|publisher=Polity Press|location=Cambridge, UK|isbn=978-0-7456-4245-1|edition=1. publ.}}
* {{cite book|last=de Brouwer|first=Anne-Marie|title=Supranational criminal prosecution of sexual violence: the ICC and the practice of the ICTY and the ICTR|year=2005|publisher=Intersentia|location=Antwerpen [u.a.]|isbn=978-90-5095-533-1}}
* de Brouwer, Anne-Marie, Charlotte Ku, Renée Römkens and Larissa van den Herik (2013): ''Sexual Violence as an International Crime: Interdisciplinary Approaches''. Cambridge: Intersentia.
* {{cite journal | author = Eichert David | year = 2019 | title = 'Homosexualization' revisited: an audience-focused theorization of wartime male sexual violence | url = | journal = International Feminist Journal of Politics | volume = 21 | issue = 3| pages = 409–433 | doi = 10.1080/14616742.2018.1522264 }}
* {{cite book|last=Eriksson|first=Maria|title=Defining rape: emerging obligations for states under international law?|year=2011|publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers|location=Leiden|isbn=978-9004-20263-4}}
* {{cite journal | author = Gray Harriet | display-authors = etal | year = 2020 | title = Torture and sexual violence in war and conflict: The unmaking and remaking of subjects of violence | url = | journal = Review of International Studies | volume = 46 | issue = 2| pages = 197–216 | doi = 10.1017/S0260210519000391 }}
* {{cite book|last=Kunz|first=Megan Bastick, Karin Grimm, Rahel|title=Sexual violence in armed conflict: global overview and implications for the security sector|year=2007|publisher=Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces|location=Geneva|isbn=978-92-9222-059-4}}
* {{cite book|last=United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees|title=Sexual and Gender-Based Violence against Refugees, Returnees and Internally Displaced Persons: Guidelines for Prevention and Response|year=2003|publisher=UNHCR}}
* Wishart, G.D. (2003). "The Sexual Abuse of People with Learning Difficulties: Do We Need A Social Model Approach To Vulnerability?", ''Journal of Adult Protection'', Volume 5 (Issue 3).

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20131213114827/http://tj.facinghistory.org/reading/nuremberg-trials-fact-sheet Nuremberg Trials Fact Sheet]
* [http://imtfe.law.virginia.edu/ The Tokyo War Crimes Trial]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20131120065452/http://www.icrc.org/eng/resources/documents/faq/sexual-violence-questions-and-answers.htm ICRC Resource Center. Sexual violence in armed conflicts: questions and answers]
* [https://www.un.org/sexualviolenceinconflict/ Office of the Special Representative of the Secretary General for Sexual Violence in Conflict]
* [https://www.un.org/womenwatch/feature/wps/StopRapeNow_Brochure.pdf UN Action against Sexual Violence in Conflict Brochure]
* [https://stoprapenow.org/ Stop Rape Now. UN Action Against Sexual Violence in Conflict]
* [http://www.stoprapenow.org/uploads/advocacyresources/1282164733.pdf Reporting and interpreting data on sexual violence from conflict-affected countries]
* [http://stoprapenow.org/uploads/files/63711.pdf UN Action against sexual violence in conflict: Progress Report 2010-2011]
* [http://www.stoprapenow.org/uploads/advocacyresources/1291722944.pdf Addressing Conflict Related Sexual Violence: An analytical inventory of peacekeeping practice]
* [https://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/public/Meetings/Meeting%20Transcripts/180213Bangura.pdf Global Solution to Sexual Violence in Conflict, Chatham House, 18 February 2013. Speech of the UN SRSG on Sexual Violence in Conflict, Haja Zainab Hawa Bangura.]
* [https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241564793 World Report on Violence and Health]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150506063708/http://www.icc-cpi.int/en_menus/icc/legal%20texts%20and%20tools/official%20journal/Pages/elements%20of%20crimes.aspx ICC Elements of Crimes]

{{Human sexuality}}
{{Sexual abuse}}
{{Domestic violence}}
{{Violence against women/end}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Sexual violence| ]]
[[Category:Criminology]]
[[Category:Crimes against women]]
[[Category:Gender-related violence]]
[[Category:Violence against men]]
[[Category:Violence against women]]
[[Category:Sexual misconduct|Violence]]
[[Category:Sex crimes]]