View source for Semi-presidential system

{{Short description|System of government}}
{{distinguish|Semi-parliamentary system|Presidential system}}
{{Systems of government}}
{{Politics sidebar|Systems}}
{{Executive}}
A '''semi-presidential system''', or '''dual executive system''', is a system in which a [[President (government title)|president]] exists alongside a [[prime minister]] and a [[Cabinet (government)|cabinet]], with the latter of the two being responsible to the legislature of the [[State (polity)|state]]. It differs from a [[parliamentary system]] in that it has an [[executive president]] independent of the [[legislature]]; and from the [[presidential system]] in that the [[Cabinet (government)|cabinet]], although named by the president, is responsible to the legislature, which may force the cabinet to resign through a [[motion of no confidence]].<ref name="Duverger1980">{{Cite journal |last=Duverger|journal=[[European Journal of Political Research]] |type=quarterly |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=165–187 |doi=10.1111/j.1475-6765.1980.tb00569.x |doi-access=free |quote=The concept of a semi-presidential form of government, as used here, is defined only by the content of the constitution. A political regime is considered semi-presidential if the constitution which established it combines three elements: (1) the president of the republic is elected by universal suffrage, (2) the president possesses quite considerable powers; (3) the president has opposite him a prime minister and ministers who possess executive and governmental power and can stay in office only if the parliament does not show its opposition to this team of prime minister and ministers. |title=A New Political System Model: Semi-Presidential Government|year=1980}}</ref><ref name="Veser1997">{{Cite journal |last=Veser |first=Ernst |author-link=:de:Ernst Veser |year=1997 |title=Semi-Presidentialism-Duverger's concept: A New Political System Model |url=http://www.rchss.sinica.edu.tw/app/ebook/journal/11-01-1999/11_1_2.pdf |journal=Journal for Humanities and Social Sciences |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=39–60 |access-date=21 August 2016 }}</ref><ref name="Pouvoirs1996">{{cite magazine |last=Duverger |first=Maurice |author-link=Maurice Duverger |date=September 1996 |title=Les monarchies républicaines |trans-title=The Republican Monarchies |url=http://www.revue-pouvoirs.fr/IMG/pdf/78Pouvoirs_p107-120_monarchies_republicaines.pdf |language=fr |magazine=Pouvoirs, revue française d'études constitutionnelles et politiques |location=Paris |publisher=Éditions du Seuil |oclc=909782158 |issn=0152-0768 |isbn=2-02-030123-7 |issue=78 |pages=107–120 |access-date=10 September 2016 }}</ref><ref name="DuvergerRevisited">{{cite journal |last1=Bahro |first1=Horst |last2=Bayerlein |first2=Bernhard H. |last3=Veser |first3=Ernst |author-link3=:de:Ernst Veser |date=October 1998 |title=Duverger's concept: Semi-presidential government revisited |journal=[[European Journal of Political Research]] |type=quarterly |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=201–224 |doi=10.1111/1475-6765.00405 |s2cid=153349701 |quote=The conventional analysis of government in democratic countries by political science and constitutional law starts from the traditional types of presidentialism and parliamentarism. There is, however, a consensus that governments in the various countries work quite differently. This is why some authors have inserted distinctive features into their analytical approaches, at the same time maintaining the general dichotomy. Maurice Duverger, trying to explain the French Fifth Republic, found that this dichotomy was not adequate for this purpose. He therefore resorted to the concept of 'semi-presidential government': The characteristics of the concept are (Duverger 1974: 122, 1978: 28, 1980: 166):<br />1. The president of the republic is elected by universal suffrage,<br />2. The president possesses considerable powers and<br />3. The president has opposite him a prime minister who possesses executive and governmental powers and can stay in office only if parliament does not express its opposition to this prime minister. }}</ref>

While the [[Weimar Republic]] (1919–1933) and [[Finland]] (from 1919 to 2000) exemplified early semi-presidential systems, the term "semi-presidential" was first introduced in 1959, in an article by the journalist [[Hubert Beuve-Méry]],<ref>''Le Monde'', 8 January 1959.</ref> and popularized by a 1978 work written by the political scientist [[Maurice Duverger]].<ref name="Duverger1978">{{Cite book |last=Duverger |first=Maurice |author-link=Maurice Duverger |title=Échec au roi |publisher=A. Michel |location=Paris |year=1978 |isbn=9782226005809 }}</ref> Both men intended to describe the [[French Fifth Republic]] (established in 1958).<ref name="Duverger1980" /><ref name="Veser1997" /><ref name="Pouvoirs1996" /><ref name="DuvergerRevisited" />

== Definition ==
[[Maurice Duverger]]'s original definition of semi-presidentialism stated that the president had to be elected, possess significant power, and serve for a fixed term.<ref name = Elgie2013>{{cite journal |last1=Elgie |first1=Robert |title=Presidentialism, Parliamentarism and Semi-Presidentialism: Bringing Parties Back In |journal=Government and Opposition |date=2 January 2013 |volume=46 |issue=3 |pages=392–409 |doi=10.1111/j.1477-7053.2011.01345.x|s2cid=145748468 |url=http://doras.dcu.ie/20746/1/G_and_O_Samuels_and_Shugart_DORAS.pdf }}</ref> Modern definitions merely declare that the head of state has to be elected and that a separate prime minister that is dependent on parliamentary confidence has to lead the legislative.<ref name="Elgie2013"/>

== Subtypes ==
There are two distinct subtypes of semi-presidentialism: premier-presidentialism and president-parliamentarism.

Under the '''premier-presidential''' system, the prime minister and cabinet are exclusively accountable to parliament. The president may choose the prime minister and cabinet, but only the parliament may approve them and remove them from office with a ''vote of no confidence''. This system is much closer to pure parliamentarism. This subtype is used in: [[Burkina Faso]], [[Cape Verde]],<ref name="Neto2010">{{cite journal |last1=Neto |first1=Octávio Amorim |last2=Lobo |first2= Marina Costa |year=2010 |title=Between Constitutional Diffusion and Local Politics: Semi-Presidentialism in Portuguese-Speaking Countries |url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/Delivery.cfm/SSRN_ID1666842_code1512429.pdf |journal=APSA 2010 Annual Meeting Paper |ssrn=1644026 |access-date=18 August 2017 }}</ref> [[East Timor]],<ref name="Neto2010" /><ref name="Beuman2016">{{cite book |last=Beuman |first=Lydia M. |year=2016 |title=Political Institutions in East Timor: Semi-Presidentialism and Democratisation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8GCFCwAAQBAJ |location=Abingdon, Oxon |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1317362128 |lccn=2015036590 |oclc=983148216 |access-date=18 August 2017 |via=Google Books }}</ref> [[France]], [[Lithuania]], [[Madagascar]], [[Mali]], [[Mongolia]], [[Niger]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]],{{efn|2013–2018}} [[Poland]],{{efn|''de facto'', however, according to the [[Constitution of Poland|Constitution]], Poland is a [[parliamentary republic]]<ref name="McMenamin2">{{cite web |last=McMenamin |first=Iain |title=Semi-Presidentialism and Democratisation in Poland |url=http://webpages.dcu.ie/~mcmenami/Poland_semi-presidentialism_2.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120212225305/http://webpages.dcu.ie/~mcmenami/Poland_semi-presidentialism_2.pdf |archive-date=12 February 2012 |access-date=11 December 2017 |publisher=School of Law and Government, [[Dublin City University]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Poland 1997 (rev. 2009) Constitution |url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Poland_2009?lang=en |access-date=9 October 2021 |website=Constitute}}</ref><ref name="CIA-20212">{{cite web |date=22 September 2021 |title=Poland |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/poland/#government |access-date=8 October 2021 |work=The World Factbook |publisher=CIA}}</ref>}} [[Portugal]], [[Romania]], [[São Tomé and Príncipe]],<ref name="Neto2010" /> [[Sri Lanka]], [[Turkey]],{{efn|''de facto'' between 2014 and 2018, until the [[2017 Turkish constitutional referendum|constitutional referendum]] to switch the government to [[Presidential system|presidential]] from [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary]]}} and [[Ukraine]].{{efn|since 2014; previously, between 2006 and 2010.<ref name="Shugart2005-Draft">{{cite journal |last=Shugart |first=Matthew Søberg |author-link=Matthew Søberg Shugart |date=September 2005 |title=Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive and Mixed Authority Patterns |url=http://dss.ucsd.edu/~mshugart/semi-presidentialism.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=[[Graduate School of International Relations and Pacific Studies]] |location=United States |publisher=[[University of California, San Diego]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080819200307/http://dss.ucsd.edu/~mshugart/semi-presidentialism.pdf |archive-date=19 August 2008 |access-date=12 October 2017 }}</ref><ref name="Shugart2005">{{cite journal |last=Shugart |first=Matthew Søberg |author-link=Matthew Søberg Shugart |date=December 2005 |title=Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive And Mixed Authority Patterns |url=https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1057%2Fpalgrave.fp.8200087.pdf |department=[[Graduate School of International Relations and Pacific Studies]], [[University of California, San Diego]] |journal=French Politics |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=323–351 |issn=1476-3427 |oclc=6895745903 |doi=10.1057/palgrave.fp.8200087 |doi-access=free |access-date=12 October 2017 }}</ref>}}

Under the '''president-parliamentary''' system, the prime minister and cabinet are dually accountable to the president and the parliament. The president chooses the prime minister and the cabinet but must have the support of a parliamentary majority for his choice. To remove a prime minister, or the whole cabinet, from power, the president can either dismiss them, or the parliament can remove them through a ''vote of no confidence''. This form of semi-presidentialism is much closer to pure presidentialism. It is used in: [[Azerbaijan]], [[Guinea-Bissau]],<ref name="Neto2010" /> [[Kazakhstan]], [[Mozambique]], [[Russia]], and [[Taiwan]]. It was also used in Ukraine,{{efn|first between 1996 and 2005; then from 2010 to 2014}} Georgia,{{efn|from 2004 to 2013}} South Korea under the [[Fourth Republic of Korea|Fourth]] and [[Fifth Republic of Korea|Fifth]] republics, and in [[Germany]] during the [[Weimar Republic]].<ref name="Shugart2005-Draft" /><ref name="Shugart2005" />

== Cohabitation ==
{{Further|Cohabitation (government)}}
In a semi-presidential system, the president and the prime minister may sometimes be from different political parties. This is called "[[Cohabitation (government)|cohabitation]]", a term which originated in France after the situation first arose in the 1980s. Cohabitation can create either an effective system of [[Separation of powers|checks and balances]], or a period of bitter and tense stonewalling, depending on the attitudes of the two leaders, the ideologies of themselves/their parties, and the demands of their supporters.<ref name="JVPoulard1990">{{cite journal |last=Poulard |first=Jean V. |author-link=<!-- Jean V. Poulard --> |name-list-style=vanc |date=Summer 1990 |title=The French Double Executive and the Experience of Cohabitation |url=http://www.psqonline.org/article.cfm?IDArticle=12601 |access-date=7 October 2017 |url-access=subscription |format=PDF |journal=[[Political Science Quarterly]] |type=quarterly |volume=105 |issue=2 |pages=243–267 |doi=10.2307/2151025 |doi-access=free |issn=0032-3195 |jstor=2151025 |jstor-access=free |oclc=4951242513 }}</ref>

== Division of powers ==
The distribution of power between the president and the prime minister can vary greatly between countries.

In [[France]], for example, in the case of cohabitation, the president oversees [[foreign policy]] and [[defence policy]] (these are generally called ''les prérogatives présidentielles'', presidential prerogatives) and the prime minister is in charge of [[domestic policy]] and [[economic policy]].<ref>See article 5, title II, of the [[French Constitution of 1958]]. Jean Massot, [http://www.conseil-constitutionnel.fr/conseil-constitutionnel/francais/documentation-publications/dossiers-thematiques/2008-cinquantenaire-la-constitution-en-20-questions/la-constitution-en-20-questions-question-n-6.17355.html Quelle place la Constitution de 1958 accorde-t-elle au Président de la République?], [[Constitutional Council of France]] website (in French).</ref> In this case, the division of responsibilities between the [[prime minister]] and the [[President (government title)|president]] is not explicitly stated in the constitution, but has evolved as a [[Constitutional convention (political custom)|political convention]] based on the constitutional principle that the prime minister is appointed (with the subsequent approval of a parliament majority) and dismissed by the president.<ref name="Larousse">Le Petit Larousse 2013 p. 880</ref> On the other hand, whenever the president and the prime minister represent the same political party, which leads the cabinet, they tend to exercise ''de facto'' control over all fields of policy via the prime minister. However, it is up to the president to decide how much autonomy is left to said prime minister.

In most cases, cohabitation results from a system in which the two executives are not elected at the same time or for the same term. For example, in 1981, France elected both a [[Socialist Party (France)|Socialist]] president and legislature, which yielded a Socialist premier. But while the president's term of office was for seven years, the [[National Assembly of France|National Assembly]] only served for five. When, in the [[1986 French legislative election|1986 legislative election]], the French people elected a right-of-centre assembly, Socialist president [[François Mitterrand]] was forced into cohabitation with right-wing premier [[Jacques Chirac]].<ref name="JVPoulard1990" />

However, in 2000, amendments to the [[French constitution]] reduced the length of the French president's term to five years. This has significantly lowered the chances of cohabitation occurring, as parliamentary and presidential elections may now be conducted within a shorter span of each other.

== Advantages and disadvantages ==
The incorporation of elements from both presidential and parliamentary systems can bring certain advantageous elements; however, it also creates disadvantages, often related to the confusion produced by mixed authority patterns.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yLLuWYL8gTsC&pg=PA169|title=Comparative Politics: Structures and Choices|first=Lowell|last=Barrington|date=1 January 2012|publisher=Cengage Learning|via=Google Books|isbn=978-1111341930}}</ref><ref name="Barrington2009">{{cite book |last1=Barrington |first1=Lowell |last2=Bosia |first2=Michael J. |last3=Bruhn |first3=Kathleen |last4=Giaimo |first4=Susan |last5=McHenry, Jr. |first5=Dean E. |year=2012 |orig-year=2009 |title=Comparative Politics: Structures and Choices |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yLLuWYL8gTsC&pg=PA169 |edition=2nd |location=Boston, MA |publisher=[[Cengage Learning|Wadsworth Cengage Learning]] |pages=169–170 |isbn=9781111341930 |lccn=2011942386 |access-date=9 September 2017 |via=[[Google Books]] }}</ref> It can be argued that a semi-presidential system is more likely to engage in [[democratic backsliding]] and [[power struggle]]s,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McAfee |first1=Connor |title=Semi-Presidentialism: A Pathway to Democratic Backslide |journal=Penn State Journal of Law & International Affairs |date=2023-05-18 |volume=11 |issue=2 |url=https://elibrary.law.psu.edu/jlia/vol11/iss2/8/ |access-date=24 September 2024 |issn=2168-7951}}</ref> especially ones with a president-parliamentary system.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Elgie |first=Robert |url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/713182510 |title=Semi-presidentialism: sub-types and democratic performance |date=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-958598-4 |series=Comparative Politics |location=Oxford, UK; New York |oclc=713182510}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Elgie |first1=Robert |last2=Mcmenamin |first2=Iain |date=2008-12-01 |title=Semi-presidentialism and Democratic Performance |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S1468109908003162/type/journal_article |journal=Japanese Journal of Political Science |language=en |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=323–340 |doi=10.1017/S1468109908003162 |issn=1468-1099|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

'''Advantages'''
* Parliament can remove an unpopular prime minister, therefore maintaining stability throughout the president's [[Mandate (politics)|fixed term]].
* In most semi-presidential systems, important segments of bureaucracy are taken away from the president, creating additional checks and balances where the running of the day-to-day government and its issues are separate from the head of state, and as such, its issues tend to be looked at on their own merits, with their ebbs and flows and not necessarily tied to who the head of state is.
* Having a separate head of government who needs to command the confidence of the parliament is seen as being more in tune to the political and economic development of the country. Because the head of government is elected from the parliament, there is little potential for political gridlock to occur, since the parliament has the power to remove the head of government if needed.

'''Disadvantages'''
* The system provides [[Separation of powers|cover]] for the president, as unpopular policies could be blamed on the prime minister, who runs the day-to-day operations of the government.
* It creates a sense of confusion towards [[accountability]], as there is no relatively clear sense of who is responsible for policy successes and failures.
* It creates both confusion and inefficiency in the [[Legislature|legislative process]], since the capacity of [[Vote of no confidence|votes of confidence]] makes the prime minister respond to the parliament.

== Countries with a semi-presidential system of government ==
{{Excerpt|List of countries by system of government|Semi-presidential republics|subsections=yes}}

===Former semi-presidential countries===
{{colbegin|colwidth=290px}}
*{{flag|All-Palestine}} (1948–1959)
*{{flag|Armenia}} (1991–2018){{efn|[[Parliamentary system|Parliamentary republic]] as a [[Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic|Soviet member-state]] in 1990, and after independence it was a [[semi-presidential republic]] in 1991–2018, and has been a [[parliamentary republic]] since 2018. In the 2005 amendments, implemented in 2007-2008, it shifted towards president-parliamentary system from the premier-presidential system, adopted in 1995 constitution. After the 2015 constitutional changes, it was transformed into full parliamentary system, complete implementation of what happened in 2018.}}
*{{BGD|1990}} (1975–1991){{efn|[[Parliamentary republic|Parliamentary]] in 1972–1975, semi-presidential in 1975–1991, and again parliamentary since 1991.}}
*{{flag|Croatia}} (1990–2000)
*{{flag|Cuba}} (1940–1976)
*{{flag|Finland}} (1919–2000)
*{{flag|Georgia}} (1991–1995, 2004–2019){{efn|As the [[Georgian SSR]] and after independence, [[parliamentary]] in 1990–1991, [[semi-presidential]] in 1991–1995, [[President (government title)|presidential]] in 1995–2004, [[semi-presidential]] in 2004–2019 and [[parliamentary]] since 2019.}}
*{{flag|Germany|1919}} (1919–1933){{efn|For more information, see [[Weimar Republic]].}}
*{{flag|Greece|1970}} (1973–1974){{efn|The [[Greek Constitution of 1973]], enacted in the waning days of the [[Greek Junta]], provided for a powerful directly-elected president and a government dependent on Parliamentary confidence. Neither of these provisions was implemented, as the regime collapsed eight months after the Constitution's promulgation.}}
*{{flag|Kyrgyzstan|1992}} (1993–2021){{efn|[[One-party state|One-party]] [[parliamentary republic]] as a [[Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic|Soviet member-state]] in 1936–1990, a [[presidential republic]] in 1990–1993, a semi-presidential republic in 1993–2010 and a [[de facto]] semi-presidential republic; [[de jure]] a [[parliamentary republic]] in 2010–2021.}}
*{{flag|Mali}} (1991–2023)
*{{flag|Moldova}} (1990–2001)
*{{flag|North Macedonia}} (1991–2001)<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RsMaBgAAQBAJ&dq=boris+trajkovski+ceremonial+president&pg=PT112 | title=The Foreign Policies of Post-Yugoslav States: From Yugoslavia to Europe | isbn=9781137384133 | last1=Keil | first1=S. | last2=Stahl | first2=B. | date=17 December 2014 | publisher=Springer }}</ref><ref name="Draft">{{cite journal |last=Shugart |first=Matthew Søberg |author-link=Matthew Søberg Shugart |date=December 2005 |title=Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive And Mixed Authority Patterns |journal=French Politics |volume=3 |issue=3 |page=11 |issn=1476-3427 |oclc=6895745903 |doi=10.1057/palgrave.fp.8200087 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
*{{flag|Pakistan}} (1985-1997, 2003-2010)<ref>{{cite web | url=http://beta.dawn.com/news/844775/constitutional-anomalies | title=Constitutional anomalies | date=5 July 2009 }}</ref>
*{{flag|Philippines|1936}} (1978–1986){{efn|For more information, see [[Fourth Philippine Republic]].}}
*{{flag|Russian SFSR}} (July–November 1991){{efn|[[One-party state|One-party]] [[parliamentary republic]] as a [[Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic|Soviet member-state]] in 1918–1991 and semi-presidential republic in 1991}}
*{{flag|Somalia}} (1960–1969)
*{{flag|Soviet Union}} (1990–1991){{efn|A [[parliamentary system]] in which the [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|leader]] of the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union|state-sponsored party]] was [[Article 6 of the Soviet Constitution|supreme]] in 1918–1990 and a semi-presidential republic in 1990–1991.}}  
*{{flag|South Korea|1984}} (1972–1988){{efn|All South Korean constitutions since 1963 provided for a strong executive presidency; in addition, the formally authoritarian [[Yushin Constitution]] of the [[Fourth Republic of Korea|Fourth 
Republic]] established a presidential power to dissolve the [[National Assembly of South Korea|National Assembly]], nominally counterbalanced by a binding vote of no confidence. Both of these provisions were retained during the [[Fifth Republic of Korea|Fifth Republic]] but repealed upon the transition to democracy and the establishment of the presidential [[Sixth Republic of Korea|Sixth Republic]].}}
{{colend}}

== See also ==
* [[List of countries by system of government]] 
* [[Parliamentary system]]
* [[Presidential system]]
* [[Semi-parliamentary system]]

==Notes==
{{notelist|40em}}

==References==

===Citations===
{{reflist|30em}}

===Sources===
{{refbegin|40em}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Bahro |first1=Horst |last2=Bayerlein |first2=Bernhard H. |last3=Veser |first3=Ernst |title=Duverger's concept: Semi–presidential government revisited |journal=[[European Journal of Political Research]] |type=quarterly |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=201–224 |doi= 10.1111/1475-6765.00405 |date=October 1998 |s2cid=153349701 }}
* {{cite book |last=Beuman |first=Lydia M. |year=2016 |title=Political Institutions in East Timor: Semi-Presidentialism and Democratisation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8GCFCwAAQBAJ |location=Abingdon, Oxon |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1317362128 |lccn=2015036590 |via=Google Books }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Canas |first=Vitalino |author-link=Vitalino Canas |date=2004 |url=http://www.zaoerv.de/64_2004/64_2004_1_a_95_124.pdf |title=The Semi-Presidential System |journal=Zeitschrift für ausländisches öffentliches Recht und Völkerrecht |volume=64 |issue=1 |pages=95–124 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Duverger |first=Maurice |author-link=Maurice Duverger |title=''Échec au roi'' |publisher=A. Michel |location=Paris |year=1978 |isbn=9782226005809 }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Duverger |first=Maurice |author-link=Maurice Duverger |title=A New Political System Model: Semi-Presidential Government |journal=[[European Journal of Political Research]] |type=quarterly |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=165–187 |doi=10.1111/j.1475-6765.1980.tb00569.x |date=June 1980 }}
* [[Robert Elgie (academic)|Elgie, Robert]] (2011). ''Semi-Presidentialism: Sub-Types And Democratic Performance''. ''Comparative Politics''. (Oxford Scholarship Online Politics), Oxford University Press {{ISBN|9780199585984}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Frye |first=Timothy |date=October 1997 |url=http://www.columbia.edu/~tmf2/A%20Politics%20of%20Institutional%20Choice.pdf |title=A Politics of Institutional Choice: Post-Communist Presidencies |journal=[[Comparative Political Studies]] |volume=30 |issue=5 |pages=523–552 |doi=10.1177/0010414097030005001 |s2cid=18049875 |s2cid-access=free }}
* {{Cite book |last=Goetz |first=Klaus H. |year=2006 |url=https://archive.org/details/developmentsineu0000unse/page/368 |title=Developments in European politics |series=Power at the Centre: The Organization of Democratic Systems |editor-last1=Heywood |editor-first1=Paul |editor-last2=Jones |editor-first2=Erik |editor-last3=Rhodes |editor-first3=Martin |editor-last4=Sedelmeier |first4=Ulrich |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |location=Basingstoke England New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/developmentsineu0000unse/page/368 368] |isbn=9780230000414 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Lijphart |first=Arend |author-link=Arend Lijphart |title=Parliamentary versus presidential government |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford New York |year=1992 |isbn = 9780198780441 }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Nousiainen |first=Jaakko |author-link=Jaakko Nousiainen |date=June 2001 |title=From Semi-presidential to Parliamentary Government: Political and Constitutional Developments in Finland |journal=[[Scandinavian Political Studies]] |type=quarterly |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=95–109 |doi=10.1111/1467-9477.00048 |issn=0080-6757 |oclc=715091099 }}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Passarelli |first1=Gianluca |title=The government in two semi-presidential systems: France and Portugal in a comparative perspective |journal=French Politics |date=December 2010 |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=402–428 |doi=10.1057/fp.2010.21 |s2cid=55204235 |s2cid-access=free |url=http://paperroom.ipsa.org/papers/paper_595.pdf |issn=1476-3427 |oclc=300271555 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181002153513/http://paperroom.ipsa.org/papers/paper_595.pdf |archive-date= Oct 2, 2018 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Rhodes |first=R. A. W. |author-link=R. A. W. Rhodes |contribution=From Prime Ministerial power to core executive |editor-last1=Rhodes |editor-first1=R. A. W. |editor-last2= Dunleavy |editor-first2=Patrick |editor-link1=R. A. W. Rhodes |editor-link2=Patrick Dunleavy |title=''Prime minister, cabinet, and core executive'' |pages=11–37 |publisher=St. Martin's Press |location=New York |year=1995 |isbn=9780333555286 }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Roper |first=Steven D. |title=Are All Semipresidential Regimes the Same? A Comparison of Premier-Presidential Regimes |url= https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271784045 |url-access=registration |journal=Comparative Politics |volume=34 |issue=3 |pages=253–272 |doi=10.2307/4146953 |jstor=4146953 |date=April 2002 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Sartori |first=Giovanni |author-link = Giovanni Sartori |title=Comparative constitutional engineering: an inquiry into structures, incentives, and outcomes |publisher=New York University Press |location=Washington Square, New York |edition=2nd |year=1997 |isbn=9780333675090 }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Shoesmith |first=Dennis |date=March–April 2003 |title=Timor-Leste: Divided Leadership in a Semi-Presidential System |journal=[[Asian Survey]] |type=bimonthly |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=231–252 |issn=0004-4687 |oclc= 905451085 |doi=10.1525/as.2003.43.2.231 |url=http://espace.cdu.edu.au/view/cdu:1248 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20211028024520/http://espace.cdu.edu.au/view/cdu:1248 |archive-date= Oct 28, 2021 |url-access=subscription }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Shugart |first=Matthew Søberg |author-link=Matthew Søberg Shugart |date= December 2005 |title=Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive And Mixed Authority Patterns |url= https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1057%2Fpalgrave.fp.8200087.pdf |department=[[Graduate School of International Relations and Pacific Studies]], [[University of California, San Diego]] |journal=French Politics |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=323–351 |issn=1476-3427 |oclc=6895745903 |doi=10.1057/palgrave.fp.8200087 |doi-access=free }}
* {{Cite book |last1=Shugart |first1=Matthew Søberg |last2=Carey |first2=John M. |author-link1=Matthew Søberg Shugart |author-link2=<!-- John M. Carey --> |title=Presidents and assemblies: constitutional design and electoral dynamics |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge England New York |year=1992 |isbn=9780521429900 }}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Veser |first1=Ernst |title=Semi-Presidentialism-Duverger's concept: A New Political System Model | journal = Journal for Humanities and Social Sciences |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=39–60 |date=1997 |url=http://www.rchss.sinica.edu.tw/app/ebook/journal/11-01-1999/11_1_2.pdf }}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.undp.org/governance/docs/Parl-Pub-govern.htm Governing Systems and Executive-Legislative Relations. (Presidential, Parliamentary and Hybrid Systems)], United Nations Development Programme (n.d.). {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100210183450/http://www.undp.org/governance/docs/Parl-Pub-govern.htm |date=10 February 2010 }}
* {{Cite web |author=J. Kristiadi |url=http://old.thejakartapost.com/Outlook/pol06b.asp |title=Indonesia Outlook 2007: Toward strong, democratic governance |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080421223256/http://old.thejakartapost.com/Outlook/pol06b.asp |archive-date=21 April 2008 |work=[[The Jakarta Post]] |publisher=PT Bina Media Tenggara |date=April 22, 2008 }}
* [http://www.semipresidentialism.com/ The Semi-Presidential One], blog of [[Robert Elgie (academic)|Robert Elgie]]
* [http://www.presidential-power.net/ Presidential Power] blog with posts written by several political scientists, including Robert Elgie.

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Semi-Presidential System}}
[[Category:Political systems]]
[[Category:Presidents|Semi-presidential]]
[[Category:Republicanism]]
[[Category:Separation of powers]]
[[Category:1950s neologisms]]