View source for Semi-periphery countries

{{Short description|Industrializing, low-income countries}}
[[File:World trade map.svg|thumb|428x428px|A world map of countries by their supposed [[International trade#Largest countries or regions by total international trade|trading status]] in 2000, using the world system differentiation into core countries (blue), semi-periphery countries (yellow) and periphery countries (red). Based on the list in Chase-Dunn, Kawana, and Brewer (2000).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chase-Dunn |first1=Christopher |last2=Kawano |first2=Yukio |last3=Brewer |first3=Benjamin D. |date=2000 |title=Trade Globalization since 1795: Waves of Integration in the World-System |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=65 |issue=1 |pages=77–95 |doi=10.2307/2657290 |jstor=2657290 |s2cid=147609071 |issn=0003-1224 |author1-link=Christopher Chase-Dunn}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20220305181504/https://www.irows.ucr.edu/cd/appendices/asr00/asr00app.htm See appendix with the country list ("Table A2")]. Some countries with a population of less than one million were excluded from the analysis.</ref>]]
[[File:World trade map 1965.png|thumb|428x428px|A world map of countries in 1965 colour-coded into 'blocks' based on trade, military interventions, diplomats and treaties:<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Snyder |first1=David |last2=Kick |first2=Edward L. |date=1979-03-01 |title=Structural Position in the World System and Economic Growth, 1955–1970: A Multiple-Network Analysis of Transnational Interactions |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/226902 |journal=American Journal of Sociology |volume=84 |issue=5 |pages=1096–1126 |doi=10.1086/226902 |s2cid=144895613 |issn=0002-9602 |access-date=2022-04-08 |archive-date=2022-04-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408033741/https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/226902 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> {{Legend|#e41a1c|Block A}} {{Legend|#4daf4a|Block B}} {{Legend|#377eb8|Block C & with dashed lines indicates colonies of Block C countries}} {{Legend|#74a9cf|Block C'}} {{Legend|#ff7f00|Block D}} {{Legend|#feb24c|Block D'}} {{Legend|#984ea3|Block E}} {{Legend|#8c6bb1|Block E'}} {{Legend|#35978f|Block F}} {{Legend|#80cdc1|Block F'}}]]
{{International relations theory sidebar}}

In [[world-systems theory]], '''semi-periphery countries''' are the [[Industrialisation|industrializing]], mostly [[Capitalism|capitalist]] countries that are positioned between the [[Periphery countries|periphery]] and the [[core countries]]. Semi-periphery countries have organizational characteristics of both core countries and periphery countries and are often geographically located between core and peripheral regions as well as between two or more competing core regions.<ref name="chase">Chase-Dunn and Thomas D. Hall.''The Seedbed of Change''.Chapter 5 of C.</ref>

Semi-periphery regions play a major role in mediating economic, political, and social activities that link core and peripheral areas. These regions allow for the possibility of innovative technology, reforms in social and organizational structure, and dominance over peripheral nations. These changes can lead to a semi-periphery country being promoted to a core nation.<ref name="chase"/> Semi-periphery is, however, more than a description, as it also serves as a position within the world hierarchy in which social and economic change can be interpreted.<ref name=terlouw>Terlouw 1992 pg 136-145</ref>

World-systems theory describes the semi-periphery as a key structural element in the world economy. The semi-periphery plays a vital role comparative to that of the role that Spain and Portugal played in the 17th and the 18th centuries as intermediate trading groups within the European colonial empire.<ref name="waller">Wallerstein 1976, pp. 229-233</ref>

Today, the semi-periphery is generally industrialized.<ref name=waller2>Wallerstein 1974 Vol.3, No.4., pp 461-483</ref> Semi-peripheral countries contribute to the manufacturing and exportation of a variety of goods.<ref name=waller/> They are marked by above average land mass, as exemplified by [[Argentina]], [[China]], [[India]], [[Brazil]], [[Mexico]], [[Indonesia]], and [[Iran]].<ref name=terlouw/> More land mass typically means an increased market size and share.<ref name=waller2/> Semi-peripheral nations are not all large, however, as smaller countries such as [[Israel]], [[Poland]], and [[Greece]] can be described to exist within the semi-periphery.<ref name=waller2/>

==Sociological theory==
Semi-peripheral countries offer their citizens relatively diverse economic opportunities but also have extreme gaps between the rich and poor. World-system theorists originally used only two categories: [[periphery countries]] and [[core countries]]. A need for an intermediate category became quickly apparent<ref name="Chirot">Chirot. 1977.</ref> and led to the establishment of the semi-periphery category for societies that have moved away from the periphery but have not become core. In other words, the category describes societies that remain dependent and to some extent underdeveloped although they have achieved significant levels of industrialization.<ref name="Chirot"/> Semi-peripheral countries are tied into dynamic world systems that focus on the reliance of poor nations upon the wealthy, a concept known as the [[dependency theory]].<ref>Tausch A.</ref> The term semi-periphery has been applied to countries that existed as early as in the 13th century.<ref name=abu>Janet Abu-Lughod 1989</ref> In theory, the creation of a semi-periphery category has added sociological and historical layers to previous developmental theories but still has similar, inherently capitalist, foundations.<ref name="waller" />

===Function===
The semi-periphery is needed to stabilize the world system, as it facilitates interaction and provides a connection between the low-income [[periphery countries|peripheral states]] and the high-income [[core countries|core states]] by adding another step in the world system hierarchy.<ref name=waller/> As the middle ground, semi-peripheral countries display characteristics of both the [[Core countries|core]] and the [[Periphery countries|periphery]].<ref name=waller2/> They also serve as a political buffer zone in that while they are exploited, they are also the exploiters.<ref name=waller/> Those areas have been core regions in the past or formerly-peripheral areas and have since advanced in the world economy.<ref name=waller2/>

Semi-peripheral nations are a necessary structural element in a world-trade system since they can serve to alleviate the political pressures that the core can exert upon the periphery and the political unrest that the periphery can direct back at the core.<ref name=waller/> On the other hand, the semi-periphery can find itself excluded from the region's politics, as it lies just outside the bounds of political arena of the core states.<ref name=waller/>

The semi-periphery exists because it needs to divide the economic power between the core and the periphery. Semi-periphery, referred to as the middle class by Wallerstein, is what makes the capitalist world function because it is much like the sociological [[structural functionalism]] theory, and norms, customs, traditions, and institutions act as "organs" that work toward the proper functioning of the "body" as a whole. Without those industrializing countries, change will never reach the periphery.<ref>Chirot, Daniel, and Thomas D. Hall. 1982. 8:81-106.</ref>

In terms of their contribution to industry and economy, the contemporary semi-peripheral states are semi-industrialized.<ref name=waller2/> Semi-peripheral countries are major exporters of minerals and agricultural goods. They are often focused in the manufacturing and exportation of industrial goods and commodities. While those advances separate the semi-periphery from the periphery, they lack the power and the economic dominance of core nations and still have a lot of unmanaged poverty, which places them beneath the core.<ref name=terlouw/> Semi-peripheral countries are important contributors to the world economy for those reasons and because they tend to have an above-average land mass and so they are host to an above average-market.<ref name=terlouw/> A primary example is China, a country with not only a large area but also a large population.<ref name=terlouw/>

==History and development==
===13th century===
[[File:Silkroutes.jpg|thumb|Ancient [[Silk Road]] [[trade routes]] across [[Eurasia]]]]
This era of human history found the semi-periphery concentrated in the area stretching from the [[Middle East]] to [[China]], including [[India]] and the [[Mongol Empire]], and it was the first time in history that the peripheries and semi-peripheries of the world became connected and involved in the trade of the world both with cores and with each other.<ref name="abu" /> Through a lucrative trade system, including heavy taxing of goods traveling through their borders, they were able to maintain a steady stream of wealth, becoming the driving forces of economic change throughout this time period.<ref name="abu" /> In addition, a heavy emphasis on defense and border security, particularly among the [[Mongols]], allowed them to be fairly impenetrable [[trade]] obstacles.<ref name="abu" />

[[Geography]] also played a role, as seen in India's development of an impressive [[maritime industry]]. Because of its position along a convenient route through the Indian Ocean, India established its role as a "hinge" between the [[East]] and the [[West]].<ref name=abu/> Through their positions within the world trade system, semi-peripheries in the Middle East became crucially important in connecting the cities of Chinese and Indian cores with the fledgling cities of [[Europe]] and served as key points between other, more major core cities in the region, such as [[Baghdad]], [[Cairo]], and [[Aden]].<ref name=abu/>

===1300–1450===
[[File:Bubonic plague-en.svg|thumb|250px|The Black Death rapidly spread along the major European sea and land trade routes.]]
Following increases in population and commerce in [[Western Europe]] in the 13th century, the [[feudal system]] met severe economic difficulties in the 14th and the early 15th centuries.<ref name=halsall>Halsall 1997, pp.14-19</ref> The decline in development was caused by a combination of the decline in agricultural production, the shrinking economy that had already hit its peak within the current feudal structure, and the devastating effects of the [[Black Plague]] pandemic.<ref name=waller/> The regression of Western Europe into semi-periphery and periphery allowed for the rise of the trading powers of [[Italy]], most notably [[Genoa]] and [[Venice]].<ref name=abu/> These Italian city-states took advantage of their established trade connections with the [[Mongol Empire]], the [[Far East]], the Middle East, and the other [[Mediterranean]] powers to maintain their growth despite the economic failures of their European trade partners.<ref name=abu/> Genoa and Venice had influence beyond their trade channels. Both were instrumental in the [[Crusades]] through their provisions of troops, transport vessels, and naval ships.<ref name=abu/> Genoa also assisted the [[Byzantine Empire]] by helping it recapture its capital, [[Constantinople]], in the late 13th century.<ref name=abu/> The Byzantine Empire took advantage of its strategic position along various trade routes and the decline of Western Europe to rise to core status until its fall in 1453.<ref name=abu/>

During this time period, Genoa and Venice developed forms of [[laissez-faire]] government and institutions that are viewed as precursors to modern capitalism.<ref name=abu/> Despite those advances in influence and entrepreneurship, Genoa and Venice suffered from the crippling effects of the Black Plague as much of the rest of Europe before them.<ref name=abu/> Venice survived because of its connection with the Southern trade route, but its strength had been much reduced by the mid-15th century.<ref name=abu/> Genoa never fully recovered from the Black Death and its defeat at the hands of Venice in the late 14th century.<ref name=abu/> The decline of Genoa and the shift in Venice's focus to the [[Red Sea]] trade route left the western Mediterranean and the [[Atlantic]] open to Portugal and Spain, which were already better positioned geographically to control Atlantic trade routes.<ref name=abu/>

===1450–1700===
[[File:Spanish Empire Anachronous 0.PNG|thumb|460px|Subsequent to taking over Portugal's empire (in blue) from 1580 to 1640, these were areas of the world that at one time were territories (in red) of the Spanish Empire.]]
In a push to ensure stable economic growth, Europe turned to a capitalistic economy in the 15th and the early 16th centuries to replace the failed feudal system.<ref name=halsall/> Modern capitalism allowed for economies to extend beyond geographical and political boundaries and led to the formation of the first worldwide economic system.<ref name=halsall/> At the base of this world system was an [[international division of labor]], which determined countries' relationships and placement within the categories of the world system: core, semi-periphery, periphery, and external.<ref name=halsall/> The core regions, most notably the countries of [[Northwestern Europe]] like [[England]], [[France]], and the [[Netherlands]], gained the most from the world economy.<ref name=halsall/> Their ascension from previous peripheral and semi-peripheral status to the core was driven by the development of strong central government and military power, the combination of which made possible control of international commerce and exploitation of colonial possessions.<ref name=halsall/>

At the other end of the spectrum was the periphery, marked by lack of central government, exportation of raw materials to the core, and exploitive labor practices.<ref name=halsall/> In that time period, especially toward the late 17th century, [[South America]] and parts of [[North America]] stood out as peripheral zones under the control and capitalistic exploitation of core countries in Europe.<ref name=waller2/> [[Slaves]] and [[Indigenous peoples|indigenous]] workers in those regions developed [[raw materials]] for export to Europe, a distinctive characteristic of the new capitalism, as goods were no longer produced solely for internal consumption.<ref name=halsall/> The [[aristocracy]] of those regions controlled commerce and became wealthy through the new world economy, which led to their rise in power above the government.<ref name=halsall/> Even in periods of upheaval, local aristocrats relied on core European powers to assist in keeping control over the economic system.<ref name=halsall/>

In between the core and the periphery was the semi-periphery, which constituted both previous core regions that had declined like Italy, Spain and Portugal, and peripheries that had improved their position, like southern [[Germany]] and southern France.<ref name=halsall/> Spain and Portugal had taken advantage of the opening to Atlantic control left by the decline of Italian powers like Genoa and Venice.<ref name=halsall/> Much like the core European powers, Spain and Portugal had strong navies and expansive colonial domains, which they exploited for their natural resources and cheap labor.<ref name=halsall/> Rather than using the increased wealth to develop strong domestic [[manufacturing]] sectors, like other Western European powers, Spain and Portugal used imported gold and silver to obtain manufactured goods from the core countries, which relegated them to semi-periphery, instead of core, status.<ref name=halsall/> They had control over several peripheral regions and exploited them, a characteristic of a core region, but those countries failed to develop the quality manufacturing industries and the access to international banking that further defined core countries, which left them a step below in the world system at semi-periphery status.<ref name=halsall/>

===1700–1875===
[[File:graph rel share world manuf 1750 1900 02.png|300px|thumb|As the Industrial Revolution developed British manufactured output surged ahead of other economies.]]
The development of trade between Europe, the [[Americas]], and the [[Eastern world|East]] generated massive profits for a relatively small [[merchant]] elite in the European colonial powers.<ref name=halsall/> Those merchants used their profits to take control of [[agriculture]] and other industries and further consolidated their power by extending control over internal markets and the prices of finished goods.<ref name=halsall/> The result was the development of the necessary capital to industrialize the European core states.<ref name=halsall/>

The era was defined by the transition from agriculture to [[industrialization]].<ref name=halsall/> The rapid development of industry triggered several reactions. Many European states explored new territories in addition to their original colonial holdings for new markets to exploit.<ref name=halsall/> The European world system continued to expand and include more regions, as it absorbed the [[Indian Ocean]] economic system through the acquisition of colonies by Britain, France, Spain, and Portugal, among others.<ref name=halsall/> Previously-isolated regions, like much of the American interior zone, joined the newly-independent South American countries in becoming part of the periphery.<ref name=halsall/> By the 19th century, [[Asia]] and [[Africa]] had also entered the world system as peripheral regions.<ref name=halsall/> The development of Africa and Asia as peripheral continents allowed for new cores like the [[United States]] and Germany to improve their core status and to rise higher within the world system.<ref name=halsall/>

Throughout this time period, a constant shift within core regions came from a combination of agriculture and industry to solely industrial enterprise.<ref name=halsall/> England was the leader in industrial and agricultural production, but by 1900, only 10% of England's populace worked in agriculture, which demonstrated the shift to industry in England but across the core stratum.<ref name=halsall/> The dramatic shift to industry extended beyond the core by the end of this time period, as core regions encouraged the development of [[manufacturing]] in peripheral and semi-peripheral zones to further develop those markets and create demand for newly developed machines and other goods.<ref name=halsall/>

===1875–1914===
[[File:Royal Irish Rifles ration party Somme July 1916.jpg|thumb|A ration party of the [[Royal Irish Rifles]] in a communication trench]]
The [[Western world|West]] represented both the core and the semi-periphery, as Europe dominated 80% of the world's market share. Much of the rest of the world was a diverse periphery though [[Japan]] was a notable exception.<ref name="Hobsbawn">Hobsbawn, Eric. 1987.</ref> As expansionism continued, new core nations emerged, such as [[Great Britain]], Germany, and the United States, and old cores such as Spain and Portugal faded to the semi-periphery.<ref name="Hobsbawn"/> The growth of the power of the common man led to an expansion of thought concerning democracy, communism, and revolution, which pervaded the weaker semi-peripheral nations overcome with civil distress.<ref name="Hobsbawn"/> In some cases, that led to the weakening of the nations, such as the violent revolution in France,<ref name="Hobsbawn"/> which contributed to the adoption of totalitarian leaders, as seen in Germany and France.<ref name="Hobsbawn"/> The major factors contributing to world war were the conflicts and power struggles taking place between the three classes of nations in the global system.<ref name="Hobsbawn"/> Nations that were considered part of the semi-periphery felt oppressed by the stronger, larger core nations.<ref name="Hobsbawn"/>

===1914–today===
[[File:Royal Air Force Bomber Command, 1942-1945. CL3400.jpg|thumb|Burned-out buildings after the [[bombing of Hamburg in World War II]]]]
{{Unreferenced section|date=June 2010}}
The trend is known to have continued throughout the 20th century, with Germany, the [[Soviet Union]], and Japan also taking seats at the core. At the end of [[World War II]], however, Germany quickly fell to the [[semi-periphery]], along with war-ravaged France. As the rest of Europe struggled to rebuild itself, it also fell to the semi-periphery except for many [[Eastern European]] nations, which fell under the [[Eastern bloc]]. Japan also fell back into semi-periphery, along with China and India, until their recent upswing in influence. Change also came to [[North America]], where [[American imperialism]] led to the rise of countries like [[Guatemala]] and the [[Dominican Republic]]. On the other side of the [[Pacific]], [[Australia]] was also developed and helped secure an [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] victory in the war.

===Today===
[[File:Imf-advanced-un-least-developed-2008.svg|thumb|400px|{{legend|#3F9BBB|Advanced economies}}
{{legend|#E8AA30|Emerging and developing economies (not least developed)}}
{{legend|#CC7662|Emerging and developing economies ([[least developed country|least developed]])}}Classifications by the [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]] and the [[United Nations|UN]] (as of 2008)]]
[[File:2014 UN Human Development Report Quartiles.svg|thumb|right|400px|World map indicating the category of Human Development Index by country (based on a 2014 update) {{div col|colwidth=30em}} {{Legend|#003399|Very High}} {{Legend|#3072D9|High}} {{Legend|#A8C3FF|Medium}} {{Legend|#E6EDFF|Low}}  {{Legend|#858585|Data unavailable}} {{div col end}}]]
In today's global hierarchy, some states are transitioning upward, and others are moving downward in terms of status and influence. Former colonial powers no longer exercise control over an international domain and are instead mostly relegated to their core; for example, former European world powers do not exert influence over colonial outposts in the [[Americas]], Africa, or Asia but rather have consolidated their power in the form of the [[European Union]].<ref name="shaw">{{Cite journal |last=Shaw |first=Timothy M. |date=1979-06-01 |title=The Semiperiphery in Africa and Latin America: Subimperialism and Semiindustrialism |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1007/BF02891728 |journal=The Review of Black Political Economy |language=en |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=341–358 |doi=10.1007/BF02891728 |issn=0034-6446|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The new leading powers are mostly non-European (United States, Canada, Japan). Outside those developed countries are countries (see list below) that are considered semi-periphery and are both dominant and dominated within economic, political, and social realms.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Morales Ruvalcaba|first1=Daniel Efrén|title=INSIDE THE BRIC: ANALYSIS OF THE SEMIPERIPHERAL NATURE OF BRAZIL, RUSSIA, INDIA AND CHINA|journal=Austral: Brazilian Journal of Strategy & International Relations|date=11 September 2013|volume=2|issue=4|url=http://seer.ufrgs.br/index.php/austral/article/view/40942/26976|language=es|issn=2238-6912}}</ref> Tse middle powers are a combination of nations that have emerged as a result of the fragmentation of the Soviet Union and nations that have risen because of their possession of resources in high demand, like oil in [[Saudi Arabia]].<ref name="shaw"/> While those nations are by no means on the level of the stated world powers, they exert influence over the weaker nations of the impoverished [[Fourth World]].<ref name="shaw"/>

Other terms used to describe semi-periphery countries include sub-imperial and semi-industrial.<ref name="shaw"/> [[Immanuel Wallerstein]] identifies three ways by which countries can emerge from the periphery into the semi-periphery.<ref name="shaw"/> Countries with a large market and room for industrial growth, like [[Brazil]], [[South Africa]], and [[Mexico]], and countries with valuable energy resources, like [[Iran]] and Saudi Arabia, can use the strategy of seizing the chance.<ref name="shaw"/> The strategy of promotion by invitation can be utilized by countries willing to be open to foreign governmental and regional administrative centers.<ref name="shaw"/> Examples of countries that used that strategy are the capitalist regimes in Africa like [[Egypt]], [[Kenya]], [[Nigeria]], [[Zaire]], [[Senegal]], and [[Côte d'Ivoire]].<ref name="shaw"/> They use [[dependency theory|dependent development]] to integrate into the world economy and to establish local dominance.<ref name="shaw"/> Outside those strategies is that of self-reliance, a basic theory that as some countries grow, others will decline.<ref name="shaw"/> Many countries in Africa and South America have exhibited the qualities of a sub-imperial or semi-industrial power.<ref name="shaw"/>

Wallerstein examines the role of semi-periphery countries during a period of economic downturn.<ref name=waller2/> To redefine core and periphery countries in an economic sense, core countries are characterized by advanced technology, high [[Profit (economics)|profits]], high wages, and diversified production. Periphery countries have less technology, low profits, low wages, and less diversified production.<ref name=waller2/> Semi-periphery countries fall in the middle of those spectra, and their unique political and social structure place them in a position in which they can best take advantage of economic downturns.<ref name=waller2/>

The economic downturns occur because of increased [[supply (economics)|supply]] and decreased [[demand]], which combine to create a shift in surplus and power to the semi-periphery. Semi-periphery regions take advantage of the situation by expanding control of their home markets and the surrounding periphery countries at the expense of core countries.<ref name=waller2/> The underlying reason for the shift in power lies in the basic economic principle of [[scarcity]]. As long as core countries maintain scarcities of their goods, they can select customers from the semi-periphery and periphery countries that are competing over them. When excess supply occurs, the core countries are the ones competing over a smaller market. That competition allows semi-peripheral nations to select from among core countries, rather than vice versa, when they make decisions about commodity purchases, manufacturing investments, and sales of goods and shifts the balance of power to the semi-periphery.<ref name=waller2/>

In general, there is a power shift from core to semi-periphery in times of economic struggles, but there are few examples of semi-peripheral countries transitioning to core status.<ref name=waller2/> To accomplish that, semi-peripheral nations must take advantage of weaker core countries but also exploit any existing advantages over other semi-peripheral nations.<ref name=waller2/> How well they exploit these advantages determines their arrangement within the semi-periphery class.<ref name=waller2/>

==Effects==
[[File:Election MG 3455.JPG|thumb|A ballot box]]
The semi-peripheral nations of the world have played an important role to world trade and interaction since early periods of globalized trade. The "middle ground" between the very powerful [[Core countries|cores]] and the backwaters of the far [[Periphery countries|periphery]] allowed those two zones to interact with greater ease. For example, during the [[Pax Mongolica|13th-century world system]], the semi-periphery areas around Europe's Mediterranean Coast facilitated trade between the peripheries of the more manufacturing-based [[Flanders|Northern Europe]] and the cores of India and China.<ref name=abu/> John Markoff, a [[sociology|sociologist]] at the [[University of Pittsburgh]], also notes that political developments, particularly in the advancement of [[democracy]], originate in the semi-periphery.<ref name="Markoff"/> He notes that innovations in democracy came from the semi-periphery rather than the more established and stable nations in the [[First World]], where profit discourages great reform, or the extremely poor periphery in the [[Third World]], where instability makes reform too dangerous to attempt.<ref name="Markoff"/> It has been in semi-peripheral nations that democratic reforms like the expansion of suffrage and the institution of the secret ballot have been implemented.<ref name="Markoff">Markoff, John. 1999-1041:4</ref>

==Lists of semi-periphery countries==
The following are semi-periphery countries according to Wallerstein (1976).<ref name=waller2/>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|{{flag|Algeria}}
|{{flag|Argentina}}
|{{flag|Brazil}}
|{{flag|China}}
|{{flag|Egypt}}
|{{flag|Finland}}
|{{flag|Greece}}
|-
|{{flag|India}}
|{{flag|Indonesia}}
|{{flag|Israel}}
|{{flag|Iran}}
|{{flag|Italy}}
|{{flag|Malaysia}}
|{{flag|Mexico}}
|-
|{{flag|Norway}}
|{{flag|Poland}}
|{{flag|Portugal}}
|{{flag|Saudi Arabia}}
|{{flag|Singapore}}
|{{flag|South Korea}}
|{{flag|Spain}}
|-
|{{flag|Nigeria}}
|{{flag|Taiwan}}
|{{flag|Turkey}}
|{{flag|Venezuela}}
|{{flag|Zaire}}
|}

The following are semi-periphery countries from an updated version of essays by Wallerstein (1997).<ref name=waller3>Wallerstein 1997 pp. 95-119</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|{{flag|Algeria}}
|{{flag|Argentina}}
|{{flag|Austria}}
|{{flag|Brazil}}
|{{flag|Bulgaria}}
|{{flag|China}}
|{{flag|Cuba}}
|{{flag|Czech Republic}}
|-
|{{flag|Democratic Republic of the Congo}}
|{{flag|Egypt}}
|{{flag|Finland}}
|{{flag|Greece}}
|{{flag|Hungary}}
|{{flag|India}}
|{{flag|Indonesia}}
|{{flag|Iran}}
|-
|{{flag|Israel}}
|{{flag|Italy}}
|{{flag|Mexico}}
|{{flag|New Zealand}}
|{{flag|Nigeria}}
|{{flag|Norway}}
|{{flag|North Korea}}
|{{flag|Poland}}
|-
|{{flag|Portugal}}
|{{flag|Romania}}
|{{flag|Saudi Arabia}}
|{{flag|South Africa}}
|{{flag|South Korea}}
|{{flag|Spain}}
|{{flag|Turkey}}
|{{flag|Ukraine}}
|-
|{{flag|Uruguay}}
|{{flag|Venezuela}}
|{{flag|Vietnam}}
|}

The following are semi-periphery countries according to Dunn, Kawana, Brewer (2000).<ref name="dunn">{{Cite journal |last1=Chase-Dunn |first1=Christopher |last2=Kawano |first2=Yukio |last3=Brewer |first3=Benjamin D. |date=2000 |title=Trade Globalization since 1795: Waves of Integration in the World-System |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2657290 |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=65 |issue=1 |pages=77–95 |doi=10.2307/2657290 |jstor=2657290 |issn=0003-1224|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Chris Chase-Dunn, Yukio Kawano and Ben Brewer |title=Appendix to Trade Globalization Since 1795 |url=http://www.irows.ucr.edu/cd/appendices/asr00/asr00app.htm#Table%20A2 |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20240707011018/https://irows.ucr.edu/cd/appendices/asr00/asr00app.htm |archive-date=2024-07-07 |access-date=2025-02-06 |website=www.irows.ucr.edu}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|{{flag|Argentina}}
|{{flag|Brazil}}
|{{flag|China}}
|{{flag|Hong Kong}}
|{{flag|India}}
|-
|{{flag|Indonesia}}
|{{flag|Iran}}
|{{flag|Israel}}
|{{flag|Macau}}
|{{flag|Mexico}}
|-
|{{flag|Singapore}}
|{{flag|South Korea}}
|{{flag|South Africa}}
|{{flag|Taiwan}}
|}

Here is the semi-periphery listing according to [[Salvatore Babones]] (2005), who notes that his list is composed of countries that "have been consistently classified into a single one of the three zones [core, semi-periphery or periphery] of the world economy over the entire 28-year study period."<ref>Salvatore J. Babones. 2005. [http://jwsr.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/jwsr/article/view/392/404 The Country-Level Income Structure of the World-Economy]. Journal of World-Systems Research 11:29-55.</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|{{flag|Belize}}
|{{flag|Brazil}}
|{{flag|Chile}}
|{{flag|Fiji}}
|{{flag|Hungary}}
|-
|{{flag|Jamaica}}
|{{flag|Malaysia}}
|{{flag|Mexico}}
|{{flag|Panama}}
|{{flag|Seychelles}}
|-
|{{flag|South Africa}}
|{{flag|Tunisia}}
|{{flag|Turkey}}
|{{flag|Uruguay}}
|}

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=18em}}
* [[Agrowth]]
* [[American exceptionalism]]
* [[Civilizing mission]]
* [[Climate change]]
* [[Core-periphery]]
** [[First World]]
** [[Second World]]
** [[Third World]]
** [[Fourth World]]
* [[Critique of political economy]]
* [[Debt-to-GDP ratio]]
* [[Degrowth]]
* [[Development theory]]
* [[Export-oriented industrialization]]
* [[International development]]
** [[Developed country]]
** [[Developing country]]
** [[Least developed countries]]
* [[Land reform]]
* [[List of countries by wealth per adult]]
* [[Non-Aligned Movement]] (NAM)
* [[North–South model]]
** [[Global North and Global South]]
* ''[[Prosperity Without Growth]]''
* [[Status quo]]
* [[Sufficiency economy]]
* [[Sustainability]]
* [[Sustainable development]]
* [[Thermoeconomics]]
* [[Theories of imperialism]]
** [[Dependency theory]]
** [[Neocolonialism]]
** [[Three Worlds Theory]]
* [[Uneconomic growth]]
* [[Unified growth theory]]
* [[Universal basic income]]
* [[Wealth redistribution]]
* [[The White Man's Burden]]
* [[Women migrant workers from developing countries]]
* [[World view]]
{{div col end}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist|3}}

==References==
*{{cite book|last1=Abu-Lughod|first1=Janet|author-link1=Janet Abu-Lughod|title=Before European Hegemony: the world system a.d. 1250-1350|year=1989|publisher=OUP|location=New York City|isbn=0-19-506774-6|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/beforeeuropeanhe00abul_1}}
*{{cite book |last1=Chase-Dunn |last2=Hall|first1= Christopher |first2=Thomas D|author-link1=Christopher Chase-Dunn |title=Rise and Demise: Comparing World-Systems The Semi Periphery: The Seedbed of Change|date=7 March 1997|publisher=Westview Press|location=[[Boulder, Colorado]]|isbn=0-8133-1006-7}}
*{{cite book |last1=Chirot |last2=Hall|first1=Daniel |first2= Thomas D.|title=World-System Theory Annual Review of Sociology|year=1982}}
*{{cite book|last1=Chirot|first1=Daniel|title=Social Change in the Twentieth Century|year=1977|publisher=Harcourt Brace Jovanovich|location=New York City|isbn=0-15-581420-6|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/socialchangeintw00chi_ex4}}
*{{cite book |last1=Halsall|first1= Paul|title=Modern History Sourcebook: Summary of Wallerstein on World System Theory |year=1997}}
*{{cite book|last1=Hobsbawn|first1=Eric|author-link1=Eric Hobsbawn|title=The Age of Empire|year=1987|publisher=Random House|location=New York City|isbn=0-679-72175-4|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/ageofempire1875100hobs_0}}
*{{cite book |last1=Markoff|first1= John|author-link1= John Markoff (professor)|title=Where and When was Democracy Invented. Comparative Studies in Society & History |year=1999}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Shaw |first1= Timothy M.|title=The Semiperiphery in Africa and South America: Subimperialism and Semiindustrialism|journal= The Review of Black Political Economy|issn=0034-6446}}
*{{cite book |last1=Tausch |first1= A.|title=Social Cohesion, Sustainable Development and Turkey's Accession to the European Union: Implications from a Global Model}}
*{{cite book |last1=Terlouw |first1= Kees|title=The Regional Reography of the World-System|year=1992|publisher=KNAG|location=[[Utrecht (city)|Utrecht]]|isbn=90-6266-091-6}}
*{{cite book |last1=Wallerstein |first1= Immanuel|author-link1= Immanuel Wallerstein|title=The Modern World-System: Capitalist Agriculture and the Origins of the European World-Economy in the Sixteenth Century|url=https://archive.org/details/modernworldsyste00wall |url-access=registration |year=1976|publisher=Academic Press|location=New York City|isbn=0-12-785920-9}}
*{{cite book|last1=Wallerstein|first1=Immanuel|title=Semi-Peripheral Countries and The Contemporary World Crisis|year=1974|publisher=Academic Press|location=New York City|isbn=0-521-29358-8|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/capitalistworlde00wallrich}}
*{{cite book |last1=Wallerstein |first1= Immanuel|title=The Capitalist World Economy|url=https://archive.org/details/capitalistworlde00wallrich |url-access=registration |year=1979|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=New York City|isbn=0-521-29358-8}}

==Further reading==
* Kaplan, David H.; Wheeler, James O.; Holloway, James O. ''Urban Geography''. York, Pennsylvania: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2004., pg. 412.
* Windows on Humanity by Conrad Phillip KOTTAK. Chapter 17, page 390.

{{DEFAULTSORT:Semi-Periphery Countries}}
[[Category:Imperialism studies]]
[[Category:International development]]
[[Category:Development economics]]
[[Category:Political economy]]
[[Category:World systems theory]]
[[Category:Sociological terminology]]