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{{short description|Computer security term; someone who hacks computer systems}}
{{distinguish|Hacker|Hacker culture}}
{{pp-move}}
{{pp-semi-indef}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2013}}
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{{Computer hacking}}
A '''security hacker''' or security researcher is someone who explores methods for breaching or bypassing defenses and [[Exploit (computer security)|exploiting]] weaknesses in a [[Computer|computer system]] or [[computer network|network]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gao|first=Xing|date=2015|title=Information security investment for competitive firms with hacker behavior and security requirements|journal=Annals of Operations Research|volume= 235|pages=277–300|doi=10.1007/s10479-015-1925-2|s2cid=207085416}}</ref> Hackers may be motivated by a multitude of reasons, such as profit, protest, sabotage, information gathering,<ref>Winkler, Ira. ''Spies Among Us: How to Stop the Spies, Terrorists, Hackers, and Criminals You Don't Even Know You Encounter Every Day.'' John Wiley & Sons. 2005. pg. 92. {{ISBN|9780764589904}}.</ref> challenge, recreation,<ref name="crackdown" /> or evaluation of a system weaknesses to assist in formulating defenses against potential hackers.<!-- historical precedent, takes precedence -->

Longstanding controversy surrounds the meaning of the term "[[hacker]]". In this controversy, [[Hacker (programmer subculture)|computer programmers]] reclaim the term ''hacker'', arguing that it refers simply to someone with an advanced understanding of computers and computer networks,<ref>{{cite web|url= http://jargon-file.org/archive/jargon-1.5.0.dos.txt|title= The Hacker's Dictionary|access-date= 23 May 2013|archive-date= November 8, 2020|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20201108161626/http://jargon-file.org/archive/jargon-1.5.0.dos.txt|url-status= live}}</ref> and that '''''cracker''''' is the more appropriate term for those who break into computers, whether computer criminals ([[#Black hat|black hats]]) or computer security experts ([[White hat (computer security)|white hats]]).<ref>[http://stallman.org/archives/2012-sep-dec.html#06_December_2012_%28Ecuadorian_white_hat_cracker_freed%29 Political notes from 2012: September–December] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121209013904/http://www.stallman.org/archives/2012-sep-dec.html#06_December_2012_%28Ecuadorian_white_hat_cracker_freed%29 |date=December 9, 2012 }}. ''stallman.org''.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://catb.org/jargon/html/C/cracker.html |title= Jargon File: Cracker |first= Eric S. |last= Raymond |quote= Coined ca. 1985 by hackers in defense against journalistic misuse of hacker. |access-date= May 8, 2010 |archive-date= June 29, 2011 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110629135311/http://catb.org/jargon/html/C/cracker.html |url-status= live }}</ref> A 2014 article noted that "the black-hat meaning still prevails among the general public".<ref>{{cite magazine | last1= Yagoda | first1= Ben | title= A Short History of 'Hack' | url= http://www.newyorker.com/tech/elements/a-short-history-of-hack | magazine= The New Yorker | date= 6 March 2014 | access-date= 21 June 2019 | quote= Although Lifehacker and other neutral or positive applications of the word [hack] are increasingly prominent, the black-hat meaning still prevails among the general public. | archive-date= November 10, 2015 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20151110004249/http://www.newyorker.com/tech/elements/a-short-history-of-hack | url-status= live }}</ref> The subculture that has evolved around hackers is often referred to as the "computer underground".

==History==
{{Further|Timeline of computer security hacker history}}
[[File:Stering.jpg|thumb|[[Bruce Sterling]], author of ''[[The Hacker Crackdown]]'']]

===Birth of subculture and entering mainstream: 1960s–1980s===
The subculture around such hackers is termed network hacker subculture, hacker scene, or computer underground. It initially developed in the context of [[phreaking]] during the 1960s and the microcomputer [[Bulletin board system|BBS scene]] of the 1980s. It is implicated with ''[[2600: The Hacker Quarterly]]'' and the ''[[alt.2600]]'' newsgroup.

In 1980, an article in the August issue of ''[[Psychology Today]]'' (with commentary by [[Philip Zimbardo]]) used the term "hacker" in its title: "The Hacker Papers." It was an excerpt from a Stanford Bulletin Board discussion on the addictive nature of computer use. In the 1982 film ''[[Tron]]'', Kevin Flynn ([[Jeff Bridges]]) describes his intentions to break into ENCOM's computer system, saying "I've been doing a little hacking here." CLU is the [[software]] he uses for this. By 1983, hacking in the sense of breaking computer security had already been in use as computer jargon,<ref>See the [http://www.catb.org/jargon/oldversions/jarg1-81-MM-DD.txt 1981 version of the ''Jargon File''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180402225836/http://www.catb.org/jargon/oldversions/jarg1-81-MM-DD.txt |date=April 2, 2018 }}, entry "hacker", last meaning.</ref> but there was no public awareness about such activities.<ref>{{cite web|title=Computer hacking: Where did it begin and how did it grow?|publisher=WindowSecurity.com|date=October 16, 2002|url=http://www.windowsecurity.com/whitepapers/Computer_hacking_Where_did_it_begin_and_how_did_it_grow_.html|access-date=September 6, 2015|archive-date=January 16, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116013518/http://www.windowsecurity.com/whitepapers/Computer_hacking_Where_did_it_begin_and_how_did_it_grow_.html|url-status=live}}</ref> However, the release of the film ''[[WarGames]]'' that year, featuring a computer intrusion into [[NORAD]], raised the public belief that computer security hackers (especially teenagers) could be a threat to national security. This concern became real when, in the same year, a gang of teenage hackers in [[Milwaukee|Milwaukee, Wisconsin]], known as [[The 414s]], broke into computer systems throughout the [[United States]] and [[Canada]], including those of [[Los Alamos National Laboratory]], [[Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center|Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center]] and [[Security Pacific Bank]].<ref name = "drzmzu">{{Cite news|last=Elmer-DeWitt|first=Philip|title=The 414 Gang Strikes Again|newspaper=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|page=75|date=August 29, 1983|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,949797,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071202043840/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,949797,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=December 2, 2007}}</ref> The case quickly grew media attention,<ref name = "drzmzu"/> and 17-year-old Neal Patrick emerged as the spokesman for the gang, including a cover story in ''[[Newsweek]]'' entitled "Beware: Hackers at play", with Patrick's photograph on the cover.<ref name = "iophas">{{Cite news|title=Beware: Hackers at play|newspaper=Newsweek|pages=42–46, 48|date=September 5, 1983}}</ref> The ''[[Newsweek]]'' article appears to be the first use of the word ''hacker'' by the mainstream media in the pejorative sense.

Pressured by media coverage, congressman [[Dan Glickman]] called for an investigation and began work on new laws against computer hacking.<ref>{{cite news|newspaper=Washington Post|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A50606-2002Jun26.html|access-date=2006-04-14|title=Timeline: The U.S. Government and Cybersecurity|date=2003-05-16|archive-date=November 16, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181116162014/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A50606-2002Jun26.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="autogenerated180">{{Cite book|last=Bailey|first=David|title=1984 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy|chapter=Attacks on Computers: Congressional Hearings and Pending Legislation|date=April 1984|chapter-url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/6234796|location=Oakland, CA, USA|publisher=IEEE|pages=180–186|doi=10.1109/SP.1984.10012|isbn=978-0-8186-0532-1|s2cid=15187375|url=https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc1061207/|access-date=July 21, 2023|archive-date=June 24, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240624164037/https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc1061207/|url-status=live}}</ref>
Neal Patrick testified before the [[U.S. House of Representatives]] on September 26, 1983, about the dangers of computer hacking, and six bills concerning computer crime were introduced in the House that year.<ref name="autogenerated180"/> As a result of these laws against computer criminality, white hat, [[grey hat]] and black hat hackers try to distinguish themselves from each other, depending on the legality of their activities. These moral conflicts are expressed in [[Loyd Blankenship|The Mentor]]'s "[[The Hacker Manifesto]]", published 1986 in ''[[Phrack]]''.

Use of the term hacker meaning computer criminal was also advanced by the title "Stalking the Wily Hacker", an article by [[Clifford Stoll]] in the May 1988 issue of the ''[[Communications of the ACM]]''. Later that year, the release by [[Robert Tappan Morris, Jr.]] of the so-called [[Morris worm]] provoked the popular media to spread this usage. The popularity of Stoll's book ''[[The Cuckoo's Egg]]'', published one year later, further entrenched the term in the public's consciousness.

==Classifications==
In computer security, a hacker is someone who focuses on the security mechanisms of computer and network systems. Hackers can include someone who endeavors to strengthen security mechanisms by exploring their weaknesses and also those who seek to access secure, unauthorized information despite security measures. Nevertheless, parts of the subculture see their aim in correcting security problems and use the word in a positive sense. White hat is the name given to ethical computer hackers, who utilize hacking in a helpful way. White hats are becoming a necessary part of the information security field.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Caldwell|first=Tracey|title=Ethical hackers: putting on the white hat|journal=Network Security|date=22 July 2011|volume=2011|issue=7|pages=10–13|doi=10.1016/s1353-4858(11)70075-7}}<!--|access-date=29 March 2013--></ref> They operate under a code, which acknowledges that breaking into other people's computers is bad, but that discovering and exploiting security mechanisms and breaking into computers is still an interesting activity that can be done ethically and legally. Accordingly, the term bears strong connotations that are favorable or pejorative, depending on the context.

Subgroups of the computer underground with different attitudes and motives use different terms to demarcate themselves from each other. These classifications are also used to exclude specific groups with whom they do not agree.

===Cracker===
[[Eric S. Raymond]], author of ''[[Jargon File|The New Hacker's Dictionary]]'', advocates that members of the computer underground should be called crackers. Yet, those people see themselves as hackers and even try to include the views of Raymond in what they see as a wider hacker culture, a view that Raymond has harshly rejected. Instead of a hacker/cracker dichotomy, they emphasize a spectrum of different categories, such as [[white hat (computer security)|white hat]], [[grey hat]], [[#Black hat|black hat]] and [[script kiddie]]. In contrast to Raymond, they usually reserve the term ''cracker'' for more malicious activity.

According to Ralph D. Clifford, a ''cracker'' or ''cracking'' is to "gain unauthorized access to a computer in order to commit another crime such as destroying information contained in that system."<ref>{{cite book
| last = Clifford
| first =  D.
| year = 2011
| title = Cybercrime: The Investigation, Prosecution and Defense of a Computer-Related Crime
| publisher = Carolina Academic Press
| place = Durham, North Carolina|isbn=978-1594608537
}}</ref> These subgroups may also be defined by the legal status of their activities.<ref name="hacker hats" />

===White hat===
{{Main|White hat (computer security)}}
A [[white hat hacker]] breaks security for non-malicious reasons, either to test their own security system, perform [[penetration test]]s or [[vulnerability assessment]]s for a client, or while working for a security company that makes security software. The term is generally synonymous with [[Hacker ethic|ethical hacker]], and certifications, courseware, classes, and online training covering the diverse arena of ethical hacking have been developed.<ref name="hacker hats">{{cite book |last=Wilhelm |first=Douglas |title=Professional Penetration Testing |year=2010 |publisher=Syngress Press |isbn=978-1-59749-425-0 |page=503 |chapter=2}}</ref>

===Black hat===
{{Main|Black hat (computer security)}}
A [[black hat hacker]] is a hacker who "violates computer security for little reason beyond maliciousness or for personal gain" (Moore, 2005).<ref name="Moore2005">{{cite book|last=Moore|first=Robert|title=Cybercrime: Investigating High Technology Computer Crime|year=2005|publisher=Matthew Bender & Company|isbn=1-59345-303-5|page=258}}Robert Moore</ref> The term was coined by [[Richard Stallman]], to contrast the maliciousness of a criminal hacker versus the spirit of playfulness and exploration in [[hacker culture]], or the ethos of the [[white hat hacker]] who performs hacking duties to identify places to repair or as a means of legitimate employment.<ref>{{cite book|last=O'Brien|last2=Marakas|first=James|first2=George|title=Management Information Systems |year=2011|publisher=McGraw-Hill/ Irwin|location=New York, NY|isbn=978-0-07-752217-9|pages=536–537}}</ref> Black hat hackers form the stereotypical, illegal hacking groups often portrayed in popular culture, and are "the epitome of all that the public fears in a computer criminal".<ref name="moore2006">{{cite book
| last = Moore
| first = Robert
| title = Cybercrime: Investigating High-Technology Computer Crime
| publisher = Anderson Publishing
| location = Cincinnati, Ohio
| year = 2006
| isbn = 978-1-59345-303-9
| edition = 1st <!-- 2nd edition came out in 2010 -->
}}</ref>

===Grey hat===
{{Main|Grey hat}}
A grey hat hacker lies between a black hat and a white hat hacker, hacking for ideological reasons.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Okpa |first1=John Thompson |last2=Ugwuoke |first2=Christopher Uchechukwu |last3=Ajah |first3=Benjamin Okorie |last4=Eshioste |first4=Emmanuel |last5=Igbe |first5=Joseph Egidi |last6=Ajor |first6=Ogar James |last7=Okoi |first7=Ofem, Nnana |last8=Eteng |first8=Mary Juachi |last9=Nnamani |first9=Rebecca Ginikanwa |date=2022-09-05 |title=Cyberspace, Black-Hat Hacking and Economic Sustainability of Corporate Organizations in Cross-River State, Nigeria |journal=SAGE Open |language=en |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=215824402211227 |doi=10.1177/21582440221122739 |s2cid=252096635 |issn=2158-2440|doi-access=free }}</ref> A grey hat hacker may surf the Internet and hack into a computer system for the sole purpose of notifying the administrator that their system has a security defect, for example. They may then offer to correct the defect for a fee.<ref name="moore2006" /> Grey hat hackers sometimes find the defect in a system and publish the facts to the world instead of a group of people. Even though grey hat hackers may not necessarily perform hacking for their personal gain, unauthorized access to a system can be considered illegal and unethical.

===Elite hacker===
A [[achieved status|social status]] among hackers, ''elite'' is used to describe the most skilled.<!--p. 117--> Newly discovered [[exploit (computer security)|exploits]] circulate among these hackers.<!--p. 86 --> Elite [[hacker group|groups]] such as [[Masters of Deception]] conferred a kind of credibility on their members.<!-- p. 90 --><ref name="thomas2002">{{cite book
| last=Thomas
| first=Douglas
| title=Hacker Culture
| url=https://archive.org/details/hackerculture00thom_0
| url-access=registration
| publisher=University of Minnesota Press
| year=2002
| isbn=978-0-8166-3346-3
}}</ref>

===Script kiddie===
{{Main|Script kiddie}}
A [[script kiddie]] (also known as a ''skid'' or ''skiddie'') is an unskilled hacker who breaks into computer systems by using automated tools written by others (usually by other black hat hackers), hence the term script (i.e. a computer script that automates the hacking) kiddie (i.e. kid, child an individual lacking knowledge and experience, immature),<ref name="Andress 10">{{cite book |title=CIW Security Professional |last=Andress |first=Mandy |author2=Cox, Phil |author3=Tittel, Ed – |year=2001 |publisher=Wiley|location=New York, NY |isbn=0-7645-4822-0 |page=638}}</ref> usually with little understanding of the underlying concept.

===Neophyte===
A neophyte ("[[newbie]]", or "noob") is someone who is new to hacking or phreaking and has almost no knowledge or experience of the workings of technology and hacking.<ref name="moore2006"/>

===Blue hat===
{{Main|BlueHat}}
A [[BlueHat|blue hat]] hacker is someone outside computer security consulting firms who is used to bug-test a system prior to its launch, looking for exploits so they can be closed. [[Microsoft]] also uses the term ''BlueHat'' to represent a series of security briefing events.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Blue hat hacker Definition|url=https://www.pcmag.com/encyclopedia_term/0,2542,t=blue+hat+hacker&i=56321,00.asp|encyclopedia=PC Magazine Encyclopedia|access-date=May 31, 2010|quote=A security professional invited by Microsoft to find vulnerabilities in Windows.|archive-date=March 8, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130308110959/http://www.pcmag.com/encyclopedia_term/0%2C2542%2Ct%3Dblue+hat+hacker%26i%3D56321%2C00.asp|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Fried|first=Ina|author-link=Ina Fried|title=Blue Hat summit meant to reveal ways of the other side|url=http://news.cnet.com/Microsoft-meets-the-hackers/2009-1002_3-5747813.html|work=Microsoft meets the hackers|publisher=CNET News|access-date=May 31, 2010|date=June 15, 2005|archive-date=December 3, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203003806/http://news.cnet.com/Microsoft-meets-the-hackers/2009-1002_3-5747813.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Markoff|first=John|title=At Microsoft, Interlopers Sound Off on Security|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/17/technology/17hackers.html?pagewanted=1&_r=1|access-date=May 31, 2010|newspaper=The New York Times|date=October 17, 2005|author-link=John Markoff|archive-date=December 19, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141219035056/http://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/17/technology/17hackers.html?pagewanted=1&_r=1|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Hacktivist===
{{Main|Hacktivist}}
A hacktivist is a hacker who utilizes technology to publicize a social, ideological, religious or political message.

[[Hacktivism]] can be divided into two main groups:
* [[Cyberterrorism]]&nbsp;– Activities involving [[website defacement]] or [[denial-of-service attack]]s; and,
* [[Freedom of information]]&nbsp;– Making information that is not public, or is public in non-machine-readable formats, accessible to the public.

===Nation state===
Intelligence agencies and [[cyberwarfare]] operatives of nation states.<ref name="GISEC">{{cite web|title=7 Levels of Hackers: Applying An Ancient Chinese Lesson: Know Your Enemies|url=http://www.govinfosecurity.com/blogs.php?postID=1206&rf=2012-02-27-eg|publisher=GovInfo Security|access-date=February 27, 2012|author=Chabrow, Eric|date=February 25, 2012|archive-date=December 31, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181231042956/http://www.govinfosecurity.com/blogs.php?postID=1206&rf=2012-02-27-eg|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Organized criminal gangs===
Groups of hackers that carry out organized criminal activities for profit.<ref name=GISEC /> Modern-day [[computer hackers]] have been compared to the [[privateer]]s of by-gone days.<ref>Egloff, Florian. [https://carnegieendowment.org/files/GUP_Perkovich_Levite_UnderstandingCyberConflict_Ch14.pdf Cybersecurity and the Age of Privateering.] In: ''Understanding Cyber	Conflict: Fourteen Analogies'', Chapter 14, George Perkovich and Ariel E. Levite, Eds., Georgetown University Press, 2017.</ref> These criminals hold computer systems hostage, demanding large payments from victims to restore access to their own computer systems and data.<ref>Tidy, Joe. [https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-57173096 Ransomware: Should paying hacker ransoms be illegal?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210521112732/https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-57173096 |date=May 21, 2021 }} BBC 20 May 2021.</ref> Furthermore, recent [[ransomware]] attacks on industries, including energy, food, and transportation, have been blamed on [[criminal organization]]s based in or near a [[state actor]] – possibly with the country's knowledge and approval.<ref>Morrison, Sara. [https://www.vox.com/recode/22527272/ransomware-cyberattacks-bitcoin-explained What you need to know about ransomware and the future of cyberattacks] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210619155709/https://www.vox.com/recode/22527272/ransomware-cyberattacks-bitcoin-explained |date=June 19, 2021 }}. Vox, Jun 16, 2021.</ref> [[Data breach|Cyber theft]] and ransomware attacks are now the fastest-growing crimes in the United States.<ref>Abigail Summerville, [https://www.cnbc.com/2017/07/25/stay-protected-from-the-uss-fastest-growing-crime-cyber-attacks.html Protect against the Fastest-Growing Crime: Cyber Attacks] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210623173030/https://www.cnbc.com/2017/07/25/stay-protected-from-the-uss-fastest-growing-crime-cyber-attacks.html |date=June 23, 2021 }}, CNBC (July 25, 2017).</ref> [[Bitcoin]] and other [[cryptocurrencies]] facilitate the [[extortion]] of huge ransoms from large companies, hospitals and city governments with little or no chance of being caught.<ref>Myre, Greg. [https://www.npr.org/2021/06/10/1004874311/how-bitcoin-has-fueled-ransomware-attacks How Bitcoin Has Fueled Ransomware Attacks.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210619111647/https://www.npr.org/2021/06/10/1004874311/how-bitcoin-has-fueled-ransomware-attacks |date=June 19, 2021 }} NPR, June 10, 2021.</ref>

==Attacks==
{{Main|Computer security}}Hackers can usually be sorted into two types of attacks: mass attacks and targeted attacks.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Dey|first1=Debabrata|last2=Lahiri|first2=Atanu|last3=Zhang|first3=Guoying|date=2011|title=Hacker Behavior, Network Effects, and the Security Software Market|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1838656|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|doi=10.2139/ssrn.1838656|issn=1556-5068|url-access=subscription}}</ref> They are sorted into the groups in terms of how they choose their victims and how they act on the attacks.<ref name=":0" />

A typical approach in an attack on Internet-connected system is:
# [[Network enumeration]]: Discovering information about the intended target.
# [[Vulnerability (computing)|Vulnerability analysis]]: Identifying potential ways of attack.
# [[Exploit (computer security)|Exploitation]]: Attempting to compromise the system by employing the vulnerabilities found through the vulnerability analysis.<ref>Gupta, Ajay; Klavinsky, Thomas and Laliberte, Scott
(March 15, 2002) [http://www.informit.com/articles/article.aspx?p=25916 Security Through Penetration Testing: Internet Penetration] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190703010725/http://www.informit.com/articles/article.aspx?p=25916 |date=July 3, 2019 }}. informit.com</ref>

In order to do so, there are several recurring tools of the trade and techniques used by computer criminals and security experts.

===Security exploits===
{{Main|Exploit (computer security)}}

A security exploit is a prepared application that takes advantage of a known weakness.<ref name="Rodriguez">{{Cite web |url=https://www.htbridge.com/publication/the_growing_hacking_threat_to_websites.pdf |title=The Growing Hacking Threat to Websites: An Ongoing Commitment to Web Application Security |last1=Rodriguez |first1=Chris |last2=Martinez |first2=Richard |publisher=Frost & Sullivan |access-date=13 August 2013}}</ref> Common examples of security exploits are [[SQL injection]], [[cross-site scripting]] and [[cross-site request forgery]] which abuse security holes that may result from substandard programming practice. Other exploits would be able to be used through [[File Transfer Protocol]] (FTP), [[Hypertext Transfer Protocol]] (HTTP), [[PHP]], [[Secure Shell|SSH]], [[Telnet]] and some Web pages. These are very common in Web site and Web domain hacking.

===Techniques===
{{Unreferenced section|date=August 2011}}
;Vulnerability scanner
:A [[vulnerability scanner]] is a tool used to quickly check computers on a network for known weaknesses. Hackers also commonly use [[port scanner]]s. These check to see which ports on a specified computer are "open" or available to access the computer, and sometimes will detect what program or service is listening on that port, and its version number. ([[Firewall (computing)|Firewalls]] defend computers from intruders by limiting access to ports and machines, but they can still be circumvented.)

;Finding vulnerabilities
:Hackers may also attempt to find vulnerabilities manually. A common approach is to search for possible vulnerabilities in the code of the computer system then test them, sometimes [[reverse engineering]] the software if the code is not provided. Experienced hackers can easily find patterns in code to find common vulnerabilities.

;Brute-force attack
:Password guessing. [[Brute-force attacks]] are used to quickly check all short password variations. For longer passwords, other methods such as the dictionary attack are used, because of the amount of time a brute-force search takes.<ref>Kerner, Sean Michael. "Sentry MBA Uses Credential Stuffing To Hack Sites." ''Eweek'' (2016): 8. ''Academic Search Complete''. Web. 7 Feb. 2017.</ref>

;Password cracking
:[[Password cracking]] is the process of recovering passwords from data that has been stored in or transmitted by a computer system. Common approaches include repeatedly trying guesses for the password, trying the most common passwords by hand, and repeatedly trying passwords from a "dictionary", or a text file with many passwords.<ref>Weir, Matt, Sudhir Aggarwal, Breno de Medeiros, Bill Glodek. 2009. "Password Cracking Using Probabilistic Context-Free Grammars". ''2009 30th IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy:'' 391-405''.''</ref>

;Packet analyzer
:A [[packet analyzer]] ("packet sniffer") is an application that captures data packets, which can be used to capture passwords and other [[data in transit]] over the network.

;Spoofing attack (phishing)
:A [[spoofing attack]] involves one program, system or website that successfully masquerades as another by falsifying data and is thereby treated as a trusted system by a user or another program&nbsp;– usually to fool programs, systems or users into revealing confidential information, such as user names and passwords.

;Rootkit
:A [[rootkit]] is a program that uses low-level, hard-to-detect methods to subvert control of an operating system from its legitimate operators. Rootkits usually obscure their installation and attempt to prevent their removal through a subversion of standard system security. They may include replacements for system binaries, making it virtually impossible for them to be detected by checking [[Process (computing)|process tables]].

;Social engineering
:In the second stage of the targeting process, hackers often use [[Social engineering (security)|social engineering]] tactics to get enough information to access the network. They may contact the system administrator and pose as a user who cannot get access to his or her system. This technique is portrayed in the 1995 film ''[[Hackers (film)|Hackers]]'', when protagonist Dade "Zero Cool" Murphy calls a somewhat clueless employee in charge of security at a television network. Posing as an accountant working for the same company, Dade tricks the employee into giving him the phone number of a modem so he can gain access to the company's computer system.

:Hackers who use this technique must be familiar with their target's security practices in order to trick the system administrator into giving them information. In some cases, a help-desk employee with limited security experience will answer the phone and be relatively easy to trick. Another approach is for the hacker to pose as an angry supervisor, and when his/her authority is questioned, threaten to fire the help-desk worker. Social engineering is very effective, because users are the most vulnerable part of an organization. No security devices or programs can keep an organization safe if an employee reveals a password to an unauthorized person.

:Social engineering can be broken down into four sub-groups:
:* '''''Intimidation''''' As in the "angry supervisor" technique above, the hacker convinces the person who answers the phone that their job is in danger unless they help them. At this point, many people accept that the hacker is a supervisor and give them the information they seek.
:* '''''Helpfulness''''' The opposite of intimidation, helpfulness exploits many people's natural instinct to help others solve problems. Rather than acting angry, the hacker acts distressed and concerned. The help desk is the most vulnerable to this type of social engineering, as (a.) its general purpose is to help people; and (b.) it usually has the authority to change or reset passwords, which is exactly what the hacker wants.<ref>Thompson, Samuel T. C. "Helping The Hacker? Library Information, Security, And Social Engineering." ''Information Technology & Libraries'' 25.4 (2006): 222-225. ''Academic Search Complete''. Web. 7 Feb. 2017.</ref>
:* '''''Name-dropping''''' The hacker uses names of authorized users to convince the person who answers the phone that the hacker is a legitimate user him or herself. Some of these names, such as those of webpage owners or company officers, can easily be obtained online. Hackers have also been known to obtain names by examining discarded documents ([[garbage picking|"dumpster diving"]]).
:* '''''Technical''''' Using technology is also a way to get information. A hacker can send a fax or email to a legitimate user, seeking a response that contains vital information. The hacker may claim that he or she is involved in law enforcement and needs certain data for an investigation, or for record-keeping purposes.

;Trojan horses
:A [[Trojan horse (computing)|Trojan horse]] is a program that seems to be doing one thing but is actually doing another. It can be used to set up a [[Backdoor (computing)|back door]] in a computer system, enabling the intruder to gain access later. (The name refers to the [[Trojan Horse|horse]] from the [[Trojan War]], with the conceptually similar function of deceiving defenders into bringing an intruder into a protected area.)

;Computer virus
:A [[computer virus|virus]] is a self-replicating program that spreads by inserting copies of itself into other executable code or documents. By doing this, it behaves similarly to a [[Virus|biological virus]], which spreads by inserting itself into living cells. While some viruses are harmless or mere hoaxes, most are considered malicious.

;Computer worm
:Like a virus, a [[computer worm|worm]] is also a self-replicating program. It differs from a virus in that (a.) it propagates through computer networks without user intervention; and (b.) does not need to attach itself to an existing program. Nonetheless, many people use the terms "virus" and "worm" interchangeably to describe any self-propagating program.

;Keystroke logging
:A [[Keystroke logging|keylogger]] is a tool designed to record ("log") every keystroke on an affected machine for later retrieval, usually to allow the user of this tool to gain access to confidential information typed on the affected machine. Some keyloggers use virus-, trojan-, and rootkit-like methods to conceal themselves. However, some of them are used for legitimate purposes, even to enhance computer security. For example, a business may maintain a keylogger on a computer used at a [[point of sale]] to detect evidence of employee fraud.

;Attack patterns
:[[Attack patterns]] are defined as series of repeatable steps that can be applied to simulate an attack against the security of a system. They can be used for testing purposes or locating potential vulnerabilities. They also provide, either physically or in reference, a common solution pattern for preventing a given attack.

'''Tools and Procedures'''
:A thorough examination of hacker tools and procedures may be found in Cengage Learning's E|CSA certification workbook.<ref name="E|CSA">{{cite book |title=Penetration Testing: Procedures & Methodologies |last=Press |first=EC-Council |year=2011 |publisher=CENGAGE Learning|location=Clifton, NY |isbn=978-1435483675}}</ref>

==Notable intruders and criminal hackers==
{{Main|List of computer criminals}}

==Notable security hackers==
{{Main|List of hackers}}
*[[Andrew Auernheimer]], sentenced to three years in prison, is a grey hat hacker whose security group [[Goatse Security]] exposed a flaw in AT&T's iPad security.
*[[Dan Kaminsky]] was a [[Domain Name System|DNS]] expert who exposed multiple flaws in the protocol and investigated Sony's rootkit security issues in 2005. He spoke in front of the United States Senate on technology issues.
*[[Bernie S|Ed Cummings]] (also known as [[Bernie S]]) is a longstanding writer for ''2600: The Hacker Quarterly''. In 1995, he was arrested and charged with possession of technology that could be used for fraudulent purposes, and set legal precedents after being denied both a bail hearing and a speedy trial.
*[[Eric Corley]] (also known as [[Emmanuel Goldstein]]) is the longstanding publisher of ''[[2600: The Hacker Quarterly]]''. He is also the founder of the [[Hackers on Planet Earth]] (HOPE) conferences. He has been part of the hacker community since the late 1970s.
*[[Susan Headley]] (also known as Susan Thunder), was an American hacker active during the late 1970s and early 1980s widely respected for her expertise in [[social engineering (security)|social engineering]], [[pretexting]], and [[psychological subversion]].<ref>{{cite web|title=DEF CON III Archives - Susan Thunder Keynote|url=https://www.defcon.org/html/defcon-3/defcon-3.html|website=DEF CON|access-date=12 August 2017|archive-date=April 20, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190420173714/https://www.defcon.org/html/defcon-3/defcon-3.html|url-status=live}}</ref> She became heavily involved in [[phreaking]] with [[Kevin Mitnick]] and Lewis de Payne in [[Los Angeles]], but later framed them for erasing the system files at US Leasing after a falling out, leading to Mitnick's first conviction.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Hafner|first1=Katie|title=Kevin Mitnick, unplugged|journal=Esquire|date=August 1995|volume=124|issue=2|page=80|url=http://www.tomandmaria.com/ST297/Readings/mitnick%20esquire.htm|access-date=August 13, 2017|archive-date=May 15, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190515160214/http://www.tomandmaria.com/ST297/Readings/mitnick%20esquire.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
*[[Gary McKinnon]] is a Scottish hacker who was facing [[extradition]] to the [[United States]] to face criminal charges. Many people in the UK called on the authorities to be lenient with McKinnon, who has [[Asperger syndrome]]. The extradition has now been dropped.<ref name="bbcprofile">{{cite news
| url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-19506090
| title = Gary McKinnon extradition ruling due by 16 October
| work = BBC News
| date = September 6, 2012
| access-date = September 25, 2012
| archive-date = August 7, 2019
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190807144756/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-19506090
| url-status = live
}}</ref>
*[[Gordon Lyon]], known by the handle Fyodor, authored the [[Nmap|Nmap Security Scanner]] as well as many network security books and web sites. He is a founding member of the [[Honeynet Project]] and Vice President of [[Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility]].
*[[Guccifer 2.0]], who claimed that he hacked into the [[Democratic National Committee]] (DNC) computer network
*[[Jacob Appelbaum]] is an advocate, security researcher, and developer for the [[Tor (anonymity network)|Tor]] project. He speaks internationally for usage of Tor by human rights groups and others concerned about Internet anonymity and censorship.
*[[Joanna Rutkowska]] is a Polish computer security researcher who developed the [[Blue Pill (software)|Blue Pill]] [[rootkit]] and [[Qubes OS]].
*[[Jude Milhon]] (known as St. Jude) was an American hacker and activist, founding member of the [[cypherpunk]] movement, and one of the creators of [[Community Memory]], the first [[computer bulletin board|public computerized bulletin board system]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Community Memory: Precedents in Social Media and Movements|url=http://www.computerhistory.org/atchm/community-memory-precedents-in-social-media-and-movements/|website=Computer History Museum|date=February 23, 2016|access-date=13 August 2017|archive-date=July 3, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190703085220/https://www.computerhistory.org/atchm/community-memory-precedents-in-social-media-and-movements/|url-status=live}}</ref>
*[[Kevin Mitnick]] was a computer security consultant and author, formerly the most wanted computer criminal in [[United States]] history.<ref>{{cite press release
 |url         = http://www.usdoj.gov/criminal/cybercrime/mitnick.htm
 |title       = Kevin Mitnick sentenced to nearly four years in prison; computer hacker ordered to pay restitution ...
 |date        = August 9, 1999
 |publisher   = [[United States Attorney's Office]], Central District of California
 |access-date  = April 10, 2010
 |url-status     = dead
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20090926231348/http://www.usdoj.gov/criminal/cybercrime/mitnick.htm
 |archive-date = September 26, 2009
 |df          = mdy-all
}}</ref>
*[[Len Sassaman]] was a Belgian computer programmer and technologist who was also a privacy advocate.
*[[Meredith L. Patterson]] is a well-known technologist and [[Do-it-yourself biology|biohacker]] who has presented research with [[Dan Kaminsky]] and [[Len Sassaman]] at many international security and hacker conferences.
*[[Kimberley Vanvaeck]] (known as Gigabyte) is a Belgian hacker recognized for writing the first virus in [[C Sharp (programming language)|C#]].<ref name=Holt>{{cite book| first1=Thomas J. | last1=Holt | first2=Bernadette Hlubik | last2=Schel | title=Corporate Hacking and Technology-Driven Crime: Social Dynamics and Implications|year=2010|publisher=IGI Global|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LAIjG_OGuIMC&pg=PA146|page=146| isbn=9781616928056 }}</ref>
*[[Michał Zalewski]] (lcamtuf) is a prominent security researcher.
*[[Solar Designer]] is the pseudonym of the founder of the [[Openwall Project]].
*[[Kane Gamble]], sentenced to 2 years in youth detention, who is autistic, gained access to highly sensitive information and "cyber-terrorised" high-profile [[United States Intelligence Community|U.S. intelligence]] officials such as then [[CIA]] chief [[John O. Brennan|John Brennan]] or Director of National Intelligence [[James Clapper]].<ref>"[https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/british-teen-hacker-kane-gamble-us-intelligence-officials-jailed-cia-fbi-a8315126.html British teenager who 'cyber-terrorised' US intelligence officials gets two years detention] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180614001502/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/british-teen-hacker-kane-gamble-us-intelligence-officials-jailed-cia-fbi-a8315126.html |date=June 14, 2018 }}". ''The Independent.'' 21 April 2018.</ref><ref>"[http://www.dw.com/en/british-teen-kane-gamble-accessed-accounts-of-top-us-intelligence-and-security-officials/a-42230614 British teen Kane Gamble accessed accounts of top US intelligence and security officials] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180621093731/http://www.dw.com/en/british-teen-kane-gamble-accessed-accounts-of-top-us-intelligence-and-security-officials/a-42230614 |date=June 21, 2018 }}". [[Deutsche Welle]]. 21 January 2018.</ref><ref>"[https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/crime/us-intelligence-cia-fbi-american-government-john-brennan-mark-giuliano-crackas-with-attitude-latest-a8170561.html Kane Gamble: Teenager with autism on Leicestershire housing estate took classified information by fooling people into thinking he was FBI boss] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190719174655/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/crime/us-intelligence-cia-fbi-american-government-john-brennan-mark-giuliano-crackas-with-attitude-latest-a8170561.html |date=July 19, 2019 }}". ''The Independent.'' 21 January 2018.</ref>

==Customs==
The computer underground<ref name="crackdown">{{cite book  | last = Sterling  | first = Bruce  | author-link = Bruce Sterling  | title = [[The Hacker Crackdown]]  | year = 1993  | publisher = IndyPublish.com  | location = McLean, Virginia  | isbn = 1-4043-0641-2  | chapter = Part 2(d)  | page = 61}}</ref> has produced its own specialized slang, such as [[leet|1337]]speak. Writing software and performing other activities to support these views is referred to as [[hacktivism]]. Some consider illegal cracking ethically justified for these goals; a common form is [[website defacement]]. The computer underground is frequently compared to the Wild West.<ref>{{cite book  | author1 = Jordan, Tim  | author2 = Taylor, Paul A.  | pages = [https://archive.org/details/hacktivismcyberw0000jord/page/133 133–134]  | title = Hacktivism and Cyberwars  | publisher = Routledge  | year = 2004  | isbn = 978-0-415-26003-9  | quote = Wild West imagery has permeated discussions of cybercultures.  | url = https://archive.org/details/hacktivismcyberw0000jord/page/133  }}</ref> It is common for hackers to use aliases to conceal their identities.

===Hacker groups and conventions===
{{Main|Hacker conference|Hacker group}}

The computer underground is supported by regular real-world gatherings called [[hacker convention]]s or "hacker cons". These events include [[SummerCon]] (Summer), [[DEF CON]], [[HoHoCon]] (Christmas), [[ShmooCon]] (February), [[Black Hat Conference]], [[Chaos Communication Congress]], AthCon, Hacker Halted, and [[H.O.P.E.]]{{Citation needed|date=October 2008}} Local Hackfest groups organize and compete to develop their skills to send a team to a prominent convention to compete in group pentesting, exploit and forensics on a larger scale. Hacker groups became popular in the early 1980s, providing access to hacking information and resources and a place to learn from other members. Computer [[bulletin board systems]] (BBSs), such as the Utopias, provided platforms for information-sharing via dial-up modem. Hackers could also gain credibility by being affiliated with elite groups.<ref name="thomas"/>

==Consequences for malicious hacking==

===India===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Section!! Offence !! Punishment
|-
| 65 ||''Tampering with computer source documents'' – Intentional concealment, destruction or alteration of source code when the computer source code is required to be kept or maintained by law for the time being in force || Imprisonment up to three years, or/and with fine up to 20000 rupees
|-
| 66 ||Hacking|| Imprisonment up to three years, or/and with fine up to 50000 rupees
|-
|}

===Netherlands===
* Article 138ab of [[Law of the Netherlands#Criminal law|Wetboek van Strafrecht]] prohibits ''computervredebreuk'', which is defined as intruding an automated work or a part thereof with intention and against the law. Intrusion is defined as access by means of:
**Defeating [[Computer security|security measures]]
**By technical means
**By false signals or a false [[key (cryptography)|cryptographic key]]
**By the use of stolen [[User (computing)|usernames]] and [[password]]s.
Maximum imprisonment is one year or a fine of the fourth category.<ref>[http://wetten.overheid.nl/BWBR0001854/TweedeBoek/TitelV/Artikel138ab/geldigheidsdatum_27-12-2012 Artikel 138ab] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150202231425/http://wetten.overheid.nl/BWBR0001854/TweedeBoek/TitelV/Artikel138ab/geldigheidsdatum_27-12-2012 |date=February 2, 2015 }}. Wetboek van Strafrecht, December 27, 2012</ref>

===United States===

{{usc|18|1030}}, more commonly known as the [[Computer Fraud and Abuse Act]], prohibits unauthorized access or damage of "protected computers". "Protected computers" are defined in {{USCSub|18|1030|e|2}} as:

* A computer exclusively for the use of a financial institution or the United States Government, or, in the case of a computer not exclusively for such use, used by or for a financial institution or the United States Government and the conduct constituting the offense affects that use by or for the financial institution or the Government.
* A computer which is used in or affecting interstate or foreign commerce or communication, including a computer located outside the United States that is used in a manner that affects interstate or foreign commerce or communication of the United States;

The maximum imprisonment or fine for violations of the ''Computer Fraud and Abuse Act'' depends on the severity of the violation and the offender's history of violations under the ''Act''.

The [[FBI]] has demonstrated its ability to recover ransoms paid in [[cryptocurrency]] by victims of cybertheft.<ref>Nakashima, Ellen. [https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2021/06/07/colonial-pipeline-ransomware-payment-recovered/ Feds recover more than $2 million in ransomware payments from Colonial Pipeline hackers.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210619032648/https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2021/06/07/colonial-pipeline-ransomware-payment-recovered/ |date=June 19, 2021 }} Washington Post, June 7, 2021.</ref>

==Hacking and the media==
[[File:Cliche Hacker and Binary Code (26946304530).jpg|250px|right|thumb|In film and news media, hackers are often depicted as hooded figures typing in the dark.]]

===Hacker magazines===
{{Main category|Hacker magazines}}
The most notable hacker-oriented print publications are ''[[Phrack]]'', ''Hakin9'' and ''[[2600: The Hacker Quarterly]]''. While the information contained in hacker magazines and [[ezine]]s was often outdated by the time they were published, they enhanced their contributors' reputations by documenting their successes.<ref name="thomas">{{cite book |last=Thomas |first=Douglas |title=Hacker Culture |year=2003 |publisher=University of Minnesota Press |isbn=978-0-8166-3346-3 |page=90 }}</ref>

===Hackers in fiction===
{{See also|List of fictional hackers}}
Hackers often show an interest in fictional [[cyberpunk]] and [[cyberculture]] literature and movies. The adoption of [[fictional]] [[pseudonym]]s,<ref>{{cite news|last=Swabey|first=Pete|title=Data leaked by Anonymous appears to reveal Bank of America's hacker profiling operation|url=http://www.information-age.com/it-management/risk-and-compliance/123456840/data-leaked-by-anonymous-appears-to-reveal-bank-of-america-s-hacker-profiling-operation|access-date=21 February 2014|newspaper=Information Age|date=27 February 2013|archive-date=April 19, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160419224819/http://www.information-age.com/it-management/risk-and-compliance/123456840/data-leaked-by-anonymous-appears-to-reveal-bank-of-america-s-hacker-profiling-operation|url-status=live}}</ref> symbols, values and [[metaphor]]s from these works is very common.<ref>{{cite web|title=Hackers and Viruses: Questions and Answers|url=http://www.scienzagiovane.unibo.it/English/hackers/6-faq.html|work=Scienzagiovane|publisher=[[University of Bologna]]|access-date=21 February 2014|date=12 November 2012|archive-date=June 10, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160610030233/http://www.scienzagiovane.unibo.it/English/hackers/6-faq.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

====Books====
* The [[cyberpunk]] novels of [[William Gibson]]{{snd}}especially the [[Sprawl trilogy]]{{snd}}are very popular with hackers.<ref name="ntygibson">{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2003/05/11/opinion/editorial-observer-a-prince-of-cyberpunk-fiction-moves-into-the-mainstream.html |title=A Prince of Cyberpunk Fiction Moves Into the Mainstream |first=Brent |last=Staples |date=May 11, 2003 |quote=Mr. Gibson's novels and short stories are worshiped by hackers |work=The New York Times |access-date=February 20, 2017 |archive-date=October 13, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161013001328/http://www.nytimes.com/2003/05/11/opinion/editorial-observer-a-prince-of-cyberpunk-fiction-moves-into-the-mainstream.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Helba]] from the ''[[.hack]]'' manga and anime series
* [[Merlin of Amber]], the protagonist of the second series in ''[[The Chronicles of Amber]]'' by [[Roger Zelazny]], is a young immortal hacker-mage prince who has the ability to traverse shadow dimensions.
* [[Lisbeth Salander]] in ''[[The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo]]'' by [[Stieg Larsson]]
* Alice from ''[[Heaven's Memo Pad]]''
* ''[[Ender's Game]]'' by [[Orson Scott Card]]
* ''[[Evil Genius (novel)|Evil Genius]]'' by [[Catherine Jinks]]
* [[Hackers (anthology)|''Hackers'' (anthology)]] by [[Jack Dann]] and [[Gardner Dozois]]
* ''[[Little Brother (Doctorow novel)|Little Brother]]'' by [[Cory Doctorow]]
* ''[[Neuromancer]]'' by [[William Gibson]]
* ''[[Snow Crash]]'' by [[Neal Stephenson]]

====Films====
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
* ''[[Antitrust (film)|Antitrust]]''
* ''[[Blackhat (film)|Blackhat]]''
* ''[[Cypher (film)|Cypher]]''
* ''[[Eagle Eye]]''
* ''[[Enemy of the State (film)|Enemy of the State]]''
* ''[[Firewall (film)|Firewall]]''
* ''[[Girl With The Dragon Tattoo]]''
* ''[[Hackers (film)|Hackers]]''
* ''[[Live Free or Die Hard]]''
* [[The Matrix Series|''The Matrix'' series]]
* ''[[The Net (1995 film)|The Net]]''
* ''[[The Net 2.0 (film)|The Net 2.0]]''
* ''[[Pirates of Silicon Valley]]''
* ''[[Skyfall]]''
* ''[[Sneakers (1992 film)|Sneakers]]''
* ''[[Swordfish (film)|Swordfish]]''
* ''[[Terminator 2: Judgment Day]]''
* ''[[Terminator Salvation]]''
* ''[[Track Down|Take Down]]''
* ''[[Tron]]''
* ''[[Tron: Legacy]]''
* ''[[Untraceable]]''
* ''[[WarGames]]''
* ''[[Weird Science (film)|Weird Science]]''
* ''[[The Fifth Estate (film)|The Fifth Estate]]''
* ''[[Who Am I – No System Is Safe|Who Am I – No System Is Safe (film)]]''
* "[[Johnny English Strikes Again]]"{{div col end}}

====TV series====
* ''[[Mr. Robot]]''

===Non-fiction books===
* ''[[The Art of Deception]]'' by [[Kevin Mitnick]]
* ''[[The Art of Intrusion]]'' by [[Kevin Mitnick]]
* ''[[The Cuckoo's Egg]]'' by [[Clifford Stoll]]
* ''[[Ghost in the Wires|Ghost in the Wires: My Adventures as the World's Most Wanted Hacker]]'' by [[Kevin Mitnick]]
* ''[[Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution]]'' by [[Steven Levy]]
* ''[[The Hacker Crackdown]]'' by [[Bruce Sterling]]
* ''[[The Hacker's Handbook]]'' by Hugo Cornwall (Peter Sommer)
* ''[[Hacking: The Art of Exploitation Second Edition]]'' by Jon Erickson
* ''[[Out of the Inner Circle]]'' by [[Bill Landreth]] and [[Howard Rheingold]]
* ''[[Underground (Suelette Dreyfus book)|Underground]]'' by [[Suelette Dreyfus]]

==See also==
{{div col}}
* [[Cracking of wireless networks]]
* [[Cyber spying]]
* [[Cyber Storm Exercise]]
* [[Cybercrime]]
* [[Government hacking]]
* [[Hacker culture]]
* [[Hacker (expert)]]
* [[Hacker Manifesto]]
* [[IT risk]]
* [[Mathematical beauty]]
* [[Metasploit Project]]
* [[Penetration test]]
* [[Technology assessment]]
* [[Vulnerability (computing)]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist|35em}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite journal |author=Samuel Chng, Han Yu Lu, Ayush Kumar, David Yau |date=Mar 2022 |title=Hacker types, motivations and strategies: A comprehensive framework |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S245195882200001X |journal=Computers in Human Behavior Reports |volume=5 |issn=2451-9588 |pages= |doi= |access-date=27 Jan 2022}}
* {{cite book |first1=Bill |last1=Apro |first2=Graeme |last2=Hammond | title=Hackers: The Hunt for Australia's Most Infamous Computer Cracker |year=2005 |isbn=1-74124-722-5 |publisher=Five Mile Press |location=Rowville, Vic}}
* {{cite book |title=Hacking for Dummies | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rIOxAmsA6hQC&pg=PP1 |location=Hoboken, NJ |publisher=Wiley Pub| isbn=978-0-7645-5784-2 |first=Kevin |last=Beaver |year=2010}}
* {{cite book |title=Code Hacking: A Developer's Guide to Network Security | isbn=978-1-58450-314-9 |first1=Richard |last1=Conway |first2=Julian |last2=Cordingley |year=2004 |location= Hingham, Mass |publisher=Charles River Media}}
* {{cite book |first1=David H. |last1=Freeman |first2=Charles C. |last2=Mann |title=At Large: The Strange Case of the World's Biggest Internet Invasion |year=1997 |isbn=0-684-82464-7 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |location=New York |url=https://archive.org/details/atlargestrangeca00free }}
* {{cite journal |last=Granville |first=Johanna |date=Winter 2003 |title=Dot.Con: The Dangers of Cyber Crime and a Call for Proactive Solutions |url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/14361572/Dotcon-Dangers-of-Cybercrime-by-Johanna-Granville |journal=[[Australian Journal of Politics and History]] |volume=49 |issue=1 |pages=102–109 |doi= 10.1111/1467-8497.00284|access-date=20 February 2014|url-access=subscription }}
* {{cite book |first=Michael |last=Gregg | title=Certified Ethical Hacker | year=2006 | isbn= 978-0-7897-3531-7 | publisher=Que Certification |location=Indianapolis, Ind}}
* {{cite book |first1=Katie |last1=Hafner |first2=John |last2=Markoff |title=Cyberpunk: Outlaws and Hackers on the Computer Frontier |year=1991 |isbn=0-671-68322-5 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |location=New York |url=https://archive.org/details/cyberpunk00kati }}
* {{cite book |last1=Harper |first1=Allen |first2=Shon |last2=Harris |first3=Jonathan |last3=Ness | title=Gray Hat Hacking: The Ethical Hacker's Handbook |edition=3rd | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jMmpLwe2ezoC | year=2011 |isbn=978-0-07-174255-9 | publisher=McGraw-Hill |location=New York}}
* {{cite book |first1=Stuart |last1=McClure |first2=Joel |last2=Scambray |first3=George |last3=Kurtz |title=Hacking Exposed: Network Security Secrets and Solutions |url=https://archive.org/details/hackingexposedne00mccl |url-access=registration |year=1999 |isbn=0-07-212127-0 |publisher= Mcgraw-Hill |location=Berkeley, Calif}}
* {{cite book |last=Russell |first=Ryan |year=2004 |title=Stealing the Network: How to Own a Continent |location=Rockland, Mass |publisher=Syngress Media |isbn=978-1-931836-05-0 }}
* {{cite book |title=Hackers: Crime in the Digital Sublime |first=Paul A. |last=Taylor |isbn=978-0-415-18072-6 |publisher=Routledge |location=London|year=1999}}

==External links==
{{Wikibooks|Hacking}}
*{{Commonscatinline|Hacking (computer security)}}
*[http://edition.cnn.com/2001/TECH/internet/11/19/hack.history.idg/index.html CNN Tech PCWorld Staff (November 2001). Timeline: A 40-year history of hacking from 1960 to 2001]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20130826023449/http://video.pbs.org/video/2365039353/ Can Hackers Be Heroes?] Video produced by [[Off Book (web series)]]

{{Computer security}}
{{Internet slang}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hacker (Computer Security)}}
[[Category:Hacking (computer security)| ]]
[[Category:Computer occupations]]
[[Category:Identity theft]]
[[Category:Illegal occupations]]
[[Category:Security breaches]]
[[Category:Cybersecurity engineering]]