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{{short description|Vehicle safety device to protect against injury during collisions and sudden stop}}
{{About |the safety device |the band |Seatbelts (band)}}
{{Use mdy dates|cs1-dates=ly|date=January 2022}}
[[File:Female driver buckling seatbelt.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|Buckling a three-point seat belt]]

A '''seat belt''' or '''seatbelt''', also known as a '''safety belt''', is a [[Automotive safety|vehicle safety]] device designed to secure the driver or a passenger of a [[vehicle]] against harmful movement that may result during a [[collision]] or a sudden stop. A seat belt reduces the likelihood of death or serious [[injury]] in a [[traffic collision]] by reducing the force of [[Second impact (safety)|secondary impacts]] with interior strike hazards, by keeping occupants positioned correctly for maximum effectiveness of the [[airbag]] (if equipped), and by preventing occupants being ejected from the [[Traffic collision|vehicle in a crash]] or if the [[Vehicle rollover|vehicle rolls over]].

When in motion, the driver and passengers are traveling at the same speed as the vehicle. If the vehicle suddenly halts or crashes, the occupants continue at the same speed the vehicle was going before it stopped. A seat belt applies an opposing force to the driver and passengers to prevent them from falling out or making contact with the interior of the car (especially preventing contact with, or going through, the [[windshield]]). Seat belts are considered primary restraint systems (PRSs), because of their vital role in occupant safety.

==Effectiveness==
[[File:Lives Saved by Safety Belts and Air Bags, NHTSA, DOT.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|Lives saved by seat belts and airbags in the United States, 1991–2001]]
[[File:5th and Wall.webm|thumb|Video produced by the LAPD stressing the importance of wearing seat belts in preventing death in automobile collisions]]
An analysis conducted in the United States in 1984 compared a variety of seat belt types alone and in combination with [[Airbag|air bags]].<ref name=":0">{{cite report |publisher= National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Plans and Programs, Office of Planning and Analysis |url= http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/Pubs/806572.pdf |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20081005191829/http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/Pubs/806572.PDF |url-status= dead |archive-date= October 5, 2008 |date =11 July 1984 |title= Passenger Car Front Seat Occupant Protection |access-date= 2016-02-14 |page= IV-2}}</ref> The range of fatality reduction for front seat passengers was broad, from 20% to 55%, as was the range of major injury, from 25% to 60%.<ref name=":0" /> More recently, the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] has summarized these data by stating "seat belts reduce serious crash-related injuries and deaths by about half."<ref>{{cite web |title= Seat Belts: Get the Facts |url= https://www.cdc.gov/Motorvehiclesafety/seatbelts/facts.html |work=Motor Vehicle Safety |access-date= 2016-02-15 |publisher= Centers for Disease Control |date= 20 August 2015 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160221213309/http://www.cdc.gov/Motorvehiclesafety/seatbelts/facts.html |archive-date = 21 February 2016 |url-status = dead }}</ref> Most  malfunctions are a result of there being too much slack in the seat belt at the time of the accident.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://tragoslaw.com/clearwater-car-accident-lawyer/injuries/ |title=Clearwater Car Accident Injuries {{!}} Whiplash Injuries |newspaper=Clearwater Injury Lawyer |access-date=2016-11-02 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20161104005312/http://tragoslaw.com/clearwater-car-accident-lawyer/injuries/ |archive-date=2016-11-04 |url-status=dead }}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|date=October 2020}}

In case of [[vehicle rollover]] in a U.S. passenger car or SUV, from 1994 to 2004, wearing a seat belt reduced the risk of fatalities or incapacitating injuries and increased the probability of no injury:
* In case of [[vehicle rollover]] in a U.S. passenger car, there are {{#expr:852/119299*100 round 2}}% fatalities in 1994 and {{#expr:949/108748*100 round 2}}% in 2014 when user is restrained.<ref name="DOTHS810741">DOT HS 810 741
4. Title and Subtitle
5. Report Date
An Analysis of Motor Vehicle Rollover Crashes and March 2007
Injury outcomes</ref> There are {{#expr:2972/43552*100 round 0}}% fatalities in 1994 and {{#expr:2487/19698*100 round 0}}% in 2014 when the user is unrestrained.<ref name="DOTHS810741" />
* In case of vehicle rollover, there are {{#expr:12373/119299*100 round 0}}% incapacitating injury in 1994 and {{#expr:10593/108748*100 round 0}}% in 2014 when the user is restrained. There are {{#expr:13758/43552*100 round 0}}% incapacitating injury in 1994 and {{#expr:4888/19698*100 round 0}}% in 2014 when user is unrestrained.<ref name="DOTHS810741" />
* The probability of no injury is {{#expr:53938/119299*100 round 0}}% in 1994 and {{#expr:48093/108748*100 round 0}}% in 2014 when the user is restrained. There were {{#expr:8186/43552*100 round 0}}% no injury in 1994 and {{#expr:2974/19698*100 round 0}}% in 2014 when the user is unrestrained.

It has been suggested that although seat belt usage reduces the probability of death in any given accident, mandatory seat belt laws have little or no effect on the overall number of traffic fatalities because seat belt usage also disincentivizes safe driving behaviors, thereby increasing the total number of accidents. This idea, known as compensating-behavior theory, is not supported by the evidence.<ref name=CohenLeinav>{{Cite journal |journal=SSRN |last1=Cohen |first1=Alma |last2=Einav |first2=Liran |date=2001-12-10 |title=The Effects of Mandatory Seat Belt Laws on Driving Behavior and Traffic Fatalities |location=Rochester, New York |doi=10.2139/ssrn.293582 |ssrn=293582 |s2cid=152488364 |url=http://www.law.harvard.edu/programs/olin_center/papers/pdf/341.pdf |access-date=2011-02-02}}</ref>

==History==
Seat belts were invented by English engineer [[George Cayley]], to use on his [[Glider (aircraft)|glider]], in the mid-19th century.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.yorkshirepost.co.uk/features/Clunk-click--an-invention.5583475.jp?articlepage=1 |title=Clunk, click – an invention that's saved lives for 50 years |last=Manby |first=Frederic |date=24 August 2009 |access-date=2010-12-04 |publisher=Johnston Press Digital Publishing |newspaper=Yorkshire Post|url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160102042045/http://www.yorkshirepost.co.uk/news/analysis/clunk-click-an-invention-that-s-saved-lives-for-50-years-1-2296965 |archive-date=January 2, 2016}}</ref>

By 1928, all aircraft were required to have them.<ref name="flyingmag/supplies/restrain">{{cite news |last1=Silveira |first1=Geri |title=Restrain Yourself: Inexpensive Restraint System Options |url=https://www.flyingmag.com/avionics-gear/pilot-supplies/restrain-yourself-inexpensive-restraint-system-options |access-date=16 June 2025 |work=[[Flying Magazine]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151011172340/https://www.flyingmag.com/avionics-gear/pilot-supplies/restrain-yourself-inexpensive-restraint-system-options |archive-date=2015-10-11 |language=en}}</ref>

[[Nash Motors|Nash]] was the first American car manufacturer to offer seat belts as a factory option, in its 1949 models.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Janik |first1=Erika |date=September 25, 2017 |title=The Surprisingly Controversial History Of Seat Belts |url=https://www.wpr.org/surprisingly-controversial-history-seat-belts |access-date=January 11, 2021 |work=Wisconsin Public Radio}}</ref> They were installed in 40,000 cars, but buyers did not want them and requested that dealers remove them.<ref name="Nash-1949">{{cite book |last1=Ronan |first1=Larry |title=Seatbelts: 1949-1956 |date=April 1979 |publisher=U.S. Department of Transportation, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (DOT-TSC-NHTSA-79-1) |page=17}}</ref> The feature was "met with insurmountable sales resistance" and Nash reported that after one year "only 1,000 had been used" by customers.<ref name="Nash-1949" />

Ford offered seat belts as an option in its 1956 models. Ford reported that, a few months into the new model year, 20% of buyers were ordering seat belts from the factory, with another 10% choosing dealer-installed belts.<ref>"T-Bird Demand Reported Eight Weeks Behind Output." Automotive News 30:3522 (31 October 1955), 49.</ref>

In the early 1950s C. Hunter Shelden, a neurologist working at the [[Huntington Memorial Hospital]] in [[Pasadena, California]], studied the high number of head injuries he saw due to auto accidents.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.hmri.org/HMRI_News/HMRI_News_-_May_2003/Shelden_Memorial/shelden_memorial.html |title=HMRI News |website=Hmri.org |access-date=2011-02-02 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110226051243/http://www.hmri.org/HMRI_News/HMRI_News_-_May_2003/Shelden_Memorial/shelden_memorial.html |archive-date=February 26, 2011 }}</ref> Based on his study of the early seat belts whose primitive designs were implicated in these injuries and deaths, in a 1955 paper he proposed retractable seat belts, as well as recessed [[steering wheel]]s, reinforced roofs, [[roll cage|roll bars]], and passive restraints such as [[air bag]]s.<ref name="JAMA">{{cite journal |last=Shelden |first=C. Hunter |date=November 5, 1955 |title=Prevention, the only cure for head injuries resulting from automobile accidents |journal=Journal of the American Medical Association |volume=159 |issue=10 |pages=981–6 |doi=10.1001/jama.1955.02960270001001 |pmid=13263134}}</ref>

Glenn W. Sheren, of [[Mason, Michigan]], submitted a patent application on March 31, 1955, for an automotive seat belt and was awarded {{US patent|2,855,215}} in 1958. This was a continuation of an earlier patent application that Sheren had filed on September 22, 1952.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.freepatentsonline.com/2855215.html |title=Automobile safety belt system – Patent 2855215 |website=Freepatentsonline.com |date=1958-10-07 |access-date=2011-04-03 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20121013054127/http://www.freepatentsonline.com/2855215.html |archive-date=2012-10-13 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The first modern three-point seat belt (the so-called ''CIR-Griswold restraint'') commonly used in consumer vehicles was patented in 1955 {{US patent |2,710,649}} by the Americans Roger W. Griswold and [[Hugh DeHaven]].

[[Saab Automobile|Saab]] introduced seat belts as standard equipment in 1958.<ref name="independent.co.uk">{{cite news |url= https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/gadgets-and-tech/features/the-man-who-saved-a-million-lives-nils-bohlin--inventor-of-the-seatbelt-1773844.html |title=The man who saved a million lives: Nils Bohlin - inventor of the seat belt |newspaper=The Independent |date=2009-08-19 |access-date=2009-12-08}}</ref> After the [[Saab GT750|Saab GT 750]] was introduced at the New York Motor Show in 1958 with safety belts fitted as standard, the practice became commonplace.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.trollhattansaab.net/page/5 |title=Trollhattan Saab—Saab 9-1, 9-3, 9-4x, 9-5, 9-7x News |website=Trollhattansaab.net |access-date=2011-02-02 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110227041041/http://www.trollhattansaab.net/page/5 |archive-date=2011-02-27 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

[[Vattenfall]], the Swedish national electric utility, did a study of all fatal, on-the-job accidents among their employees. The study revealed that the majority of fatalities occurred while the employees were on the road on company business. In response, two Vattenfall safety engineers, Bengt Odelgard and Per-Olof Weman, started to develop a seat belt. Their work was presented to Swedish manufacturer [[Volvo]] in the late 1950s, and set the standard for seat belts in Swedish cars.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Andréasson |first1=Rune |first2=Claes-Göran |last2=Bäckström |location=Stockholm |publisher=Kulturvårdskommittén Vattenfall |year=2000 |title=The Seat Belt: Swedish Research and Development for Global Automotive Safety |isbn=9789163093890 |pages=9, 15–16}}</ref> The three-point seat belt was developed to its modern form by Swedish inventor [[Nils Bohlin]] for Volvo, which introduced it in 1959 as standard equipment.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Johnson |first=Steven |authorlink=Steven Johnson (author) |title=Extra Life |publisher=[[Riverhead Books]] |year=2021 |isbn=978-0-525-53885-1 |edition=1st |pages=186 |language=en}}</ref> In addition to designing an effective three-point belt, Bohlin demonstrated its effectiveness in a study of 28,000 accidents in Sweden. Unbelted occupants sustained fatal injuries throughout the whole speed scale, whereas none of the belted occupants was fatally injured at accident speeds below 60&nbsp;mph. No belted occupant was fatally injured if the passenger compartment remained intact.<ref>{{cite conference|url= https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/670925/ |title =A Statistical Analysis of 28,000 Accidents with Emphasis on Occupant Restraint Value |first=Nils I. |last=Bohlin |year =1967 |conference=11th Stapp Car Crash Conference |publisher=Society of Automotive Engineers |id=SAE Technical Paper 670925 |doi=10.4271/670925 |access-date=5 September 2020|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Bohlin was granted {{US patent |3,043,625}} for the device.<ref name="independent.co.uk"/>

In the U.S., automakers agreed to provide seat belt anchors beginning with the 1962 model year.<ref>"Seat Belt Maker Sees More Sales, Will Hike Output." Automotive News, 13 March 1961, 14.</ref> That same model year, Wisconsin was the first state to mandate seat belt installation in all new cars.<ref>"Auto Seat Belts Are Catching On." New York Times, 18 March 1962, 155.</ref> Subsequently, in 1966, Congress passed the [[National Traffic and Motor Vehicle Safety Act]], requiring all automobiles to comply with certain safety standards.

The first compulsory [[seat belt law]] was put in place in 1970, in the state of [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], Australia, requiring their use by drivers and front-seat passengers. This legislation was enacted after trialing Hemco seat belts, designed by Desmond Hemphill (1926–2001), in the front seats of police vehicles, lowering the incidence of officer injury and death.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Potted Seat Belt History |publisher=Drivers Technology |url= http://www.driverstechnology.co.uk/seatbelts.htm |access-date=2009-09-06 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080514220650/http://www.driverstechnology.co.uk/seatbelts.htm |archive-date=2008-05-14 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Mandatory [[seat belt laws in the United States]] began to be introduced in the 1980s and faced opposition, with some consumers going to court to challenge the laws. Some cut seat belts out of their cars.<ref name="MSN Before face masks">{{cite news |last=Ackerman |first=Daniel |date=26 May 2020 |title=Before face masks, Americans went to war against seat belts |url=https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/us/before-face-masks-americans-went-to-war-against-seat-belts/ar-BB14CsNG |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201120224357/https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/us/before-face-masks-americans-went-to-war-against-seat-belts/ar-BB14CsNG |archive-date=2020-11-20 |access-date=5 September 2020 |website=msn.com}}</ref>

== Material ==
The 'belt' part of the typical seatbelt seen in vehicles worldwide is referred to as the '[[webbing]]'. Modern seat belt webbing has a high [[Ultimate tensile strength|tensile strength]], about {{Convert|3000|-|6000|lb|kg|abbr=on}},<ref>{{Cite web |title=Seat Belt Testing for Tensile Strength |url=https://industrialphysics.com/knowledgebase/articles/determining-the-tensile-strength-of-seat-belts/ |access-date=2024-04-25 |website=Industrial Physics |date=December 19, 2022 |language=en}}</ref> to resist tearing at high loads such as during [[Traffic collision|high-speed collisions]] or while restraining larger passengers.

While [[nylon]] was used in some early seat belts (and is still used for lap belts), it was replaced by 100% [[polyester]] due to its better [[Ultraviolet|UV]] resistance, lower extensibility and higher stiffness.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Kumar |first=R. Senthil |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=11nSBQAAQBAJ&dq=seat+belt+material+nylon+polyester&pg=PA252 |title=Textiles for Industrial Applications |date=2016-04-19 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-4665-6650-7 |pages=252 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last1=Ahmad |first1=Sheraz |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_uD4DwAAQBAJ&dq=seat+belt+material+nylon+polyester&pg=PA72 |title=Fibers for Technical Textiles |last2=Rasheed |first2=Abher |last3=Nawab |first3=Yasir |date=2020-08-21 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-49224-3 |pages=72–73 |language=en}}</ref> Nylon was also prone to stretching much more than polyester, and was prone to wear and tear, with tiny abrasions drastically reducing tensile strength, causing a lack of reliability in one of the most important safety measures in a vehicle. Seat belts are commonly 46 or 48&nbsp;mm wide with a 2/2 [[Herringbone (cloth)|herringbone twill]] weaving pattern to maximize the thread density.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> Modern seatbelt weaves also feature snag-proof selvedges reinforced with strong polyester threads to prevent the wear and tear, while remaining flexible. The weave features about 300 [[Warp and weft|warp threads]] for every 46mm wide webbing, leading to around 150 ends per inch of webbing.

Accident investigators often examine the webbing of a seatbelt to determine if an occupant of a vehicle was wearing their seatbelt during a collision. The material of the webbing may contain traces of the occupant's clothing. Certain materials such as nylons may become permanently affixed or melted onto the fabric as a result of heat produced by friction, whereas fiber-based clothing leaves no remains on modern webbing.<ref>{{cite book | chapter-url=https://doi.org/10.4271/2006-01-0904 | doi=10.4271/2006-01-0904 | chapter=Case Study of Clothing Fabric Transfer to Seat Belt Webbing Under Accident Forces | title=SAE Technical Paper Series | date=2006 | last1=Davee | first1=Daniel | last2=Brown | first2=Jeffrey C. | last3=Raasch | first3=Christine | volume=1 | article-number=2006-01-0904 }}</ref>

==Types==

===Two-point airplane seat belts===
[[File:Aircraft Safety Belt.png|thumb|World War II U.S. military aircraft Safety Belt, U.S. Patent 2,105,480, note lift lever buckle]]
[[File:Airplane seat belt 2.jpg|thumb|"2-point" belt in an airplane]]
[[File:Passenger Experience Week 2018, Hamburg (1X7A3812).jpg|thumb|Airplane ("2-point") belt on display]]
[[File:Passenger Experience Week 2018, Hamburg (1X7A3813).jpg|thumb|Airplane ("3-point") belt on display]]
An airplane seat belt is designed to protect from up and down movement and to keep passengers in their seats during turbulence or collisions on the runway.<ref name="airplane-seatbelts-weird">{{cite web |last1=Nosowitz |first1=Dan |title=Decoding the Design of In-Flight Seat Belts |url=https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/why-are-airplane-seatbelts-so-weird |website=[[Atlas Obscura]] |access-date=16 June 2025 |language=en |date=29 January 2018}}</ref> A simple strap was first used March 12, 1910, by pilot [[Benjamin Foulois]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Foulois |first1=Benjamin Delahauf |title=From the Wright brothers to the astronauts |date=1980 |publisher=Arno Press |isbn=9780405122118 |page=74}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Pool |first=William C. |year=1955 |title=The Origin of Military Aviation in Texas, 1910–1913 |journal=The Southwestern Historical Quarterly |volume = LVIII |issue=January |pages=342–371 |url= http://texashistory.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metapth101158/m1/409/ |access-date=28 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Giles |first=Barney M. |date=October 1950 |title=Early Military Aviation in Texas |journal=The Southwestern Historical Quarterly |volume=LIV |issue=October |pages = 145–146 |url = https://texashistory.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metapth101133/m1/199/ |access-date =28 March 2019}}</ref> a pioneering aviator with the [[Aeronautical Division, U.S. Signal Corps]], so he might remain at the controls during turbulence.

While lap belts are exceedingly rare to spot in modern cars, they are the standard in commercial airliners. The lift-lever style of [[Airliner|commercial aircraft]] buckles allows for the seatbelt to be easily clasped and unclasped, accessible quickly in case of an emergency where a passenger must evacuate, and fulfills the minimum safety requirements provided by the [[Federal Aviation Administration|FAA]] while remaining low-cost to produce.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nosowitz |first=Dan |date=2018-01-29 |title=Decoding the Design of In-Flight Seat Belts |url=http://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/why-are-airplane-seatbelts-so-weird |access-date=2024-04-26 |website=Atlas Obscura |language=en}}</ref> Furthermore, in case of any collision, a passenger in [[economy class]] has only around 9 inches for their head to travel forward, meaning restraining the torso and head is relatively unnecessary as the head has little room to accelerate before collision.

===Two-point land seat belts===
A two-point belt attaches at its two endpoints, land vehicles move typically in a forward or backward or sideways motion, because they generally stay on the ground, and need a shoulder belt.<ref name="airplane-seatbelts-weird"/> The [[IRVIN-GQ|Irvin Air Chute Company]] made the seat belt for use by professional race car driver [[Barney Oldfield]] when his team decided the daredevil should have a "safety harness" for the 1923 [[Indianapolis 500]].<ref>{{cite web |author=United States Congress House Committee on Public Works Subcommittee on Roads|title=1972 Highway Legislation: Hearings, Ninety-second Congress, Second Session |publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office |page=180 |date=1972 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=3XoqAAAAMAAJ&dq=First+lap+belt&pg=PA180 |access-date=10 September 2020}}</ref><ref name="Hedgbeth">{{cite web |last=Hedgbeth |first=Llewellyn |title=Development of Automotive Seatbelts |url=http://www.secondchancegarage.com/public/seat-belt-history.cfm |work=Second Chance Garage |access-date=10 September 2020 |archive-date=2020-11-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112012158/http://www.secondchancegarage.com/public/seat-belt-history.cfm |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="Fischer">{{cite web |last=Fischer |first=Kurt |title=A Supplier's Perspective on Automotive Safety – Past, Present & Future |publisher=University of Michigan – UMTRI Automotive Safety Conference |url=http://umtri.umich.edu/content/Kurt.Fisher.Safety.2011.pdf |date=16 February 2011 |access-date=10 September 2020 |archive-date=30 October 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20151030101851/http://www.umtri.umich.edu/content/Kurt.Fisher.Safety.2011.pdf |url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Lap belt===

A lap belt is a strap that goes over the waist. This was the most common type of belt prior to legislation requiring three-point belts and is found in older cars. [[coach (bus)|Coaches]] are equipped with lap belts (although many newer coaches have three-point belts), as are passenger aircraft seats.

University of Minnesota professor James J. "Crash" Ryan was the inventor of, and held the patent for, the automatic retractable lap safety belt. [[Ralph Nader]] cited Ryan's work in ''[[Unsafe at Any Speed]]'' and, following hearings led by Senator [[Abraham Ribicoff]], President [[Lyndon B. Johnson|Lyndon Johnson]] signed two bills in 1966 requiring safety belts in all passenger vehicles starting in 1968.<ref>{{cite journal |title="Crash" Was His Name; Car Safety Was His Game |journal=Minnesota Medicine |url=http://www.minnesotamedicine.com/Past-Issues/Past-Issues-2006/May-2006/Pulse-Crash-May-2006 |first=J. |last=Mettner |date=May 2006 |volume=89 |issue=5 |pages=16–7 |pmid=16764412 |access-date=5 September 2020 |archive-date=2014-08-20  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140820185645/http://www.minnesotamedicine.com/Past-Issues/Past-Issues-2006/May-2006/Pulse-Crash-May-2006 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Johnson |first=Steven |authorlink=Steven Johnson (author) |title=Extra Life |publisher=[[Riverhead Books]] |year=2021 |isbn=978-0-525-53885-1 |edition=1st |pages=187–188 |language=en}}</ref>

Until the 1980s, three-point belts were commonly available only in the front outboard seats of cars; the back seats were often only fitted with lap belts. Evidence of the potential of lap belts to cause separation of the [[lumbar vertebrae]] and the sometimes-associated [[paralysis]], or "[[seat belt syndrome]]" led to the progressive revision of passenger safety regulations in nearly all developed countries to require three-point belts, first in all outboard seating positions, and eventually in all seating positions in passenger vehicles. Since September 1, 2007, all new cars sold in the U.S. require a lap and shoulder belt in the center rear seat.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/cars/rules/rulings/Anton_FRNov16.html |title=Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards; Occupant Crash Protection. Final Rule |website=nhtsa.dot.gov |access-date=2011-02-02 |archive-date=2010-03-25 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100325092859/http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/cars/rules/rulings/Anton_FRNov16.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> In addition to regulatory changes, "seat belt syndrome" has led to a [[legal liability|liability]] for vehicle manufacturers. One Los Angeles case resulted in a $45 million jury verdict against Ford; the resulting $30 million judgment (after deductions for another defendant who settled prior to trial) was affirmed on appeal in 2006.<ref>{{cite web |title=Karlsson v. Ford Motor Co. (2006) 140 CA4th 1202 |url=http://online.ceb.com/calcases/CA4/140CA4t1202.htm |work=Continuing Education of the Bar – California "CEB" |date=27 June 2006 |access-date=5 September 2020 |archive-date=2015-10-16  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016083104/http://online.ceb.com/calcases/CA4/140CA4t1202.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Shoulder harness===
[[File:Seat belt BX.jpg|thumb|upright|A seat belt and tongue]]

A "sash" or shoulder harness is a strap that goes diagonally over the vehicle occupant's outboard shoulder and is buckled inboard of their lap. The shoulder harness may attach to the lap belt tongue, or it may have a tongue and buckle completely separate from those of the lap belt. Shoulder harnesses of this separate or semi-separate type were installed in conjunction with lap belts in the outboard front seating positions of many vehicles in the North American market starting at the inception of the shoulder belt requirement of the U.S. [[National Highway Traffic Safety Administration]]'s (NHTSA) Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard 208 on January 1, 1968. However, if the shoulder strap is used without the lap belt, the vehicle occupant is likely to "submarine", or slide forward in the seat and out from under the belt, in a frontal collision. In the mid-1970s, three-point belt systems such as [[Chrysler Corporation|Chrysler's]] "Uni-Belt" began to supplant the separate lap and shoulder belts in American-made cars, though such three-point belts had already been supplied in European vehicles such as Volvo, [[Mercedes-Benz]], and Saab for some years.

===Three-point===
[[File:Seatbelt.jpg|thumb|upright|A three-point seat belt]]

A three-point belt is a Y-shaped arrangement, similar to the separate lap and sash belts, but unified. Like the separate lap-and-sash belt, in a collision, the three-point belt spreads out the energy of the moving body over the chest, pelvis, and shoulders. Volvo introduced the first production three-point belt in 1959.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.volvoclub.org.uk/press/releases/2007/20_years_air_bags.shtml |title=Volvo Cars airbag celebrates 20 years |website=Volvoclub.org.uk |date=2007-05-26 |access-date=2009-08-29}}</ref> The first car with a three-point belt was a [[Volvo PV444/544|Volvo PV 544]] that was delivered to a dealer in [[Kristianstad]] on August 13, 1959. The first car model to have the three-point seat belt as a standard item was the 1959 [[Volvo 122]], first outfitted with a two-point belt at initial delivery in 1958, replaced with the three-point seat belt the following year.<ref name=VolvoLindh>{{cite book |last = Lindh |first = Björn Erik |year = 1986 |title = Volvo The Cars from the 20s to the 80s |chapter = The Amazon/120 – Beauty with Brown |publisher = Förlagshuset Norden, Malmö |page = 134 |quote = The 1959 model (which appeared in August 1958) had a major innovation in the form of front seat safety belts as standard equipment on all the cars, including the export models. Volvo was the world's first automaker to take this step, even though Ford fitted a "lap" belt on one or other of its cars in the middle of the 50s. |isbn = 91-86442-14-7 }}</ref> The three-point belt was developed by [[Nils Bohlin]], who had earlier also worked on [[ejection seat]]s at [[Saab Group|Saab]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.alltommotor.se/artiklar/nyheter/trepunktsbaltet-50-ar-1.14639 |title=Allt om Motor: Trepunktsbältet 50 år |website=Alltommotor.se |access-date=2011-02-02 |archive-date=2009-08-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090817143721/http://www.alltommotor.se/artiklar/nyheter/trepunktsbaltet-50-ar-1.14639 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Volvo then made the new seat belt design patent open in the interest of safety and made it available to other car manufacturers for free.<ref>{{cite web |title=Three-point seatbelt inventor Nils Bohlin born |url= https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/three-point-seatbelt-inventor-nils-bohlin-born |website=History.com |date=July 15, 2020 |access-date=January 11, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite press release |title=Volvo's Three-Point Safety Belt Celebrates 50 Years of Saving Lives |url= http://www.theautochannel.com/news/2009/08/11/473711.html |website=theautochannel.com |date=August 11, 2009 |access-date=January 11, 2021}}</ref>

====Belt-in-Seat====
The Belt-in-Seat (BIS) is a three-point harness with the shoulder belt attached to the seat itself, rather than to the vehicle structure. The first car using this system was the [[Range Rover Classic]], which offered BIS as standard on the front seats from 1970.<ref>{{cite web |last=Lankard |first=Tom |url= http://editorial.autos.msn.com/article.aspx?cp-documentid=434695 |title=The first seat offered in the US that incorporated a three-point belt—on the 1990 Mercedes-Benz SL |website=Editorial.autos.msn.com |access-date=2011-02-02 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140727011325/http://editorial.autos.msn.com/article.aspx?cp-documentid=434695 |archive-date=2014-07-27 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Some cars, like the [[Renault Vel Satis]], use this system for the front seats. A [[General Motors]] assessment concluded seat-mounted three-point belts offer better protection, especially to smaller vehicle occupants,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.khou.com/news/upclose/stories/khou030630_ds_UpCloseConsumerSafetybelts.44b60c63.html |title=Up Close: Seatbelt safety in question |work=KHOU News |date=20 June 2003 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20080612131300/http://www.khou.com/news/upclose/stories/khou030630_ds_UpCloseConsumerSafetybelts.44b60c63.html |archive-date = 12 June 2008}}</ref> though GM did not find a safety performance improvement in vehicles with seat-mounted belts versus belts mounted to the vehicle body.<ref name=MSN>{{cite web |url= http://editorial.autos.msn.com/article.aspx?cp-documentid=434695 |title=In Search of the Perfect Seat Belt |work=MSN Autos |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140727011325/http://editorial.autos.msn.com/article.aspx?cp-documentid=434695 |archive-date=2014-07-27}}</ref>

Belt-in-Seat type belts have been used by automakers in convertibles and pillarless hardtops, where there is no "B" pillar to affix the upper mount of the belt. Chrysler and Cadillac are well known for using this design. Antique auto enthusiasts sometimes replace original seats in their cars with BIS-equipped front seats, providing a measure of safety not available when these cars were new. However, modern BIS systems typically use electronics that must be installed and connected with the seats and the vehicle's electrical system in order to function properly.{{citation needed |date=August 2013}}

===4-, 5-, and 6-point===
[[File:Bucket seat with Schroth six-point harness in a 2010 Porsche 997 GT3 RS 3.8.jpg|thumb|[[Bucket seat]] combined with a Schroth six-point harness]]

[[Five-Point Harness|Five-point harnesses]] are typically found in [[child safety seat]]s and in [[automobile racing|racing cars.]] The lap portion is connected to a belt between the [[human leg|leg]]s and there are two shoulder belts, making a total of five points of attachment to the seat. A 4-point harness is similar, but without the strap between the legs, while a 6-point harness has two belts between the legs. In [[NASCAR]], the 6-point harness became popular after the [[death of Dale Earnhardt]], who was wearing a five-point harness when he suffered his fatal crash. As it was first thought that his belt had broken, and broke his neck at impact, some teams ordered a six-point harness in response.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.espn.com/racing/nascar/cup/columns/story?columnist=hinton_ed&id=6116145 |title=Earnhardt's death a watershed moment |website=[[ESPN]] |date=2011-02-07 |access-date=2013-09-30}}</ref>

===Seven-point===
[[Aerobatic]] [[aircraft]] frequently use a combination harness consisting of a five-point harness with a redundant lap belt attached to a different part of the aircraft. While providing redundancy for negative-g maneuvers (which lift the pilot out of the seat), they also require the pilot to unlatch two harnesses if it is necessary to parachute from a failed aircraft.

==Technology==
[[File:Intertial-reel.jpg|thumb|upright|Seat belt with uncovered inertial reel]]

===<span class="anchor" id="ELR"></span>Locking retractors===
The purpose of locking retractors (sometimes called ''emergency locking retractors'', or ''ELRs'') is to provide the seated occupant the convenience of some free movement of the upper torso within the compartment while providing a method of limiting this movement in the event of a crash. Starting in 1996, all passenger vehicles were required to lock pre-crash, meaning they have a locking mechanism in the retractor or in the latch plate.<ref>{{cite web |title=Lock it up! How to Lock a Seat Belt for Car Seat Installation |url=https://csftl.org/lock-it-up-how-to-lock-a-seat-belt-for-car-seat-installation/ |work=Car Seats For The Littles |date=18 March 2014 |access-date=6 September 2020}}</ref> Seat belts are stowed on spring-loaded reels, called ''retractors'', equipped with [[inertia]]l locking mechanisms that stop the belt from extending off the reel during severe deceleration.<ref>{{cite web|first=Tom |last=Harris |title=How Seatbelts Work: Extend and Retract |date=9 April 2002 |website=HowStuffWorks.com |url= https://auto.howstuffworks.com/car-driving-safety/safety-regulatory-devices/seatbelt.htm |access-date=6 September 2020}}</ref>

There are two main types of inertial seat belt locks. A webbing-sensitive lock is based on a [[centrifugal clutch]] activated by the rapid acceleration of the strap (webbing) from the reel. The belt can be pulled from the reel only slowly and gradually, as when the occupant extends the belt to fasten it. A sudden rapid pull of the belt—as in a sudden braking or collision event—causes the reel to lock, restraining the occupant in position. The first automatic locking retractor for seat belts and shoulder harnesses in the U.S. was the Irving "Dynalock" safety device.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Dynalock |journal=Automobile Engineer |date=1964 |volume=54 |issue=1 |page=62 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=wUpKAQAAIAAJ&q=Dynalock+seat+belts |access-date=10 September 2020 |publisher=IPC Transport Press}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |journal=Business Week |page=14 |title=An industry grows on safety |date=1966 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=f7gpAQAAIAAJ&q=First+locking+retractor+seat+belts |access-date=10 September 2020}}</ref> These "Auto-lock" front lap belts were optional on AMC cars with bucket seats in 1967.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://oldcarbrochures.org/United%20States/AMC/1967_AMC/1967-Ambassador-Brochure/slides/1967_Ambassador-16-17.html |title=1967 Ambassador brochure |page=17 |website=oldcarbrochures.org |access-date=6 September 2020}}</ref>

A vehicle-sensitive lock is based on a [[pendulum]] swung away from its plumb position by rapid deceleration or rollover of the vehicle. In the absence of rapid deceleration or rollover, the reel is unlocked and the belt strap may be pulled from the reel against the spring tension of the reel. The vehicle occupant can move around with relative freedom while the spring tension of the reel keeps the belt taut against the occupant. When the pendulum swings away from its normal plumb position due to sudden deceleration or rollover, a [[Ratchet (device)|pawl]] is engaged, the reel locks and the strap restrains the belted occupant in position. Dual-sensing locking retractors use both vehicle G-loading and webbing payout rate to initiate the locking mechanism.

===<span class="anchor" id="Pretensioners"></span><span class="anchor" id="Web clamps"></span>Pretensioners and webclamps===
[[File:Gurtstraffer.gif|thumb|Pyrotechnic pretensioner diagram]]

Seat belts in many newer vehicles are also equipped with "pretensioners" or "web clamps", or both. Pre-tensioners are used for safety. In a crash, a small charge quickly tightens the belt to remove slack. Together with load limiters, they improve safety.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-04-13 |title=How Much Does a Safety Belt in a Vehicle? |url=https://yunzee.com/how-much-does-a-safety-belt-cost-in-a-vehicle/ |access-date=2026-05-05 |language=en-US}}</ref>  Mercedes-Benz first introduced pretensioners on the [[Mercedes-Benz W126|1981 S-Class]]. In the event of a crash, a pretensioner will tighten the belt almost instantaneously. This reduces the motion of the occupant in a violent crash. Like airbags, pretensioners are triggered by sensors in the car's body, and many pretensioners have used explosively expanding gas to drive a piston that retracts the belt. Pretensioners also lower the risk of "submarining", which occurs when a passenger slides forward under a loosely fitted seat belt.

Some systems also pre-emptively tighten the belt during fast accelerations and strong decelerations, even if no crash has happened. This has the advantage that it may help prevent the driver from sliding out of position during violent evasive maneuvers, which could cause loss of control of the vehicle. These pre-emptive safety systems may ''prevent'' some collisions from happening, as well as reduce injuries in the event an actual collision occurs.<ref name=Ito>{{cite web |last1=Ito |first1=Daisuke |last2=Ejima |first2=Susumu |last3=Sukegawa |first3=Yoshihiro |last4=Antona |first4=Jacobo |last5=Ito |first5=Hisao |title=Assessment of a Pre-Crash Technology in Frontal Impacts by Using a New Crash Test Sled System with Controllable Pre-Impact Braking |url= http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/pdf/esv/esv23/23ESV-000274.PDF |publisher=National Highway Traffic Safety Administration |access-date=2014-06-06 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140506213001/http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/pdf/esv/esv23/23ESV-000274.PDF |archive-date=2014-05-06 }}</ref> Pre-emptive systems generally use electric pretensioners, which can operate repeatedly and for a sustained period, rather than pyrotechnic pretensioners, which can only operate a single time.

Webclamps stop the webbing in the event of an accident and limit the distance the webbing can spool out (caused by the unused webbing tightening on the central drum of the mechanism). These belts also often incorporate an energy management loop ("rip stitching") in which a section of the webbing is looped and stitched with special stitching. The function of this is to "rip" at a predetermined load, which reduces the maximum force transmitted through the belt to the occupant during a violent collision, reducing injuries to the occupant.

A study demonstrated that standard automotive three-point restraints fitted with pyrotechnic or electric pretensioners were not able to eliminate all interior passenger compartment head strikes in rollover test conditions.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://lapbeltcinch.net/media/CG-Lock/Special-Materials/Ford-Rollover-Paper.pdf |title=Microsoft Word - 2007-01-0709.doc |access-date=2013-09-30 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130408075531/http://lapbeltcinch.net/media/CG-Lock/Special-Materials/Ford-Rollover-Paper.pdf |archive-date=2013-04-08 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Electric pretensioners are often incorporated on vehicles equipped with [[precrash system]]s; they are designed to reduce seat belt slack in a potential collision and assist in placing the occupants in a more optimal seating position.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.autoliv.com/ProductsAndInnovations/PassiveSafetySystems/Pages/Seatbelts/ActiveSeatbelts.aspx |title=Active Seatbelts |website=Autoliv.com |access-date=2013-09-30 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131002083225/http://www.autoliv.com/ProductsAndInnovations/PassiveSafetySystems/Pages/Seatbelts/ActiveSeatbelts.aspx |archive-date=2013-10-02 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The electric pretensioners also can operate on a repeated or sustained basis, providing better protection in the event of an extended rollover or a [[multiple-vehicle collision|multiple collision]] accident.

===Inflatable===
The inflatable seat belt was invented by Donald Lewis and tested at the Automotive Products Division of [[Allied Chemical Corporation]].<ref>{{patent |U.S. |3841654}}</ref> Inflatable seat belts have tubular inflatable bladders contained within an outer cover. When a crash occurs, the bladder inflates with gas to increase the area of the restraint contacting the occupant and also shortening the length of the restraint to tighten the belt around the occupant, improving the protection.<ref>{{cite news|last=Silke |first=Sharon |url= https://www.usatoday.com/money/autos/2009-11-05-ford-inflatable-seat-belts_N.htm |title=Ford says inflatable seat belt improves safety, comfort, too |newspaper=USA Today |date=2009-11-06 |access-date=2011-04-03 }}</ref> The inflatable sections may be shoulder-only or lap and shoulder. The system supports the head during the crash better than a web-only belt. It also provides side impact protection. In 2013, Ford began offering rear-seat inflatable seat belts on a limited set of models, such as the [[Ford Explorer|Explorer]] and [[Ford Flex|Flex]].<ref name=cr2013>{{cite journal |date=April 2013 |title=Cool features you can buy now |journal=Consumer Reports |page=9 }}</ref>

===Automatic===
[[File:1990 Honda Civic DX interior.JPG|thumb|Automatic seat belt in a [[Honda Civic]]]]

Seat belts that automatically move into position around a vehicle occupant once the adjacent door is closed and/or the engine is started were developed as a countermeasure against low usage rates of manual seat belts, particularly in the United States. The 1972 [[Volkswagen]] ESVW1 [[Experimental Safety Vehicle]] presented passive seat belts.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.classicvw.org/gallery2/main.php?g2_view=core.ShowItem&g2_itemId=5498 |title=Experimental Safety Vehicle |website=Classicvw.org |access-date=2011-02-02 |archive-date=2011-07-22  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722024446/http://www.classicvw.org/gallery2/main.php?g2_view=core.ShowItem&g2_itemId=5498 |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Volvo Cars|Volvo]] tried to develop a passive three point seat belt. In 1973, Volkswagen announced they had a functional passive seat belt.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://safetysells.org/chapter3.pdf |title=Safety Sells: Chapter 3 |access-date=2011-02-02 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110727132439/http://safetysells.org/chapter3.pdf |archive-date=2011-07-27 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The first commercial car to use automatic seat belts was the 1975 [[Volkswagen Golf]].<ref name="passive">{{cite news |title=Passive-Belt Activity |newspaper=The New York Times |date=1978-03-26 }}</ref>

Automatic seat belts received a boost in the United States in 1977 when [[Brock Adams]], [[United States Secretary of Transportation]] in the [[Presidency of Jimmy Carter|Carter Administration]], mandated that by 1983 every new car should have either airbags or automatic seat belts.<ref>{{cite news |title=Airbags, seat belts to be mandatory in every car by 1983 |newspaper=Daily Collegian |location=Penn State |date=1977-07-01 |url= http://digitalnewspapers.libraries.psu.edu/Default/Skins/BasicArch/Client.asp?Skin=BasicArch&&AppName=2&enter=true&BaseHref=DCG/1977/07/01&EntityId=Ar00800 |access-date=2009-12-03 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120402042227/http://digitalnewspapers.libraries.psu.edu/Default/Skins/BasicArch/Client.asp?Skin=BasicArch&&AppName=2&enter=true&BaseHref=DCG%2F1977%2F07%2F01&EntityId=Ar00800 |archive-date=2012-04-02 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Air Bags, Automatic Seat Belts |newspaper=The Los Angeles Times |date=1977-10-04}}</ref> There was strong lobbying against the passive restraint requirement by the auto industry.<ref>{{cite news |last=Stevens |first=William K. |title=Auto Industry Expresses Reluctance, Resignation Over Air Bag Mandate |newspaper=The New York Times |page=18 |date=1977-07-01 |url= http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FB0A1FF9355D167493C3A9178CD85F438785F9 |access-date=2009-12-03}}</ref> Adams was criticized by [[Ralph Nader]], who said that the 1983 deadline was too late.<ref name="crusade"/> The [[Volkswagen Rabbit]] also had automatic seat belts,<ref name="crusade">{{cite news |last=Haic |first=Marty |title=Crusade Continues, But The Intensity Has Mellowed |newspaper=Boca Raton News |page=8C |date=1979-02-23 |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=Kc0PAAAAIBAJ&pg=6914,4536924&dq=automatic-seat-belts&hl=en |access-date=2009-12-03 }}{{Dead link|date=December 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> and VW said that by early 1978, 90,000 cars had sold with them.<ref name="passive"/>

General Motors introduced a three-point non-motorized passive belt system in 1980 to comply with the passive restraint requirement.<ref name="TRB-48">{{cite report |title=Buckling Up: Technologies to Increase Seat Belt Use |year=2004 |page=48 |url= http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/sr/sr278.pdf |publisher=Transportation Research Board |access-date=14 December 2017}}</ref> However, it was used as an active lap-shoulder belt because of unlatching the belt to exit the vehicle.<ref name="TRB-48"/> Despite this common practice, field studies of belt use still showed an increase in wearing rates with this door-mounted system.<ref name="TRB-48"/> General Motors began offering automatic seat belts on the [[Chevrolet Chevette]].<ref>{{cite news |title=GM Offers Automatic Seat Belts |newspaper=Chicago Tribune |page=8 |date=1978-06-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=GM's Automatic Seat Belts Go on Chevettes |newspaper=The Los Angeles Times |date=1978-06-27}}</ref> However, the company reported disappointing sales because of this feature.<ref>{{cite news |title=Sales of Automatic Seat Belts Disappointing, Chevrolet Says |newspaper=Toledo Blade |page=1 |date=1979-02-23 |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=vAoVAAAAIBAJ&pg=5703,3431567&dq=automatic-seat-belts&hl=en |access-date=2009-12-03 }}{{Dead link|date=December 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> For the 1981 model year, the new [[Toyota Mark II#X60|Toyota Cressida]] became the first car to offer motorized automatic passive seat belts.<ref name=Wards81>{{cite book |title=Ward's Automotive Yearbook 1981 |publisher=Ward's Communications | page = 27 |editor-last = Stark | editor-first = Harry A. |date = 1981}}</ref>

A study released in 1978 by the [[United States Department of Transportation]] said that cars with automatic seat belts had a fatality rate of .78 per 100 million miles, compared with 2.34 for cars with regular, manual belts.<ref>{{cite news |last=Girard |first=Penny |title=Study Finds Automatic Seat Belts, Airbags Save Lives |newspaper=St. Petersburg Times |page=1 |date=1978-08-31 |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=vAoVAAAAIBAJ&pg=5703,3431567&dq=automatic-seat-belts&hl=en |access-date=2009-12-03 }}{{Dead link|date=December 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

In 1981, [[Drew Lewis]], the first Transportation Secretary of the [[Presidency of Ronald Reagan|Reagan Administration]], influenced by studies done by the auto industry,<ref>{{cite news |last=Brody |first=Jane E. |title=Personal Health |newspaper=The New York Times |date=1981-12-09 |url= https://www.nytimes.com/1981/12/09/garden/personal-health-124390.html?&pagewanted=all |access-date=2009-12-03}}</ref> dropped the mandate;<ref>{{cite news |title=Automatic seat belt, airbag rules dropped |newspaper=Chicago Tribune |page=1 |date=1981-10-24}}</ref> the decision was overruled in a [[United States courts of appeals|federal appeals court]] the following year,<ref>{{cite news |title=Automatic seat belts ordered |newspaper=Spokane Chronicle |page=28 |date=1982-08-04 |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=n8USAAAAIBAJ&pg=5783,760646&dq=automatic-seat-belts&hl=en |access-date=2009-12-03 }}{{Dead link|date=December 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> and then by the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]].<ref name="time"/> In 1984, the Reagan Administration reversed its course,<ref>{{cite news |title=U.S. to require airbags or automatic seat belts |newspaper=Chicago Tribune |page=1 |date=1984-07-11}}</ref> though in the meantime the original deadline had been extended; [[Elizabeth Dole]], then Transportation Secretary, proposed that the two passive safety restraints be phased into vehicles gradually, from vehicle model year 1987 to vehicle model year 1990, when all vehicles would be required to have either automatic seat belts or driver side air bags.<ref name="time">{{cite magazine |title=Middle Lane: Bags, Belts, and a Loophole |magazine=Time |date=1984-07-23 |url= http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,952435,00.html#ixzz0YgSxo3UC |access-date=2009-12-03 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20101029135838/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0%2C9171%2C952435%2C00.html#ixzz0YgSxo3UC |archive-date=October 29, 2010 }}</ref> Though more awkward for vehicle occupants, most manufacturers opted to use less expensive automatic belts rather than airbags during this time period.

When driver side [[airbags]] became mandatory on all passenger vehicles in model year 1995{{citation needed|date=August 2022}}, most manufacturers stopped equipping cars with automatic seat belts. Exceptions include the 1995–96 [[Ford Escort (North American)|Ford Escort]]/[[Mercury Tracer]] and the [[Eagle Summit |Eagle Summit Wagon]], which had automatic safety belts along with dual airbags.{{Citation needed |date=February 2011}}

====Systems====
* Manual lap belt with automatic motorized shoulder belt: When the door is opened, the shoulder belt moves from a fixed point near the seat back on a track mounted in the door frame of the car to a point at the other end of the track near the windshield. Once the door is closed and the car is started, the belt moves rearward along the track to its original position, thus securing the passenger. The lap belt must be fastened manually.
* Manual lap belt with automatic non-motorized shoulder belt: This system was used in American-market vehicles such as the [[Hyundai Excel]] and [[Volkswagen Jetta]]. The shoulder belt is fixed to the aft upper corner of the vehicle door and is not motorized. The lap belt must be fastened manually.
* Automatic shoulder and lap belts: This system was mainly used in General Motors vehicles, though it was also used on some [[Honda Civic]] hatchbacks and [[Nissan Sentra]] coupes. When the door is opened, the belts go from a fixed point in the middle of the car by the floor to the retractors on the door. Passengers must slide into the car under the belts. When the door closes, the seat belt retracts into the door. The belts have normal release buttons that are supposed to be used only in an emergency, but in practice are routinely used in the same manner as manual seat belt clasps. {{Citation needed |date=September 2010}} This system also found use by [[American Specialty Cars]] when they created the 1991–1994 [[convertible]] special edition of the [[Nissan 240SX]], a car that traditionally had a motorized shoulder belt.

====Disadvantages====
Automatic belt systems generally offer inferior occupant crash protection.<ref>{{cite news |agency=Associated Press |title=Chrysler Doubts Air-Bag Claims |date=1977-09-30 |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=apAjAAAAIBAJ&pg=896,3611827&hl=en |work =The Montreal Gazette |access-date=2010-09-25}}</ref><ref name="Abeles">{{cite thesis |title=The Ability of Automakers to Introduce a Costly, Regulated New Technology: A Case Study of Automotive Airbags in the U.S. Light-Duty Vehicle Market |type=Master's Thesis |year=1998 |first=Ethan |last=Abeles |url=http://pubs.its.ucdavis.edu/publication_detail.php?id=175 |access-date=2010-09-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100612195455/http://pubs.its.ucdavis.edu/publication_detail.php?id=175 |url-status=dead |archive-date=2010-06-12}}</ref> In systems with belts attached to the door rather than a sturdier fixed portion of the vehicle body, a crash that causes the vehicle door to open leaves the occupant without belt protection. In such a scenario, the occupant may be thrown from the vehicle and suffer greater injury or death.<ref name=Abeles/>

Because many automatic belt system designs compliant with the U.S. passive-restraint mandate did not meet the anchorage requirements of Canada (CMVSS 210)—which were not weakened to accommodate automatic belts—vehicle models that had been eligible for easy importation in either direction across the U.S.-Canada border when equipped with manual belts became ineligible for importation in either direction once the U.S. variants obtained automatic belts and the Canadian versions retained manual belts, although some Canadian versions also had automatic seat belts. Two particular models affected were the [[Dodge Spirit]] and [[Plymouth Acclaim]].<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.tc.gc.ca/media/documents/roadsafety/vafus.pdf |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100821083457/http://www.tc.gc.ca/media/documents/roadsafety/vafus.pdf |archive-date = 2010-08-21 | title= List of Vehicles Admissible From the United States |publisher= Transport Canada |date=2010-07-22 | id = CL9203(E) |pages = 2, 5, 8 }}</ref>

Automatic belt systems also present several operational disadvantages. Motorists who would normally wear seat belts must still fasten the manual lap belt, thus rendering redundant the automation of the shoulder belt. Those who do not fasten the lap belt wind up inadequately protected only by the shoulder belt. In a crash, without a lap belt, such a vehicle occupant is likely to "submarine" (be thrown forward under the shoulder belt) and be seriously injured.{{Citation needed |date=March 2019}} Motorized or door-affixed shoulder belts hinder access to the vehicle, making it difficult to enter and exit—particularly if the occupant is carrying items such as a box or a purse. Vehicle owners tend to disconnect the motorized or door-affixed shoulder belt to relieve the nuisance when entering and exiting the vehicle, leaving only a lap belt for crash protection.{{Citation needed |date=March 2019}} Also, many automatic seat belt systems are incompatible with child safety seats, or only compatible with special modifications.

== Homologation and testing ==
[[File:Seatbelt testing apparatus.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.9|A test apparatus with a crash test dummy]]

Starting in 1971 and ending in 1972, the United States conducted a research project on seat belt effectiveness on a total of 40,000 vehicle occupants using car accident reports collected during that time. Of these 40,000 occupants, 18% were reported wearing lap belts, or two-point safety belts, 2% were reported wearing a three-point safety belt, and the remaining 80% were reported as wearing no safety belt. The results concluded that users of the two-point lap belt had a 73% lower fatality rate, a 53% lower serious injury rate, and a 38% lower injury rate than the occupants that were reported unrestrained. Similarly, users of the three-point safety belt had a 60% lower serious injury rate and a 41% lower rate of all other injuries. Out of the 2% described as wearing a three-point safety belt, no fatalities were reported.<ref name="roadsafetyobservatory1">{{cite web |title=Seat Belts, How Effectiive? |work=Road Safety Observatory – UK |url= http://www.roadsafetyobservatory.com/HowEffective/vehicles/seat-belts |access-date=6 September 2020 |archive-date=22 July 2020 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200722222648/https://www.roadsafetyobservatory.com/HowEffective/vehicles/seat-belts |url-status=dead }}</ref>

This study and others led to the Restraint Systems Evaluation Program (RSEP), started by the NHTSA in 1975 to increase the reliability and authenticity of past studies. A study as part of this program used data taken from 15,000 tow-away accidents that involved only car models made between 1973 and 1975. The study found that for injuries considered "moderate" or worse, individuals wearing a three-point safety belt had a 56.5% lower injury rate than those wearing no safety belt. The study also concluded that the effectiveness of the safety belt did not differ with the size of a car.<ref name="roadsafetyobservatory1"/> It was determined that the variation among results of the many studies conducted in the 1960s and 70s was due to the use of different methodologies, and could not be attributed to any significant variation in the effectiveness of safety belts.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Robertson |first=L.S. |title=Estimates of Motor Vehicle Seat Belt Effectiveness and Use: Implications for Occupant Crash Protection |journal=American Journal of Public Health |date=September 1976 |volume=66 |issue=9 |pages=859–864 |doi=10.2105/ajph.66.9.859 |pmid=961954 |pmc=1653464}}</ref>

[[Wayne State University]]'s Automotive Safety Research Group, as well as other researchers,<ref>{{cite web |title=Automotive Safety Research Group-Office of the Vice President for Research- Division of Research |url= http://research.wayne.edu/about/Auto_Safety_Research.php |access-date=25 March 2016 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160512165739/http://research.wayne.edu/about/Auto_Safety_Research.php |archive-date=12 May 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref> are testing ways to improve seat belt effectiveness and general vehicle safety apparatuses. Wayne State's Bioengineering Center uses human [[cadavers]] in their crash test research. The center's director, Albert King, wrote in 1995 that the vehicle safety improvements made possible since 1987 by the use of cadavers in research had saved nearly 8,500 lives each year, and indicated that improvements made to three-point safety belts save an average of 61 lives every year.<ref>{{cite book |last=Roach |first=Mary |title=Stiff: The Curious Lives of Human Cadavers |date=2003 |publisher=Norton |isbn=9780393324822}}</ref>

The [[New Car Assessment Program]] (NCAP) was put in place by the United States National Highway Traffic Safety Administration in 1979. The NCAP is a government program that evaluates vehicle safety designs and sets standards for foreign and domestic automobile companies. The agency developed a rating system and requires access to safety test results. {{As of |2007 |09}}, manufacturers are required to place an NCAP star rating on the automobile price sticker.<ref>{{cite web |title=New Car Assessment Program (NCAP) |url=https://federalregister.gov/a/2013-07766 |work=Federal Register |author=National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) |author2=Department of Transportation (DOT) |date=April 5, 2013 |access-date=25 March 2016}}</ref>

In 2004, the European New Car Assessment Program ([[Euro NCAP]]) started testing seat belts and whiplash safety on all test cars at the Thatcham Research Centre with crash test dummies.{{citation needed|date=April 2022}}

==Experimental==
Research and development efforts are ongoing to improve the safety performance of vehicle seat belts. Some experimental designs include:

* ''Criss-cross'': Experimental safety belt presented in the [[Volvo SCC]]. It forms a cross-brace across the chest.<ref name=MSN/>
* ''3+2 Point'': Experimental safety belt from [[Autoliv]] similar to the criss-cross. The 3+2 improves protection against rollovers and side impacts.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.autoliv.com/alv/connect/Home/What+We+Do/New+Products/Night+Vision+System/3plus2+Point+Seatbelt |title=3+2 Point Seatbelt and Side-Support Airbag |date=2008-05-13 |access-date=2013-09-30 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080513060125/http://www.autoliv.com/alv/connect/Home/What%2BWe%2BDo/New%2BProducts/Night%2BVision%2BSystem/3plus2%2BPoint%2BSeatbelt |archive-date=May 13, 2008 }}</ref>
* Early prototypes and trials of rear restraints preceded widespread adoption; for the first regular-production offering, see [[Seat belt#In rear seats|rear seats]].

== In rear seats ==
Ford offered optional lap belts for the rear seats as part of its 1956 "Lifeguard" safety package.<ref name="Ford1956">{{cite web |title=New Ford Seat Belts, an Important Feature of 1956 Fords |url=https://www.thehenryford.org/collections-and-research/digital-collections/artifact/364150/ |access-date=28 September 2025 |website=The Henry Ford}}</ref> Volvo fitted rear belt anchor points by 1958, began installing rear lap belts in 1967, and upgraded the rear restraints to three-point belts in 1972.<ref name="Volvo1972">{{cite web |date=13 April 2007 |title=Volvo celebrates 80 years of safety (Milestones) |url=https://www.media.volvocars.com/global/en-gb/media/pressreleases/11381 |access-date=28 September 2025 |website=Volvo Cars Media}}</ref>

=== Regulation ===
In the United States, Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard [[Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard 108|(FMVSS)]] No. 208 required lap-shoulder belts at rear outboard seats for passenger cars manufactured after 11 December 1989 (and for light trucks, vans and SUVs after 1 September 1991); lap belts had previously been required at rear forward-facing positions.<ref name="NHTSArearoutboard">{{cite web |title=Effectiveness of Lap/Shoulder Belts in the Back Outboard Seating Positions |url=https://crashstats.nhtsa.dot.gov/Api/Public/ViewPublication/808945 |access-date=28 September 2025 |publisher=NHTSA}}</ref> The U.S. also finalized a rule in 2024 to require rear seat-belt reminder systems on new vehicles beginning with the 2027 model year (with updated front-seat reminders from 2026).<ref name="NHTSAReminders">{{cite web |date=16 December 2024 |title=FMVSS No. 208—Seat Belt Use Warning Systems (Final Rule) |url=https://www.nhtsa.gov/sites/nhtsa.gov/files/2024-12/SBRS-Final-Rule-12162024-web-version.pdf |access-date=28 September 2025 |publisher=NHTSA}}</ref>

=== Effectiveness and risk ===
Rear seat belts substantially reduce injury risk for rear occupants; analyses of U.S. crash data report that lap-shoulder belts reduce fatality risk by roughly 44–73% depending on vehicle type.<ref name="IIHSrear">{{cite web |title=Seat belts—Rear seat effectiveness |url=https://www.iihs.org/research-areas/seat-belts |access-date=28 September 2025 |publisher=Insurance Institute for Highway Safety}}</ref> Unbelted rear-seat passengers also elevate risk to belted front-seat occupants; multiple studies have found the driver's fatality risk is increased several-fold when the rear passenger is unrestrained.<ref name="Lancet2002">{{cite journal |last=Ichikawa |first=M. |year=2002 |title=Mortality of front-seat occupants attributable to unbelted rear-seat passengers |journal=The Lancet |volume=359 |issue=9300 |pages=43–44 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(02)07279-3 |pmid=11809187 }}</ref><ref name="Bose2013">{{cite journal |last=Bose |first=D. |year=2013 |title=Increased risk of driver fatality due to unrestrained rear-seat passengers |journal=Accident Analysis & Prevention |volume=53 |pages=100–104 |doi=10.1016/j.aap.2012.12.039}}</ref>

==Child occupants==
{{Main |Infant car seat}}
[[File:Child car seat.JPG|thumb|right|upright|This child car seat has its own belting system.]]

As with adult drivers and passengers, the advent of seat belts was accompanied by calls for their use by child occupants, including legislation requiring such use. Generally, children using adult seat belts suffer significantly lower injury risk when compared to non-buckled children.

The UK extended compulsory seat belt wearing to child passengers under the age of 14 in 1989. It was observed that this measure was accompanied by a 10% ''increase'' in fatalities and a 12% ''increase'' in injuries among the target population.<ref>{{cite book |title=Risk |last=Adams |first=John |year=1995 |publisher=UCL Press |location=London |isbn=1-85728-068-7 }}</ref> In crashes, small children who wear adult seat belts can suffer "seat-belt syndrome" injuries including severed intestines, ruptured diaphragms, and spinal damage. There is also research suggesting that children in inappropriate restraints are at significantly increased risk of head injury.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Flaura K. |last1=Winston |first2=Dennis R. |last2=Durbin |first3=Michael J. |last3=Kallan |first4=Elisa K. |last4=Moll |title=The danger of premature graduation to seat belts for young children |journal=Pediatrics |volume=105 |issue=6 |pages=1179–83 |date=June 2000 |pmid=10835054 |url=http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10835054 |doi=10.1542/peds.105.6.1179 |access-date=6 September 2020 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> One of the authors of this research said, "The early graduation of kids into adult lap and shoulder belts is a leading cause of child-occupant injuries and deaths."<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Kids at Risk: When Seatbelts are Not Enough |last=Karp |first=Hal |magazine=Reader's Digest |date=October 1999 |url= https://www.theautochannel.com/news/press/date/19991027/press002029.html |via=he Auto Channel |access-date=6 September 2020}}</ref>

As a result of such findings, many jurisdictions now advocate or require child passengers to use specially designed child restraints. Such systems include separate child-sized seats with their own restraints and booster cushions for children using adult restraints. In some jurisdictions, children below a certain size are forbidden to travel in front car seats.<ref>Road Amendment (Isabelle Broadhead Child Restraint Measures) Rules 2010. No. 46. Rule 1. {{cite web |title=New South Wales Government on NSW legislation website |url= http://www.legislation.nsw.gov.au/sessionalview/sessional/sr/2010-46.pdf |publisher=NSW Government}}</ref>

==Automated reminders and engine start interlocks==
[[File:11 ceintures.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|Warning lights on a car dashboard]]

In Europe, the U.S., and some other parts of the world, most modern cars include a seat-belt reminder light for the driver and some also include a reminder for the passenger, when present, activated by a pressure sensor under the passenger seat. Some cars will intermittently flash the reminder light and sound the chime until the driver (and sometimes the front passenger, if present) fasten their seat belts.<ref>{{cite web |title = Seat Belts Technology – RoSPA |url = http://www.rospa.com/road-safety/advice/vehicles/in-car-safety-and-crashworthiness/seat-belts-technology/#SBR |website = www.rospa.com |access-date = 2016-02-21 |archive-date = 2016-02-25  |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160225134007/http://www.rospa.com/road-safety/advice/vehicles/in-car-safety-and-crashworthiness/seat-belts-technology/#SBR |url-status = dead }}</ref>

In 2005, in Sweden, 70% of all cars that were newly registered were equipped with seat belt reminders for the driver.<ref>{{Cite web| title=Seat Belt Reminders – Implementing advanced safety technology in Europe's cars | url=http://etsc.eu/wp-content/uploads/ETSC_Seat_belt_reminder_oct_06.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141121193848/http://etsc.eu/wp-content/uploads/ETSC_Seat_belt_reminder_oct_06.pdf | archive-date=2014-11-21}}</ref> Since November 2014, seat belt reminders are mandatory for the driver's seat on new cars sold in Europe.<ref name="brake.org.uk">{{Cite web|url=https://www.brake.org.uk/get-involved/take-action/mybrake/knowledge-centre|title=Knowledge centre|website=Brake}}</ref>

Two specifications define the standardseat belt reminders: UN Regulation 16, Section 8.4 and the Euro NCAP assessment protocol (Euro NCAP, 2013).<ref name="brake.org.uk"/>

===European Union seat belt reminder===

In the European Union, seat belt reminders are mandatory in all new passenger cars for the driver seat. In 2014, EC Regulation 661/2009<ref>{{CELEX|32009R0661|text=Regulation (EC) No 661/2009 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 July 2009 concerning type-approval requirements for the general safety of motor vehicles, their trailers and systems, components and separate technical units intended therefor}}</ref> made UN Regulation 16 applicable.

An amendment of UN Regulation 16<ref>Uniform provisions concerning the approval of:
*I. Safety-belts, restraint systems, child restraint systems and ISOFIX child restraint systems for occupants of power-driven vehicles
*II. Vehicles equipped with safety-belts, safety-belt reminders, restraint systems, child restraint systems and ISOFIX child restraint systems and i-Size child restraint systems
{{Cite web |url=https://unece.org/sites/default/files/2022-01/R016r10e.pdf |title=Addendum 15: UN Regulation No. 16}}</ref> made seat belt reminders mandatory in
* all front and rear seats of passenger cars and vans,
* all front seats of buses and trucks.

This improvement applies from 1 September 2019 for new types of motor vehicles and from 1 September 2021 for all new motor vehicles.<ref>
European Road Safety Observatory, Road Safety Thematic Report – Seat belt and child restraint systems, https://road-safety.transport.ec.europa.eu/system/files/2022-01/Road%20Safety%20Thematic%20Report%20-%20Seat%20belt%20and%20child%20restraint%20systems.pdf{{Creative Commons text attribution notice|cc=by4|from this source=yes}}</ref>

===U.S. regulation history===

[[FMVSS 208|Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard No. 208]] (FMVSS 208) was amended by the NHTSA to require a seat belt/starter interlock system to prevent passenger cars from being started with an unbelted front-seat occupant. This mandate applied to passenger cars built after August 1973, i.e., starting with the 1974 [[model year]]. The specifications required the system to permit the car to be started only if the belt of an occupied seat were fastened after the occupant sat down, so pre-buckling the belts would not defeat the system.<ref>{{cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3xXtmlSHtIQ |archive-url= https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/3xXtmlSHtIQ| archive-date=2021-12-11 |url-status=live |title=Chrysler Master Technician Service Conference Session - 1974, Volume 74-1 Seat Belt Starter Interlock |date=6 April 2012 |via=YouTube}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name="Federal">{{Cite web |url=https://www.federalregister.gov/articles/2010/06/29/2010-15773/federal-motor-vehicle-safety-standards-occupant-crash-protection#table_of_contents|title=Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards; Occupant Crash Protection |date=2010}}</ref>

The interlock systems used logic modules complex enough to require special diagnostic computers, and were not entirely dependable—an override button was provided under the hood of equipped cars, permitting one (but only one) "free" starting attempt each time it was pressed.<ref name='Petersen'>{{cite book |last1=Petersen Publishing |title=The Petersen Automotive Troubleshooting & Repair Manual |chapter=Restraint Systems |editor1=Erwin M. Rosen |publisher= Grosset & Dunlap |year=1975 |location=New York |pages=373–374 |isbn=0-448-11946-3}}</ref> However, the interlock system spurred severe backlash from an American public who largely rejected seat belts. In 1974, Congress acted to prohibit NHTSA from requiring or permitting a system that prevents a vehicle from starting or operating with an unbelted occupant, or that gives an audible warning of an unfastened belt for more than 8 seconds after the ignition is turned on.<ref name=Federal/><ref>{{Cite news | author = Walter Rugaber |date=1974-10-16 |title=Congress Clears Auto Safety Measure Eliminating Seat Belt Interlock System |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1974/10/16/archives/congress-clears-auto-safety-measure-eliminating-seat-belt-interlock.html |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> This prohibition took effect on 27 October 1974, shortly after the 1975 model year began.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/USCODE-2013-title49/html/USCODE-2013-title49-subtitleVI-partA-chap301-subchapII-sec30124.htm |title=U.S.C. 30124 – Transportation |website=www.gpo.gov }}</ref>

In response to the Congressional action, NHTSA once again amended FMVSS 208, requiring vehicles to come with a seat belt reminder system that gives an audible signal for four to eight seconds and a warning light for at least 60 seconds after the ignition is turned on if the driver's seat belt is not fastened.<ref name="Federal" /> This is called a seat belt reminder (SBR) system. In the mid-1990s, the Swedish insurance company [[Folksam]] worked with Saab and Ford to determine the requirements for the most efficient seat belt reminder. One characteristic of the optimal SBR, according to their research, is that the audible warning becomes increasingly penetrating the longer the seat belt remains unfastened.<ref name="SWOV">{{cite web |title=SWOV Fact sheet |year=2014 |url=http://www.swov.nl/rapport/Factsheets/UK/FS_Seatbelt_reminders.pdf |access-date=2015-04-29 |url-status=dead |archive-date=2015-06-17 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150617081622/http://www.swov.nl/rapport/Factsheets/UK/FS_Seatbelt_reminders.pdf}}</ref>

=== Efficacy ===
In 2001, the [[House Appropriations Committee]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.congress.gov/committee-report/107th-congress/house-report/108 |title=House of Representatives Report 107-108 Department of Transportation and Related Agencies Appropriation Bill, 2002, June 22, 2001 |website=Congress.gov}}</ref> directed NHTSA to study the benefits of technology meant to increase the use of seat belts. NHTSA found that seat belt usage had increased to 73% since the initial introduction of the SBR system.<ref name="Federal" /> In 2002, Ford demonstrated that seat belts were used more in Fords with seat belt reminders than in those without: 76% and 71% respectively. In 2007, Honda conducted a similar study and found that 90% of people who drove Hondas with seat belt reminders used a seat belt, while 84% of people who drove Hondas without seat belt reminders used a seat belt.<ref name="SWOV" />

In 2003, the [[Transportation Research Board]] Committee, chaired by two psychologists, reported that "Enhanced SBRs" (ESBRs) could save an additional 1,000 lives a year.<ref name="Buckle">{{cite journal |url=http://www.apa.org/monitor/dec03/seatbelt.aspx |vauthors=Dingfelder SF |date=2003 |title=Your car says: 'buckle up' |journal=Monitor on Psychology |volume=34 |issue=11}}</ref> Research by the [[Insurance Institute for Highway Safety]] found that Ford's ESBR, which provides an intermittent chime for up to five minutes if the driver is unbelted, sounding for six seconds then pausing for 30, increased seat belt use by five percentage points.<ref name="Buckle" /> Farmer and Wells found that driver fatality rates were 6% lower for vehicles with ESBR compared with otherwise-identical vehicles without.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Farmer CM, Wells JK |year=2010 |title=Effect of enhanced seat belt reminders on driver fatality risk |journal=Journal of Safety Research |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=53–57 |pmid=20226951 |doi=10.1016/j.jsr.2009.11.001}}</ref>

=== Delayed start ===
Starting with the 2020 model year, some [[Chevrolet]] cars refused to shift from Park to Drive for 20 seconds if the driver is unbuckled and the car is in "teen driver" mode. A similar feature was previously available on some General Motors fleet cars.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/2019/05/21/725113252/my-driveway-my-rules-some-chevys-wont-go-temporarily-until-teen-drivers-buckle-u|title=Teens Who Don't Buckle Up: Chevy Has A Surprise For You|first=Camila|last=Domonoske|date=May 21, 2019|website=NPR}}</ref>

==Regulation by country==
===International regulations===
Several countries apply UN-ECE [[vehicle regulation]]s 14 and 16:
* UN Regulation No. 14: safety belt anchorages
* UN Regulation No. 16:
** Safety belts, restraint systems, child restraint systems, and ISOFIX child restraint systems for occupants of power-driven vehicles
** Vehicles equipped with safety belts, [[safety belt reminder]]s, restraint systems, [[child restraint]] systems and [[ISOFIX]] child restraint systems and [[i-Size]] child restraint systems<ref name="unece.org">{{Cite web| title=Agreement concerning the Adoption of Harmonized Technical United Nations Regulations for Wheeled Vehicles, Equipment and Parts which can be Fitted and/or be Used on Wheeled Vehicles and the Conditions for Reciprocal Recognition of Approvals Granted on the Basis of these United Nations Regulations | url=https://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/trans/main/wp29/wp29regs/2020/ECE-TRANS-WP.29-343-Rev.28-Add.1.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201022160413/https://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/trans/main/wp29/wp29regs/2020/ECE-TRANS-WP.29-343-Rev.28-Add.1.pdf | archive-date=2020-10-22}}</ref>
* UN Regulation No. 44: restraining devices for child occupants of power-driven vehicles ("Child Restraint Systems")
* UN Regulation No. 129: Enhanced Child Restraint Systems
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+international safety regulations<ref name="unece.org"/>
! Continent
! Country
! Reg 14
! Reg 16
! Reg 44
! Reg 129
|-
| rowspan="15" | Eurasia || European Union || {{yes}} ||{{yes}} ||{{yes}}||{{yes}}
|-
| Serbia || {{yes}} ||{{yes}} ||{{yes}}||{{yes}}
|-
| United Kingdom || {{yes}} ||{{yes}} ||{{yes}}||{{yes}}
|-
| Switzerland || {{yes}} ||{{yes}} ||{{yes}}||{{yes}}
|-
| Norway || {{yes}} ||{{yes}} ||{{yes}}||{{yes}}
|-
| Russia || {{yes}} ||{{yes}} ||{{yes}}||{{yes}}
|-
| Belarus || {{yes}} ||{{yes}} ||{{yes}}||{{yes}}
|-
| Moldova || {{yes}} ||{{yes}} ||{{yes}}||{{yes}}
|-
| Bosnia || {{yes}} ||{{yes}} || ||{{yes}}
|-
| Turkey || {{yes}} ||{{yes}} ||{{yes}}||{{yes}}
|-
| North Macedonia || {{yes}} ||{{yes}} ||{{yes}}||{{yes}}
|-
| Japan || {{yes}} ||{{yes}} ||{{yes}}||{{yes}}
|-
| Ukraine || {{yes}} ||{{yes}} ||{{yes}}||{{yes}}
|-
| Albania || {{yes}} ||{{yes}} ||{{yes}}||{{yes}}
|-
| Malaysia || {{yes}} ||{{yes}} ||{{yes}}||{{yes}}
|-
| Australasia || New Zealand || {{yes}} ||{{yes}} || ||{{yes}}
|-
| rowspan="3" | Africa || South Africa || {{yes}} || || ||{{yes}}
|-
| Egypt || {{yes}} ||{{yes}} ||{{yes}}||{{yes}}
|-
| Nigeria || {{yes}} || {{yes}}||{{yes}}||{{yes}}
|}

===Local regulations===
{| class="wikitable"
! !! [[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe|UNECE]]
* {{flag icon|European Union}} European Union<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.unece.org/trans/areas-of-work/vehicle-regulations/agreements-and-regulations/un-regulations-1958-agreement/un-regulations-addenda-to-the-1958-agreement/old-version-of-regulations-pages/regs-1-20.html |title=Regs 1-20 – Transport – UNECE |access-date=2020-08-18  |archive-date=2018-11-24  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181124060508/http://www.unece.org/trans/areas-of-work/vehicle-regulations/agreements-and-regulations/un-regulations-1958-agreement/un-regulations-addenda-to-the-1958-agreement/old-version-of-regulations-pages/regs-1-20.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* {{flag icon|Japan}} Japan
* {{flag icon|UK}} United Kingdom
* {{flag icon|Russia}} Russia
* {{flag icon|Ukraine}} Ukraine
* {{flag icon|Turkey}} Turkey
* {{flag icon|Egypt}} Egypt
! {{flag icon|USA}} U.S.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://one.nhtsa.gov/cars/rules/import/FMVSS/index.html|title=Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards and Regulations|access-date=2020-08-18 |archive-date=2020-11-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201106232615/https://one.nhtsa.gov/cars/rules/import/FMVSS/index.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> !! {{flag icon|India}} India<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.araiindia.com/Publish_AIS_Standards.asp|title=Automotive Research And Development, Automotive Service Provider, India, Vehicle Type Certification, Automotive Testing And Calibration, Vehicle Design Labs, Advanced Automotive Design Standards, Automotive Engineering Course|website=www.araiindia.com|access-date=2020-08-18 |archive-date=2020-09-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200929160703/https://www.araiindia.com/Publish_AIS_Standards.asp|url-status=dead}}</ref> !! {{flag icon|Japan}} Japan !! {{flag icon|China}} China !! {{flag icon|South Korea}} South Korea !! {{flag icon|Australia}} Australia !! {{flag icon|GCC}} Gulf
|-
! Seat belts
| UN R14 || FMVSS 209 || AIS-015 || || || || || GSO 96/1988, GSO 97/1988
|-
! [[Child safety seat|Child restraint system]]
| UN R44, R129 || FMVSS 213 || AIS-072 || JIS D 040122000 || GB 14166-2013 || KMVSS 103-2 || AS/NZS 1754:2013; AS/NZS 3629:2013 || GSO 1709/2005, GSO 1710/2005
|-
|}

==Legislation==
{{Main |Seat belt legislation}}

In observational studies of [[car crash]] morbidity and mortality,<ref name=nakahara>{{cite journal |vauthors=Nakahara S, Ichikawa M, Wakai S |title=Seatbelt legislation in Japan: high risk driver mortality and seatbelt use |journal=Inj. Prev. |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=29–32 |year=2003 |pmid=12642555 |doi = 10.1136/ip.9.1.29 |pmc=1730910}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Allen S, Zhu S, Sauter C, Layde P, Hargarten S |title=A comprehensive statewide analysis of seatbelt non-use with injury and hospital admissions: new data, old problem |journal=Academic Emergency Medicine |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=427–34 |year=2006 |pmid=16531597 |doi=10.1197/j.aem.2005.11.003 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Bourbeau R, Desjardins D, Maag U, Laberge-Nadeau C |title=Neck injuries among belted and unbelted occupants of the front seat of cars |journal=The Journal of Trauma |volume=35 |issue=5 |pages=794–799 |year=1993 |pmid=8230348 |doi=10.1097/00005373-199311000-00024}}</ref> [[experiment]]s using both [[crash test dummy|crash test dummies]] and human [[cadaver]]s indicate that wearing seat belts greatly reduces the risk of [[death]] and injury in the majority of car crashes.

This has led many countries to adopt mandatory seat belt wearing laws. It is generally accepted that, in comparing like-for-like accidents, a vehicle occupant not wearing a properly fitted seat belt has a significantly and substantially higher chance of death and serious injury. One large observation studying using U.S. data showed that the [[odds ratio]] of crash death is 0.46 with a three-point belt when compared with no belt.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Bédard M, Guyatt GH, Stones MJ, Hirdes JP |title=The independent contribution of driver, crash, and vehicle characteristics to driver fatalities |journal=[[Accident Analysis & Prevention]] |volume=34 |issue=6 |pages=717–27 |year=2002 |pmid=12371777 |doi = 10.1016/S0001-4575(01)00072-0}}</ref> In another study that examined injuries presenting to the [[emergency room|ER]] pre- and post-seat belt law introduction, it was found that 40% more escaped injury and 35% more escaped mild and moderate injuries.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Thomas J |title=Road traffic accidents before and after seatbelt legislation--study in a district general hospital |journal=Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine |volume=83 |issue=2 |pages=79–81 |year=1990 |pmid=2319551 |pmc=1292501|doi=10.1177/014107689008300207 }}</ref>

The effects of seat belt laws are disputed by those who observe that their passage did not reduce road fatalities. There has also been concern that instead of legislating for a general protection standard for vehicle occupants, laws that required a particular technical approach would rapidly become dated as motor manufacturers would tool up for a particular standard that could not easily be changed. For example, in 1969 there were competing designs for lap and three-point seat belts, rapidly tilting seats, and airbags being developed. As countries started to mandate seat belt restraints the global auto industry invested in the tooling and standardized exclusively on seat belts, and ignored other restraint designs such as airbags for several decades<ref>{{cite news |newspaper = The Times |date = 1969-01-24 |title = Safety Design |first = John |last = Fenton }}</ref>

As of 2016, seat belt laws can be divided into two categories: primary and secondary. A primary seat belt law allows an officer to issue a citation for lack of seat belt use without any other citation, whereas a secondary seat belt law allows an officer to issue a seat belt citation only in the presence of a different violation. In the United States, fifteen states enforce secondary laws, while 34 states, as well as the District of Columbia, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands enforce primary seat belt laws. New Hampshire lacks either a primary or secondary seat belt law.<ref>{{cite web |title=State Seat Belt Laws |url=http://www.ghsa.org/html/stateinfo/laws/seatbelt_laws.html |website=ghsa.org |access-date=2016-02-15 |archive-date=2018-12-25  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225135730/https://www.ghsa.org/html/stateinfo/laws/seatbelt_laws.html%20 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Risk compensation===
Some have proposed that the number of deaths was influenced by the development of [[risk compensation]], which says that drivers adjust their behavior in response to the increased sense of personal safety wearing a seat belt provides.

In one trial subjects were asked to drive [[go-kart]]s around a track under various conditions. It was found that subjects who started driving unbelted drove consistently faster when subsequently belted.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Streff FM, Geller ES |title=An experimental test of risk compensation: between-subject versus within-subject analyses |journal=Accident Analysis & Prevention |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=277–87 |year=1988 |pmid=3415759 |doi=10.1016/0001-4575(88)90055-3 |url= https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/27199/1/0000202.pdf |hdl=2027.42/27199 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Similarly, a study of habitual non-seat belt wearers driving in freeway conditions found evidence that they had adapted to  use by adopting higher driving speeds and closer following distances.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Janssen W |title=Seat-belt wearing and driving behavior: an instrumented-vehicle study |journal=Accident Analysis & Prevention |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=249–61 |year=1994 |pmid=8198694 |doi = 10.1016/0001-4575(94)90095-7}}</ref>

A 2001 analysis of U.S. crash data aimed to establish the effects of  legislation on driving fatalities<ref name=CohenLeinav/> and found that previous estimates of seat belt effectiveness had been significantly overstated.

According to the analysis, seat belts decreased fatalities by 1.35% for each 10% increase in seat belt use. The study controlled for endogenous motivations for seat belt use, because they create an artificial correlation between seat belt use and fatalities, leading to the conclusion that seat belts cause fatalities. For example, drivers in high-risk areas are more likely to use seat belts and are more likely to be in accidents, creating a non-causal correlation between seat belt use and mortality. After accounting for the endogeneity of seat belt usage, Cohen and Einav found no evidence that the risk compensation effect makes seat belt-wearing drivers more dangerous, a finding at variance with other research.

===Increased traffic===
Other statistical analyses have included adjustments for factors such as increased traffic and age, and based on these adjustments, which results in a reduction of morbidity and mortality due to seat belt use.<ref name=nakahara/> However,{{Relevance inline|date=June 2019}} [[Smeed's law]] predicts a fall in accident rate with increasing car ownership and has been demonstrated independently of seat belt legislation.{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}

==Mass transit considerations==
===Buses===
====School buses====
{{further |Seat belts in school buses}}

In the U.S., six states—California, Florida, Louisiana, New Jersey, New York, and Texas—require seat belts on school buses.<ref>{{cite web |url = https://www.cga.ct.gov/2010/rpt/2010-R-0055.htm |title = State laws requiring seat belts in school buses |website=cga.ct.gov |access-date = 2016-02-26 }}</ref>

Pros<ref>{{cite web |title=It's time for seat belts on school buses. |url=http://www.safeguardseat.com/time-seat-belts-school-buses/ |website=SafeGuardSeat.com |publisher=SafeGuard Seating |access-date=2 December 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Spital M, Spital A, Spital R |title=The compelling case for seat belts on school busses |journal=Pediatrics |volume=78 |issue=5 |pages=928–32 |date=November 1986 |doi=10.1542/peds.78.5.928 |pmid=3763306|s2cid=245091757 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Albers AC |title=Should there be laws mandating seatbelts in all school busses? Writing for the pro position |journal=MCN Am J Matern Child Nurs |volume=26 |issue=1 |page=8 |year=2001 |pmid=11198463 |doi=10.1097/00005721-200101000-00002}}</ref> and cons<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Begley CE, Biddle AK |title=Cost-benefit analysis of safety belts in Texas school buses |journal=Public Health Rep |volume=103 |issue=5 |pages=479–85 |year=1988 |pmid=3140273 |pmc=1478133}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.wxia.com/news/article_news.aspx?storyid=112334 |title=''Pros, Cons of School Bus Seatbelts'' |website=Wxia.com |access-date=2011-02-02 }}{{dead link |date=May 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Garzon DL |title=Should there be laws mandating seatbelts in all school buses? Writing for the con position |journal=MCN Am J Matern Child Nurs |volume=26 |issue=1 |page=9 |year=2001 |pmid=11198464 |doi=10.1097/00005721-200101000-00003}}</ref> have been debated about the use of seat belts in school buses. School buses, which are much bigger than the average vehicle, allow for the mass transportation of students from place to place. The American [[School bus|School Bus]] Council states in a brief article: "The children are protected like eggs in an egg carton—compartmentalized, and surrounded with padding and structural integrity to secure the entire container." Although school buses are considered safe for mass transit of students, this will not guarantee that the students will be injury-free if an impact were to occur. Seat belts in buses are sometimes believed to make recovering from a roll or tip harder for passengers, as they could be easily trapped in their own safety belts.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wonderopolis.org/wonder/why-arent-seat-belts-required-on-school-buses|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160127060005/http://www.americanschoolbuscouncil.org/school-bus-information-and-statistics/faq/why-dont-school-buses-have-seat-belts|url-status=dead|title=Why Aren't Seat Belts Required on School Buses? &#124; Wonderopolis|archivedate=January 27, 2016|website=www.wonderopolis.org}}</ref>

In 2015, for the first time, NHTSA endorsed seat belts on school buses.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.autoblog.com/2015/11/10/seat-belts-school-buses-nhtsa-safety-parenting/ |title=NHTSA reverses course, now wants seat belts on school buses<!-- Bot generated title --> |access-date=2016-03-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307013534/http://www.autoblog.com/2015/11/10/seat-belts-school-buses-nhtsa-safety-parenting/ |archive-date=2016-03-07 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

====Motor coaches====
In the European Union, all new long-distance buses and coaches must be fitted with seat belts.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.epha.org/a/1765 |title=EU law makes seat belts obligatory in long distance buses and coaches |date=2006-07-19 |publisher=European Public Health Alliance |access-date=6 January 2010 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100114181435/http://www.epha.org/a/1765 |archive-date=14 January 2010 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Australia has required lap/sash seat belts in new coaches since 1994. These must comply with Australian Design Rule 68, which requires the seat belt, seat and seat anchorage to withstand 20[[g-force|g]] deceleration and an impact by an unrestrained occupant to the rear.<ref>{{cite web |author1=Griffths M |author2=Paine M |author3=Moore R |url=http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/pdf/esv/esv19/05-0017-O.pdf |title=Three point seat belts on coaches – the first decade in Australia |date=2005-06-15 |publisher=U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration |access-date=15 March 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120328204452/http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/pdf/esv/esv19/05-0017-O.pdf |archive-date=28 March 2012 }}</ref>

In the United States, NHTSA now requires lap-shoulder seat belts in new "over-the-road" buses (includes most coaches) starting in 2016.<ref>{{cite web |title=NHTSA Announces Final Rule Requiring Seat Belts on Motorcoaches |url=http://www.nhtsa.gov/About+NHTSA/Press+Releases/NHTSA+Announces+Final+Rule+Requiring+Seat+Belts+on+Motorcoaches |publisher=NHTSA |access-date=3 December 2013 |archive-date=9 December 2013 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131209214725/http://www.nhtsa.gov/About+NHTSA/Press+Releases/NHTSA+Announces+Final+Rule+Requiring+Seat+Belts+on+Motorcoaches |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Trains===
The use of seat belts in trains has been investigated. Concerns about survival space intrusion in train crashes and increased injuries to unrestrained or incorrectly restrained passengers led researchers to discourage the use of seat belts in trains.

<blockquote>It has been shown that there is no net safety benefit for passengers who choose to wear 3-point restraints on passenger-carrying rail vehicles. Generally, passengers who choose not to wear restraints in a vehicle modified to accept 3-point restraints receive marginally more severe injuries.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.railwaysarchive.co.uk/documents/RSSB_Seatbelts2007.pdf |title=Assessment of Three-point Passenger Restraints (seatbelts) Fitted to Seats on Rail Vehicles |access-date=2011-02-02 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110605080928/http://www.railwaysarchive.co.uk/documents/RSSB_Seatbelts2007.pdf |archive-date=2011-06-05 |url-status=dead }}</ref></blockquote>

In the United States, recreational [[Draisine#Dressin, velorail, trolley, or railbike|railbikes]] are fitted with lap belts.

===Airplanes===
[[File:Aircraft Seatbelt.jpg|thumb|An airplane lap seat belt]]

All aerobatic aircraft and gliders (sailplanes) are fitted with four or five-point harnesses, as are many types of light aircraft and many types of military aircraft.  The seat belts in these aircraft have the dual function of crash protection and keeping the pilot(s) and crew in their seat(s) during turbulence and aerobatic maneuvers. Airliner passenger seats are fitted with lap belts. Unlike road vehicles, airliner seat belts are not primarily designed for crash protection. Their main purpose is to keep passengers in their seats during events such as turbulence.<ref>{{cite magazine |url= https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/why-are-airplane-seatbelts-so-weird |title=Decoding the Design of In-Flight Seat Belts – Atlas Obscura |author=Dan Nosowitz |magazine=[[Atlas Obscura]] |date=29 Jan 2018 |access-date=18 Oct 2019 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20191018125740/https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/why-are-airplane-seatbelts-so-weird |archive-date=18 October 2019 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Many [[civil aviation]] authorities require a "fasten seat belt" sign in the [[aircraft cabin|cabin]] that can be activated by a pilot during taxiing, takeoff, turbulence, and landing.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iata.org/publications/Documents/guidance-on-turbulence-management.pdf |title=Guidance for Turbulence Management |year=2012 |publisher=International Air Transport Association |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160304050534/http://www.iata.org/publications/Documents/guidance-on-turbulence-management.pdf |archive-date=2016-03-04 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web| title=Federal Aviation Administration, DOT | url=http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CFR-2012-title14-vol1/pdf/CFR-2012-title14-vol1-sec23-785.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006133341/http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CFR-2012-title14-vol1/pdf/CFR-2012-title14-vol1-sec23-785.pdf | archive-date=2014-10-06}}</ref> The [[International Civil Aviation Organization]] recommends the use of child restraints.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.icao.int/Newsroom/Pages/ICAO-Manual-Provides-New-Recommended-Practices-For-Aircraft-Cabin-Child-Restraint-Systems.aspx|title=ICAO Manual Provides New Recommended Practices For Aircraft Cabin Child Restraint Systems|website=www.icao.int|access-date=2022-01-17 |archive-date=2022-01-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220117153218/https://www.icao.int/Newsroom/Pages/ICAO-Manual-Provides-New-Recommended-Practices-For-Aircraft-Cabin-Child-Restraint-Systems.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref> Some airline authorities, including the [[Civil Aviation Authority (United Kingdom)|UK Civil Aviation Authority (CAA)]],<ref>{{Cite web|url= https://www.caa.co.uk/Passengers/On-board/Seating-allocation/|title = Airline seating allocations &#124; UK Civil Aviation Authority}}</ref> permit the use of airline infant lap belts<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.flyingwithababy.com/car-seats-child-restraint-devices-crd-on-an-airplane/|title = Airplane Restraint Devices: Car Seats, CARES Harness & Lap Belt Rules |date=28 August 2012}}</ref> (sometimes known as an infant loop or belly belt) to secure an infant under age two sitting on an adult's lap.

==See also==
* [[Automobile safety]]
* [[Baby transport]]
* [[Crashworthiness]]
* [[List of auto parts]]
* [[Passive safety device]]
* [[Safety harness]]
* [[Seat belt use rates by country]]

== References ==
{{Reflist |30em}}

== External links ==
* {{Commons category-inline}}

{{Car-interior}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Seat belts| ]]
[[Category:English inventions]]
[[Category:Safety equipment]]
[[Category:Vehicle parts]]
[[Category:Vehicle safety technologies]]