View source for Scouse

{{Short description|Accent and dialect of English in the Liverpool City Region}}
{{about|the accent and dialect|the dish|Scouse (food)}}
{{EngvarB|date=May 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2016}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Scouse
| altname          = Liverpool English / Merseyside English
| image            = Liverpool City Region location map UK.svg
| image_size       = 
| nativename       = 
| state            = [[England]]
| speakers         = 
| date             = 
| familycolor      = Indo-European
| fam2             = [[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
| fam3             = [[West Germanic]]
| fam4             = [[Ingvaeonic]]
| fam5             = [[Anglo-Frisian]]
| fam6             = [[Anglic languages|Anglic]]
| fam7             = [[English language|English]]
| fam8             = [[British English]]
| ancestor         = [[Old English]]
| ancestor2        = [[Middle English]]
| ancestor3        = [[Early Modern English]]
| iso3             = 
| isoexception     = dialect
| glotto           = none
| ietf             = en-scouse
| region           = [[Liverpool]]
}}
{{listen|filename=Ringo Starr BBC Radio4 Front Row 31 Dec 2008 b00g4c59.flac|title=Speech example|type=speech|description=The voice of musician [[Ringo Starr]], an example of a working-class male from the inner-city [[Dingle, Liverpool|Dingle]] area of Liverpool.}}
{{listen|filename=Andrew Hussey BBC Radio4 Start the Week 24 Nov 2008 b00fkw8j.flac|title=Speech example|type=speech|description=The voice of historian [[Andrew Hussey]], another example of a working-class male from inner-city Liverpool.}}
{{Listen |filename = John_bishop_bbc_radio4_desert_island_discs_24_06_2012.flac |title = Speech example |type = speech |description = The voice of comedian [[John Bishop]], an example of a working-class male from [[Runcorn]], a town near Liverpool, had a greater percentage of people with the Liverpool accent because of the large numbers of Liverpudlians moving in during the 1950s.<ref>{{Cite episode | title= John Bishop |series= [[Desert Island Discs]] |url= http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b01k2b32 |station= [[BBC Radio 4]] |date= 24 June 2012 |access-date= 18 January 2014 }}</ref> }}

'''Scouse''' ({{IPAc-en|s|k|aʊ|s}} {{respell|skowss}}), more formally known as '''Liverpool English'''<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Watson|2007|pp=351–360}}</ref> or '''Merseyside English''',{{sfn|Collins|Mees|2013|pages=193–194}}<ref>{{Citation|editor-last1=Coupland|editor-first1=Nikolas|editor-last2=Thomas|editor-first2=Alan R.|year=1990|title=English in Wales: Diversity, Conflict, and Change|publisher=Multilingual Matters Ltd.|isbn=1-85359-032-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tPwYt3gVbu4C}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last1=Howard|first1=Jackson|last2=Stockwell|first2=Peter|year=2011|title=An Introduction to the Nature and Functions of Language|edition=2nd|publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group|isbn=978-1-4411-4373-0|page=172}}</ref> is an [[Accent (dialect)|accent]] and [[dialect]] of [[English language|English]] associated with the city of [[Liverpool]] and the surrounding [[Merseyside]]. The Scouse accent is highly distinctive, as it was heavily influenced by [[Irish people|Irish]] and [[Welsh people|Welsh]] immigrants who arrived via the [[Liverpool docks]], as well as [[Scandinavia]]n sailors who also used the docks.<ref>{{Cite web |url= http://www.bbc.co.uk/liverpool/content/articles/2005/01/11/voices_liverpoolaccent_feature.shtml |title=The origins of Scouse |website=www.bbc.co.uk |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230518180742/https://www.bbc.co.uk/liverpool/content/articles/2005/01/11/voices_liverpoolaccent_feature.shtml|archive-date=18 May 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=thesundaytimes>{{cite news |url= http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/article6973975.ece|title=Regional accents thrive against the odds in Britain |author=Dominic Tobin and Jonathan Leake |date=3 January 2010 |work=The Sunday Times |location= London |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110909020239/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/article6973975.ece |archive-date=9 September 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> People from Liverpool are known as Liverpudlians, but also called Scousers; the name comes from [[Scouse (food)|scouse]], a stew originating from Scandinavian [[lobscouse]] eaten by sailors and locals.<ref>Chris Roberts, Heavy Words Lightly Thrown: The Reason Behind Rhyme, Thorndike Press, 2006 ({{ISBN|0-7862-8517-6}})</ref><ref name=":0">Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/EIhFwLjsQug Ghostarchive]{{cbignore}} and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20111126040844/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EIhFwLjsQug Wayback Machine]{{cbignore}}: {{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EIhFwLjsQug|title=Harry Enfield – The Scousers Visit The Beach|date=10 January 2008 |via=www.youtube.com}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" />

Liverpool's development since the 1950s has spread the accent into nearby areas such as the towns of [[Runcorn]] and [[Skelmersdale]].<ref name=honeybone>{{cite web|url=http://www.lel.ed.ac.uk/homes/patrick/scouse-ndf.pdf |title=New-dialect formation in nineteenth century Liverpool: a brief history of Scouse|author=Patrick Honeybone|publisher=Open House Press}}</ref> Variations of Scouse have been noted: the accent of Liverpool's [[Liverpool city centre|city centre]] and northern neighbourhoods is usually described as fast, harsh, and nasal,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.liverpoolecho.co.uk/news/11-funny-differences-between-north-16979992|title=11 funny differences between north and south Liverpool|first=Emilia|last=Bona|date=29 September 2019|website=Liverpool Echo}}</ref> while the "[[Beatles]]-like" accent found in Liverpool's southern suburbs is typically described as slow, soft, and dark.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-18983558 |title=BBC News – London 2012: A 12-part guide to the UK in 212 words each |access-date=26 December 2019 |archive-date=12 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112024851/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-18983558 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Popular colloquialisms have shown a growing deviation from the historical [[Lancashire dialect]] previously found in Liverpool,<ref name=honeybone/> as well as a growth in the influence of the accent in the wider area.<ref name=thesundaytimes/><ref name=telegraph>{{cite news |url= https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1583317/Scouse-twang-spreads-beyond-Merseyside.html |archive-url= https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1583317/Scouse-twang-spreads-beyond-Merseyside.html |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=Scouse twang spreads beyond Merseyside |author=Julie Henry |work=The Telegraph |location= London |date=30 March 2008}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name=LiverpoolEcho>{{cite news |url= http://www.liverpoolecho.co.uk/liverpool-life/liverpool-lifestyle/2008/03/29/scouse-accent-defying-experts-and-evolving-100252-20689770/ |title=Scouse accent defying experts and 'evolving' |date=29 March 2008 |author=Nick Coligan |work=Liverpool Echo |access-date=20 April 2011 |archive-date=13 October 2012 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20121013054207/http://www.liverpoolecho.co.uk/liverpool-life/liverpool-lifestyle/2008/03/29/scouse-accent-defying-experts-and-evolving-100252-20689770/ |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=MEN>{{cite news |url= http://menmedia.co.uk/manchestereveningnews/news/s/1043173_scouse_accent_on_the_move |title=Scouse accent on the move |author=Chris Osuh |date=31 March 2008 |work=Manchester Evening News |access-date=20 April 2011 |archive-date=11 January 2013 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130111074928/http://menmedia.co.uk/manchestereveningnews/news/s/1043173_scouse_accent_on_the_move |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=telegraph2>{{cite news |url= https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/howaboutthat/6927109/British-regional-accents-still-thriving.html |archive-url= https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/howaboutthat/6927109/British-regional-accents-still-thriving.html |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=British regional accents 'still thriving' |author=Richard Savill |date=3 January 2010 |work=The Telegraph |location= London}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Scouse is often considered by other Britons one of the country's least popular accents due to its difficulty, but it also performs very well in polls of British accents that people perceive as happy and friendly.<ref>{{Cite news |url= http://www.liverpoolecho.co.uk/news/liverpool-news/poll-brands-scouse-accent-one-9872053 |title=Scouse ranked second-least attractive accent in the country |first=Emilia |last=Bona |date=17 August 2015 |website=Liverpool Echo}}</ref>

==Etymology==
The word {{wikt-lang|en|scouse}} is a shortened form of [[lobscouse]], the origin of which is uncertain.<ref>[http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/109528#eid39045794 "lobscouse"] at [[Oxford English Dictionary]]; retrieved 13 May 2017</ref> It is related to the Norwegian ''[[lapskaus]]'', Swedish ''lapskojs'', Danish ''labskovs (skipperlabskovs)'', and the [[Low German]] ''[[labskaus]]'', and refers to a [[Scouse (food)|stew of the same name]] commonly eaten by sailors. In the 19th century, some people in Liverpool, [[Bootle]] and ate scouse as it was a cheap dish familiar to the families of seafarers. Media sources call these people "scousers".<ref>[http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/173218?redirectedFrom=Scouse#eid "Scouse"] at [[Oxford English Dictionary]]; retrieved 13 May 2017</ref> In ''The Lancashire Dictionary of Dialect, Tradition and Folklore'', Alan Crosby suggests that the word became known nationwide only with the popularity of the [[BBC]] sitcom ''[[Till Death Us Do Part]]'' (1965{{ndash}}1975), which featured a Liverpudlian socialist and a [[Cockney]] conservative in a regular argument.<ref name=":1">Alan Crosby, ''The Lancashire Dictionary of Dialect, Tradition and Folklore'', 2000, entry for word ''Scouser''</ref>

==Origins==
After the 1700s, Liverpool developed into a major international trading and industrial centre. The city consequently became a [[melting pot]] of several accents and dialects as sailors and migrants from different areas (such as [[Wales]] and especially [[Ireland]]) established themselves in the area. Until the mid-19th century, the dominant local accent was similar to that of neighbouring areas of [[Lancashire]]. For instance, the comedian and actor [[Robb Wilton]] (1881–1957), despite coming from the [[Everton, Liverpool|Everton]] district of Liverpool, spoke with a dry [[Lancashire accent]] rather than a Scouse accent.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/be1b8750-911f-4e6f-bf32-072ebc5aedc7|title=Robb Wilton, character comedian born Robert Wilton Smith in Liverpool 1881. Spoke in Lancashire dialect & delivered monologues. Died 1957 Postcard.|date=1881–1957|language=English}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=September 2021}}

The influence of immigrants from Ireland (especially [[Dublin]]) and [[Northern Wales]], as well as visiting [[Scandinavia]]n sailors, contributed to a distinctive local Liverpool accent.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/liverpool/content/articles/2005/01/11/voices_liverpoolaccent_feature.shtml Paul Coslett, ''The origins of Scouse'', BBC Liverpool, 11 January 2005]. Retrieved 6 February 2015</ref><ref>The Vauxhall and other dockland areas of the city, in particular, retained a strong Irish character that set them apart culturally from other areas. Peter Grant, [https://web.archive.org/web/20130526140230/http://www.liverpooldailypost.co.uk/liverpool-culture/2008/08/09/the-scouse-accent-dey-talk-like-dat-don-t-dey-64375-21500783/2/ ''The Scouse accent: Dey talk like dat, don't dey?''], Liverpool Daily Post, 9 August 2008. Archived from [http://www.liverpooldailypost.co.uk/liverpool-culture/2008/08/09/the-scouse-accent-dey-talk-like-dat-don-t-dey-64375-21500783/2/ the original] on 26 May 2013. Retrieved 18 April 2013.</ref> The first reference to a distinctive Liverpool accent was in 1890. Linguist Gerald Knowles suggested that the accent's nasal quality may have derived from poor public health in the 19th century, by which the prevalence of colds among many people over a long time resulted in a nasal accent coming to be regarded as the [[Social norm|norm]] and copied by newer incomers learning the dialect of the local area.<ref>[http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/209515.article ''Scouse: the accent that defined an era''], Times Higher Education, 29 June 2007.</ref>

==Academic research==
The Victorian [[phonetician]] [[Alexander John Ellis]] said that Liverpool and Birkenhead "had no dialect proper", as he conceived of dialects as speech that had been passed down through generations from the earliest English speakers. Ellis did research some locations on [[the Wirral]], but these respondents spoke in the traditional [[Cheshire dialect]] at the time and not in Scouse.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Knowles |first=Gerald |date=1973 |title=Scouse: the urban dialect of Liverpool |type=PhD |chapter=2.2 |publisher=University of Leeds |chapter-url=http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.546087 |access-date=2 December 2017}}</ref> The 1950s [[Survey of English Dialects]] recorded traditional Lancastrian dialect from the town of [[Halewood]], finding no trace of Scouse influence. The phonetician [[John C. Wells]] wrote that "the Scouse accent might as well not exist" in ''The Linguistic Atlas of England'', which was the Survey's principal output.<ref name="Wells">[http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/estuary/lae-revw.htm Review of the Linguistic Atlas of England], John C. Wells, The Times Higher Education Supplement, 1 December 1978</ref>

An academic study of Scouse was undertaken by Gerald Knowles at the [[University of Leeds]] in 1973. He identified a key problem: that traditional dialect research had focused on developments from a single [[proto-language]], but Scouse (and many other urban dialects) had resulted from interactions between an unknown number of languages.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Knowles |first=Gerald |date=1973 |title=Scouse: the urban dialect of Liverpool |type=PhD |chapter=3.2 |publisher=University of Leeds |chapter-url=http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.546087 |access-date=2 December 2017}}</ref>

==Phonology==
{{IPA notice|section}}
The phonemic notation used in this article is based on the set of symbols used by {{Harvcoltxt|Watson|2007}}.

===Vowels===
[[File:Scouse monophthongs chart.svg|thumb|250px|[[Monophthong]]s of Scouse (from {{Harvcoltxt|Watson|2007|p=357}}). {{IPA|/eː/}} and {{IPA|/ɑː/}} show considerable allophonic variation.{{sfnp|Watson|2007|p=358}}]]
[[File:Scouse diphthongs chart - part 1.svg|thumb|250px|[[Diphthong]]s of Scouse (part 1, from {{Harvcoltxt|Watson|2007|p=357}})]]
[[File:Scouse diphthongs chart - part 2.svg|thumb|250px|[[Diphthong]]s of Scouse (part 2, from {{Harvcoltxt|Watson|2007|p=357}}). {{IPA|/ɛʉ/}} shows considerable allophonic variation.{{sfnp|Watson|2007|p=358}}]]
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+ Vowels of Scouse{{sfnp|Watson|2007|p=357}}
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | [[Front vowel|Front]]
! colspan="2" | [[Central vowel|Central]]
! colspan="2" | [[Back vowel|Back]]
|- class="small"
! [[Short vowel|Short]]
! [[Long vowel|Long]]
! Short
! Long
! Short
! Long
|-
! [[Close vowel|Close]]
| {{IPA link|ɪ}}
| {{IPA link|iː}}
|
| {{IPA link|ʉː}}
| {{IPA link|ʊ}}
|
|-
! [[Mid vowel|Mid]]
| {{IPA link|ɛ}}
| {{IPA link|eː}}
| {{IPA link|ə}}
|
|
| {{IPA link|ɔ̝|ɔː}}
|-
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
| {{IPA link|a}}
|
|
|
| {{IPA link|ɒ}}
| {{IPA link|ɑː}}
|-
! [[Diphthong]]s
| colspan="6" | {{IPA|eɪ &nbsp; aɪ &nbsp; ɔɪ &nbsp; aʊ &nbsp; ɛʉ &nbsp; iɛ}}
|}

* The [[square–nurse merger]] in Scouse renders minimal pairs such as ''fair''-''fur'', ''stare''-''stir'' and ''pair''-''purr'' homophonous as {{IPA|/feː/}}, {{IPA|/steː/}} and {{IPA|/peː/}}. The actual realization is variable, but the current mainstream pronunciation is close to {{IPAblink|eː}}, as shown on the vowel chart. Other allophones include {{IPAblink|ɛː}}, {{IPAblink|ɪː}}, {{IPAblink|ɘː}}, {{IPAblink|əː}} and {{IPAblink|ɜː}} as well as the rounded {{IPAblink|œː}} and {{IPAblink|ɵː}}, with all but {{IPAblink|ɪː}} being more conservative than {{IPAblink|eː}}. In addition to those, there also exist the diphthongal variants {{IPA|[ɛə]}} and {{IPA|[əɛ]}}. Middle class speakers may differentiate {{sc2|SQUARE}} from {{sc2|NURSE}} by using the front {{IPAblink|ɛː}} for the former (so that ''fair'', ''stare'' and ''pair'' are rendered {{IPA|[fɛː, stɛː, pɛː]}}) and the central {{IPAblink|ɜ̝|ɜː}} for the latter (so that ''fur'', ''stir'' and ''purr'' are rendered {{IPA|[fɜː, stɜː, pɜː]}}), much like in RP.{{sfnp|Watson|2007|p=358}}{{sfnp|Wells|1982|pp=361, 372}}{{sfnp|Roca|Johnson|1999|p=188}}{{sfnp|Beal|2004|p=125}}{{sfnp|Cruttenden|2014|pp=118, 138}}
* As other Northern English varieties, Scouse lacks the [[foot–strut split]], so that words like ''cut'' {{IPA|/kʊt/}}, ''luck'' {{IPA|/lʊk/}} and ''up'' {{IPA|/ʊp/}} have the same {{IPA|/ʊ/}} phoneme as ''bull'' {{IPA|/bʊl/}}, ''foot'' {{IPA|/fʊt/}} and ''put'' {{IPA|/pʊt/}}. Speakers attempting to distinguish between the two typically use a stressed {{IPA|/ə/}} for the former set: {{IPA|/kət, lək, əp/}}, resulting in a Welsh English-like [[strut–schwa merger]]. However, this often leads to hypercorrection, so that ''good luck'' may be pronounced {{IPA|[ˌɡəd ˈɫʊk]}}.{{sfnp|Watson|2007|pp=357–358}}{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2013|p=185}}
* Words such as ''grass'', ''path'' and ''sample'' have a short {{IPA|/a/}}, rather than the long {{IPA|/ɑː/}} due to the lack of the [[trap–bath split]]: {{IPA|/ɡɹas, pat̪, ˈsampəl/}}. As with the foot–strut split, an attempt to use {{IPA|/ɑː/}} in an RP-like way may lead to hypercorrections such as {{IPA|[ˌbɫɑːk ˈkʰasɫ]}} (RP {{IPA|[ˌblak ˈkʰɑːsɫ]}}).{{sfnp|Watson|2007|pp=357–358}}{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2013|p=185}}
* The words ''book'', ''cook'' and ''look'' are typically pronounced with the vowel of {{sc2|GOOSE}} rather than that of {{sc2|FOOT}}, which is true within other parts of Northern England and the Midlands. This causes minimal pairs such as ''book'' and ''buck'', ''cook'' and ''cuck'', and ''look'' and ''luck''. The use of a long {{IPA|/ʉː/}} in such words is more often used in working-class accents; recently, however, this feature has been becoming more recessive, being found less often among younger people.{{sfnp|Watson|2007|p=358}}
* The [[weak vowel merger]] is in transition, making some instances of unstressed {{IPA|/ɪ/}} merge with {{IPA|/ə/}}, so that ''eleven'' {{IPA|/ɪˈlɛvən/}} and ''orange'' {{IPA|/ˈɒrɪndʒ/}} are pronounced {{IPA|[əˈɫɛvən]}} and {{IPA|[ˈɒɾəndʒ]}}.{{sfnp|Wells|1982|p=373}} The typical g-dropped variant of ''ing'' is {{IPA|[ən]}}, which is subject to syllabic consonant formation (as in ''disputing'' {{IPA|[dɪsˈpjʉːʔn̩]}}). As in [[Geordie]], {{IPAblink|ɪ}} for standard {{IPAblink|ə}} may also occur, as in ''maggot'' {{IPA|[ˈmaɡɪθ̠]}}.{{sfnp|Watson|2007|pp=352–353}}
* In final position, {{IPA|/iː, ʉː/}} tend to be fronting/backing diphthongs with central onsets {{IPA|[ɨ̞i, ɨ̞u]}}. Sometimes this also happens before {{IPA|/l/}} in words such as ''school'' {{IPA|[skɨ̞uɫ]}}.{{sfnp|Wells|1982|p=372}}
* The {{sc2|HAPPY}} vowel is tense {{IPAblink|i}} and is best analysed as belonging to the {{IPA|/iː/}} phoneme.{{sfnp|Wells|1982|p=373}}{{sfnp|Cruttenden|2014|pp=92, 115}}
* There is not a full agreement on the phonetic realisation of {{IPA|/ɑː/}}:
** According to {{Harvcoltxt|Watson|2007}}, it is back {{IPAblink|ɑː}}, with front {{IPAblink|aː}} being a common realisation for some speakers.{{sfnp|Watson|2007|p=358}}
** According to {{Harvcoltxt|Collins|Mees|2013}} and {{Harvcoltxt|Cruttenden|2014}}, it is typically front {{IPAblink|aː}}.{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2013|p=185}}{{sfnp|Cruttenden|2014|p=125}}
* The {{sc2|GOOSE}} vowel  is typically central {{IPAblink|ʉː}}, and it may be even fronted to {{IPAblink|yː}} so that it becomes the rounded counterpart of {{IPA|/iː/}}.{{sfnp|Watson|2007|p=358}}
* The {{sc2|NEAR}} vowel {{IPA|/iɛ/}} typically has a front second element {{IPAblink|ɛ}}.{{sfnp|Watson|2007|p=357}}
* The {{sc2|FACE}} vowel {{IPA|/eɪ/}} is typically diphthongal {{IPA|[eɪ]}}, rather than being a monophthong {{IPAblink|eː}} that is commonly found in other Northern English accents.{{sfnp|Beal|2004|p=123}}
* The {{sc2|GOAT}} vowel {{IPA|/ɛʉ/}} has a considerable allophonic variation. Its starting point can be open-mid front {{IPAblink|ɛ}}, close-mid front {{IPAblink|e}} or mid central {{IPAblink|ə}} (similarly to the {{sc2|NURSE}} vowel), whereas its ending point varies between fairly close central {{IPAblink|ʉ̞}} and a more back {{IPAblink|ʊ}}. The most typical realisation is {{IPA|[ɛʉ̞]}}, but {{IPA|[ɛʊ, eʉ̞, eʊ, əʉ̞]}} and an RP-like {{IPA|[əʊ]}} are also possible.{{sfnp|Watson|2007|p=358}} John Wells also lists {{IPA|[oʊ]}} and {{IPA|[ɔʊ]}}, which are more common in Midland English and younger Northern English. To him, variants with central or front onsets sound 'incongruously "posh{{" '}} in combination with other broad Scouse vowels.{{sfnp|Wells|1982|p=372}}
* The {{sc2|PRICE}} vowel {{IPA|/aɪ/}} can be monophthongised to {{IPAblink|äː}} in certain environments.{{sfnp|Watson|2007|p=358}} According to {{Harvcoltxt|Wells|1982}} and {{Harvcoltxt|Watson|2007}}, the diphthongal realisation is quite close to the conservative RP norm ({{IPA|[aɪ]}}),{{sfnp|Watson|2007|p=357}}{{sfnp|Wells|1982|pp=372–373}} but according to {{Harvcoltxt|Collins|Mees|2013}} it has a rather back starting point ({{IPA|[ɑɪ]}}).{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2013|p=185}}
* The {{sc2|MOUTH}} vowel {{IPA|/aʊ/}} is {{IPA|[aʊ]}}, close to the RP norm.{{sfnp|Watson|2007|p=357}}{{sfnp|Wells|1982|pp=372–373}}

===Consonants===
* [[H-dropping]], as in many other varieties of Northern England English. This renders ''hear'' {{IPA|/hiɛ/}}, ''high'' {{IPA|/haɪ/}} and ''hold'' {{IPA|/hɛʉld/}} variably homophonous with ''ear'' {{IPA|/iɛ/}}, ''eye'' {{IPA|/aɪ/}} and ''old'' {{IPA|/ɛʉld/}}.{{sfnp|Watson|2007|p=352}}
* [[NG-coalescence]] is not present as with other Northern English accents, for instance realising ''along'' as {{IPA|[əˈlɒŋɡ]}}.{{sfnp|Watson|2007|p=352}}
* Like many other accents around the world, [[Phonological history of English consonant clusters#G-dropping|G-dropping]] also occurs, with {{IPA|[ən]}} being the most common realization of the sequence.{{sfnp|Watson|2007|p=352}}
*{{IPA|/t/}} has several allophones depending on environment:
** Intervocalically (including at word boundaries), it is typically pronounced {{IPAblink|ɹ}} or {{IPAblink|ɾ}}, which is found in several other Northern English varieties.{{sfnp|Watson|2007|p=353}}
**Pre-pausally, it may be [[debuccalised]] to {{IPAblink|h}}, with older speakers only doing this in function words with short vowels: ''it'', ''lot'', ''not'', ''that'', ''what'' pronounced {{IPA|[ɪh, lɒh, nɒh, d̪ah, wɒh]}} respectively. On the other hand, younger speakers may further debuccalise in polysyllabic words in unstressed syllables, hence ''aggregate'' {{IPA|[ˈaɡɾɪɡɪh]}}.{{sfnp|Watson|2007|p=353}} This is not differentiated from {{IPAblink|θ̠}} in this article.
**[[T-glottalisation]] is rarer than in the rest of England, with {{IPAblink|ʔ}} occurring before {{IPA|/l/}} and [[syllabic consonant]]s.{{sfnp|Watson|2007|p=353}}
** [[Affricate consonant|Affrication]] of {{IPA|/t/}} as {{IPAblink|ts}} word-initially and [[lenition]] to {{IPAblink|θ̠}} intervocalically and word-finally. The latter type of allophony does not lead to a loss of contrast with {{IPA|/s/}} as the articulation is different; in addition, {{IPA|/s/}} is also longer. For female speakers, the fricative allophone of {{IPA|/t/}} is not necessarily {{IPAblink|θ̠}} but rather a complex sequence {{IPA|[hsh]}}, so that ''out'' is pronounced {{IPA|[aʊhsh]}}, rather than {{IPA|[aʊθ̠]}}.{{sfnp|Watson|2007|pp=353, 355}} In this article, the difference is not transcribed and {{angbr IPA|θ̠}} is used for the latter two allophones.
* {{IPA|/k/}} can turn into an affricate or a [[fricative]], determined mostly by the quality of the preceding vowel.{{sfnp|Watson|2007|p=353}} If fricative, a [[Palatal consonant|palatal]], [[Velar consonant|velar]] or [[uvular]] articulation ({{IPA|[{{IPAplink|ç}}, {{IPAplink|x}}, {{IPAplink|χ}}]}} respectively) is realised. This is seen distinctively with words like ''book'' and ''clock''.{{sfnp|Watson|2007|p=353}}{{sfnp|Wells|1982|pp=372–373}}
* {{IPA|/p/}} can be fricatised to {{IPAblink|ɸ}}, albeit rarely.{{sfnp|Watson|2007|p=353}}
* As with other varieties of English, the voiceless plosives {{IPA|/p, t, k/}} are aspirated word-initially, except when {{IPA|/s/}} precedes in the same syllable. It can also occur word- and utterance-finally, with potential [[preaspirated]] pronunciations {{IPA|[ʰp, ʰt, ʰk]}} (which is often perceived as [[Glottalic consonant|glottal]] noise or as oral friction produced in the same environment as the stop) for utterance-final environments, primarily found in female speakers.{{sfnp|Watson|2007|p=352}}
* The voiced plosives {{IPA|/b, d, ɡ/}} are also fricatised, with {{IPA|/d/}} particularly being lenited to the same extent as {{IPA|/t/}}, although the fricative allophone is frequently devoiced.{{sfnp|Watson|2007|p=357}}
* Under Irish influence, the dental stops {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|t̪}}, {{IPAplink|d̪}}]}} are often used instead of the standard dental fricatives {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|θ}}, {{IPAplink|ð}}]}}, leading to a phonemic distinction between dental and alveolar stops. The fricative forms are also found, whereas [[th-fronting]] is not as common.{{sfnp|Watson|2007|p=352}}
* The accent is [[non-rhotic]], meaning {{IPA|/r/}} is not pronounced unless followed by a vowel. When it is pronounced, it is typically realised as a tap {{IPAblink|ɾ}} between vowels (as in ''mirror'' {{IPA|[ˈmɪɾə]}}) and sometimes in initial clusters as well (as in ''breath'' {{IPA|[bɾɛt̪]}}) and as an approximant {{IPAblink|ɹ}} otherwise, a variant sometimes also used in lieu of the tap.{{sfnp|Watson|2007|p=352}}

==International recognition==
{{Category see also|People from Liverpool}}
Scouse is highly distinguishable from other English dialects. Because of this international recognition, Keith Szlamp made a request to [[IANA]] on 16 September 1996 to make it a recognised Internet dialect.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.iana.org/assignments/lang-tags/en-scouse|title=LANGUAGE TAG REGISTRATION FORM|work=IANA.org|date=25 May 2000|access-date=25 November 2015}}</ref> After citing a number of references,<ref>{{cite book|first1=Frank|last1=Shaw|first2=Fritz|last2=Spiegl|first3=Stan|last3=Kelly|title=Lern Yerself Scouse|date=September 1966|volume=1: How to Talk Proper in Liverpool|publisher=Scouse Press|isbn=978-0901367013}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first1=Linacre|last1=Lane|first2=Fritz|last2=Spiegl|title=Lern Yerself Scouse|date=June 1966|volume=2: The ABZ of Scouse|publisher=Scouse Press|isbn=978-0901367037}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Brian|last=Minard|title=Lern Yerself Scouse|date=July 1972|volume=3: Wersia Sensa Yuma?|publisher=Scouse Press|isbn=978-0901367044}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first1=Fritz|last1=Spiegl|first2=Ken|last2=Allen|title=Lern Yerself Scouse|date=December 1989|volume=4: The Language of Laura Norder|publisher=Scouse Press|isbn=978-0901367310}}</ref><ref name=":2">Szlamp, K.: [http://www.scouser.com/define/ The definition of the word 'Scouser'] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050714083955/http://www.scouser.com/define/ |date=14 July 2005 }}, ''Oxford English Dictionary''</ref> the application was accepted on 25 May 2000 and now allows Internet documents that use the dialect to be categorised as Scouse by using the language tag "en-Scouse".

Scouse has also become well-known globally as the accent of [[the Beatles]].<ref name="Beatles-change-Scouse">{{cite web|url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/story?id=81451&page=1|title=CLEAN AIR CLEANING UP OLD BEATLES ACCENT|work=abcnews.go.com|date=23 Feb 2002|access-date=29 December 2017}}</ref> While the members of the band are famously from Liverpool,<ref>{{AllMusic|id=mn0000754032|first=Richie|last=Unterberger|access-date=5 July 2013}}</ref> their accents have more in common with the older Lancashire-like Liverpool dialect found in the southern suburbs; the accent has evolved into Scouse since the 1960s.

The four Gospels of the [[New Testament]] have been published as ''The Gospels in Scouse''. This was translated by Dick Williams and Frank Shaw.<ref>Williams, Dick and Frank Shaw. ''The Gospels in Scouse''. The White Lion Publishers; Revised edition.</ref>

==See also==
Other [[northern England English|northern English dialects]] include:
*[[Cumbrian]] (Cumbria)
*[[Geordie]] (Newcastle)
*[[Lancashire dialect and accent|Lanky]] (Lancashire)
*[[Mackem]] (Sunderland)
*[[Manchester dialect|Mancunian]] (Manchester)
*[[Pitmatic]] (Durham and Northumberland)
*[[Yorkshire dialect|Tyke]] (Yorkshire)

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Bibliography==
{{refbegin}}
* {{citation
|last=Beal
|first=Joan
|editor-last=Schneider
|editor-first=Edgar W.
|editor2-last=Burridge
|editor2-first=Kate
|editor3-last=Kortmann
|editor3-first=Bernd
|editor4-last=Mesthrie
|editor4-first=Rajend
|editor5-last=Upton
|editor5-first=Clive
|year=2004
|title=A handbook of varieties of English
|chapter=English dialects in the North of England: phonology
|volume=1: Phonology
|publisher=Mouton de Gruyter
|pages=113–133
|isbn=3-11-017532-0
}}
* {{citation
|last1=Collins
|first1=Beverley
|last2=Mees
|first2=Inger M.
|year=2013
|orig-year=First published 2003
|title=Practical Phonetics and Phonology: A Resource Book for Students
|edition=3rd
|publisher=Routledge
|isbn=978-0-415-50650-2
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=faVJTQIw9eQC
}}
* {{citation
|last=Cruttenden
|first=Alan
|year=2014
|title=Gimson's Pronunciation of English
|publisher=Routledge
|edition=8th
|isbn=9781444183092
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M2nMAgAAQBAJ
}}
* {{citation
|last1=Roca
|first1=Iggy 
|last2=Johnson
|first2=Wyn
|year=1999
|title=A Course in Phonology
|publisher=Blackwell Publishing
}}
* {{citation
|last=Watson
|first=Kevin
|year=2007
|title=Liverpool English
|journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association
|volume=37
|issue=3
|pages=351–360
|url=http://eprints.lancs.ac.uk/4011/1/download2.pdf?origin=publication_detail
|doi=10.1017/s0025100307003180
|s2cid=232345844
|doi-access=free
}}
* {{Accents of English|hide1=y|hide3=y|mode=cs2}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
* {{citation
|last=Black
|first=William
|year=2005
|title=The Land that Thyme Forgot
|publisher=Bantam
|isbn=0-593-05362-1
|page=348
}}
* {{citation
|last=Tony
|first=Crowley
|year=2012
|title=Scouse: A Social and Cultural History
|publisher=Liverpool University Press
|isbn=978-1846318399
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IsZDCe_rINUC
}}
* {{citation
|last=Honeybone
|first=Patrick
|year=2001
|title=Lenition inhibition in Liverpool English
|journal=English Language and Linguistics
|volume=5
|issue=2
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
|pages=213–249
|doi=10.1017/S1360674301000223
|s2cid=91182225
}}
* {{citation
|last1=Marotta
|first1=Giovanna
|last2=Barth
|first2=Marlen
|year=2005
|title=Acoustic and sociolingustic aspects of lenition in Liverpool English
|journal=Studi Linguistici e Filologici Online
|volume=3
|issue=2
|pages=377–413
|url=http://www.humnet.unipi.it/slifo/2005vol2/Marotta-Barth3.2.pdf
|access-date=22 March 2006
|archive-date=25 February 2021
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225010914/http://www.humnet.unipi.it/slifo/2005vol2/Marotta-Barth3.2.pdf
|url-status=dead
}}
* {{citation
|last1=Shaw
|first1=Frank
|last2=Kelly-Bootle
|first2=Stan
|author2-link=Stan Kelly-Bootle
|editor-last=Spiegl
|editor-first=Fritz
|editor-link=Fritz Spiegl
|year=1966
|title=How to Talk Proper in Liverpool (Lern Yerself Scouse)
|publisher=Scouse Press
|location=Liverpool
|isbn=0-901367-01-X
}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
*[http://www.bl.uk/learning/langlit/sounds/text-only/england/birkenhead/ Sounds Familiar: Birkenhead (Scouse)] — Listen to examples of Scouse and other regional accents and dialects of the UK on the British Library's 'Sounds Familiar' website
*[http://www.soundcomparisons.com/Eng/Direct/Englishes/SglLgLiverpoolTyp.htm 'Hover & Hear' Scouse pronunciations] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150406003143/http://www.soundcomparisons.com/Eng/Direct/Englishes/SglLgLiverpoolTyp.htm |date=6 April 2015 }}, and compare with other accents from the UK and around the world
*[http://sounds.bl.uk/Sound-Maps/Accents-and-Dialects/ Sound map – Accents & dialects] in [http://sounds.bl.uk/Accents-and-dialects Accents & Dialects], British Library.
*[https://www.bbc.co.uk/liverpool/localhistory/journey/scouse/talk/scouse.shtml BBC – Liverpool Local History – Learn to speak Scouse!]
*''A. B. Z. of Scouse (Lern Yerself Scouse)'' ({{ISBN|0-901367-03-6}})
*[https://www.iana.org/assignments/lang-tags/en-scouse IANA registration form for the <code>en-scouse</code> tag]
*IETF RFC 4646 — Tags for Identifying Languages (2006)
*[http://visitliverpool.com/ Visit Liverpool] — The official tourist board website for Liverpool
*[http://www.ascouserincalifornia.com A Scouser in California] — A syndicated on-air segment that airs on [http://www.boltonfm.com Bolton FM Radio] during Kev Gurney's show (7{{nbsp}}pm to 10{{nbsp}}pm – Saturdays) and [http://www.magic999.co.uk/sectional.asp?id=35266 Magic 999] during Roy Basnett's Breakfast (6{{nbsp}}am to 10{{nbsp}}am – Monday to Friday)
*[https://abcnews.go.com/International/story?id=81451&page=1 Clean Air Cleaning Up Old Beatles Accent], ABC News

{{Liverpool related articles}}
{{English dialects by continent}}

[[Category:English language in England]]
[[Category:Languages of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Liverpool]]
[[Category:British regional nicknames]]
[[Category:City colloquials]]