View source for Science and technology in Israel

{{Short description|National research, development and proficience of Israel}}
{{Undue weight|date=April 2024|to=certain companies and programmes}}
[[File:Image-Weizmann Institute edit.jpg|thumb|353x353px|[[Koffler accelerator|Koffler particle accelerator]], [[Weizmann Institute of Science|Weizmann institute]] ]]
'''Science and technology in Israel''' is one of the country's most developed sectors. [[Israel]] spent 4.3% of its gross domestic product (GDP) on civil [[research and development]] in 2015, the [[List of countries by research and development spending|highest ratio in the world]].<ref name=":0a">{{cite web|url=https://data.oecd.org/rd/gross-domestic-spending-on-r-d.htm|title=Research and development (R&D) - Gross domestic spending on R&D - OECD Data|website=data.oecd.org|access-date=2016-02-10}}</ref> In 2019, Israel was ranked the world's fifth most innovative country by the [[Bloomberg Innovation Index]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-01-22/germany-nearly-catches-korea-as-innovation-champ-u-s-rebounds|title=These Are the World's Most Innovative Countries|website=Bloomberg.com|date=22 January 2019|access-date=24 January 2019}}</ref> It ranks thirteenth in the world for scientific output as measured by the number of [[scientific publication]]s per million citizens.<ref>{{cite news |title=Israel's scientific fall from grace |first=Yarden |last=Skop |url=http://www.haaretz.com/news/national/.premium-1.544767 |newspaper=Haaretz |date=2 September 2013 |access-date=15 January 2015}}</ref> In 2014, Israel's share of scientific articles published worldwide (0.9%) was nine times higher than its share of the global population (0.1%).<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/news/israel-ranks-fourth-in-the-world-in-scientific-activity-study-finds-1.4034|title=Israel ranks fourth in the world in scientific activity, study finds|last=Ilani|first=Ofri|date=17 November 2009|newspaper=Haaretz|access-date=14 October 2012}}</ref><ref name=":0a" /> 

Israel counts 140 scientists and technicians per 10,000 employees, one of the highest ratios in the world. In comparison, there are 85 per 10,000 in the [[United States]] and 83 per 10,000 in [[Japan]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sun.inc.hse.ru/sites/default/files/Shteinbuk.pdf|title=R&D and Innovation as a Growth Engine|last=Shteinbuk|first=Eduard|date=22 July 2011|publisher=National Research University – Higher School of Economics|access-date=11 May 2013}}</ref> In 2012, Israel counted 8,337 full-time equivalent researchers per million inhabitants.<ref name=":0a" /> This compares with 3,984 in the US, 6,533 in the Republic of South Korea and 5,195 in Japan. Israel's high technology industry has benefited from both the country's highly educated and technologically skilled workforce coupled with the strong presence of foreign high-tech firms and sophisticated research centres.<ref name="Business Opportunities By Sector">{{cite web|url=http://embassies.gov.il/san-francisco/AboutIsrael/Economy/Pages/Business-Opportunities-By-Sector.aspx|title=Business Opportunities By Sector|publisher=Israeli Embassy|access-date=11 November 2014}}</ref><ref name=":0a" />

Israel is home to major companies in the high-tech industry and has one of the world's most [[Technological literacy|technologically literate]] populations.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-14629611 |title=Israel profile – Media |work=BBC News |date=31 August 2011 |publisher=British Broadcasting Corporation |access-date=14 October 2012}}</ref> In 1998, [[Tel Aviv]] was named by ''[[Newsweek]]'' as one of the ten most technologically influential cities in the world.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Economy/telaviv.html |title=Tel Aviv One of The World's Top High-Tech Centers |work=Jewish Virtual Library |publisher=American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise |access-date=14 October 2012 |archive-date=14 July 2002 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020714002005/http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Economy/telaviv.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Since 2000, Israel has been a member of [[EUREKA]], the pan-European research and development funding and coordination organization, and held the rotating chairmanship of the organization for 2010–2011.<ref>{{cite news |title=Israel's cleantech mega-plan |first=Amiram |last=Barkat |url=http://www.globes.co.il/serveen/globes/docview.asp?did=1000621360 |newspaper=Globes |date=7 February 2011 |access-date=10 October 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eurekanetwork.org/chairmanship |title=EUREKA Israeli Chairmanship |access-date=16 February 2011 |archive-date=18 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518073805/http://www.eurekanetwork.org/chairmanship |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 2010, American journalist [[David Kaufman (journalist)|David Kaufman]] wrote that [[Startup Village, Yokneam|the high-tech area of Yokneam]], Israel, has the "world's largest concentration of aesthetics-technology companies".<ref>{{cite news|title=Israel's Silicon Valley of Beauty Technology|url=http://content.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,1994439,00.html|access-date=24 April 2014|newspaper=Time Magazine (online)|date=8 June 2010|author=David|author2=Kaufman}}</ref> [[Google]] Chairman [[Eric Schmidt]] complimented the country during a visit there, saying that “Israel has the most important high-tech center in the world after the US.”<ref>{{cite news |title=Top 10 Non-Jews Positively Influencing the Jewish Future 2012 |url=http://www.algemeiner.com/2012/08/09/top-10-non-jews-positively-influencing-the-jewish-future-2012/|work= [[Algemeiner]]|date=9 August 2012  |access-date=20 August 2013}}</ref> Israel was ranked 15th in the [[Global Innovation Index]] in 2024,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.wipo.int/web-publications/global-innovation-index-2024/en/|title=Global Innovation Index 2024. Unlocking the Promise of Social Entrepreneurship|access-date=2024-10-22|author=[[World Intellectual Property Organization]]|year=2024|isbn=978-92-805-3681-2|doi= 10.34667/tind.50062|website=www.wipo.int|location=Geneva|page=18}}</ref> down from tenth in 2019.<ref>{{cite report |editor1=Soumitra Dutta |editor2=Bruno Lanvin |editor3=Sacha Wunsch-Vincent|title=Global Innovation Index 2019 |edition=12th |page=xx |website=www.wipo.int |url=https://www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/wipo_pub_gii_2019.pdf |access-date=2 September 2021 |publisher=World Intellectual Property Organization |isbn=979-10-95870-14-2 |language=en}} [https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2019/index.html Overview].</ref> The Tel Aviv region was ranked the 4th global tech ecosystem in the world.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Wrobel |first=Sharon |date=10 June 2024 |title=Tel Aviv moves up to 4th place in annual ranking of global tech ecosystems |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/tel-aviv-moves-up-to-4th-place-in-annual-ranking-of-global-tech-ecosystems/ |work=[[The Times of Israel]]}}</ref>
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== History ==
Jewish settlement in Israel was motivated by both ideology and flight from persecution.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cjpme.org/fs_181|title=Jewish Immigration to Historical Palestine|website=www.cjpme.org/|access-date=26 December 2018}}</ref> Return to the homeland was an important aspect of Jewish immigration and was perceived by many as a return to the soil. To establish the rural villages that formed the core of Zionist ideology and produce self-supporting Jewish farmers, agronomic experiments were conducted.<ref>''The Land that Became Israel: Studies in Historical Geography'', edited by Ruth Kark, Yale University Press & Magnes Press, 1989, "Traditional and modern rural settlement types in Eretz-Israel in the modern era," Yossi Ben Artzi, pp. 141–144.</ref> The foundations of agricultural research in Israel were laid by the teachers and graduates of the [[Mikveh Yisrael|Mikveh Yisrael School]], the country's first agricultural school, established by the [[Alliance Israelite Universelle]]  in 1870.<ref>''Rothschild and Early Jewish Colonization in Palestine'', Ran Aaronsohn, Rowman & Littlefield, Magnes Press, 2000, pp.134–145.</ref> On a field trip to [[Mount Hermon]] in 1906, the agronomist [[Aaron Aaronsohn]] discovered [[Triticum dicoccoides]], or [[emmer]] [[wheat]], believed to be the "mother of all wheat."<ref>{{cite journal |date=October 2000 |title=Molecular Genetic Maps in Wild Emmer Wheat, Triticum dicoccoides: Genome-Wide Coverage, Massive Negative Interference, and Putative Quasi-Linkage |journal=Genome Research |volume=10 |issue=10 |pages=1509–1531 |publisher=Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press |doi=10.1101/gr.150300 |last1=Peng |first1=J. |pmid=11042150 |last2=Korol |first2=AB |last3=Fahima |first3=T |last4=Röder |first4=MS |last5=Ronin |first5=YI |last6=Li |first6=YC |last7=Nevo |first7=E |pmc=310947}}</ref> In 1909, he founded an agricultural research station in [[Atlit (modern town)|Atlit]] where he built up an extensive library and collected geological and botanical samples.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.zionism-israel.com/bio/biography_aaron_aronson.htm|title=Online Biography of Aharon Ahronson - Zionism and Israel - Biographies|website=www.Zionism-Israel.com|access-date=16 May 2017}}</ref> The Agricultural Station, founded in [[Rehovot]] in 1921, engaged in soil research and other aspects of farming in the country's difficult climatic conditions.<ref>{{cite journal|title=INFLUENCE OF EXCHANGEABLE CATIONS ON THE AVAILABILITY OF PHO... : Soil Science|issue=5|pages=357|date=May 1939|journal=Soil Science|volume=47|last1=Ravikovitch|first1=S.|doi=10.1097/00010694-193905000-00003|s2cid=96028661}}</ref> This station, which became the Agricultural Research Organization (ARO), is now Israel's major institution of agricultural research and development.

[[File:Einstein technion.jpg|thumb|left|[[Albert Einstein]] at the [[Technion - Israel Institute of Technology|Technion]] in 1923]]
In 1912, the first cornerstone of the [[Technion - Israel Institute of Technology]] was laid at a festive ceremony in Haifa, which was then occupied by the [[Ottoman Empire]]. The Technion would become a unique university worldwide in its claim to precede and create a nation. As Jews were often barred from technical education in Europe,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://pard.technion.ac.il/history/history.html |title=Technion History |publisher=Technion – Israel Institute of Technology |access-date=11 October 2012 |archive-date=31 January 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090131085605/http://pard.technion.ac.il/history/History.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> the Technion claims to have brought the skills needed to build a modern state.<ref>{{cite video |year=2011 |title=Israel – One Hundred Years of Science and Technology |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GzilbrH3CcA  |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211212/GzilbrH3CcA| archive-date=2021-12-12 |url-status=live|publisher=Technion – Israel Institute of Technology |location=Israel |access-date=11 October 2012}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

Established before World War I, the Hebrew Health Station in Jerusalem, founded  by [[Nathan Straus]] engaged in medical and public health research, operating departments for public hygiene, eye diseases and bacteriology.<ref name=shilony>{{cite web |url=http://web.bgu.ac.il/NR/rdonlyres/4F4A3341-CEF6-4342-81D8-41CDEBD8BF47/0/Newsletter23.pdf |title=The Israeli Center for Third Sector Research Celebrates its First Decade |date=July 2006 |work=Israeli Center for Third sector Research Newsletter |publisher=Ben-Gurion University of the Negev |access-date=14 October 2012}}</ref> The station manufactured vaccines against typhus and cholera, and developed methods of pest control to eliminate field mice. The Pasteur Institute affiliated with the station developed a rabies vaccine.<ref name=shilony/> Departments for microbiology, biochemistry, bacteriology, and hygiene were opened at the [[Hebrew University of Jerusalem]], founded on [[Mount Scopus]] in 1925. In 1936, Jewish workers in the center of the country donated two-days' pay toward the establishment of the "Hospital of Judea and Sharon," later renamed [[Rabin Medical Center|Beilinson Hospital]]. In 1938, Beilinson established the country's first [[blood bank]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://hospitals.clalit.co.il/Hospitals/Rabin/en-us/About/Pages/RabinMedicalCenter-HistoryandMilestones.aspx |title=Rabin Medical Center - History and Milestones |publisher=Clalit Health Care Services |access-date=14 May 2013}}</ref> The Rothschild-Hadassah University Hospital on Mount Scopus opened in 1939 and was the first teaching hospital and medical center in the country. Since renamed the [[Hadassah Medical Center]], it has become a leader in medical research.<ref name=history>{{cite web |url=http://zionism-israel.com/dic/Hadassah.htm |title=Hadassah |publisher=Zionism & Israel |access-date=14 October 2012}}</ref>

[[File:Weizmann Automatic Calculator.jpg|thumb|[[WEIZAC]] in 1954, the first modern [[computer]] in the Middle East]]
Industrial research began at the [[Technion - Israel Institute of Technology]], was also initiated at the Daniel Sieff Research Center (later the [[Weizmann Institute of Science]]), established in 1934 in [[Rehovot]]. The [[Dead Sea]] Laboratories opened in the 1930s. The first modern [[electronic computer]] in Israel and the Middle East, and one of the first large-scale, [[stored program|stored-program]], electronic computers in the world, called [[WEIZAC]], was built at the [[Weizmann Institute]] during 1954–1955, based on the [[Institute for Advanced Study]] (IAS) architecture developed by [[John von Neumann]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://wis-wander.weizmann.ac.il/computer-prioneers |title=Computer Studies |work=Weizmann Wonder Wander |publisher=Weizmann Institute of Science |access-date=14 October 2012}}</ref> WEIZAC has been recognized by the [[IEEE]] as a milestone in the history of electrical engineering and computing.<ref>Bogdanowicz, Anna (5 December 2006) [https://web.archive.org/web/20070715083222/http://www.ieee.org/portal/site/tionline/menuitem.130a3558587d56e8fb2275875bac26c8/index.jsp?&pName=institute_level1_article&TheCat=1008&article=tionline/legacy/inst2006/dec06/history.xml& ''Middle East's First Computer Named History Milestone'']. [[IEEE]]. Retrieved 2010-03-25</ref> [[IBM Israel]], registered on June 8, 1950, was the country's first high-tech firm. The company, located on [[Allenby Street]] in [[Tel Aviv]], assembled and repaired punch card machines, sorting machines and tabulators. In 1956, a local plant was opened to produce punch cards, and a year later, the first service center opened, offering computerized data processing services.<ref>{{cite news |title=When Big Blue was a start-up |first=Guy |last=Grimland |url=http://www.haaretz.com/when-big-blue-was-a-start-up-1.5591 |newspaper=Haaretz |date=22 October 2009 |access-date=14 October 2012}}</ref>

Scientific and technological research in Israel was boosted by the appointment of a [[Israel Innovation Authority|chief scientist for the Industry and Trade Ministry]] at the recommendation of a committee headed by [[Ephraim Katzir]], later [[president of Israel]].<ref name="haaretz.com">{{cite news |title=Letters to Haaretz Books |url=http://www.haaretz.com/news/letters-to-haaretz-books-1.2757 |newspaper=Haaretz |date=5 December 2009 |access-date=14 October 2012}}</ref> The Israeli government provided grants that covered 50–80 percent of the outlay for new start-ups, with no conditions, no shareholding and no participation in management.<ref name="haaretz.com"/> In the early 1980s, [[Control Data Corporation]], a partner in [[Elron Electronic Industries]], formed the country's first [[venture capital]] firm.<ref name="haaretz.com" />

=== Origins of Israeli high-tech industry ===
Israel's high-technology industries are a spin-off of the rapid development of computer science and technology in the 1980s in such places as [[Silicon Valley]] and [[Massachusetts Route 128]] in the US, which ushered in the current high-tech era. Up until that point, Israel's economy had been essentially based on agriculture, mining and secondary sectors such as diamond polishing and manufacturing in textiles, fertilizers and plastics.

The key factor which enabled high-tech industries based on information and communication technologies to take root and flourish in Israel was investment by the defense and aerospace industries, which spawned new technologies and know-how. Israel devoted 17.1% of its GDP to military expenditure in 1988. Even though this share had dropped to 5.8% of GDP by 2016, Israel military spending remains among the highest in the world. For the purposes of comparison, the United States devoted 5.7% of its GDP to military expenditure in 1988 and 3.3% in 2016.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sipri.org/databases/milex|title=Military expenditure databases|website=Stockholm International Peace Research Institute|access-date=17 May 2017}}</ref> This heavy investment in defense and aerospace formed the basis for Israel's high-tech industries in medical devices, electronics, telecommunications, computer software and hardware.

The massive [[Russian immigration to Israel in the 1990s|Russian immigration]] of the 1990s reinforced this phenomenon, doubling the number of engineers and scientists in Israel overnight. Between 1989 and 2006, about 979,000 Russian Jews and their relatives migrated to Israel, which had a population of just 4.5 million in 1989.<ref name=":0a" /> These immigrants were extremely educated and quickly assimilated into Israeli society. More than 55% of them had a high level of education and one of the highest rates globally were engineers, architects, physicians, technicians, and other professionals. This huge immigration boosted the Israeli economy and high-tech sector significantly.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sharaby |first=Linda |date=September 2002 |title=Israel's Economic Growth: Success Without Security |journal=Middle East Review of International Afffairs |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=35}}</ref> 

The purchase of [[Mirabilis (company)|Mirabilis]] in 1998 marked the first big exit of high technology in Israel and caused a rush of Israeli companies as part of the [[Dot-com bubble]].

=== Contemporary high-tech industry in Israel ===
[[File:AstroRad NASA.jpg|thumb|332x332px|Israeli StemRad astronaut anti radiation suit, picture by [[NASA]]]]
Currently, Israel has the world's most research-intensive business sector. In 2018, 4.95% of its GDP was invested in research and technology.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Start-Up Nation: Israel spends most money in the world on R&D - WEF|url=https://www.jpost.com/jpost-tech/start-up-nation-israel-spends-most-money-in-the-world-on-r-and-d-wef-648192|access-date=2022-01-28|website=The Jerusalem Post {{!}} JPost.com|date=5 November 2020 |language=en-US}}</ref> Meanwhile, Israel's technology sector plays a crucial role in the country's economy. In 2021, the Israeli high-technology sector accounted for around 12% of the country's economic output and 10% of its national labour force.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Start-Up Nation: Israel spends most money in the world on R&D - WEF|url=https://www.jpost.com/jpost-tech/start-up-nation-israel-spends-most-money-in-the-world-on-r-and-d-wef-648192|access-date=2022-01-28|website=The Jerusalem Post {{!}} JPost.com|date=5 November 2020 |language=en-US}}</ref>

Competitive grants and tax incentives are the two main public policy instruments in supporting business research and development. Thanks to generous government incentives and the availability of highly trained human capital, Israel has become an attractive location for the research and development centers of leading multinational corporations around the world. The country's national innovation ecosystem relies on both foreign multinationals and large corporate investors in research and development, as well as on start-ups. 

As of 2019, some 530 foreign research centres were currently active in Israel.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Mizroch|first=Amir|title=530 multinationals from 35 countries innovating in Israel|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/startupnationcentral/2019/05/27/530-multinationals-from-35-countries-innovating-in-israel/|access-date=2022-01-28|website=Forbes|language=en}}</ref> Many of these centers are owned by large multinational firms that have acquired Israeli companies, technology and know-how and transformed them through mergers and acquisitions into their own local research facilities. The activity of some research centers even spans more than three decades, such as those of [[Intel]], [[Applied Materials]], [[Motorola]] and [[IBM]].<ref name=":0a" />

In the late 2010s, Israel saw a sharp increase in the number of high-technology startups that achieved '[[Unicorn (finance)|unicorn]] status' (a financing round at a valuation of $1 billion or more): in 2016, Israel had 10 such startups.<ref name=":3">{{Cite news|title=Why tech firms need a PEO to accelerate their growth|work=Procorre|url=https://procorre.global/why-tech-firms-need-a-peo/}}</ref> By 2019, the number had risen to 19.<ref name=":3"/> Be the end of 2021, 74 tech unicorns had emerged from Israel's tech sector - 33 in 2021 alone.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ben-David|first=Ricky|title=33 unicorns and $25b in funding: Israeli tech sector sets new records in 2021|url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/33-unicorns-and-25b-in-funding-israeli-tech-sector-sets-new-records-in-2021/|access-date=2022-01-28|website=www.timesofisrael.com|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Israel going from 'Start-Up Nation' to Scale-Up Nation|url=https://www.jpost.com/israel-news/israel-going-from-start-up-nation-to-scale-up-nation-685447|access-date=2022-01-28|website=The Jerusalem Post {{!}} JPost.com|date=19 November 2021 |language=en-US}}</ref> The growth in the number of unicorn startups in Israel, together with tech startups maturing to become public companies rather being acquired earlier in their lifecycle, has led to the suggestion that Israel has transitioned from 'Startup Nation' to 'Scale-up Nation'.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Israel going from 'Start-Up Nation' to Scale-Up Nation|url=https://www.jpost.com/israel-news/israel-going-from-start-up-nation-to-scale-up-nation-685447|access-date=2022-01-28|website=The Jerusalem Post {{!}} JPost.com|date=19 November 2021 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=partner|first=Michal Seror, Start-Up Nation Central, a Ctech|date=2020-11-10|title=From Startup Nation to Scaleup Nation: Why Tech Communities are the Backbone of Israel's Innovation Ecosystem|url=https://www.calcalistech.com/ctech/articles/0,7340,L-3870591,00.html|access-date=2022-01-28|website=CTECH - www.calcalistech.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=2020-11-29|title=Israel transforms into scale-up nation|language=en|work=Globes|url=https://en.globes.co.il/en/article-israel-transforms-into-scaleup-nation-1001351180|access-date=2022-01-28}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Startup to Scale up: Israeli Entrepreneurs More Than Double Investments, IPOs in 2021|url=https://www.techstars.com/the-line/pov/startup-to-scale-up-israeli-entrepreneurs-more-than-double-investments-ipos|access-date=2022-01-28|website=www.techstars.com|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Press|first=Viva Sarah|title=Israeli entrepreneurs pay it forward as 'scale-up nation' takes shape|url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/israeli-entrepreneurs-pay-it-forward-as-scale-up-nation-takes-shape/|access-date=2022-01-28|website=www.timesofisrael.com|language=en-US}}</ref>

== Higher education policy ==

=== Sixth Higher Education Plan ===
Israel's higher education system is regulated by the Council for Higher Education and its Planning and Budgeting Committee. The Israeli higher education system operates under a multi-year plan agreed upon by the Planning and Budgeting Committee (PBC) and the Ministry of Finance. Each plan determines policy objectives and, accordingly, the budgets to be allocated in order to achieve these objectives.<ref name=":0a" />

The annual government allocation to universities totalled about US$1.75 billion in 2015, providing 50–75% of their operating budgets. Much of the remainder of their operating budget (15–20%) comes from annual student tuition fees, which are uniform at about US$2,750 per year. The ''Sixth Higher Education Plan'' (2011–2016) makes provision for a 30% rise in the Council for Higher Education's budget. The ''Sixth Plan'' changes the budgeting model of the PBC by placing greater emphasis on excellence in research, along with quantitative measures for the number of students. Under this model, 75% of the committee's budget (NIS 7 billion over six years) is being allocated to institutions offering higher education. The ''Sixth Higher Education Plan'' launched the [[Israeli Centres of Research Excellence]] (I-CORE) programme in October 2011. This reflects a renewed interest in funding academic research and constitutes a strong indication of a reversal in government policy.<ref name=":0a" />

=== Israeli Centres of Research Excellence ===
The Israeli Centres of Research Excellence (I-CORE) programme, which dates from 2011, envisions the establishment of cross-institutional clusters of top researchers in specific fields and returning young Israeli scientists from abroad, with each centre being endowed with state-of-the-art research infrastructure. The ''Sixth Higher Education Plan'' invests NIS 300 million over six years in upgrading and renovating academic infrastructure and research facilities.<ref name=":0a" />

I-CORE is run jointly by the Council for Higher Education's Planning and Budgeting Committee and the Israel Science Foundation. By 2015, 16 centres had been established in two waves across a wide spectrum of research areas: six specialize in life sciences and medicine, five in the exact sciences and engineering, three in social sciences and law and two in humanities. Each centre of excellence has been selected via a peer review process conducted by the Israel Science Foundation. By May 2014, around 60 young researchers had been absorbed into these centres, many of whom had previously worked abroad.<ref name=":0a" />

The research topics of each centre are selected through a broad bottom-up process consisting of consultations with the Israeli academic community, in order to ensure that they reflect the genuine priorities and scientific interests of Israeli researchers.<ref name=":0a" />

I-CORE is funded by the Council for Higher Education, the host institutions and strategic business partners, with a total budget of NIS 1.35 billion (US$365 million). The original goal was to set up 30 centres of research excellence in Israel by 2016. However, the establishment of the remaining 14 centres has provisionally been shelved, for lack of sufficient external capital.<ref name=":0a" />

In 2013–2014, the Planning and Budgeting Committee's budget for the entire I-CORE programme amounted to NIS 87.9 million, equivalent to about 1% of the total for higher education that year. This budget appears to be insufficient to create the critical mass of researchers in various academic fields and thus falls short of the programme's objective. The level of government support for the centres of excellence has grown each year since 2011 as new centres have been established and is expected to reach NIS 93.6 million by 2015–2016 before dropping to 33.7 million in 2017–2018. According to the funding model, government support should represent one-third of all funding, another third being funded by the participating universities and the remaining third by donors or investors.<ref name=":0a" />

=== University recruitment targets ===
In the 2012–2013 academic year, there were 4,066 faculty members. The targets fixed by the Planning and Budgeting Committee for faculty recruitment are ambitious: universities are to recruit another 1 600 senior faculty within the six-year period – about half of whom will occupy new positions and half will replace faculty expected to retire. This will constitute a net increase of more than 15% in university faculty. In colleges, another 400 new positions are to be created, entailing a 25% net increase. The new faculty will be hired via the institutions’ regular recruitment channels, some in specific research areas, through the Israeli Centers of Research Excellence program.<ref name=":0a" />

The increase in faculty numbers will also reduce the student-to-faculty ratio, the target being to achieve a ratio of 21.5 university students to every faculty member, compared to 24.3 at present, and 35 students for every faculty member in colleges, compared to 38 at present. This increase in the number of faculty positions, alongside the upgrading of research and teaching infrastructure and the increase in competitive research funds, should help Israel to staunch brain drain by enabling the best Israeli researchers at home and abroad to conduct their academic work in Israel, if they so wish, at institutions offering the highest academic standards.<ref name=":0a" />

The new budgeting scheme described above is mainly concerned with the human and research infrastructure in universities. Most of the physical development (e.g. buildings) and scientific infrastructure (e.g. laboratories and expensive equipment) of universities comes from philanthropic donations, primarily from the American Jewish community (CHE, 2014). This latter source of funding has greatly compensated for the lack of sufficient government funding for universities up until now but it is expected to diminish significantly in the years to come. Unless the government invests more in research infrastructure, Israel's universities will be ill-equipped and insufficiently funded to meet the challenges of the 21st century.<ref name=":0a" />

=== Expanding access to higher education ===
Israel has offered virtually universal access to its universities and academic colleges since the wave of Jewish immigration from the former Soviet Union in the 1990s prompted the establishment of numerous tertiary institutions to absorb the additional demand. However, the Arab and ultra-orthodox minorities still attend university in insufficient numbers. The ''Sixth Higher Education Plan'' places emphasis on encouraging minority groups to enroll in higher education. Two years after the ''Mahar'' program was implemented in late 2012 for the ultra-orthodox population, student enrollment had grown by 1400. Twelve new programs for ultra-orthodox students have since been established, three of them on university campuses. Meanwhile, the Pluralism and Equal Opportunity in Higher Education program addresses the barriers to integration of the Arab minority in the higher education system. Its scope ranges from providing secondary-school guidance through preparation for academic studies to offering students comprehensive support in their first year of study, a stage normally characterized by a high drop-out rate. The program renews the ''Ma’of'' fund supporting outstanding young Arab faculty members. Since the introduction of this program in 1995, the ''Ma’of'' fund has opened tenure track opportunities for nearly 100 Arab lecturers, who act as role models for younger Arab students embarking on their own academic careers.<ref name=":0a" />

== Science, technology and innovation policy ==

=== Policy framework ===
Although Israel does not have an ‘umbrella type’ policy for science, technology and innovation optimizing priorities and allocating resources, it does implement, ''de facto'', an undeclared set of best practices combining bottom-up and top-down processes via government offices, such as those of the [[Israel Innovation Authority|Chief Scientist or the Minister of Science, Technology and Space]], as well as ad hoc organizations like the Telem forum. The procedure for selecting research projects for the Israeli centers for research excellence is one example of this bottom-up process.<ref name=":0a" />

Israel has no specific legislation regulating the transfer of knowledge from the academic sector to the general public and industry. Nevertheless, the Israeli government influences policy formulation by universities and technology transfer by providing incentives and subsidies through programmes such as Magnet and Magneton, as well as through regulation. There were attempts in 2004 and 2005 to introduce bills encouraging the transfer of knowledge and technology for the public benefit but, as these attempts failed, each university has since defined its own policy.<ref name=":0a" />

The Israeli economy is driven by industries based on electronics, computers and communication technologies, the result of over 50 years of investment in the country's defence infrastructure. Israeli defence industries have traditionally focused on electronics, avionics and related systems. The development of these systems has given Israeli high-tech industries a qualitative edge in civilian spin-offs in the software, communications and Internet sectors. However, the next waves of high technologies are expected to emanate from other disciplines, including molecular biology, biotechnology and pharmaceuticals, nanotechnology, material sciences and chemistry, in intimate synergy with information and communication technologies. These disciplines are rooted in the basic research laboratories of universities rather than the defence industries. This poses a dilemma. In the absence of a national policy for universities, let alone for the higher education system as a whole, it is not clear how these institutions will manage to supply the knowledge, skills and human resources needed for these new science-based industries.<ref name=":0a" />

=== Evaluation of science policy instruments ===
The country's various policy instruments are evaluated by the Council for Higher Education, the National Council for Research and Development, [[Israel Innovation Authority|the Office of the Chief Scientist]], the Academy of Sciences and Humanities and the Ministry of Finance. In recent years, the Magnet administration in the Office of the Chief Scientist has initiated several evaluations of its own policy instruments, most of which have been carried out by independent research institutions. One such evaluation was carried out in 2010 by the Samuel Neaman Institute; it concerned the Nofar programme within the Magnet directorate. Nofar tries to bridge basic and applied research, before the commercial potential of a project has caught the eye of industry. The main recommendation was for Nofar to extend programme funding to emerging technological domains beyond biotechnology and nanotechnology. The [[Office of the Chief Scientist (Israel)|Office of the Chief Scientist]] accepted this recommendation and, consequently, decided to fund projects in the fields of [[medical devices]], water and energy technology and multidisciplinary research.<ref name=":0a" />

An additional evaluation was carried out in 2008 by Applied Economics, an economic and management research-based consultancy, on the contribution of the high-tech sector to economic productivity in Israel. It found that the output per worker in companies that received support from the Office of the Chief Scientist was 19% higher than in ‘twin’ companies that had not received this support. The same year, a committee headed by Israel Makov examined the Office of the Chief Scientist's support for research and development in large companies. The committee found economic justification for providing incentives for these companies.<ref name=":0a" />

===  Research funding programmes ===
The Israeli Science Foundation is the main source of research funding in Israel and receives administrative support from the Academy of Sciences and Humanities. The foundation provides competitive grants in three areas: exact sciences and technology; life sciences and medicine; and humanities and social sciences. Complementary funding is provided by binational foundations, such as the [[USA–Israel Binational Science Foundation]] (est. 1972) and the [[German–Israeli Foundation for Scientific Research and Development]] (est. 1986).<ref name=":0a" />

The Ministry of Science, Technology and Space funds thematic research centres and is responsible for international scientific co-operation. The Ministry's National Infrastructure Programme aims to create a critical mass of knowledge in national priority fields and to nurture the younger generation of scientists. Investment in the programme mainly takes the form of research grants, scholarships and knowledge centres. Over 80% of the ministry's budget is channelled towards research in academic institutions and research institutes, as well as towards revamping scientific infrastructure by upgrading existing research facilities and establishing new ones. In 2012, the ministry resolved to invest NIS 120 million over three years in four designated priority areas for research: brain science; supercomputing and cybersecurity; oceanography; and alternative transportation fuels. An expert panel headed by the Chief Scientist in the Ministry of Science, Technology and Space chose these four broad disciplines in the belief that they would be likely to exert the greatest practical impact on Israeli life in the near future.<ref name=":0a" />

The main ongoing programmes managed by the [[Israel Innovation Authority]], Previously known as the Office of the Chief Scientist within the Ministry of the Economy are: the R&D (Research and Development) Fund; Magnet Tracks (est. 1994; Tnufa (est. 2001) and the Technological Incubator Programme (est.1991). Between 2010 and 2014, the Office of the Chief Scientist initiated several new programmes:<ref name=":0a" />
* Grand Challenges Israel (since 2014): an Israeli contribution to the Grand Challenges in Global Health programme, which is dedicated to tackling global health and food security challenges in developing countries; Grand Challenges Israel is offering grants of up to NIS 500 000 at the proof of concept/feasibility study stage.
* Research and development in the field of space technology (2012): encourages research to find technological solutions in various fields.
* Technological Entrepreneurship Incubators (2014): encourages entrepreneurial technology and supports start-up technology companies.
* Magnet – Kamin programme (2014) provides direct support for applied research in academia that has potential for commercial application.
* Cyber – Kidma programme (2014): promotes Israel's cybersecurity industry.
* [[Cleantech]] – [[Renewable Energy]] Technology Centre (2012): supports research through projects involving private–public partnerships in the field of renewable energy.
* Life Sciences Fund (2010): finances the projects of Israeli companies, with emphasis on biopharmaceuticals, established together with the Ministry of Finance and the private sector.
* Biotechnology – Tzatam programme (2011): provides equipment to support research and development in life sciences. The Chief Scientist supports industrial organizations and the PBC provides research institutions with assistance.
* Investment in high-tech industries (2011): encourages financial institutions to invest in knowledge-based industries, through a collaboration between the Office of the Chief Scientist and the Ministry of Finance.
Another source of public research funding is the Forum for National Research and Development Infrastructure (Telem). This voluntary partnership involves the Office of the Chief Scientist of the Ministry of the Economy and the Ministry of Science, Technology and Space, the Planning and Budgeting Committee and the Ministry of Finance. Telem projects focus on establishing infrastructure for research and development in areas that are of common interest to most Telem partners. These projects are financed by the Telem members’ own resources.<ref name=":0a" />

=== Trends in research funding ===
In 2014, Israel topped the world for research &nbsp;intensity, reflecting the importance of research and innovation for the economy. Since 2008, however, Israel's research intensity has weakened somewhat (4.21% of GDP in 2013), even as this ratio has experienced impressive growth in the Republic of Korea (4.15% in 2014), Denmark (3.06% in 2013) and Germany (2.94% in 2013). The OECD average was 2.40% of GDP in 2014. Business expenditure on research and development (BERD) continues to account for ~84% of GERD, or 3.49% of GDP.<ref name=":0a" />

The share of higher education in gross domestic expenditure on research and development (GERD) has decreased since 2003 from 0.69% of GDP to 0.59% of GDP (2013). Despite this drop, Israel ranks 8th among OECD countries for this indicator. The lion's share of GERD (45.6%) in Israel is financed by foreign companies, reflecting the large scale of activity by foreign multinational companies and research centres in the country.<ref name=":0a" />

The share of foreign funding in university-performed research is also quite significant (21.8%). By the end of 2014, Israel had received €875.6 million from the European Union's (EU's) Seventh Framework Programme for Research and Innovation (2007–2013), 70% of which had gone to universities. Its successor, [[Horizon 2020]] (2014–2020), has been endowed with nearly €80 billion in funding, making it the EU's most ambitious research and innovation programme ever. As of February 2015, Israel had received €119.8 million from the Horizon 2020 programme.<ref name=":0a" />

In 2013, more than half (51.5%) of government spending was allocated to university research and an additional 29.9% to the development of industrial technologies. Research expenditure on health and the environment has doubled in absolute terms in the past decade but still accounts for less than 1% of total government GERD. Israel is unique among OECD countries in its distribution of government support by objective. Israel ranks at the bottom in government support of research in health care, environmental quality and infrastructure development.<ref name=":0a" />

There has been insufficient government funding for universities in recent years. University research in Israel is largely grounded in basic research, even though it also engages in applied research and partnerships with industry. Basic research in Israel only accounted for 13% of research expenditure in 2013, compared to 16% in 2006. There has since been an increase in General University Funds and those destined for non-oriented research.<ref name=":0a" />

=== Trends in human resources ===
In 2012, there were 77 282 full-time equivalent researchers in Israel, 82% of whom had acquired an academic education, 10% of whom were practical engineers and technicians and 8% of whom held other qualifications. Eight out of ten (83.8%) were employed in the business sector, 1.1% in the government sector, 14.4% in the higher education sector and 0.7% in non-profit institutions.<ref name=":0a" />

In 2011, 28% of senior academic staff were women, up by 5% over the previous decade (from 25% in 2005). Although the representation of women has increased, it remains very low in engineering (14%), physical sciences (11%), mathematics and computer sciences (10%) relative to education (52%) and paramedical occupations (63%).<ref name=":0a" />

There is a visible ageing of scientists and engineers in some fields. For instance, about three-quarters of researchers in the physical sciences are over the age of 50 and the proportion is even higher for practical engineers and technicians. The shortage of professional staff will be a major handicap for the [[national innovation system]] in the coming years, as the growing demand for engineers and technical professionals begins to outpace supply.&nbsp;<ref name=":0a" />

During the 2012/2013 academic year, 34% of bachelor's degrees were obtained in fields related to science and engineering in Israel. This compares well with the proportion in the Republic of Korea (40%) and most Western countries (about 30% on average). The proportion of Israeli graduates in scientific disciplines and engineering was slightly lower at the master's level (27%) but dominated at PhD level (56%).<ref name=":0a" />

Recent statistics support the assertion that Israel may be living on the ‘fruits of the past’, that is to say, on the heavy investment made in primary, secondary and tertiary education during the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s. Between 2007 and 2013, the number of graduates in physical sciences, biological sciences and agriculture dropped, even though the total number of university graduates progressed by 19% (to 39 654). Recent data reveal that Israeli educational achievements in the core curricular subjects of mathematics and science are low in comparison to other OECD countries, as revealed by the exam results of Israeli 15-year-olds in the OECD's Programme for International Student Assessment. Public spending on primary education has also fallen below the OECD average. The public education budget accounted for 6.9% of GDP in 2002 but only 5.6% in 2011. The share of this budget going to tertiary education has remained stable at 16–18% but, as a share of GDP, has passed under the bar of 1%. There is concern at the deteriorating quality of teachers at all levels of education and the lack of stringent demands on students to strive for excellence.<ref name=":0a" />

In recent years, Israel encountered the problem of shortage of specialists in the [[High tech|high-tech industry]]. Now high technology sector is rapidly growing and demand for tech talent increasing as well - the further growth of the industry depends on it.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web|url=https://www.jpost.com/Jpost-Tech/Israeli-tech-sector-faces-shortage-of-15000-workers-574436|title=Israeli tech sector faces shortage of 15,000 workers - Hi tech news - Jerusalem Post|website=www.jpost.com|date=16 December 2018 |access-date=2019-10-05}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://8allocate.com/article/how-israeli-companies-respond-to-local-tech-talent-shortage/|title=How Israeli Companies Respond to Local Tech Talent Shortage|date=2019-03-14|website=8allocate|language=en-US|access-date=2019-10-05}}</ref> The shortage also generates a significant and disproportionate increase in salaries, which causes companies to look for new employees abroad.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=December 2018|title=Start Up Nation Central Human Capital Report 2018|url=https://www.startupnationcentral.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/Start-Up-Nation-Central-Human-Capital-Report-2018.pdf|journal=Start-Up Nation Central|pages=7, 16}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://8allocate.com/article/ukraine-is-a-great-place-to-find-tech-talent-says-israeli-entrepreneur/|title=Ukraine is a Great Place to Find Tech Talent, Says Israeli Entrepreneur|date=2019-08-21|website=8allocate|language=en-US|access-date=2019-10-05}}</ref> To solve the problem Israel's Council for Higher Education has already launched a five-years program to increase the number of graduates from computer science and engineering programs by 40%.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/15000-tech-worker-shortfall-pushing-firms-to-seek-talent-offshore/|title=15,000 tech worker shortfall pushing firms to seek talent offshore|last=Solomon|first=Shoshanna|website=www.timesofisrael.com|language=en-US|access-date=2019-10-05}}</ref>

== Digital technologies ==
Israel is investing heavily in technologies such as AI and data science, smart mobility, digital health and e-governance through Digital Israel, a series of national programmes that include the Fuel Choices and Smart Mobility Initiative.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=Getz|first=Daphne|title=Israel. In: UNESCO Science Report: the Race Against Time for Smarter Development|publisher=UNESCO Publishing|year=2021|isbn=978-92-3-100450-6|pages=408–421}}</ref>

Digital Israel is the concrete expression of the government’s ''Digital Policy'' for 2017–2022. This NIS 1.5 billion (about US$ 425 million) initiative aims to make Israel a global leader in this domain. The programme plans to leverage Israeli expertise in information and communication technologies (ICTs) to accelerate economic growth, reduce socio-economic disparities and make governance smarter, faster and citizen-friendlier.<ref name=":2" />

The programme is led by the Headquarters for the National Digital Israel Initiative, placed under the Ministry of Social Equality; this body collaborates with ministries, local authorities, companies and non-profit organizations.

In 2018, Israel embarked on a five-year National Programme for Digital Health. The stated aims are to create a new national economic growth engine, advance Israel’s clinical and academic research and create a local digital health care system that is among the best in the world. The programme is backed by an investment of NIS 898 million (ca US$ 256 million) and implemented by multiple governmental bodies, including the Ministry of Health, the Ministry for Social Equality (Digital Israel), the Ministry of the Economy and Industry, the Israeli Innovation Authority and the Council for Higher Education.<ref name=":2" /><ref>Prime Minister’s Office (2018) ''National Plan for Digital Health as a''

''National Growth Engine''. Israel Prime Minister’s Office: Jerusalem.</ref>

== Research universities ==
{{Further|List of Israeli universities and colleges|Education in Israel|List of multinationals with research and development centres in Israel}}
[[File:Weizmann Institute of Science Aerial View.jpg|thumb|434x434px|The [[Weizmann Institute of Science]] in [[Rehovot]]]]
Israel has seven [[research university|research universities]]: [[Bar-Ilan University]], [[Ben-Gurion University of the Negev]], the [[University of Haifa]], [[Hebrew University of Jerusalem]], the [[Technion – Israel Institute of Technology]], [[Tel Aviv University]] and the [[Weizmann Institute of Science]], [[Rehovot]]. Other scientific research institutions include the [[Volcani Institute of Agricultural Research]] in [[Beit Dagan]], the [[Israel Institute for Biological Research]] and the [[Soreq Nuclear Research Center]]. The [[Ben-Gurion National Solar Energy Center]] at [[Sde Boker]] is an [[alternative energy]] research institute established in 1987 by the Ministry of National Infrastructures to study alternative and [[Clean technology|clean]] energy technologies.

[[List of universities and colleges in Israel|Israeli universities]] are ranked among the top 50 academic institutions in the world in the following scientific disciplines: in [[chemistry]] (Technion);<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.shanghairanking.com/SubjectChemistry2012.html|title=Academic Ranking of World Universities in Chemistry|year=2012|publisher=Shanghai Jiao Tong University|work=Academic Ranking of World Universities|access-date=14 October 2012|archive-date=23 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170223232821/http://www.shanghairanking.com/SubjectChemistry2012.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> in [[computer science]] (Weizmann Institute of Science, Technion, Hebrew University, Tel Aviv University);<ref name="ARWUCS" /> in [[mathematics]] and [[natural sciences]] (Hebrew University, Technion)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.shanghairanking.com/FieldSCI2012.html|title=Academic Ranking of World Universities in Natural Sciences and Mathematics|year=2012|publisher=Shanghai Jiao Tong University|work=Academic Ranking of World Universities|access-date=14 October 2012|archive-date=22 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170322091540/http://www.shanghairanking.com/FieldSCI2012.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> and in [[engineering]] (Technion).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.shanghairanking.com/FieldENG2012.html|title=Academic Ranking of World Universities in Engineering/Technology and Computer Sciences|year=2012|publisher=Shanghai Jiao Tong University|work=Academic Ranking of World Universities|access-date=14 October 2012|archive-date=29 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170329222909/http://www.shanghairanking.com/FieldENG2012.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In 2009, Mor Tzaban, an Israeli high school student from [[Netivot]], won first prize in the [[First Step to Nobel Prize in Physics]] competition. In 2012, Yuval Katzenelson of [[Kiryat Gat]] won first prize with a paper entitled "'''Kinetic energy of inert gas in a regenerative system of activated carbon'''." The Israeli delegation won 14 more prizes in the competition: 9 Israelis students won second prize, one won third prize and one won fourth prize.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.haaretz.com/news/national/kiryat-gat-teen-wins-first-prize-in-international-physics-competition.premium-1.465686|title=Kiryat Gat Teen Wins First Prize in International Physics Competition|first=Yanir|last=Yagna|date=20 September 2012|access-date=16 May 2017|newspaper=Haaretz}}</ref>

== Research and Development center ==
Except universities, Israel has seven R&D centers in the periphery. These centers were established by the [[Ministry of Science, Technology and Space|Ministry of Science and Technology]], and include Migal <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.migal.org.il/|title=Home {{!}} Migal|website=www.migal.org.il|access-date=2019-11-30}}</ref> and the Dead Sea and Arava science center.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.adssc.org/en/|title=ADSSC {{!}} ADSSC|language=en-US|access-date=2019-11-30}}</ref> Their orientation is based on  applied science and the dissemination of scientific knowledge to the general population. To date, seven centers are working with significant academic impact and relevance to the region.

== Scientific output ==
The number of Israeli publications stagnated between 2005 and 2014, according to Thomson Reuters' Web of Science (Science Citation Index Expanded). Consequently, the number of Israeli publications per million inhabitants also declined: between 2008 and 2013, it dropped from 1 488 to 1 431; this trend reflects a relative constancy in scholarly output in the face of relatively high population growth (1.1% in 2014) for a developed country and near-zero growth in the number of full-time equivalent researchers in universities. Between 2005 and 2014, Israeli scientific output was particularly high in life sciences. Israeli universities do particularly well in computer science but publications in this field tend to appear mostly in conference proceedings, which are not included in the Web of Science.<ref name=":0a" />

Israeli publications have a high citation rate and a high share of papers count among the 10 percent most-cited. The share of papers with foreign co-authors is almost twice the OECD average, which is typical of small countries with a developed scientific and technological ecosystem. A team of 50 Israeli scientists work full-time at [[CERN]], the European Organization for Nuclear Research, which operates the [[Large Hadron Collider]] in Switzerland. Israel was granted observer status in 1991 before becoming a fully fledged member in 2014. An Israeli delegation headed by [[President of Israel|President]] [[Shimon Peres]] visited the particle accelerator in 2011.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/news/peres-leads-israeli-delegation-on-tour-of-world-s-biggest-particle-accelerator-1.352767|title=Peres leads Israeli delegation on tour of world's biggest particle accelerator|last=Shtull-Trauring|first=Asaf|date=30 March 2011|newspaper=Haaretz|access-date=10 October 2012}}</ref>

Israeli scientists collaborate mostly with Western countries such as the [[European Union's scientific cooperation beyond the bloc|European Union]] and the United States but there has been strong growth in recent years in collaboration with East Asian countries such as China, Japan, and South Korea, India, and the Southeast Asian city state of Singapore.<ref name=":0a" />

== Technology transfer ==

=== History ===
Research conducted at Israeli universities and institutes is shared with the private sector through [[technology transfer]] (TT) units.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/comparative_technology_transfer_and_society/v003/3.3reisman.pdf|title=Comparative Technology Transfer and Society|website=JHU.edu|access-date=16 May 2017}}</ref> Israel's first university TT unit, Yeda, was established by the Weizmann Institute of Science in the 1950s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.yedarnd.com/About-Yeda.aspx|title=Technology Transfer Overview (IP and Patent licensing)|date=19 October 2014|website=Yedarnd.com|access-date=16 May 2017}}</ref> Research in such fields as  arid and semi-arid zone agricultural engineering was transferred to kibbutzim and private farmers on a gratis basis and agricultural knowledge was shared with developing countries.<ref>{{cite book |ssrn=579883|title=Israel's Economic Development: The Role of Institutionalized Technology Transfer|first=Arnold|last=Reisman|date=3 February 2005}}</ref>

In 1964, [[Yissum Research Development Company of the Hebrew University|Yissum]], the [[technology transfer]] company of the [[Hebrew University of Jerusalem]], was founded.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biojerusalem.org.il/database_tto.asp?ID=1|title=Yissum Research & Development Company of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem - BioJerusalem|website=www.BioJerusalem.org.il|access-date=16 May 2017|archive-date=12 November 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091112101326/http://www.biojerusalem.org.il/database_tto.asp?ID=1|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Since the 1990s, the traditional dual mission of universities of teaching and research has broadened to include a third mission: engagement with society and industry. This evolution has been a corollary of the rise of the [[electronics industry]] and information technology services, along with a surge in the number of research personnel following the wave of immigration from the former Soviet Union.<ref name=":0a" />

Israel has no specific legislation regulating the transfer of knowledge from the academic sector to the general public and industry.  There were attempts in 2004 and 2005 to introduce bills encouraging the transfer of knowledge and technology for the public benefit but, as these attempts failed, each university has since defined its own policy.<ref name=":0a" />

=== University-industry collaboration ===
All Israeli research universities have technology transfer offices. Recent research conducted by the Samuel Neaman Institute has revealed that, between 2004 and 2013, the universities’ share of patent applications constituted 10–12% of the total inventive activity of Israeli applicants. This is one of the highest shares in the world and is largely due to the intensive activity of the universities’ technology transfer offices. The Weizmann Institute's technology transfer office, Yeda, has been ranked the third-most profitable in the world. Through exemplary university–industry collaboration, the Weizmann Institute of Science and Teva Pharmaceutical Industries have discovered and developed the Copaxone drug for the treatment of multiple sclerosis. Copaxone is Teva's biggest-selling drug, with US$1.68 billion in sales in the first half of 2011. Since the drug's approval by the US Food and Drug Administration in 1996, it is estimated that the Weizmann Institute of Science has earned nearly US$2 billion in royalties from the commercialization of its intellectual property.<ref name=":0a" />

=== International technology transfer ===
In 2007, the [[United Nations]] General Assembly's [[United Nations General Assembly Second Committee|Economic and Financial Committee]] adopted an Israeli-sponsored draft resolution on agricultural technology transfer to developing countries. The resolution called on developed countries to make their knowledge and know-how accessible to the developing world as part of the UN campaign to eradicate hunger and dire poverty by 2015. The initiative is an outgrowth of Israel's many years of contributing its know-how to developing nations, especially Africa, in the spheres of agriculture, fighting desertification, rural development, irrigation, medical development, computers and the empowerment of women.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mfa.gov.il/MFA/PressRoom/2007/Pages/UN%20adopts%20Israeli-sponsored%20resolution%20on%20Agricultural%20Technology%20for%20Development%2011-Dec-2007.aspx|title=UN adopts Israeli-sponsored resolution on "Agricultural Technology for Development"|date=11 December 2007|publisher=Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs|access-date=15 May 2013}}</ref>

== Venture capital ==
{{main|Venture capital in Israel}}
{{See also|Yozma Fund}}
As new technology companies require money and [[seed capital]] to grow and thrive, Israel's science and technology sector is backed by a [[Venture capital in Israel|strong venture capital industry]]. Between 2004 and 2013, the Israeli venture capital industry played a fundamental role in funding the development of Israel's high-tech sector. In 2013, Israeli companies had raised more venture capital as a share of GDP than companies in any other country as it attracted US$2 346 million alone during that year. Today, Israel is considered one of the biggest venture capital centers in the world outside the United States of America. Several factors have contributed to this growth. These include tax exemptions on Israeli venture capital, funds established in conjunction with large international banks and financial companies and the involvement of major organizations desirous to capitalize on the strengths of Israeli high-tech companies. These organizations include some of the world's largest multinational technology companies, including [[Apple Inc.|Apple]], [[Cisco Systems|Cisco]], [[Google]], [[IBM]], [[Intel]], [[Microsoft]], [[Oracle Corporation|Oracle]], [[Siemens]] and [[Samsung]]. In recent years, the share of venture capital invested in the growth stages of enterprises has flourished at the expense of early stage investments.<ref name=":0a" /> Nowadays, Israeli companies are considered to be more popular than their American peers. For comparison, investments volume in Israeli startups grew by 140% during 2014-2018 and investments in technological startups from the U.S. grew by 64%.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://8allocate.com/article/through-the-thorns-to-the-stars-israeli-startups-ecosystem-2019/|title=Through the Thorns to the Stars: Israeli Startups Ecosystem 2019|date=2019-07-08|website=8allocate|language=en-US|access-date=2019-10-05}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Start-Up Nation Central's Annual Ecosystem 2019 Report|url=https://lp.startupnationcentral.org/annualreport/|journal=Start-Up Nation Central|access-date=2019-10-05|archive-date=2021-03-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308173250/https://lp.startupnationcentral.org/annualreport/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Israel's venture capital market backed deals worth US$ 4 759 million in 2018. About half of venture capital-backed deals involved an Israeli venture capitalist, either working solo or with others. According to the [[IVC Data and Insights|IVC database]], 480 Israeli venture capital companies invested in Israeli high-tech firms in 2018 and 2019.<ref name=":2" />

For most OECD countries, venture capital constitutes less than 0.05% of GDP. Israel and the USA are the exception; their venture capital industry accounts for more than 0.35% of GDP.<ref>{{Cite book|doi=10.1787/eco_surveys-isr-2018-en|title=OECD Economic Surveys: Israel 2018|year=2018|publisher=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development |isbn=9789264291713}}</ref>

== Intellectual property rights ==
Intellectual property rights in Israel protect copyright and performers’ rights, trademarks, geographical indicators, patents, industrial designs, topographies of integrated circuits, plant breeds and undisclosed business secrets. Both contemporary Israeli legislation and case law are influenced by laws and practices in modern countries, particularly Anglo-American law, the emerging body of EU law and proposals by international organizations.<ref name=":0a" />

Israel has made a concerted effort to improve the economy's ability to benefit from an enhanced system of intellectual property rights. This includes increasing the resources of the Israel Patent Office, upgrading enforcement activities and implementing programmes to bring ideas funded by government research to the market. Between 2002 and 2012, foreigners accounted for nearly 80% of the patent applications filed with the Israel Patent Office. A sizeable{{Clarify|reason=vague|date=May 2017}} share of foreign applicants seeking protection from the Israel Patent Office are pharmaceutical companies such as F. Hoffmann-La Roche, Janssen, Novartis, Merck, Bayer-Schering, Sanofi-Aventis and Pfizer, which happen to be the main business competitors of Israel's own Teva Pharmaceutical Industries.<ref name=":0a" />

Israel ranks tenth in the world for the number of patent applications filed with the [[United States Patent and Trademark Office]] (USPTO) by country of residence of the first-named inventor. Israeli inventors file far more applications with USPTO (5 436 in 2011) than with the [[European Patent Office]] (EPO). Moreover, the number of Israeli filings with EPO dropped from 1400 to 1063 between 2006 and 2011. This preference for USPTO is largely because foreign research centres implanted in Israel are primarily owned by US firms such as [[IBM]], Intel, Sandisk, Microsoft, Applied Materials, Qualcomm, Motorola, Google or Hewlett–Packard. The inventions of these companies are attributed to Israel as the inventor of the patent but not as the owner (applicant or assignee). The loss of intellectual property into the hands of multinationals occurs mainly through the recruitment of the best Israeli talent by the local research centres of multinational firms. Although the Israeli economy benefits from the activity of the multinationals’ subsidiaries through job creation and other means, the advantages are relatively small compared to the potential economic gains that might have been achieved, had this intellectual property been utilized to support and foster the expansion of mature Israeli companies of a considerable size.<ref name=":0a" />

== Applied science and engineering ==

=== Energy ===

==== Solar power ====
{{Further|Solar power in Israel}}
[[File:Solar dish at Ben-Gurion National Solar Energy Center in Israel.jpg|thumb|The world's largest solar parabolic dish at the [[Ben-Gurion National Solar Energy Center]]<ref name=Register>{{cite news |url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2008/01/25/faiman_negev_solar_plan/ |title=Giant solar plants in Negev could power Israel's future |first=John |last=Lettice |newspaper=The Register |date=25 January 2008}}</ref>|alt=A horizontal parabolic dish, with a triangular structure on its top.]]
As of 2014, Israel leads the 2014 Global Cleantech Innovation Index.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cleantechinnvest.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/Cleantech-Innovation-Index-2014.pdf|title=The Global Cleantech Innovation Index 2014|website=CleanTechInnvest.com|access-date=16 May 2017|archive-date=8 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140808053838/http://www.cleantechinnvest.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/Cleantech-Innovation-Index-2014.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>
The country's lack of conventional energy sources has spurred extensive research and development of alternative energy sources and Israel has developed innovative technologies in the [[Solar power in Israel|solar energy field]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Seven solar technologies from Israel that could change our planet |first=Karin |last=Kloosterman |url=http://israel21c.org/environment/seven-solar-technologies-from-israel-that-could-change-our-planet/ |newspaper=ISRAEL21c |date=27 October 2009 |access-date=14 October 2012}}</ref> Israel has become the world's largest per capita user of solar water heaters in the home. A new, high-efficiency receiver to collect concentrated sunlight has been developed, which will enhance the use of solar energy in industry as well.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mfa.gov.il/MFA/AboutIsrael/Science/Pages/SCIENCE%20AND%20TECHNOLOGY-%20Energy%20R-amp-D.aspx |title=SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY: Energy R&D |publisher=Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs |access-date=15 May 2013}}</ref>

In a 2009 report by the CleanTech Group, Israel ranked number 5 clean tech country in the world.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sodahead.com/united-states/israel-ranks-5th-in-world-in-clean-technology/blog-256303/ |title=Israel ranks 5th in world in clean-technology |last=Lesser |first=Shawn |date=8 February 2010 |publisher=SodaHead.com |access-date=14 October 2012}}</ref> The Arrow Ecology company has developed the [[ArrowBio process]] a patented system which takes trash directly from collection trucks and separates organic and inorganic materials through gravitational settling, screening, and hydro-mechanical shredding. The system is capable of sorting huge volumes of solid waste, salvaging recyclables, and turning the rest into [[biogas]] and rich agricultural [[compost]]. The system is used in California, Australia, Greece, Mexico, the United Kingdom and in Israel. For example, an [[ArrowBio process|ArrowBio]] plant that has been operational at the [[Hiriya]] landfill site since December 2003 serves the [[Tel Aviv]] area, and processes up to 150 tons of garbage a day.<ref>{{cite news |title=Sorting through garbage for gold |first=Abigail Klein |last=Leichman |url=http://israel21c.org/environment/sorting-through-garbage-for-gold/ |newspaper=ISRAEL21c |date=22 November 2009 |access-date=14 October 2012}}</ref>

In 2010, [[Technion]] – the Israel Institute of Technology – established the [[Grand Technion Energy Program]] (GTEP). This multidisciplinary task-force brings together Technion's top researchers in energy science and technology from over nine different faculties. GTEP's 4-point strategy targets research and development of alternative fuels; renewable energy sources; energy storage and conversion; and energy conservation. GTEP is presently the only center in Israel offering graduate studies in energy science and technology to bring the energy skills and know-how to address the energy challenges of the future.

==== Natural gas ====
Since 1999, [[Natural gas in Israel|large reserves of natural gas]] have been discovered off Israel's coast. This fossil fuel has become the primary fuel for electricity generation in Israel and is gradually replacing oil and coal. &nbsp;In 2010, 37% of electricity in Israel was generated from natural gas, leading to savings of US$1.4 billion for the economy. In 2015, this rate is expected to surpass 55%.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002354/235406e.pdf|title=Israel. In: UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030|last1=Getz|first1=Daphne|last2=Tadmor|first2=Zehev|publisher=UNESCO|year=2015|isbn=978-92-3-100129-1|location=Paris|pages=409–429}}</ref>

In addition, the usage of natural gas in industry – both as a source of energy and as a raw material – is rapidly expanding, alongside the requisite infrastructure. This is giving companies a competitive advantage by reducing their energy costs and lowering national emissions. Since early 2013, almost the entire natural gas consumption of Israel has been supplied by the Tamar field, an Israeli–American private partnership. The estimated reserves amount to about 1 000 BCM, securing Israel's energy needs for many decades to come and making Israel a potentially major regional exporter of natural gas. In 2014, initial export agreements were signed with the Palestinian Authority, Jordan and Egypt; there are also plans to export natural gas to Turkey and the EU via Greece.<ref name=":0" />

In 2011, the government asked the Academy of Sciences and Humanities to convene a panel of experts to consider the full range of implications of the most recent discoveries of [[natural gas]]. The panel recommended encouraging research into fossil fuels, training engineers and focusing research efforts on the impact of gas production on the Mediterranean Sea's ecosystem. The Mediterranean Sea Research Centre of Israel was established in 2012 with an initial budget of NIS 70 million; new study programmes have since been launched at the centre to train engineers and other professionals for the oil and gas industry. Meanwhile, the Office of the Chief Scientist, among others, plans to use Israel's fledgling natural gas industry as a stepping stone to building capacity in advanced technology and opening up opportunities for Israeli innovation targeting the global oil and gas markets.<ref name=":0" />

=== Space science and technology ===
{{Further|Israel Space Agency}}
[[File:Shavit Ofek7a.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Ofek-7]] satellite launch through [[Shavit 2|Shavit]] vehicle]]
During the 1970s  and 1980s Israel began developing the [[infrastructure]] needed for research and development in [[space exploration]] and related sciences. In November 1982, the [[Science and Technology Minister of Israel|Minister of Science and Technology]], [[Yuval Ne'eman]], established the [[Israel Space Agency]] (ISA), to coordinate and supervise a national [[space program]] as well as to conduct space, planetary, and aviation research. Because of geographical constraints, as well as safety considerations, the Israeli space program focuses on very small satellites loaded with payloads of a high degree of sophistication, and cooperation with other national space agencies.<ref name=ISA1>[http://www.most.gov.il/English/Units/Israel+Space+Agency/About+ISA.htm About ISA – Israel Space Agency] [[Israel Space Agency]], Israel Ministry of Science and Technology, Retrieved 2009-12-15</ref> The Technion [[Asher Space Research Institute (ASRI)|Asher Space Research Institute]] plays a central role in educating the aerospace engineers of the next generation.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://asri.technion.ac.il/ |title=Asher Space Research Institute |publisher=Technion – Israel Institute of Technology |access-date=11 October 2012 |archive-date=30 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150430030657/http://asri.technion.ac.il/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 2009 Israel was ranked 2nd among 20 top countries in space sciences by [[Thomson Reuters]] agency.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/408577.article |title=Top countries in space sciences |date=8 October 2009 |website=Times Higher Education |publisher=Thomson Reuters |access-date=15 May 2013}}</ref>

Israel became the [[Timeline of first orbital launches by country|eighth nation]] in the world to have an orbital launch capability when it deployed its first satellite, [[Ofeq|Ofeq-1]], using the locally built [[Shavit 2|Shavit]] launch vehicle on September 19, 1988, and has made contributions in a number of areas in space research, including [[laser]] [[communication]], research into [[embryo development]] and [[osteoporosis]] in space, [[pollution]] monitoring, and mapping [[geology]], soil and vegetation in [[Semi-arid climate|semi-arid environments]].<ref>[https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Economy/spaceres.html Israeli Space Research] by Wendy Elliman, in [https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/index.html Jewish Virtual Library], Retrieved 5 December 2009</ref>

Key projects include the [[TAUVEX]] telescope, the Tel Aviv University [[ultraviolet|Ultra Violet]] Experiment, a UV telescope for [[Astronomical observatory|astronomical observations]] which was developed in the 1990s to be accommodated on an [[Indian Space Research Organisation]] (ISRO) geo-synchronous satellite [[GSAT-4]], for joint operation and use by Indian and Israeli scientists; the VENUS [[Microsatellite (spaceflight)|microsatellite]], developed in collaboration with the [[CNES|French space agency, CNES]], which will use an Israeli-developed space camera, electric space engine and algorithms; and [[MEIDEX]] (Mediterranean – Israel Dust Experiment), in collaboration with [[NASA]].<ref>[http://www.most.gov.il/English/Units/Israel+Space+Agency/ISA+International+Relations.htm ISA International Relations] [[Israel Space Agency]], Israel Ministry of Science and Technology, Retrieved 15 December 2009</ref>

[[Ilan Ramon]] was Israel's first [[astronaut]]. Ramon was the [[Space Shuttle]] [[payload specialist]] on board the fatal [[STS-107]] mission of [[Space Shuttle Columbia|Space Shuttle ''Columbia'']], in which he and the six other crew members were killed in a [[Space Shuttle Columbia disaster|re-entry accident]] over the southern United States. Ramon had been selected as a payload specialist in 1997 and trained at the [[Johnson Space Center]], [[Houston]], [[Texas]], from 1998 until 2003.<ref>[http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/PS/ramon.html Payload Specialist Astronaut Bio: Ilan Ramon], [[National Aeronautics and Space Administration]] (NASA), Retrieved 5 December 2009</ref> Among other experiments, Ramon was responsible for the [[MEIDEX]] project in which he was required to take pictures of atmospheric [[aerosol]] (dust) in the Mediterranean area using a [[multispectral]] camera designed to provide scientific information about atmospheric aerosols and the influence of global [[climate change|changes on the climate]], and data for the [[Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer]] (TOMS) and [[Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer]] (MODIS) instruments. Researchers from [[Tel Aviv University]] (TAU) were responsible for the scientific aspect of the experiment. The TAU team also worked with a US company, [[Orbital Sciences Corporation]], to construct and test special flight instruments for the project.<ref>[https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/US-Israel/nasa.html U.S.-Israel Cooperation in Space] by Shira Schoenberg and Mitchell Bard, in [https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/index.html Jewish Virtual Library], Retrieved 5 December 2009</ref>

=== Aerospace engineering ===
{{Further|Israel Aerospace Industries}}
[[File:4X-WBJ Micha Sender-1.jpg|thumb|[[Gulfstream G280]] transcontinental business jet was designed and is currently produced for [[Gulfstream Aerospace]] by [[Israel Aerospace Industries|Israel Aircraft Industries (IAI)]].]]
[[File:Aerospace engineering faculty, Hatechnion.jpg|thumb|[[Technion Faculty of Aerospace Engineering|Aerospace faculty]], [[Technion – Israel Institute of Technology|Technion]], 1956]]
[[Aerospace engineering]] related to the country's defense needs has generated technological development with consequent civilian spin-offs. The [[IAI Arava|Arava]] short take-off and landing ([[STOL]]) plane manufactured by [[Israel Aerospace Industries]] was 
the first aircraft to be produced in Israel, in the late 1960s, for both military and civilian uses.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gunston |first=Bill |title=An Illustrated Guide to the Israeli Air Force |publisher=ARCO |location=New York |year=1982 |page=136}}</ref> This was followed by the production of the [[IAI Westwind|Westwind business jet]]<ref>{{cite book |last=Gunston |first=Bill |title=An Illustrated Guide to the Israeli Air Force |publisher=ARCO |location=New York |year=1982 |page=144}}</ref> from 1965 to 1987, and later variants, the [[IAI Astra|Astra]]<ref>{{cite book |last=Taylor |first=John W.R. |title=Jane's All the World's Aircraft 1985–86 |url=https://archive.org/details/janesfightingshi8586shar |url-access=registration |publisher=Jane's Publishing Group |location=London |year=1985 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/janesfightingshi8586shar/page/136 136–37] |isbn=9780710608215 }}</ref> and the [[Gulfstream G100]], which are still in active service.

Israel is among the few [[Timeline of first orbital launches by country#List of first orbital launches by country|countries capable of launching satellite]]s into orbit and locally designed and manufactured [[satellites]] have been produced and launched by [[Israel Aerospace Industries]](IAI), Israel's largest military engineering company, in cooperation with the [[Israel Space Agency]]. The [[AMOS-1]] geostationary satellite began operations in 1996 as Israel's first commercial communications satellite. It was built primarily for direct-to-home television broadcasting, TV distribution and VSAT services. AMOS-2 was launched in December 2003 and a further series of AMOS communications satellites ([[AMOS 2]] – 5i) are operated or in development by the [[Spacecom|Spacecom Satellite Communications]] company, headquartered in [[Ramat-Gan]], Israel. Spacecom provides satellite telecommunications services to countries in Europe, the Middle East and Africa.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.amos-spacecom.com/content.cfm/coverage-maps|title=Spacecom Coverage maps|website=AMOS-Spacecom.com|access-date=16 May 2017}}</ref> Another satellite, the Gurwin-II TechSAT, designed and manufactured by the Technion, was launched in July 1998 to provide communications, [[remote sensing]] and research services. EROS, launched in 2000, is a non-geostationary orbit satellite for commercial photography and surveillance services.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.moc.gov.il/sip_storage/FILES/5/605.pdf |title=Telecommunications in Israel 2012 |publisher=Israel Ministry of Communications |access-date=22 May 2013}}</ref>

Israel also develops, manufactures, and exports a large number of related aerospace products, including rockets and satellites, display systems, aeronautical computers, instrumentation systems, drones and flight simulators. Israel's second largest defense company is [[Elbit]] Systems, which makes electro-optical systems for air, sea and ground forces; drones; control and monitoring systems; communications systems and more.<ref>{{cite news |title=The wars that make and break |first=Ora |last=Coren |url=http://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/business/the-wars-that-make-and-break-1.7633 |newspaper=Haaretz |date=18 September 2009 |access-date=14 October 2012}}</ref> The [[Technion - Israel Institute of Technology]] is home to the [[Asher Space Research Institute]], which is unique in Israel as a university-based center of space research. At ASRI, Israeli students designed, built and launched their own satellite: Gurwin TechSat.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XD1ZaYbiWwMC&q=gurwin+techsat|title=Emerging Space Powers: The New Space Programs of Asia, the Middle East and South-America|first1=Brian|last1=Harvey|first2=Henk H. F.|last2=Smid|first3=Theo|last3=Pirard|date=30 January 2011|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|access-date=16 May 2017|via=Google Books|isbn=9781441908742}}</ref>

=== Agricultural engineering ===
{{Main|Agricultural research in Israel}}
[[File:Anaerobic digesters overhead view.jpg|thumb|left|Anaerobic digesters at [[Hiriya]] waste facility]]
Israel's agricultural sector is characterized by an intensive system of production stemming from the need to overcome the scarcity in natural resource, particularly water and arable land, in a country where more than half of its area is desert. The growth in agricultural production is based on close cooperation of scientists, farmers and agriculture-related industries and has resulted in the development of advanced [[agriculture|agricultural]] technology, water-conserving [[irrigation]] methods, [[anaerobic digestion]], [[greenhouse technology]], desert agriculture and salinity research.<ref>{{cite news |title=Israel: Waterworks for the World? |url=http://www.businessweek.com/stories/2005-12-29/israel-waterworks-for-the-world |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121106050559/http://www.businessweek.com/stories/2005-12-29/israel-waterworks-for-the-world |url-status=dead |archive-date=November 6, 2012 |newspaper=Bloomberg Businessweek |date=29 December 2005 |access-date=14 October 2012}}</ref> Israeli companies also supply irrigation, water conservation and greenhouse technologies and know-how to other countries.<ref>[http://www.export.gov.il/Eng/_Articles/Articles.asp?CategoryID=494 Agrotechnology Company Directory] in [http://www.export.gov.il/eng/ The Israel Export and International Cooperation Institute] Retrieved 2009-12-02</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Israeli company offers liquid know-how to India |first=Karin |last=Kloosterman |url=http://israel21c.org/social-action-2/israeli-company-offers-liquid-know-how-to-india/ |newspaper=ISRAEL21c |date=3 May 2009 |access-date=14 October 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Out of Israel to Africa |first=Karin |last=Kloosterman |url=http://israel21c.org/environment/out-of-israel-to-africa/ |newspaper=ISRAEL21c |date=4 February 2009 |access-date=14 October 2012}}</ref>

The modern technology of [[drip irrigation]] was invented in Israel by [[Simcha Blass]] and his son Yeshayahu. Instead of releasing water through tiny holes, blocked easily by tiny particles, water was released through larger and longer passageways by using velocity to slow water inside a plastic emitter. The first experimental system of this type was established in 1959 when Blass partnered with [[Hatzerim|Kibbutz Hatzerim]] to create an irrigation company called [[Netafim]]. Together they developed and patented the first practical surface drip irrigation emitter.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sfu.ca/~hayter/Netafim.htm|title=A Kibbutz-based MNC|website=www.SFU.ca|access-date=16 May 2017}}</ref> This method was very successful and had spread to Australia, North America and South America by the late 1960s.

Israeli farmers rely heavily on [[greenhouse technology]] to ensure a constant, year-round supply of high quality produce, while overcoming the obstacles posed by adverse climatic conditions, and water and land shortages. Technologies include computerized greenhouse [[climate control]], greenhouse shading, [[irrigation]], [[fertigation]], greenhouse [[water recycling]] and [[biological control]] of plant disease and insects, allow farmers to control most production parameters. As a result, Israeli farmers successfully grow 3 million roses per [[hectare]] in season and an average of 300 tons of tomatoes per hectare, four times the amount harvested in open fields.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFA-Archive/2002/Pages/Facets%20of%20the%20Israeli%20Economy-%20Agro-Technology.aspx |title=Facets of the Israeli Economy - Agro-Technology |last=Griver |first=Simon |year=2001 |publisher=Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs |access-date=14 May 2013}}</ref>

=== Computer engineering ===
[[File:Technion Computer Science Faculty.jpg|thumb|The faculty of [[computer science]] of the [[Technion - Israel Institute of Technology]]|318x318px]]

Israeli companies excel in computer software and hardware development, particularly computer security technologies, semiconductors and communications. Israeli firms include [[Check Point]], the creators of the first commercial firewall; [[Amdocs]], which makes business and operations support systems for telecoms; [[Comverse]], a voice-mail company; and [[Mercury Interactive]], which measures software performance.<ref>{{cite news |title=Venture capital invests in Israeli techs / Recovering from recession, country ranks behind only Boston, Silicon Valley in attracting cash for startups |first=Matthew |last=Kalman |url=http://www.sfgate.com/business/article/Venture-capital-invests-in-Israeli-techs-2772207.php |newspaper=San Francisco Chronicle |date=2 April 2004 |access-date=14 October 2012}}</ref> A high concentration of [[high-tech]] industries in the coastal plain of Israel has led to the nickname [[Silicon Wadi]] ([[literal translation|lit]]: "Silicon  Valley").<ref name="report">{{cite web |url=http://www.ebusinessforum.gr/engine/index.php?op=modload&modname=Downloads&action=downloadsviewfile&ctn=659&language=el |title=Israel's Silicon Wadi: The forces behind cluster formation |last1=Fontenay |first1=Catherine de |last2=Carmel |first2=Erran |date=June 2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |access-date=14 May 2013}}</ref> Both Israeli and international companies are based there. [[Intel]],<ref>{{cite news |title=Intel to expand Jerusalem R&D |first=Avi |last=Krawitz |url=http://www.jpost.com/Business/BusinessNews/Article.aspx?id=52876 |newspaper=The Jerusalem Post |date=27 February 2007 |access-date=14 October 2012}}</ref> [[Microsoft]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.microsoftrnd.co.il/about/leadership |title=Leadership: Avi Nathan |work=Israel R&D Center |publisher=Microsoft |access-date=11 October 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120313223906/http://www.microsoftrnd.co.il/about/leadership |archive-date=13 March 2012 }}</ref> and [[Apple Inc.|Apple]]<ref name="auto1">{{cite news |last=Shelach |first=Shmulik |title=Apple to set up Israel development center|url=http://www.globes.co.il/serveen/globes/docview.asp?did=1000706928 |access-date=10 February 2013|newspaper=[[Globes (newspaper)|Globes]]|date=14 December 2011}}</ref><ref name="auto2">{{cite news|last=Shelach |first=Shmulik|title=Apple opens Ra'anana development center |url=http://www.globes.co.il/serveen/globes/docview.asp?did=1000820961 |access-date=10 February 2013|newspaper=[[Globes (newspaper)|Globes]]|date=10 February 2013}}</ref> built their first overseas [[research and development]] centers in Israel, and other high-tech multi-national corporations, such as [[IBM]], [[Cisco Systems]], and [[Motorola]], have opened facilities in the country. Intel developed its [[dual-core]] [[Core Duo]] processor at its Israel Development Center in [[Haifa]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://seattletimes.com/html/businesstechnology/2003658346_intelisrael09.html |title=How Israel saved Intel |last=King |first=Ian |date=9 April 2007 |newspaper=The Seattle Times |access-date=14 May 2013}}</ref> More than 3,850  [[startup company|start-ups]] have been established in Israel, making it second only to the US in this sector<ref>Senor and Singer, ''Start-up Nation: The Story of Israel's Economic Miracle''</ref> and has the largest number of [[NASDAQ]]-listed companies outside North America.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ir.nasdaqomx.com/releasedetail.cfm?releaseid=177065 |title=NASDAQ Appoints Asaf Homossany as New Director for Israel |last=Kedem |first=Assaf |date=6 February 2005 |publisher=NASDAQ OMX Group |access-date=14 October 2012 |archive-date=16 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150216143904/http://ir.nasdaqomx.com/releasedetail.cfm?ReleaseID=177065 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Optics, electro-optics, and lasers are significant fields and Israel produces [[fiber-optic]]s, [[electro-optics|electro-optic]] inspection systems for printed circuit boards, [[thermal imaging]] [[Night vision device|night-vision]] systems, and electro-optics-based robotic manufacturing systems.<ref name=MOFA3>{{cite web |url=http://mfa.gov.il/MFA/AboutIsrael/Science/Pages/SCIENCE%20AND%20TECHNOLOGY-%20Industrial%20R-amp-D.aspx |title=SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY: Industrial R&D |publisher=Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs |access-date=15 May 2013}}</ref> Research into [[robotics]] first began in the late 1970s, has resulted in the production of robots designed to perform a wide variety of [[computer aided manufacturing]] tasks, including diamond polishing, welding, packing, and building. Research is also conducted in the application of [[artificial intelligence]] to robots.<ref name=MOFA3/>

Israel's [[Weizmann Institute of Science]] and [[Technion – Israel Institute of Technology]] are ranked among the top 20 academic institutions in the world in [[computer science]].<ref name=ARWUCS>{{cite web |url=http://www.shanghairanking.com/SubjectCS2012.html |title=Academic Ranking of World Universities in Computer Science |year=2012 |work=Academic Ranking of World Universities |publisher=Shanghai Jiao Tong University |access-date=14 October 2012 |archive-date=21 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821105858/http://www.shanghairanking.com/SubjectCS2012.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> An Israeli electronics engineer and businessman who was the founder, chief executive officer, and president of [[M-Systems]], [[Dov Moran]], invented the first [[USB flash drive|flash drive]] in 1998.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.systemdisc.com/pen-drives|title=Flash drives|website=SystemDisc.com|access-date=16 May 2017}}</ref>

==== Cybersecurity ====
{{main|Israeli cybersecurity industry}}
{{update-section|date=July 2024}}
In November 2010, the Israeli prime minister [[Benjamin Netanyahu]] entrusted a task force with responsibility for formulating national plans to place Israel among the top five countries in the world for cybersecurity. On 7 August 2011, the government approved the establishment of the National Cyber Bureau to promote the Israeli cyberdefence industry. The bureau is based in the Prime Minister's Office. The National Cyber Bureau allocated NIS 180 million (''circa'' US$50 million) over 2012–2014 to encourage cyber research and dual military–civilian R&D; the funding is also being used to develop human capital, including through the creation of cybersecurity centres at Israeli universities that are funded jointly by the National Cyber Bureau and the universities themselves.<ref name=":0" />

In January 2014, the prime minister launched CyberSpark, Israel's cyber innovation park, as part of plans to turn Israel into a global cyber hub. Located in the city of Beer-Sheva to foster economic development in southern Israel, CyberSpark is a geographical cluster of leading cyber companies, multinational corporations and universities, involving Ben Gurion University of the Negev, technology defence units, specialized educational platforms and the national Cyber Event Readiness Team.<ref name=":0" />

About half of the firms in CyberSpark are Israeli, mostly small to medium-sized. Multinational companies operating in CyberSpark include EMC2, IBM, Lockheed Martin and Deutsche Telekom. PayPal recently acquired the Israeli start-up CyActive and has since announced plans to set up its second Israeli research centre in CyberSpark, with a focus on cybersecurity. This acquisition is just one of the many Israeli cybersecurity start-ups acquired by multinational companies in the past few years. Major acquisitions of Israeli start-ups in 2014 include Intellinx, purchased by Bottomline Technologies, and Cyvera, purchased by Palo Alto Networks.<ref name=":0" />

The National Cyber Bureau has estimated that the number of Israeli cyberdefence companies had doubled in the past five years to about 300 by 2014. Israeli companies account for an estimated 10% of global sales, which currently total an estimated US$60 billion. Total research spending on cyberdefence in Israel quadrupled between 2010 and 2014 from US$50 million to US$200 million, bringing Israel's spending to about 15% of global research spending on cyberdefence in 2014. Cybersecurity technologies are exported by Israel in accordance with the Wassenaar Arrangement, a multilateral agreement on Export Controls for Conventional Arms and Dual-Use Goods and Technologies.<ref name=":0" />

The Israeli cyber-intelligence firm, [[NSO Group|NSO Group Technologies]] had reportedly been selling its [[Pegasus (spyware)|Pegasus spyware]] to the [[United Arab Emirates|UAE]], [[Saudi Arabia]] and other repressive Gulf states, with official mediation of the Israeli government. The software permits law enforcement authorities to hack into cellphones, copy their contents and sometimes even to control their camera and audio recording capabilities.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/.premium-with-israel-s-encouragement-nso-sold-spyware-to-uae-and-other-gulf-states-1.9093465|title=With Israel's Encouragement, NSO Sold Spyware to UAE and Other Gulf States|access-date=24 August 2020|website=Haaretz}}</ref> In 2018, a lawsuit was filed against NSO accusing it of secretly helping Saudi Arabia to spy [[Jamal Khashoggi]], a ''[[Washington Post]]'' columnist, later murdered in the Saudi Arabian consulate in [[Istanbul]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/02/world/middleeast/saudi-khashoggi-spyware-israel.html|title=Israeli Software Helped Saudis Spy on Khashoggi, Lawsuit Says|work=The New York Times |date=2 December 2018 |access-date=2 December 2018 |last1=Kirkpatrick |first1=David D. }}</ref> In 2019, [[WhatsApp]] sued NSO accusing it of helping government spies in a hacking spree, where they broke into the phones of roughly 1,400 users across 20 countries, targeting diplomats, political dissidents, journalists and senior government officials.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-facebook-cyber-whatsapp-nsogroup/whatsapp-sues-israels-nso-for-allegedly-helping-spies-hack-phones-around-the-world-idUSKBN1X82BE|title=WhatsApp sues Israel's NSO for allegedly helping spies hack phones around the world|access-date=29 October 2019|website=Reuters}}</ref>

=== Hydraulic engineering ===
{{See also|Water supply and sanitation in Israel}}
Since rain falls only in the winter, and largely in the northern part of the country, irrigation and [[Hydraulic engineering|water engineering]] is vital to the country's economic survival and growth. Large-scale projects to direct water from rivers and reservoirs in the north, to make optimal use of groundwater, and to reclaim flood overflow and sewage have been undertaken. The largest such project was a national water distribution system called the National Carrier, completed in 1964, flowing from the country's biggest freshwater lake, the [[Sea of Galilee]], to the northern [[Negev]] desert, through huge channels, pipes and tunnels.<ref>Sachar, Howard M., “A history of Israel: from the rise of Zionism to our time”, Alfred A. Knopf, New York, 3rd ed., (2007), pp. 518–520 {{ISBN|978-0-375-71132-9}}</ref> The [[Ashkelon]] seawater [[reverse osmosis]] (SWRO) [[desalination]] plant was the largest in the world at the time it was built.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.water-technology.net/projects/israel/|title=Ashkelon|website=Water Technology|access-date=16 May 2017|archive-date=24 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724181500/http://www.water-technology.net/projects/israel/|url-status=dead}}</ref> The project was developed as a [[Build-Operate-Transfer|BOT]] (build-operate-transfer) by a consortium of three international companies: [[Veolia]] water, [[IDE Technologies]] and Elran.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Ashkelon desalination plant — A successful challenge |doi=10.1016/j.desal.2006.03.525|volume=203|issue=1–3|journal=Desalination|pages=75–81 | last1 = Sauvet-Goichon | first1 = Bruno|year=2007 |bibcode=2007Desal.203...75S }}</ref>

By 2019, desalination provided 70% of domestic and municipal water.<ref name=":2" /> The growing volume of desalinated water is creating challenges of its own. Lack of magnesium in the daily diet is associated with heart disease and this condition is becoming more prevalent in Israel in areas where desalinated water is the only source of drinking water, spurring discussion about whether to add magnesium to the water.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Rosen|first1=V. V.|last2=Garber|first2=O. G.|last3=Chen|first3=Y.|date=2018|title=Magnesium deficiency in tap water in Israel: the desalination era.|journal=Desalination|volume=426|pages=88–96|doi=10.1016/j.desal.2017.10.027|bibcode=2018Desal.426...88R }}</ref>

==== Water-saving technologies ====
According to water experts, pipe leakage is one of the major problems confronting the global water supply today. For Israel, which is two-thirds desert, water-saving technologies are of critical importance. The [[International Water Association]] has cited Israel as one of the leaders in innovative methods to reduce "non-revenue water," i.e., water lost in the system before reaching the customer.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-water-israel-leaks-idUSTRE5A303X20091104|title=Israeli firms aim to plug world's water leaks|last=Rabinovitch|first=Ari|date=3 November 2009|newspaper=Reuters|access-date=14 October 2012}}</ref>

=== Military engineering ===
{{Further|Rafael Advanced Defense Systems}}
[[File:IAI Harop PAS 2013 01.jpg|thumb|left|[[IAI Harop]], Israel, is the world's largest exporter of drones.]]
Rejection of requests for weapons and technologies, arms sanctions and massive rearmament of the Arab countries prodded Israel into the development of a broad-based indigenous arms industry.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sadeh |first=Sharon |year=2001 |title=Israel's Beleaguered Defense Industry |journal=Middle East Review of International Affairs |volume=5 |issue=1 |publisher=Global Research in International Affairs (GLORIA) Center |url=http://www.gloria-center.org/2001/03/sadeh-2001-03-05/ |access-date=14 May 2013}}</ref> The [[Israel Defense Forces]] relies heavily on [[Israel Defense Forces#Military equipment|local military technology]] and high-tech weapons systems designed and manufactured in Israel. [[Military equipment of Israel#Local military development|Israeli-developed military equipment]] includes small arms, anti-tank rockets and missiles, boats and submarines, tanks, armored vehicles, artillery, unmanned surface vehicles, aircraft, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), air-defense systems, weapon stations and radar. An impetus for the development of the industry was the embargo on arms sales to Israel during the [[Six-Day War]] which prompted Israel Aircraft Industries (IAI), founded as a maintenance facility in 1953, to begin developing and assembling its own aircraft, including the [[IAI Kfir|Kfir]], the [[IAI Arava|Arava]]  and the [[IAI Nesher|Nesher]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/israel/industry.htm|title=Israel's military industry|website=GlobalSecurity.org|access-date=16 May 2017}}</ref>
[[File:Spike LR 3.jpg|thumb|Israeli soldier with [[Spike (missile)]]]]
Notable technology includes the [[Uzi submachine gun]], introduced in 1954,<ref>{{cite news |title=Israel's army phases out country's iconic Uzi submachine gun |url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/world/2003-12-18-uzi_x.htm |newspaper=USA Today |date=18 December 2003 |access-date=14 October 2012}}</ref> the country's [[main battle tank]], the [[Merkava]], and the jointly designed Israeli and U.S. [[Arrow (Israeli missile)|Arrow missile]], one of the world's only operational, advanced [[anti-ballistic missile]] systems.<ref>{{cite news |title=Arrow can fully protect against Iran |first=Yaakov |last=Katz |url=http://www.jpost.com/Israel/Article.aspx?id=56544 |newspaper=The Jerusalem Post |date=30 March 2007 |access-date=14 October 2012}}</ref> The [[Iron Dome]] mobile air defense system developed by [[Rafael Advanced Defense Systems]] is designed to intercept short-range [[rocket]]s and [[artillery shells]]. The system was created as a defensive countermeasure to the rocket threat against Israel's civilian population on its northern and southern borders, and was declared operational and initially deployed in the first quarter of 2011.<ref name="JN1">{{cite news |url=http://www.jpost.com/Defense/Article.aspx?id=213848&pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull |title=Barak confirms: 'Iron Dome' to be deployed within days |date=25 March 2011 |newspaper=[[The Jerusalem Post]] |access-date=25 March 2011}}</ref> It is designed to intercept very short-range threats up to 70 kilometers in all-weather situations.<ref name="Ref_a">{{cite web |url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/mideast/RL33222.pdf |title=U.S. Foreign Aid to Israel |last=Sharp |first=Jeremy M. |date=12 March 2012 |work=Report for Congress |publisher=Congressional Research Service |access-date=11 October 2012}}</ref> On April 7, 2011, the system successfully intercepted a [[Grad rocket]] launched from [[Gaza Strip|Gaza]], marking the first time in history a short-range rocket was ever intercepted.<ref name="firstInterceptAshkelon">{{cite news |title=Iron Dome successfully intercepts Gaza rocket for first time |first1=Anshel |last1=Pfeffer |first2=Yanir |last2=Yagna |url=http://www.haaretz.com/news/diplomacy-defense/iron-dome-successfully-intercepts-gaza-rocket-for-first-time-1.354696 |newspaper=Haaretz |date=7 April 2011 |access-date=14 October 2012}}</ref>

Israel has also developed a network of [[reconnaissance satellites]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/kent-csi/vol44no5/html/v44i5a04p.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100426215752/https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/kent-csi/vol44no5/html/v44i5a04p.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=April 26, 2010 |title=Israel's Quest for Satellite Intelligence |last=Zorn |first=E. L. |date=8 May 2007 |work=Studies in Intelligence |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |access-date=14 October 2012}}</ref> The [[Ofeq]] (''lit.'' Horizon) series (Ofeq 1 – Ofeq 7) were launched between 1988 and 2007.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Economy/spaceres.html |title=Israeli Space Research |last=Elliman |first=Wendy |work=Jewish Virtual Library |publisher=American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise |access-date=14 October 2012}}</ref> The satellites were carried by [[Shavit 2|Shavit]] rockets launched from [[Palmachim Airbase]]. Both the satellites and the launchers were designed and manufactured by [[Israel Aerospace Industries]] (IAI), with [[Elbit Systems]]' El-Op division supplying the optical payload.

Israel also has the first all-around operational active defense system for tanks named [[Trophy (countermeasure)|Trophy]], successfully intercepting anti tank missiles fired at Merkava tanks.{{Citation needed|date=May 2017}}

=== Life sciences ===
[[File:CapsuleEndoscope.jpg|thumb|170px|[[Given Imaging|Given]] endoscopic capsule ([[Pillcam]])]]
Israel has an advanced{{Clarify|reason=vague|date=May 2017}} infrastructure of [[medical]] and [[paramedical]] research and [[bioengineering]] capabilities. [[Biotechnology]], [[biomedical]], and [[clinical research]] account for over half of the country's scientific publications, and the industrial sector has used this extensive knowledge to develop pharmaceuticals, medical equipment and treatment therapies.<ref name=MOFA2>{{cite web |url=http://mfa.gov.il/MFA/AboutIsrael/Science/Pages/SCIENCE%20AND%20TECHNOLOGY-%20Medical%20R-amp-D.aspx |title=SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY: Medical R&D |publisher=Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs |access-date=15 May 2013}}</ref>

====Biotechnology====
Israel has over 900 biotechnology and life sciences companies in operation throughout the country with nearly 50 to 60 formed each year. Many multinational corporations such as [[Johnson & Johnson|J&J]], [[Perrigo]], [[GE Healthcare]] and [[Koninklijke Philips N.V.|Phillips]] Medical have all established branches in Israel.<ref name="Business Opportunities By Sector"/>

==== Genetics and cancer research ====
Israeli scientists have developed methods for producing a [[human growth hormone]] and [[interferon]], a group of proteins effective against viral infections. [[Copaxone]], a medicine effective in the treatment of [[multiple sclerosis]], was developed in Israel from basic research to industrial production. [[Genetic engineering]] has resulted in a wide range of diagnostic kits based on [[monoclonal antibodies]], with other microbiological products.<ref name=MOFA2/>

Advanced [[stem cell]] research takes place in Israel. The first steps in the development of stem cell studies occurred in Israel, with research in this field dating back to studies of bone marrow stem cells in the early 1960s. By 2006, Israeli scientists were leaders on a per capita basis in the number of articles published in scientific journals related to stem cell research.<ref name="scell">{{cite news |title=Stem cell density highest in Israel |first=Ned |last=Stafford |url=http://classic.the-scientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/23830 |newspaper=The Scientist |date=21 March 2006 |access-date=14 October 2012}}</ref> In 2011, Israeli scientist Inbar Friedrich Ben-Nun led a team which produced the first stem cells from endangered species, a breakthrough that could save animals in danger of extinction.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/news/israeli-scientist-leads-breakthrough-stem-cell-research-on-endangered-species-1.382754|title=Israeli Scientist Leads Breakthrough Stem Cell Research on Endangered Species|first=Asaf|last=Shtull-Trauring|date=6 September 2011|access-date=16 May 2017|newspaper=Haaretz}}</ref> In 2012, Israel was one of the world leaders in stem cell research, with the largest number of articles, patents and research studies per capita.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.haaretz.com/weekend/magazine/stem-cell-tourism-prepares-for-take-off.premium-1.490387|title=Stem Cell Tourism Prepares for Take-off|first=Netta|last=Ahituv|date=27 December 2012|access-date=16 May 2017|newspaper=Haaretz}}</ref>

==== Biomedical engineering ====
Sophisticated medical equipment for both diagnostic and treatment purposes has been developed and marketed worldwide, such as [[CT scan|computer tomography (CT) scanners]], [[Magnetic resonance imaging|magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)]] systems, [[Medical ultrasonography|ultrasound scanners]], [[Nuclear medicine|nuclear medical cameras]], and [[Laser scalpel|surgical lasers]]. Other innovations include a controlled-release liquid polymer to prevent accumulation of tooth plaque, a device to reduce both benign and malignant swellings of the prostate gland, the use of [[Botulinum toxin|botulin]] to correct eye squint, and a miniature camera encased in a swallowable capsule used to diagnose gastrointestinal disease,<ref name=MOFA2/> developed by [[Given Imaging]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bionorth.org.il/BioNorth/Templates/showpage.asp?TMID=105&FID=139&PID=0&IID=5206|title=Bionorth, Northern Israel Biotech companies|website=Bionorth.org.il|access-date=16 May 2017}}</ref> MeMic Medical LTD. founded in 2012 received its FDA approval in 2021 for its robotic platform for natural orifice [[Lumen (anatomy)|transluminal]] endoscopic surgery [[Natural orifice transluminal endoscopic surgery|(NOTES)]] for [[Uterine fibroid|myomectomy]] through the vagina.<ref>[https://www.timesofisrael.com/israeli-robotic-arms-get-fda-nod-for-minimally-invasive-hysterectomies Israeli robotic arms get FDA nod for minimally invasive hysterectomies], Retrieved 3 March 2021</ref>

In 2009, scientists from several European countries and Israel developed a [[Robotics#Touch|robotic prosthetic]] hand, called SmartHand, which functions like a real one, allowing patients to write with it, type on a keyboard, play piano and perform other fine movements. The [[prosthesis]] has sensors which enable the patient to sense real feeling in its fingertips.<ref>[http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3803524,00.html Israelis help develop revolutionary prosthetic hand] ynetnews.com Retrieved 25 November 2009</ref> A new MRI system  for identifying and diagnosing tumors developed at the Weizmann Institute has received approval from the [[U.S. Food and Drug Administration]] and is already being used in diagnosing breast and testicular cancer. The new system will replace invasive procedures and eliminate waiting time for the results.<ref>{{cite news |title=Taking MRI a step beyond |first=Anat |last=Or |url=http://www.haaretz.com/culture/books/taking-mri-a-step-beyond-1.113588 |newspaper=Haaretz |date=10 February 2004 |access-date=14 October 2012}}</ref>                                                

==== Pharmaceutical sciences====
[[Teva Pharmaceutical Industries]], headquartered in [[Petah Tikva]], Israel, is the largest generic [[medication|drug]] manufacturer in the world and one of the 20 largest [[pharmacy|pharmaceutical]] companies worldwide.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biojerusalem.org.il/database_company.asp?ID=76|title=Teva Pharmaceutical Industries - Jerusalem - BioJerusalem|website=www.BioJerusalem.org.il|access-date=16 May 2017|archive-date=21 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721143023/http://www.biojerusalem.org.il/database_company.asp?ID=76|url-status=dead}}</ref> It specializes in [[generic drug]]s and active pharmaceutical ingredients and has developed proprietary pharmaceuticals such as [[Copaxone]] and [[Laquinimod]] for the treatment of [[multiple sclerosis]], and [[Rasagiline]] for the treatment of [[Parkinson's disease]].<ref name=PrescribingInformation>{{cite web |url=http://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/archives/fdaDrugInfo.cfm?archiveid=10668 |title=AZILECT® (rasagiline tablets), 0.5 and 1 mg |year=2009 |work=Daily Med |publisher=United States National Library of Medicine |access-date=11 October 2012}}</ref>

=== Quantum technology ===

==== Quantum Computing Center ====
The world's first [[Israeli Quantum Computing Center|Quantum computing center]], located in Tel Aviv, which has several different quantum computers able to hold different quibit modalities was opened in the [[Tel Aviv University|university of Tel Aviv]] in June 2024.<ref name=":022">{{Cite web |date=2024-06-17 |title=Quantum Machines launches Israeli Quantum Computing Center |url=https://www.calcalistech.com/ctechnews/article/sjhwhzasr |access-date=2024-06-22 |website=ctech |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite news |last=Wrobel |first=Sharon |date=18 June 2024 |title=Amid war, Israel opens R&D center to put the country on the map of quantum computing |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/amid-war-israel-opens-rd-center-to-put-the-country-on-the-map-of-quantum-computing/}}</ref>

== Science and Technology newspapers in Israel ==
[[NoCamels]] and [[Calcalist|CTech]] are among several Israeli online websites that focus on Israeli innovation, science and technology.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.runi.ac.il/en/schools/communications |access-date=2024-06-16 |website=www.runi.ac.il}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Calcalist |date=2017-11-06 |title=Calcalist Launches English-Language Site Dedicated to Israeli Tech News |url=https://www.calcalistech.com/ctech/articles/0,7340,L-3724377,00.html |access-date=2024-06-16 |website=CTECH - www.calcalistech.com}}</ref>

== Nobel Prize laureates ==
{{Main list|List of Israeli Nobel laureates}} 
Six Israelis have won the [[Nobel Prize for Chemistry]]. In 2004, biologists [[Avram Hershko]] and [[Aaron Ciechanover]] of the [[Technion – Israel Institute of Technology]] were two of the three winners of the prize, for the discovery of [[ubiquitin]]-mediated [[protein degradation]].<ref>{{cite web | title = The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2004| publisher = Nobelprize.org |url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/2004/index.html|access-date=5 October 2011}}</ref> In 2009, [[Ada Yonath]] was a co-winner of the prize for her studies of the structure and function of the [[ribosome]]. She is the first Israeli woman to win a Nobel Prize.<ref name="JPost1019">{{cite news|url=http://www.jpost.com/Home/Article.aspx?id=156872|title=Nobel Prize Winner 'Happy, Shocked'|last=Lappin|first=Yaakov|date=7 October 2009|newspaper=Jerusalem Post|access-date=7 October 2009}}</ref> [[Michael Levitt (biophysicist)|Michael Levitt]] and [[Arieh Warshel]] received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2013 for the development of multiscale models for complex chemical systems.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2013|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/2013/index.html|website=Nobelprize.org}}</ref>

Additionally, 1958 Medicine laureate [[Joshua Lederberg]] was born to Israeli Jewish parents, and 2004 Physics laureate [[David Gross]] grew up partly in Israel, where he obtained his undergraduate degree. In the social sciences, the Nobel Prize for Economics was awarded to [[Daniel Kahneman]] in 2002, to [[Robert Aumann]] of the [[Hebrew University]] in 2005, and to [[Joshua Angrist]] in 2021.

== Notable companies ==
{{Div col|colwidth=15em}}
=== Automotive ===
*[[Better Place (company)|Better Place]]
*[[Ituran]]
*[[Mobileye]]
*[[Robomow]]

=== Chemicals ===
*[[Adama Agricultural Solutions|Adama]]
*[[Ahava]]
*[[Israel Chemicals]]

=== Clean technology ===
*[[BrightSource Energy]]
*[[Netafim]]
*[[Ormat Industries]]
*[[Plastro Irrigation Systems]]
*[[SolarEdge]]
*[[Solel]]

=== Medicine ===
*[[BioLineRx]]
*[[Compugen (Israeli company)|Compugen]]
*[[D. Medical Industries]]
*[[Given Imaging]]
*[[Insightec]]
*[[Kite Pharma]]
*[[Perrigo]]
*[[Pluristem Therapeutics]]
*[[Rosetta Genomics]]
*[[Syneron Medical]]
*[[Taro Pharmaceuticals]]
*[[Teva Pharmaceutical Industries]]

=== Defense contracting ===
*[[Elbit Systems]]
*[[Elisra]]
*[[Elta Systems|Elta]]
*[[Israel Aerospace Industries]]
*[[Israel Military Industries]]
*[[Israel Shipyards]]
*[[Israel Weapon Industries]]
*[[Plasan]]
*[[Rafael Advanced Defense Systems]]
*[[Soltam Systems]]

=== Semiconductors ===
*[[Anobit]]
*[[Altair Semiconductor]]
*[[CEVA, Inc.]]
*[[EZchip Semiconductor]]
*[[Mellanox Technologies]]
*[[Nova Measuring Instruments]]
*[[Orbotech]]
*[[Tower Semiconductor]]
*[[Wilocity]]
*[[Zoran Corporation]]

=== Software and IT ===
*[[Aladdin Knowledge Systems]]
*[[Amdocs]]
*[[Babylon (software)|Babylon]]
*[[Boxee]]
*[[Check Point]]
*[[ClickSoftware Technologies]]
*[[Commtouch]]
*[[CTERA Networks]]
*[[Magic Software Enterprises]]
*[[Marvell Software Solutions Israel]]
*[[Mirabilis (company)|Mirabilis]]
*[[Moovit]]
*[[M-Systems]]
*[[Ness Technologies]]
*[[NICE Systems]]
*[[Onavo]]
*[[Panorama Software]]
*[[Plarium]]
*[[Retalix]]
*[[Sapiens International Corporation]]
*[[Scitex Vision]]
*[[Secure Islands]]
*[[Shopping.com]]
*[[Wanova]]
*[[Waze]]
*[[Wix.com|Wix]]
*[[Zend Technologies]]

=== Telecommunications and computing ===
*[[Allot Communications]]
*[[Alvarion]]
*[[ASOCS]]
*[[AudioCodes]]
*[[Bezeq]]
*[[Ceragon]]
*[[Comverse]]
*[[ECI Telecom]]
*[[Humavox]]
*[[Gilat Satellite Networks]]
*[[Mellanox Technologies]]
*[[RAD Data Communications]]
*[[Radcom Ltd]]
*[[Radvision]]
*[[Radware]]
*[[Radwin]]
*[[Tadiran Telecom]]
{{div col end}}

== See also ==
{{Portal|Israel|Science|Technology}}
{{Div col|colwidth=25em}}
*[[Economy of Israel]]
*[[History of IBM research in Israel]]
*[[Israel National Museum of Science, Technology, and Space]]
*[[Israel Patent Office]]
*[[List of Israeli companies quoted on the Nasdaq]]
*[[List of Israeli inventions and discoveries]]
*[[List of multinationals with research and development centres in Israel]]
*[[Science and technology in Asia]]
*[[Science and Technology Minister of Israel]]
*[[Silicon Wadi]]
*''[[Start-up Nation]]''
*[[Telecommunications in Israel]]
*[[Venture capital in Israel]]
{{div col end}}
{{clear}}

== Sources ==
{{Free-content attribution

 | title = UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030
| author = UNESCO
| publisher = UNESCO Publishing
| page numbers = 409-429
| source = 
| documentURL = http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002354/235406e.pdf
| license statement URL = 
| license = CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0
}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin|30em}}
*{{cite book |title=Start-up Nation |last1=Senor |first1=Dan |author-link=Dan Senor |last2=Singer |first2=Saul |author-link2=Saul Singer |year=2009 |publisher=Twelve |isbn=978-0446541466|title-link=Start-up Nation }}
*{{cite book |title=Israel in the World: Changing Lives Through Innovation |last1=Davis |first1=Helen |last2=Davis |first2=Douglas |year=2005 |publisher=WN |isbn=978-0297844099 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/israelinworldcha0000davi }}
*{{cite book |title=The Take-off of Israeli High-Tech Entrepreneurship in the 1990s |last=Fiegenbaum |first=Avi |year=2007 |publisher=Emerald Group Publishing |isbn=978-0080450995}}
*{{cite book |title=Israel High Technology |last1=Sherman |first1=Arnold |last2=Hirschhorn |first2=Paul |year=1984 |publisher=La Semana Publishing |location=Jerusalem}}
*{{cite web |url=http://econ.haifa.ac.il/~dpeled/papers/ste-wp4.pdf |title=Defense R&D and Economic Growth in Israel: A Research Agenda |last=Peled |first=Dan |date=March 2001 |work=Samuel Neaman Institute |publisher=Technion – Israel Institute of Technology |access-date=14 October 2012}}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.bioassociate.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/Investing-in-the-Israeli-Life-Sciences-Industry-2012.pdf |title=Investing in the Israeli Life Sciences Industry 2012 |date=January 2012 |publisher=Bioassociate |access-date=14 October 2012}}
{{refend}}
*Levav, Amos (1998). ''The Birth of Israel's High-Tech''. Zmora Bitan (in Hebrew).
* Gewirtz, Jason (2016). ''Israel's Edge: The Story of The IDF's Most Elite Unit - Talpiot''. Gefen Publishing House.
* [[Seth M. Siegel|Siegel, Seth M.]] (2017) ''Let There Be Water: Israel's Solution for a Water-Starved World''.  A Thomas Dunne Book for St. Martin's Griffin.
* [[Yaakov Katz (journalist)|Katz, Yaakov]]; Bohbot, Amir (2017). ''The Weapon Wizards: How Israel Became a High-Tech Military Superpower''. St. Martin's Press.
* Kainan, Noga; Reuter, Adam (2018). ''Israel - Island of Success''
*Hemi, Galit; Shulman, Sophie (2018). ''The Israeli Mind: the story of the Israeli innovation''. Yedioth Books (in Hebrew).
*Jorisch, Avi (2018). ''Thou Shalt Innovate: How Israeli Ingenuity Repairs the World''. Gefen Publishing House.

== External links ==
{{Commons category}}
* [http://most.gov.il/English/Pages/default.aspx Official website] of the [[Science and Technology Minister of Israel|Israeli Ministry of Science, Technology and Space]]
* [https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Economy/techtoc.html Science & Technology in Israel] at the [[Jewish Virtual Library]]
* [https://uk.practicallaw.thomsonreuters.com/7-501-0552?transitionType=Default&contextData=(sc.Default) Doing Business in Israel: Overview] by Ariella Dreyfuss, Netta Bromberg, Dr. Zvi Gabbay, Anat Even-Chen, Ilan Blumenfeld, Harel Perlmutter and Ron Shuhatovich, Barnea Jaffa Lande.

{{Economy of Israel}}
{{Asia topic|Science and technology in}}

[[Category:Science and technology in Israel| ]]