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{{About|the contemporary [[People's Republic of China]]|times predating 1949|History of science and technology in China|the [[Republic of China]]|Science and technology in Taiwan}}
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[[File:Donghai Bridge.jpg|thumb|Donghai Bridge]]
[[File:Yangshan-Port-Containers.jpg|thumb|right|Building infrastructure has been a major task for Chinese engineering during the past decades. This is the {{convert|32.5|km|adj=on|sp=us}}-long [[Donghai Bridge]], connecting mainland [[Shanghai]] to the offshore [[Yangshan Port]] &ndash; one part of the [[Port of Shanghai]], the world's busiest container port.]]

'''Science and technology in the People's Republic of China''' have developed rapidly since the 1980s to the 2020s, with major scientific and technological progress over the last four decades.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=China's Science and Technology Development Summary |url=https://www.mfa.gov.cn/ce/ceindo/eng/kjjl/t87396.htm |access-date=2022-06-27 |website=www.mfa.gov.cn}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Yang |first=Dali |title=State and Technological Innovation in China: A Historical Overview, 1949-89 |date=1990 |journal=Asian Perspective |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=91–112 |jstor=42703933 |issn=0258-9184}}</ref> From the 1980s to the 1990s, the [[government of the People's Republic of China]] successively launched the [[863 Program]] and the "Strategy for Rejuvenating the Country through Science and Education", which greatly promoted the development of China's science and technological institutions.<ref name=":5" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chen |first=E. Yegin |date=1995 |title=Technological Development and Cooperation in Greater China |journal=Managerial and Decision Economics |volume=16 |issue=5 |pages=565–579 |doi=10.1002/mde.4090160507 |jstor=2487968 |issn=0143-6570}}</ref> Governmental focus on prioritizing the advancement of science and technology in China is evident in its allocation of funds, investment in research, reform measures, and enhanced societal recognition of these fields.{{according to whom|date = October 2024}} These actions undertaken by the Chinese government are seen{{by whom|date= October 2024}} as crucial foundations for bolstering the nation's socioeconomic competitiveness and development, projecting its geopolitical influence, and elevating its national prestige and international reputation.

As per the [[Global Innovation Index]] in 2022, China was considered one of the most competitive in the world, ranking eleventh in the world, third in the Asia & Oceania region, and second for countries with a population of over 100 million.<ref name=":6" /> In 2024, China is still ranked 11th. <ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.wipo.int/web-publications/global-innovation-index-2024/en/|title=Global Innovation Index 2024. Unlocking the Promise of Social Entrepreneurship|access-date=2024-10-22|author=[[World Intellectual Property Organization]]|year=2024|isbn=978-92-805-3681-2|doi= 10.34667/tind.50062|website=www.wipo.int|location=Geneva|page=18}}</ref>

==History==
{{History of science and technology in China}}
{{main|History of science and technology in the People's Republic of China}}
{{for|historical China|History of science and technology in China}}

[[File:Dunhuang star map.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Dunhuang map]], a [[star map]] showing the North Polar region. circa 700. The Dunhuang Star map is to date the world's oldest complete preserved star atlas.{{sfn|Xi|1981|p=464}} The whole set of star maps contains over 1,300 stars.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://idp.bl.uk/education/astronomy_researchers/index.a4d|title=The Dunhuang Chinese Sky: A comprehensive study of the oldest known star atlas|author=[[Jean-Marc Bonnet-Bidaud]] |author2=Françoise Praderie |author3=[[Susan Whitfield]] |publisher=International Dunhuang Project, British Library|access-date=March 13, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140402021617/http://idp.bl.uk/education/astronomy_researchers/index.a4d|archive-date=April 2, 2014}}</ref>]]

{{multiple image
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 | image1 = Su Song Star Map 2.JPG
 | alt1 = Su Song Star Map 2
 | caption1 = Star map of the [[map projection|south polar projection]] for Su's celestial globe, ''Xin Yi Xiang Fa Yao'', 1092
 | image2 = Su Song Star Map 1.JPG
 | alt2 = Su Song Star Map 1
 | caption2 = One of the [[star chart]]s from [[Su Song]]'s ''Xin Yi Xiang Fa Yao'' published in 1092, featuring the cylindrical [[equirectangular projection]] and the corrected position of the [[pole star]] thanks to Shen Kuo's astronomical observations.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Miyajima |first=Kazuhiko |year=1998 |title=Projection Methods in Chinese, Korean and Japanese Star Maps |journal=Highlights of Astronomy |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=712–715 |doi=10.1017/s1539299600018554 }}</ref>{{sfn|Needham|1986d|p=569}}{{sfn|Needham|1986b|p=208}} Su Song's celestial atlas of five star maps is actually the oldest in [[printing|printed]] form.{{sfn|Sivin|1995|p=32}}
}}

China was a global scientific and technological leader up until the early years of the [[Ming dynasty]]. Ancient and medieval [[List of Chinese discoveries|Chinese discoveries]] and [[List of Chinese inventions|Chinese innovations]] such as [[papermaking]], [[History of typography in East Asia|printing]], the [[compass]], and [[gunpowder]] (the [[Four Great Inventions]]) contributed to the economic development of ancient and medieval East Asia, the Middle East and Europe. Chinese scientific activity began to neuter and wane around the fourteenth century. Unlike in Europe and other parts of the [[Western World]], Western engineers and scientists did not attempt to reduce observations of nature to mathematical laws and nor did they not form a scholarly community with criticisms and progressive research. In the Chinese Confucian cultural ethos dating back to the [[Han dynasty#Structural and geotechnical engineering|Han dynasty]], Confucian philosophers held a strong focus by placing an overemphasis on literature, the arts, and public administration, while scientific and technological pursuits were looked down upon in terms of prestige and respectability and regarded to be unworthy endeavors that were fell far beneath their social pay grade as such domains of inquiry were seen as trivial or restricted to limited practical applications.{{sfnp|Fraser|2014|p=370}}<ref name="LOC">{{cite web|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cntoc.html|title=Country Studies - China - Federal Research Division - The Library of Congress|work=loc.gov}}</ref> One contributing factor is believed to be the [[imperial examination]] system, which deprived the incentives that encouraged up-and-coming Chinese intellectuals to actively engage in scientific and technological endeavors. The absence of motivating factors rooted in the imperial examinations stifled the development of scientific and technological innovation and resulted in a stagnation of Chinese scientific and technological creativity and development over the last several centuries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://assets.cambridge.org/97805211/91807/frontmatter/9780521191807_frontmatter.pdf|author=Justin Yifu Lin|title=Demystifying the Chinese Economy|year= 2011|publisher=Cambridge University Press, Preface xiv}}</ref> By the 17th century, Europe and the Western world surpassed China in scientific and technological advancement.<ref>{{cite book|title=Chinese Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science and Technology |volume=179 |year=1996|publisher=Kluwer Academic Publishers|pages=137–138 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jaQH6_8Ju-MC&pg=PA137|isbn=978-0-7923-3463-7}}</ref> The causes of this early modern [[Great Divergence]] continue to be debated by scholars to this day.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Frank |first1=Andre |author-link=Andre Gunder Frank |title=Review of ''The Great Divergence'' |journal=Journal of Asian Studies |volume=60 |issue=1 |year=2001 |pages=180–182 |doi=10.2307/2659525 |url=http://www.rrojasdatabank.info/agfrank/pomeranz.html|jstor=2659525 }}</ref>

After being defeated repeatedly by [[First Sino-Japanese war|Japan]] and [[Eight-Nation Alliance|Western nations]] in the 19th century, Chinese reformers began promoting modern science and technology as part of the [[Self-Strengthening Movement]]. After the Communist victory in 1949 science and technology research was organized based on the model of the [[Soviet Union]]. It was characterized by a bureaucratic organization led by non-scientists, research according to the goals of central plans, separation of research from production, specialized research institutes, concentration on practical applications, and restrictions on information flows. Researchers should work as collectives for society rather than as individuals seeking recognition. Many studied in the Soviet Union which also transferred technology. The Soviet Union provided 10,000 experts to China to facilitate its development.<ref name=":152">{{Cite book |last=Zhong |first=Yang |url=https://www.fulcrum.org/concern/monographs/vx021h696 |title=China as Number One? The Emerging Values of a Rising Power |last2= |first2= |date=2024 |publisher=[[University of Michigan Press]] |isbn=978-0-472-07635-2 |editor-last=Zhong |editor-first=Yang |series=China Understandings Today series |location=Ann Arbor, Michigan |chapter=Attitudes Toward Religion, Science, and Technology in China |format=EPUB |editor-last2=Inglehart |editor-first2=Ronald |editor-last3=}}</ref>{{Rp|page=356}}

China began a formal computing development program in 1956 when it launched the Twelve-Year Science Plan and formed the Beijing Institute of Computing Technology under the [[Chinese Academy of Sciences]].<ref name=":Mullaney23">{{Cite book |last=Mullaney |first=Thomas S. |title=The Chinese Computer: a Global History of the Information Age |date=2024 |publisher=[[The MIT Press]] |isbn=9780262047517 |location=Cambridge, MA}}</ref>{{Rp|page=100}}

From the 1950s until the end of the Mao era, China emphasized self-reliance in scientific and technological development.<ref name=":152" />{{Rp|page=356}} This resulted from its relative international isolation and its ideological stance.<ref name=":152" />{{Rp|page=356}}

Beginning in 1964, China through the [[Third Front (China)|Third Front]] construction built a self-sufficient industrial base in its hinterlands as a strategic reserve in the event of war with the Soviet Union or the United States.<ref name=":03">{{Cite book |last=Meyskens |first=Covell F. |url= |title=Mao's Third Front: The Militarization of Cold War China |date=2020 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-1-108-78478-8 |location=Cambridge, United Kingdom |doi=10.1017/9781108784788 |oclc=1145096137 |s2cid=218936313}}</ref>{{Rp|page=1}} The Third Front construction was primarily carried out in secret, with the location for Third Front projects following the principle of “close to the mountains, dispersed, and hidden” ({{lang-zh|s=靠山, 分散, 隐蔽|p=kàoshān, fēnsàn, yǐnbì|labels=no}}).<ref name=":9">{{Cite book |last1=Marquis |first1=Christopher |author-link=Christopher Marquis |url= |title=Mao and Markets: The Communist Roots of Chinese Enterprise |last2=Qiao |first2=Kunyuan |date=2022 |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |isbn=978-0-300-26883-6 |location=New Haven |doi=10.2307/j.ctv3006z6k |jstor=j.ctv3006z6k |oclc=1348572572 |s2cid=253067190}}</ref>{{Rp|page=179}} From 1964-1974, China invested more than 40% of its industrial capacity in Third Front regions.<ref name=":6223">{{Cite book |last=Lan |first=Xiaohuan |title=How China Works: An Introduction to China's State-led Economic Development |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |year=2024 |isbn=978-981-97-0079-0 |translator-last=Topp |translator-first=Gary |doi=10.1007/978-981-97-0080-6}}</ref>{{Rp|pages=297-298}} After [[1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China|Nixon's China trip]] in 1972, investment to the Third Front region gradually declined.<ref name=":03" />{{Rp|pages=225-229}} Rapprochement between the United States and China decreased the fear of invasion which motivated the Third Front construction.<ref name=":9" />{{Rp|page=180}} Through its distribution of infrastructure, industry, and human capital around the country, the Third Front created favorable conditions for subsequent market development and private enterprise.<ref name=":9" />{{Rp|page=177}}

The [[Cultural Revolution]] (1966-1976), which sought to remove perceived [[bourgeois]] influences and attitudes, caused large negative effects and disruptions. Construction of the Third Front slowed during its early stages.<ref name=":03" />{{Rp|page=12}} Among other measures it saw the scientific community and formal education attacked, intellectuals were sent to do manual labor, universities and academic journals were closed, most research ceased, and for nearly a decade China trained no new scientists and engineers.<ref name="LOC" />

In 1966, China transitioned from vacuum-tube computers to fully [[Transistor computer|transistorized computers]].<ref name=":Mullaney23"/>{{Rp|page=101}} In the mid-1960s through the late 1960s, China began a [[Semiconductor industry in China|semiconductor]] program and was producing [[Third generation computer|third-generation computers]] by 1972.<ref name=":Mullaney23"/>{{Rp|page=101}}

After [[Mao Zedong]]'s death, S&T was established as one of the [[Four Modernizations]] in 1976. The new leader [[Deng Xiaoping]], and architect of the [[Chinese economic reform]], was a strong promoter of S&T and reversed the policies of the Cultural revolution. The Soviet inspired system was then gradually reformed. Media began promoting the value of S&T, scientific thinking, and scientific achievement.<ref name=LOC/> The [[Generations of Chinese leadership|third and fourth generations]] of leaders came almost exclusively from technical backgrounds.

In March 1986, China launched the large-scale technology development plan, the [[863 Program|863 Project]].<ref name=":Minami">{{Cite book |last=Minami |first=Kazushi |title=People's Diplomacy: How Americans and Chinese Transformed US-China Relations during the Cold War |date=2024 |publisher=[[Cornell University Press]] |isbn=9781501774157 |location=Ithaca, NY}}</ref>{{Rp|page=88}}

The [[State Council of the People's Republic of China]] in 1995 issued the "Decision on Accelerating S&T Development" which described planned Science & Technology development for the coming decades. It described S&T as the chief productive force and affecting economic development, social progress, national strength, and living standards. S&T should become closely associated with market needs. Not only Soviet style institutes should do research but also universities and private industries. State institutions should form [[joint venture]]s with Chinese or foreign [[venture capital]] in order for S&T developments to reach the industry. S&T personal should become more occupationally mobile, pay should be linked to economic results, and age and seniority should become less important for personal decisions. [[Intellectual property]] rights should be respected. Information exchange should improve and there should be competition and open bidding on projects. The environment should be protected. Chinese indigenous S&T in certain key areas should be especially promoted. Public officials should improve their understanding of S&T and incorporate S&T in decision making. Society, including Communist Party youth organizations, [[labor union]]s and the [[mass media]], should actively promote respect for knowledge and human talents.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usembassy-china.org.cn/english/sandt/stdec2.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010303150429/http://www.usembassy-china.org.cn/english/sandt/stdec2.htm|title=State Council Decision on Accelerating S&T Development|archive-date=3 March 2001|work=usembassy-china.org.cn}}</ref>

{{multiple image
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 | image1 = Clock Tower from Su Song's Book desmear.JPG
 | alt1 = Clock Tower from Su Song's Book desmear
 | caption1 = An interior diagram of the [[Astronomical clock|astronomical]] [[clocktower]] of [[Kaifeng]] featured in [[Su Song]]'s book, written by 1092 and published [[Woodblock printing|in printed form]] by the year 1094.
 | image2 = 11th century long serpent fire arrow rocket launcher.jpg
 | alt2 = 11th century long serpent fire arrow rocket launcher
 | caption2 = A depiction of the 13th Century "long serpent" rocket launcher. The holes in the frame are designed to keep the rockets separate, from the 1510 edition of ''Wujing Zongyao''.
 | image3 = Chain drive, Su Song's book of 1092.jpg
 | alt3 = Chain drive, Su Song's book of 1092
 | caption3 = The oldest known illustration of an endless power-transmitting chain drive. It was used for coupling the main driving shaft of his clock tower to the armillary sphere gear box.
}}

Since the 1990s, China has concentrated on building physical infrastructure such as roads and ports.  During the 2010s, a policy was implemented requiring technology transfer as a condition for foreign companies wanting entry into the Chinese market. However, China has shifted its growing focus towards prioritizing indigenous innovation to meet its national scientific and technological requirements.<ref name=Battelle2011/> During this period China has succeeded in developing an innovation infrastructure, founded on the establishment of over 100 science and technology parks in many parts of the country, along with encouragement of entrepreneurship outside the state-owned sector.  Yip and McKern argue that Chinese firms have evolved through three phases as their innovation capabilities have matured and that by 2017 many of them are of world standard. They are now strong competitors in the China market and increasingly in foreign markets, where they are establishing local operations.<ref>{{Cite book|title=China's Next Strategic Advantage:from Imitation to Innovation.|last1=Yip|first1=George|last2=McKern|first2=Bruce|publisher=MIT Press 2016|isbn=978-0-262-03458-6|location=Boston|date=2016-04-08}}</ref>

== Techno-nationalism ==
While the term "techno-nationalism" was originally applied to the United States in the 1980s, it has since been used to describe nationalistic technology policies in many countries, particularly in Asia.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Reich|first1=Robert|title=The Rise of Technonationalism|journal=The Atlantic|date=May 1987|page=62}}</ref> Chinese techno-nationalism is rooted in the country's humiliation at the hands of more advanced countries in the 19th century. Indeed, China's leaders (like those of other countries) have long seen scientific and technological development as vital for achieving economic affluence, national security, and national prestige. Lacking indigenous technological [[intellectual property]] and innovation are seen as key national problems.  The 21st century has thus seen a series of central government initiatives designed to promote "indigenous innovation" and technological development more generally in China.  These include the National Medium- and Long-Term Program for Science and Technology Development (2006–20), the Strategic Emerging Industries initiative, the Internet Plus initiative, and the Made in China 2025 Program, among others.

Through these initiatives, the Chinese state has intervened in the economy in a variety of ways to promote national technological development and reduce reliance on other countries. Prioritized industries and firms are protected and guided. There are systematic efforts to replace foreign technology and intellectual properties with indigenous technology. Foreign companies are given many incentives for technology transfer and for moving R&D to China. At the same time the technological abilities of domestic companies are supported in various ways.  Such policies have generated considerable conflict between China and developed countries, particularly the United States, although China has often proven flexible when its policies have been challenged.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kennedy|first1=Andrew|title=China's Search for Renewable Energy: Pragmatic Techno-nationalism|journal=Asian Survey|date=2013|volume=53|issue=5|pages=909–930|doi=10.1525/as.2013.53.5.909|hdl=1885/84753|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

[[Nationalism]] and nationalistic achievements have been seen as becoming the main ideological justifications and societal glue for the regime as [[Marxism]] loses influence. Some science and technology mega-projects have been viewed as questionable trophy projects done for propaganda purposes with Chinese state-controlled media being filled with reports of Chinese achievements.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cfr.org/china/nationalism-china/p16079|title=Nationalism in China|work=Council on Foreign Relations}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldpoliticsreview.com/articles/7097/china-chooses-mega-events-over-structural-reforms|title=China Chooses 'Mega-Events' Over Structural Reforms|author=Iain Mills|work=worldpoliticsreview.com}}</ref> In 2019, reports surfaced stating that the Chinese government has ordered all foreign PC hardware and operating systems that are installed in government offices to be replaced in the next three years.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://gizmodo.com/amd-and-intel-could-be-screwed-by-new-chinese-mandate-f-1840313599/amp|title=China Bans Government Offices From Using Foreign-Made Tech|website=gizmodo.com|date=December 9, 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://techcrunch.com/2019/12/09/china-moves-to-ban-foreign-software-and-hardware-from-state-offices/|title=China moves to ban foreign software and hardware from state offices – TechCrunch|website=techcrunch.com|date=December 9, 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/dec/09/china-tells-government-offices-to-remove-all-foreign-computer-equipment|title=China tells government offices to remove all foreign computer equipment &#124; China &#124; The Guardian|website=amp.theguardian.com|date=December 9, 2019 |last1=Lyons |first1=Kate }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/beijing-replace-foreign-tech-chinese-tech-2022-2019-12|title=China aims to replace up to 30 million pieces of foreign tech in government offices with Chinese tech by 2022|first1=Antonio|last1=Villas-Boas|date=December 9, 2019|website=Business Insider}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/12/09/tech/china-us-computers-software/index.html|title=China reportedly bans foreign technology in its government and public offices|website=CNN|date=December 9, 2019}}</ref> Other reports stated that the Chinese government would be increasing subsidies for tech firms.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.scmp.com/news/china/politics/article/3011715/china-will-increase-support-subsidies-tech-firms-official-says|title=China will increase support, subsidies for tech firms, official says|date=May 24, 2019|website=South China Morning Post}}</ref>

== Gross domestic expenditure on research and development ==
In its ''Medium and Long-Term Plan for the Development of Science and Technology'' (2006–2020), China fixed itself the target of devoting 2.5% of GDP to research and development by 2020. Between 2003 and 2012, gross domestic expenditure on research and development (GERD) rose from 1.13% to 1.98% of GDP, suggesting that the country was on track to meet its target.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002354/235406e.pdf|title=China. In: UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030|first=Cong|last=Cao|publisher=UNESCO|year=2015|isbn=978-92-3-100129-1|location=Paris}}</ref>

The research firm [[Battelle Memorial Institute|Battelle]] estimates that China's GERD will exceed that of the United States by 2023.<ref name="Battelle2012">{{cite web|url=http://www.battelle.org/ABOUTUS/rd/2012.pdf|title=Media - In the News - Battelle|work=battelle.org}}</ref> However, several convergent factors cast doubt over the accuracy of Battelle's prediction: the deceleration in China's rate of economic growth in 2014, the considerable drop in industrial production since 2012 and the major stock market slide in mid-2015. After progressing rapidly for a decade, GERD stabilized at 2.07% of GDP in 2015.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/science-technology/single-view-sc-policy/news/brain_research_has_become_a_policy_focus_for_china/|title=Brain research has become a policy focus for China|last1=Cao|first1=Cong|date=30 April 2018|website=Blogpost on UNESCO Science Report portal}}</ref>

China devoted 5.1% of total research spending to basic research in 2015, according to the UNESCO Institute for Statistics. This is up from 4.8%, on average, over the past decade, but less than in 2004 (6.0%). The prolonged policy focus on experimental development has resulted in enterprises contributing three-quarters of Chinese research spending (77% of total expenditure on R&D in 2015). Enterprises focus on experimental development, which accounted for as much as 97% of their total research expenditure by 2015.<ref name=":2" /> Business enterprises contributed 60% of GERD in 2000 and 74% in 2008. In 2004, 74% of GERD went on experimental development.<ref name="UNESCO2010">{{cite web |url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0018/001899/189958e.pdf |title=Data|website=unesdoc.unesco.org}}</ref>  China aims to increase the share of basic research to 15% of total research spending by 2020.<ref name="Battelle2011" /><ref name=":4" />

== Institutions ==
{{See also|Category:Research institutes in China}}
The [[State Council of the People's Republic of China]] is the top administrative organ in China. Immediately below it are several ministries and ministry level organizations involved with various aspects of science and technology.<ref name=SS>{{citation | mode=cs1 |url=http://www.naider.com/upload/82_china_final.pdf | title= China: The next science superpower? | author1=James Wilsdon |author2= James Keeley | work =The Atlas of Ideas: Mapping the new geography of science | publisher= Demos | place= London | date = 2007 | isbn = 978-1-84180-173-5 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130328052017/http://www.naider.com/upload/82_china_final.pdf |archive-date=2013-03-28 }}</ref> The State Council Science and Education Leading Group, consisting of the leaders of the major science bodies, attempts to organize the national policy. Efficiency of overall coordination has been questioned with various agencies seen as having overlapping missions and rivalries for resources and sometimes engaging in wasteful duplication.<ref name=Centra2011/>

The [[Ministry of Science and Technology of the People's Republic of China]], formerly the State Science and Technology Commission, is the body primarily responsible for science and technology strategy and policy. It also administers national research programs, S&T development zones, and international cooperation. The [[Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China]] oversees education as well as research institutes at universities. Several other ministries such as the [[Ministry of Industry and Information Technology of the People's Republic of China]], the [[Ministry of Health of the People's Republic of China]], and the [[Ministry of Agriculture of the People's Republic of China]] are also involved in S&T.<ref name=SS/>

The National Planning Office of Philosophy and Social Sciences directs planning for social sciences and philosophy.

The [[Chinese Academy of Sciences]] (CAS) is the most prestigious professional science organization in China with China's scientific elite being members. It directs many research institutes, research programs, graduate training programs, and gives influential advice. The [[Chinese Academy of Engineering]] (CAE) gives important advice but unlike the CAS does not have research institutes of its own.<ref name=SS/>  The [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (CASS) has a similar role to CAS for social sciences and philosophy. There are also many more narrow academies such as the [[Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences]].

The [[National Natural Science Foundation of China]] (NSFC) gives grants to individual researchers after [[peer-review]].<ref name=Centra2011/>

The [[People's Liberation Army General Armaments Department]] directs military R&D.

The national scientific and academic organizations affiliated to the [[China Association for Science and Technology]] are also important forces in scientific and technological research.

The Society of Chinese Scientific Journalism presides over the Society of Chinese Technical Communication, China's first government approved technical communication association. Since 2002, the group has held annual conferences.<ref>Barnum, C. M., & Li, H. (2006). Chinese and American technical communication: A cross-cultural comparison of differences. Technical communication, 53(2), 143-166.</ref>

Research is carried out by governmental research institutes, in higher learning institutions, and by private enterprises.<ref name=Centra2011/>

Local governments have become increasingly important in R&D funding and may now contribute up to half of government spending. Intense rivalry for research and high tech industry has been argued to sometimes create wasteful subsidized overcapacity, dispersal of efforts better centralized in a few localities, and poorly judged bureaucratic subsidizing of technologies that soon become out-dated.<ref name=Centra2011/><ref name=semi>Vivek Wadhwa, Why China's Chip Industry Won't Catch America's, September 3, 2009 Bloomberg BusinessWeek, September 3, 2009</ref>

== National programs ==
As of 2010, China's national R&D programs encompassed the:<ref name=Centra2011/>
* Key Technologies Program (renamed in 2006 as  "zhicheng" or Support)
* National High Technology Program ([[863 Program]])
* National Basic Research Program ([[Program 973|973 Program]])
* Spark Program - Rural technology
* Torch Program - New technology commercialization by creating special hi-tech zones and incubators
* Key Laboratories Program
* Engineering Research Centers
* State Key and New Product Program
* Innovation Fund for Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises
* Special Technology Development Project for Research Institutes
* Action Plan for Promoting Trade by Science and Technology
* National New Products Program
* Agricultural S&T Transfer Fund

The major national programs received 15-20% of government R&D spending in 2010. They funded research, after a stated competitive proposal procedure, in universities, institutes, and enterprise. Important project may receive funding from several programs. The programs have arguably had a strong effect but have also been involved in scandals, corruption and fraud. They have been accused mainly of producing derivative works rather than driving innovation and it has been claimed that they ignore merit in selecting projects in favor of [[cronyism]]. China is trying to improve its efficiency through measures such as more peer-review and evaluations.<ref name=Centra2011>{{cite web|url=http://www.uscc.gov/researchpapers/2011/USCC_REPORT_China's_Program_forScience_and_Technology_Modernization.pdf|title=Data|website=uscc.gov|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130102190020/http://www.uscc.gov/researchpapers/2011/USCC_REPORT_China's_Program_forScience_and_Technology_Modernization.pdf|archive-date=2013-01-02}}</ref>

In 2014, the [[China Integrated Circuit Industry Investment Fund]] was established in an effort to reduce dependence on foreign [[semiconductor]] companies.<ref name=":Zhang">{{Cite book |last=Zhang |first=Angela Huyue |title=High Wire: How China Regulates Big Tech and Governs Its Economy |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2024 |isbn=9780197682258 |doi=10.1093/oso/9780197682258.001.0001}}</ref>{{Rp|page=274}}

== Economic and Technological Development Zones ==
[[File:Modern buildings in Tianjin Economic Technological Development Area Tianjin China.JPG|thumb|left|[[Tianjin Economic-Technological Development Area]].]]
Based on the success of the [[Special Economic Zones of the People's Republic of China]], China has created [[Economic and Technological Development Zones]]. They have the purposes of building up high tech industries, attracting foreign investment, increasing exports, and improve the regional economy. They are considered to have been very successful and have been expanded from an initial fourteen to fifty-four.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/SPORT-c/76751.htm|title=National Economic and Technological Development Zones-China.org.cn|work=china.org.cn}}</ref>

== Education and R&D personnel ==
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em;"
|+ [[Program for International Student Assessment|PISA]]<br />2009 results for the top 10 nations<ref>{{citation | mode= cs1 |url=http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/54/12/46643496.pdf
| work = What Students Know and can do: Student Performance in reading, mathematics and Science
 | title = Comparing Countries' and economies' performance| page = 8 | type= figure 1 | date= 2010 | author=((PISA results 2009))
|publisher=Oecd.org|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120607181829/http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/54/12/46643496.pdf|archive-date=2012-06-07}}</ref>
|-
! scope="col" | Rank
! scope="col" colspan="2" style="background:#ceceee;"|Mathematics
! scope="col" colspan="2" style="background:#cecece;"|Sciences
! scope="col" colspan="2" style="background:#fcc;"|Reading
|-
| 1.
| {{flagicon|CHN}} [[Shanghai]], [[China]] || 600
| {{flagicon|CHN}} [[Shanghai]], [[China]] || 575
| {{flagicon|CHN}} [[Shanghai]], [[China]] || 556
|-
| 2.
| {{flagcountry|Singapore}} || 562
| {{flagcountry|Finland}} || 554
| {{flagcountry|South Korea}} || 539
|-
| 3.
| {{flagcountry|Hong Kong}}, [[China]] || 555
| {{flagcountry|Hong Kong}}, [[China]] || 549
| {{flagcountry|Finland}} || 536
|-
| 4.
| {{flagcountry|South Korea}} || 546
| {{flagcountry|Singapore}} || 542
| {{flagcountry|Hong Kong}}, [[China]] || 533
|-
| 5.
| {{flagcountry|Taiwan}} || 543
| {{flagcountry|Japan}} || 539
| {{flagcountry|Singapore}} || 526
|-
| 6.
| {{flagcountry|Finland}} || 541
| {{flagcountry|South Korea}} || 538
| {{flagcountry|Canada}} || 524
|-
| 7.
| {{flagcountry|Liechtenstein}} || 536
| {{flagcountry|New Zealand}} || 532
| {{flagcountry|New Zealand}} || 521
|-
| 8.
| {{flagcountry|Switzerland}} || 534
| {{flagcountry|Canada}} || 529
| {{flagcountry|Japan}} || 520
|-
| 9.
| {{flagcountry|Japan}} || 529
| {{flagcountry|Estonia}} || 528
| {{flagcountry|Australia}} || 515
|-
| 10.
| {{flagcountry|Canada}} || 527
| {{flagcountry|Australia}} || 527
| {{flagcountry|Netherlands}} || 508
|}
{{See also|Education in China|Higher education in China|Project 985|Double First-Class Construction}}
In the first participation of Chinese student in an international student assessment test, the 2009 [[Program for International Student Assessment|PISA]], 15-year-old students from [[Shanghai]] ranked first in all of the three categories: mathematics, science, and reading. The Chinese students scored particularly well compared to other nations in mathematics. One explanation for the Chinese results may be a culture emphasizing education and competitive examinations and more time spent studying in part due to less participation in activities such as sports. Teaching has become a higher status occupation. Also, industrialized Shanghai which has done important educational reforms may not be representative for the rest of China. While there was no evidence of cheating or technical problems with the testing, Shanghai attracts many immigrants from the rest of China may have allowed particularly good students to study in the city. The [[OECD]] director of the testing, [[Andreas Schleicher]], said that the results were expected to produce astonishment and had been examined for accuracy by international experts after the OECD received the Shanghai scores. He also said that the results "refute the commonly held hypothesis that China just produces rote learning" and "Large fractions of these students demonstrate their ability to extrapolate from what they know and apply their knowledge very creatively in novel situations".<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/12/07/education/07education.html?_r=3&pagewanted=1 | work=The New York Times | first1=Sam | last1=Dillon | title=In PISA Test, Top Scores From Shanghai Stun Experts | date=7 December 2010}}</ref> He believes that China has moved away from learning by rote.<ref>{{citation|last=Mance|first=Henry|title=Why are Chinese schoolkids so good?|date=7 December 2010|url=http://blogs.ft.com/beyond-brics/2010/12/07/why-are-chinese-schoolkids-so-good/|work=[[Financial Times]]|access-date=28 June 2012}}</ref> According to Schleicher, Russia performs well in rote-based assessments, but not in PISA, whereas China does well in both rote-based and broader assessments.<ref name="ft-1">{{citation|last=Cook|first=Chris|title=Shanghai tops global state school rankings|date=7 December 2010|url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/20770bf6-01e7-11e0-b66c-00144feabdc0.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/20770bf6-01e7-11e0-b66c-00144feabdc0.html |archive-date=December 10, 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|work=[[Financial Times]]|access-date=28 June 2012}}</ref> In 2018 four major regions ([[Beijing]], [[Shanghai]], [[Jiangsu]] and [[Zhejiang]]) in China topped the rankings in reading, mathematics and science<ref>{{Cite web|title=PISA 2018 Insights and Interpretations|url=https://www.oecd.org/pisa/PISA%202018%20Insights%20and%20Interpretations%20FINAL%20PDF.pdf}}</ref> and China's school children are now the smartest in the world.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Which countries have the smartest kids?|url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2019/12/students-young-people-education/|website=World Economic Forum|language=en|access-date=2020-05-10}}</ref> Chinese high school students won multiple [[gold medal]]s every year consistently at many [[International Science Olympiad|International Science Olympiad Competitions]] like the [[International Biology Olympiad]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=IBO results & reports|url=https://www.ibo-info.org/en/info/results-reports.html|website=International Biology Olympiad|language=en|access-date=2020-05-27}}</ref> the [[International Olympiad on Astronomy and Astrophysics]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Beijing Planetarium Led a Team to Participate in the International Olympiad of Astronomy and Astrophysics and Achieved Great Results|url=http://www.bjast.ac.cn/Html/Article/20190925/40204.html}}</ref> the [[International Olympiad in Informatics]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=China results on International Olympiad in Informatics|url=https://stats.ioinformatics.org/results/CHN}}</ref> the [[International Earth Science Olympiad]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=List of Medal and Team Award Winners {{!}} IESO-info|url=http://www.ieso-info.org/documents/honor-board/|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-27|archive-date=December 19, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211219002717/https://www.ieso-info.org/documents/honor-board/|url-status=dead}}</ref> the [[International Mathematical Olympiad]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=International Mathematical Olympiad|url=https://www.imo-official.org/results_country.aspx?column=awards&order=deschttps://www.imo-official.org/results_country.aspx?column=awards&order=desc|website=www.imo-official.org|access-date=2020-05-09}}</ref> the [[International Physics Olympiad]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=IPhO: People's Republic of China - Individual Results|url=https://ipho-unofficial.org/countries/CHN/individual|website=ipho-unofficial.org|access-date=2020-05-09}}</ref> and the [[International Chemistry Olympiad]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=China tops 48th International Chemistry Olympiad {{!}} Chemical & Engineering News|url=https://cen.acs.org/articles/94/web/2016/07/China-tops-48th-International-Chemistry.html|website=cen.acs.org|access-date=2020-05-09}}</ref>

China's rank based on number of Gold Medals in last 10 years(2014-2023):
* Physics - [[International Physics Olympiad#Distribution of medals|1-st]]
* Chemistry -[[International Chemistry Olympiad#Distribution of medals|1-st]]
* Biology - [[International Biology Olympiad#Distribution of medals|2-nd]]
* Mathematics - [[International Mathematical Olympiad#Medals (1959–2023)|1-st]]

China has become one of the world's biggest sources for research and development personnel. Between 2000 and 2008, the number of engineers and scientists more than doubled to 1.59 million. Relative to population size this is still low compared to major developed nations like the United States and Japan but the gap is rapidly closing.<ref name=UNESCO2010/> The number of doctorate awards in science and engineering have increased tenfold since the early 1990s.<ref>{{cite periodical |url=http://www.eastwestcenter.org/fileadmin/stored/pdfs/api100.pdf | title= China's Innovation Policy Is a Wake-Up Call for America | author= Dieter Ernst | magazine= Asia Pacific Issues | publisher= East-West Center | issue = 100 | date= 2011 | pages= 1–12 | issn =  1522-0966  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923233043/http://www.eastwestcenter.org/fileadmin/stored/pdfs/api100.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-23 }}</ref> The number of students in general at universities increased from 1 million to 5.4 million during the 1998-2007 period.<ref name=Battelle2011/>  In 2009 alone, China produced over 10,000 [[PhD]] engineering graduates, and as many as 500,000 [[BSc]] graduates in engineering, mathematics, information technology, and computer science &ndash; more than any other country.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://money.cnn.com/2010/07/29/news/international/china_engineering_grads.fortune/index.htm|title=The rise of engineers in China is leaving the US behind - Jul. 29, 2010|work=cnn.com | first1=Geoff|last1=Colvin|date=29 July 2010}}</ref>

The [[C9 League]], pitched as China's [[Ivy League]], is an alliance of nine elite Chinese universities which receive a high amount of national research funding and produce a large share of national research output.

Chinese universities contribute an unusually large share of patents. The universities receive about half of R&D money from private enterprises.<ref name=Battelle2011/>

Eight out of nine members of the [[Politburo Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist Party|Politburo Standing Committee]] of the [[Chinese Communist Party]] (CCP) have engineering degrees, including [[General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party|CCP general secretary]] [[Hu Jintao]].<ref name=Battelle2011>{{cite web|url=http://www.battelle.org/aboutus/rd/2011.pdf|title=Media - In the News - Battelle|work=battelle.org}}</ref>

2.25 million students have studied abroad since 1978. 340,000 were studying abroad in 2011 which was an increase by 20% over the previous year. In total 818,400 have returned to China with this occurring in particular in recent years. 186,200 returned to China in 2011 which was an increase by 38% over the previous year. China offers several benefits for high-achieving foreign educated Chinese who return to China. Students are now also returning because increased job opportunities unlike previously when many stayed abroad due lack of jobs in China.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://thepienews.com/news/number-of-returning-chinese-students-up-38/|title=International Education News l The PIE News l Number of returning Chinese students up 38%|author=The PIE News|work=thepienews.com|date=March 21, 2012 }}</ref> A 2009 study found that only 10% of Chinese students plan to stay in the United States due to visa restrictions, fear of lack of job opportunities, and belief that US growth will lag behind average world growth rates. 52% believed that the best job opportunities were in China which was in marked contrast with earlier surveys. 74% felt that the best days of China's economy was coming. 68% intended to start businesses.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kauffman.org/research-and-policy/losing-best.aspx|title=Losing the World's Best and Brightest: America's New Immigrant Entrepreneurs, Part V - Kauffman.org|work=kauffman.org}}</ref> When they return, foreign educated students often provide crucial science and technology knowledge, management skills, and innovation abilities for scientific research and industry. The senior management in high tech companies are often foreign educated.<ref>Vivek Wadhwa, Committee on the Judiciary of the United States House of Representatives Subcommittee on Immigration Policy and Enforcement, October 5, 2011</ref>

== Chinese diaspora ==
[[Overseas Chinese]], as is the case for other diasporas and their homelands, have played a substantial role in contributing to China's scientific and technological development. The Chinese diaspora have been seen as a key conduit for channelling and facilitating expertise, investment, trade, and modern technology transfers to the country through their engagement in both commercial activities and public non-profit cooperation.<ref>Teo Victor, Technonationalism, Development and the Chinese Diaspora in East Asia:  An Exploratory Study, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, The 4th International Conference of Institutes & Libraries for Overseas Chinese Studies May 9–11, Guangzhou, China</ref> By using 'Brain Gain' to attract highly educated overseas Chinese to return to China to work, China has made significant improvements in its innovation ecosystem although there are some limitations to how sustainable this technique may be.

== Industrial espionage ==
One of the objectives of [[Chinese intelligence activity abroad]] is alleged to be [[industrial espionage]] as well gaining [[military technology]]. Also private companies have been accused of espionage. Intelligence agencies suspect that thousands of Western companies may have been affected by data breaches that can be traced back to China.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-03-15/china-corporate-espionage-boom-knocks-wind-out-of-u-s-companies.html|title=China Corporate Espionage Boom Knocks Wind Out of U.S. Companies|author=Ashlee Vance|author-link=Ashlee Vance|date=15 March 2012|work=Bloomberg.com}}</ref>

== International cooperation ==
The [[China Internet Information Center]] stated in a 2005 article that China had inter-governmental cooperative S&T agreements with 96 nations, cooperative S&T programs with 152 nations and regions, and participated in more than 1,000 international S&T cooperative organizations. NGO international exchanges and cooperative activities had increased.  The [[China Association for Science and Technology]] and related organizations as well as the [[National Natural Science Foundation of China]] participated in many cooperative international organizations. Chinese researchers held 281 leading posts on international organizations' expert committees and held 293 executive member-director or higher level positions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.china.org.cn/features/china2005/2005-09/23/content_1142234.htm|title=International Cooperation in Science and Technology -- china.org.cn|work=china.org.cn}}</ref>

== Technology transfer and R&D by multinational corporations ==
In the early 1980s foreign companies began transferring technology by licensing agreements and sales of equipment. Later in the 1980s many [[multinational corporation]]s started transferring technology by entering into [[joint venture]]s with Chinese companies in order to expand in China. China in the 1990s introduced increasingly sophisticated regulations of [[foreign direct investment|foreign investment]] by which access to the Chinese market was traded for technology transfer. The entry of China into the [[World Trade Organization]] in 2001 required this practice stop but critics argue that it continues. Chinese critics have argued such technology transfer may be useful for catching up but does not create new, cutting-edge technologies.<ref name=Centra2011/>

China has increasingly encouraged multinational corporations to create R&D centers in China. Chinese critics have argued that foreign owned R&D mainly benefits foreign companies and removes many talented Chinese researchers from indigenous companies and institutions. Chinese supporters have argued that the foreign R&D serves as a role model and encouragement for indigenous companies and creates skilled communities from which labor and knowledge can easily flow to indigenous companies. In 2010 there were 1,200 such R&D centers and 400 out the [[Fortune 500]] corporations had created such R&D centers. Corporations have argued that this is a necessity in order to adapt products for the local requirements of the Chinese market as well as it being essential for maintaining global competitiveness to make use the many available Chinese engineers and scientists. China is now ranked first when multinational corporations are asked in which nation future R&D centers are most likely to be located.<ref name=Centra2011/>

== Innovation ==
A 2005 report found serious shortcomings to China's national innovation system. There were problems with services to help turn S&T work into results and the allocation of national funding to support S&T was far from optimal. Sometimes researchers became short-sighted if they get too close to the market. Another serious problem was that companies facing severe competition looked first to purchase foreign technology rather than investing in developing technology and technology development capacity at home in China. Many of the patent applications came from medium-sized enterprises (70%) since small enterprises invest little in research.<ref name="High Technology Development Report 2005">"Issues in Building a National Innovation System" in 2005 High Technology Development Report (Gao Jishu Fazhan Baogao) from the Chinese Academy of Science (Kexue Chubanshe, Beijing 2005).</ref> China's hierarchical, top-down society where authority is greatly respected and feared has been argued to stifle creative debate.<ref name="BBC2011">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-10792465|title=BBC News – China's new industrial revolution|last1=Robinson|first1=Michael|date=2010-08-01|access-date=2011-08-14|publisher=BBC}}</ref>

China in a 2006 report outlined policies for improving innovation. They include 20 large megaprojects in areas such as nanotechnology, high-end generic microchips, aircraft, biotechnology, and new drugs. This is combined with a more bottom-up approach on a [[Silicon Valley]] model consisting of small start-ups, [[venture capital]], and cooperation between industry and universities.<ref name=InnovationWall>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/66753/adam-segal/chinas-innovation-wall|title=China's Innovation Wall|magazine=Foreign Affairs|date=January 16, 2019|last1=Segal|first1=Adam}}</ref>

It has also been argued that China is the world leader in making small, innovative improvements to existing designs. One example is continual improvements to the design of [[power supplies]] making them gradually smaller, less expensive, and more energy efficient. This may not create completely new products or create headlines but may be more important for creating employment.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.smartplanet.com/blog/global-observer/chinese-innovation-world-beating-but-boring/3958|title=Chinese innovation: world beating, but boring|author=Tom Hancock|work=ZDNet}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://yalepress.yale.edu/yupbooks/book.asp?isbn=9780300152715|title=Welcome - Yale University Press|website=yalepress.yale.edu}}</ref>

A 2016 [[National Bureau of Economic Research|NBER]] paper found that the Chinese economy is becoming increasingly innovative.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Wei|first1=Shang-Jin|last2=Xie|first2=Zhuan|last3=Zhang|first3=Xiaobo|date=November 2016 |title=From "Made in China" to "Innovated in China": Necessity, Prospect, and Challenges|journal=NBER Working Paper No. 22854|doi=10.3386/w22854|doi-access=free}}</ref> The study found that rising labor costs in China and "expanded market opportunities in the world economy" were the main drivers behind innovations.<ref name=":0" /> The study also found that state-owned firms innovated less than private firms, even though state-owned firms received far greater subsidies.<ref name=":0" />

In 2020, China's spending on research and development climbed 10.3% to a record 2.44 trillion Chinese yuan ($378 billion) according to the nation's National Bureau of Statistics.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Shead|first=Sam|date=March 1, 2021|title=China's spending on research and development hits a record $378 billion|website=[[CNBC]] |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2021/03/01/chinas-spending-on-rd-hits-a-record-378-billion.html}}</ref>

A 2023 [[Australian Strategic Policy Institute]] study of what it deemed as 44 critical technologies concluded that China leads the world in 37 of them, including 5G internet, electric batteries, and hypersonic missiles.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Garlick |first=Jeremy |title=Advantage China: Agent of Change in an Era of Global Disruption |date=2024 |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Academic]] |isbn=978-1-350-25231-8}}</ref>{{Rp|page=155}}

Per the [[Global Innovation Index]] in 2023, China was one of the most competitive in the world, ranking 12th in the world, 3rd in the Asia & Oceania region and 2nd for countries with a population of over 100 million.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Global Innovation Index 2023, 15th Edition |url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2023/index.html |access-date=2023-10-17 |publisher=WIPO |doi=10.34667/tind.46596 |last1=Dutta |first1=Soumitra |last2=Lanvin |first2=Bruno |last3=Wunsch-Vincent |first3=Sacha |last4=León |first4=Lorena Rivera |last5=World Intellectual Property Organization |date=May 16, 2024 |isbn=978-92-805-3432-0 }}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Cite book |url=https://tind.wipo.int/record/45356 |title=World Intellectual Property Report 2022: The Direction of Innovation |series=World Intellectual Property Report (WIPR) |date=2022 |publisher=World Intellectual Property Organization |isbn=978-92-805-3383-5 |location=Geneva, Switzerland}}</ref> China is the only middle-income economy and the only [[newly industrialized economy]] in the top 30. It has increased its ranking considerably since 2013, where it was ranked 35th globally.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Global Innovation Index 2021, 14th Edition|url=https://www.wipo.int/publications/en/details.jsp?id=4560|access-date=2021-09-20|website=www.wipo.int|year=2021|publisher=World Intellectual Property Organization |doi=10.34667/tind.44315|isbn=978-92-805-3249-4 |language=en | last1=Dutta | first1=Soumitra | last2=Lanvin | first2=Bruno | last3=Wunsch-Vincent | first3=Sacha | last4=León | first4=Lorena Rivera | last5=World Intellectual Property Organization }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Global Innovation Index 2019|url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2019/index.html|access-date=2021-09-02|website=www.wipo.int|language=en}}</ref> China ranks No. 1 globally in patents, utility models, trademarks, industrial designs, and creative goods exports. It also has two ([[Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macau Greater Bay Area|Shenzhen-Hong Kong-Guangzhou]] and [[Beijing]] in the 2nd and 3rd spots respectively) of the global top{{spaces}}5 science and technology clusters, which is more than any other country.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Global Innovation Index 2022: Switzerland, the U.S., and Sweden lead the Global Innovation Ranking; China Approaches Top 10 |url=https://www.wipo.int/pressroom/en/articles/2022/article_0011.html |access-date=2022-09-29 |website=www.wipo.int |doi=10.34667/tind.46596 |language=en |last1=Dutta |first1=Soumitra |last2=Lanvin |first2=Bruno |last3=Wunsch-Vincent |first3=Sacha |last4=León |first4=Lorena Rivera |last5=World Intellectual Property Organization |date=May 16, 2024 |publisher=World Intellectual Property Organization |isbn=978-92-805-3432-0 }}</ref>

As of 2024, the [[Nature Index]] ranks seven Chinese universities or institutions in the global top ten for volume of research output.<ref name=":02">{{Cite news |title=China has become a scientific superpower |url=https://www.economist.com/science-and-technology/2024/06/12/china-has-become-a-scientific-superpower |access-date=2024-09-26 |newspaper=The Economist |issn=0013-0613}}</ref> The [[CWTS Leiden Ranking|Leiden Ranking]] rates six in the global top ten.<ref name=":02" />

== Procurement ==
The central Chinese government, a large buyer of high tech products, in 2009 proposed controversial policies demanding that companies selling to it promote Chinese innovation and that the products sold are free of foreign intellectual property.<ref name=InnovationWall/> The most controversial parts were later withdrawn but local Chinese governments continue to use procurement to encourage indigenous innovation.<ref name=Centra2011/>

== Intellectual property ==
{{Main|Intellectual property in China}}China's legal framework for intellectual property (IP) protection is developing rapidly as China becomes a source of innovation, but its IP framework is still less developed than most industrialized nations as of 2023.<ref name=":33">{{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Joanna I. |title=Cooperating for the Climate: Learning from International Partnerships in China's Clean Energy Sector |date=2023 |publisher=The [[MIT Press]] |isbn=978-0-262-54482-5 |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |doi=10.7551/mitpress/11959.001.0001 |s2cid=167841443}}</ref>{{Rp|page=2}} The general trend of its IP system has been to develop towards increasing similarity with the E.U. and U.S. systems.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book |last=Cheng |first=Wenting |title=China in Global Governance of Intellectual Property: Implications for Global Distributive Justice |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |year=2023 |isbn=978-3-031-24369-1 |series=Palgrave Socio-Legal Studies series |doi=10.1007/978-3-031-24370-7 |s2cid=256742457}}</ref>{{Rp|page=267}}

=== Patents ===
In 2011, China became the nation with the greatest number of filed [[patent]] applications.{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}} Nevertheless, this reflects in part that the government gives companies incentives for filing patent applications whether the patent ends up granted or does not. The percentage of patents applications in China filed by Chinese companies rose from less than 52% in 2006 to nearly 73% in 2010.{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}} [[World Intellectual Property Organization]] (WIPO) data show that Chinese companies have also become more important regarding patents overseas; Chinese companies are in places two and four, respectively, regarding the number of patent applications filed by individual companies.{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}} China aims to transform the economy from "[[Made in China]]" to "Designed in China,"{{Editorializing|date=March 2024}} and from contract manufacturing to having [[brand name]] companies with resulting improved profit margins.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-patents-idUSTRE7BK0LQ20111221|title=China tops U.S, Japan to become top patent filer|work=Reuters | date=21 December 2011}}</ref>

According to the recent data from the [[World Intellectual Property Indicators]], China's patent office received 1.54 million patent applications in 2018, representing nearly half of patent applications worldwide—more than double the U.S.<ref>{{Cite web|title=World Intellectual Property Indicators: Filings for Patents, Trademarks, Industrial Designs Reach Record Heights in 2018|url=https://www.wipo.int/pressroom/en/articles/2019/article_0012.html|website=www.wipo.int|language=en|access-date=2020-05-10}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=China's patent applications hit record 1.54 million in 2018 - Chinadaily.com.cn|url=https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201910/16/WS5da6b0a9a310cf3e35570d07.html|last=张洁|website=www.chinadaily.com.cn|access-date=2020-05-10}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|date=March 2024}} In 2019, China surpassed the U.S. as the top source of international patent applications filed with WIPO.{{Citation needed|date=March 2024|reason=This makes a claim requiring statistics as evidence.}} China-based applicants filed for 58,990 patent applications; 57,840 applications were filed by American applicants.<ref>{{Cite web|title=China Becomes Top Filer of International Patents in 2019|url=https://www.wipo.int/pressroom/en/articles/2020/article_0005.html|website=www.wipo.int|language=en|access-date=2020-05-10}}</ref>

In addition, although China is catching up fast, it still trails the U.S. and Japan for the number of patents made oversea.{{Editorializing|date=March 2024}} According to the WIPO, the U.S. had 247,609 equivalent patent applications filed abroad in 2021; Japan and China followed with 190,399 and 111,905, respectively.{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}} China ranked second after [[South Korea]] in the gross domestic product (GDP)-adjusted number of applications, with 8,159 resident patent applications per US$100 billion in GDP. China also had 5,738 applications in this category. When considering patent applications adjusted for population, China held the fourth global position. South Korea led with 3,599 equivalent patent applications per million population, followed by Japan (1,770), Switzerland (1,119), and China (1,010).<ref>{{Cite book |publisher=World Intellectual Property Organization|url=https://www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/wipo-pub-941-2022-en-world-intellectual-property-indicators-2022.pdf |title=World Intellectual Property Indicators 2022 |date=2022-11-01 |isbn=978-92-805-3463-4 |language=en}}</ref>

== Standards ==
To encourage innovation and avoid foreign intellectual property China has been developing indigenous [[technical standard]]s. One example is the [[TD-SCDMA]] [[3G]] standard. Critics have seen it as costly and delaying 3G introduction while supporters argue that it has increased technical abilities and experience which has increased Chinese competitiveness regarding [[4G]].<ref name=Centra2011/> [[Long-Term Evolution Time-Division Duplex]] is being implemented as China's indigenous 4G standard.

== Academic publishing ==
{{main|Academic publishing in China}}
The [[Royal Society]] in a 2011 report on [[academic publishing]] stated that in share of English scientific research papers the United States was first followed by China, the UK, Germany, Japan, France, and Canada. The report predicted that China would overtake the United States some time before 2020, possibly as early as 2013. Science-Metrix, a Canadian [[data-analysis]] company, predicted that in 2010 China would publish as many natural sciences and engineering [[peer-review]]ed papers as the United States. In 2015 China is predicted to publish as many papers as the US across all fields. In 2030 China is predicted to surpass the US in life and social sciences.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Iran showing fastest scientific growth of any country|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn18546-iran-showing-fastest-scientific-growth-of-any-country/|last1=MacKenzie|first1=Debora|website=New Scientist}}</ref> In 2017, China overtakes the U.S. with the highest number of scientific publications.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Tollefson|first1=Jeff|date=2018-01-18|title=China declared world's largest producer of scientific articles|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=553|issue=7689|page=390|doi=10.1038/d41586-018-00927-4|bibcode=2018Natur.553..390T|doi-access=free}}</ref>

An analysis of [[ISI Web of Knowledge]] data found that China had increased its share of the most highly cited science articles from 1.85% in 2001 to 11.3% in 2011. By 2019, China overtakes UK in 'highly cited researchers' table and ranks second after the United States according to Web of Science, who publish the annual list.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Highly Cited Researchers 2019: Strong evidence of Mainland China's rise to the highest levels of research|url=https://clarivate.com/article/highly-cited-researchers-2019-strong-evidence-of-mainland-chinas-rise-to-the-highest-levels-of-research/|last1=Clarivate|first1=David Pendlebury Head of Research Analysis|date=2019-11-19|website=Clarivate|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-10}}</ref> Chinese research papers in the fields of material science, chemistry and engineering technology were the most cited in the world in the past decade, according to the same report.<ref>{{Cite web|title=China now No 2 in cited scientific papers - Chinadaily.com.cn|url=https://global.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201911/20/WS5dd4930fa310cf3e355788ff.html|last=马驰|website=global.chinadaily.com.cn|access-date=2020-05-10}}</ref> The share of the United States declined from 64.3% to 50.7% during the same ten-year period.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.natureasia.com/en/information/press_releases/20120524_NPI-China-2011.php |title=China on track for #2 most influential country in science publishing by 2014 &#124; Press Release |access-date=2012-05-25  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120528080641/http://www.natureasia.com/en/information/press_releases/20120524_NPI-China-2011.php |archive-date=2012-05-28 }}</ref>

A 2009 study of Chinese social science studies in the [[Social Sciences Citation Index]] found a slow increase until 1999. The 1999-2007 period saw a very rapid increase. However, in 2007 China still only contributed 1.39% of the studies and mainland China only surpassed Hong Kong in 2006. Economics & business had larger share than social, political & communication science and psychology. The low share of social sciences compared to natural sciences may reflect that this is a common pattern in Asian nations, that Chinese social scientists publish in national journals not included in the Index and have less career incitements regarding publishing in international journals, and that state ideology and control is more important for social sciences than natural sciences. In China natural sciences are administered by the [[Ministry of Science and Technology of the People's Republic of China|Ministry of Science and Technology]] while social sciences are administered by the National Planning Office of Philosophy and Social Sciences which may hinder inter-disciplinary collaboration.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Zhou | first1 = P. | last2 = Thijs | first2 = B. | last3 = Glänzel | first3 = W. | doi = 10.1007/s11192-007-2068-x | title = Is China also becoming a giant in social sciences? | journal = Scientometrics | volume = 79 | issue = 3 | page = 593 | year = 2008 | s2cid = 23590444 }}</ref> Although the proportion of Social Science Citation Index (SSCI) articles published internationally from Mainland China has been increasing over time during 1999–2018, it only accounted for 14% of the world in 2018 compared to Eastern Europe (around 25 percent) and Western Europe (around 50 percent).<ref>{{Cite web|title=Toward internationalization: a bibliometric analysis of the social sciences in Mainland China from 1979 to 2018|url=https://osf.io/preprints/socarxiv/jzu25/|website=osf.io|access-date=2020-05-10}}</ref>

Articles published in China related to basic medial science and clinical research and indexed by [[PubMed]] increased on average by 31.2% and 22% each year between 2000 and 2009. [[Randomized clinical trial]] were about 1/3 of clinical research articles. However, in 2009 this still represented only 1.5% of worldwide clinical research articles and 1.7% of worldwide randomized clinical trials. Clinical research education for medical students and the involvement and the supporting environment for medical doctors regarding clinical research have shortcomings.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Hu | first1 = Y. | last2 = Huang | first2 = Y. | last3 = Ding | first3 = J. | last4 = Liu | first4 = Y. | last5 = Fan | first5 = D. | last6 = Li | first6 = T. | last7 = Shou | first7 = C. | last8 = Fan | first8 = J. | last9 = Wang | first9 = W. | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(11)60017-2 | last10 = Dong | first10 = Z. | last11 = Qin | first11 = X. | last12 = Fang | first12 = W. | last13 = Ke | first13 = Y. | title = Status of clinical research in China | journal = The Lancet | volume = 377 | issue = 9760 | pages = 124–5 | year = 2011 | pmid =  21215881| s2cid = 8737517 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

There are 8,000 journals and 4,600 in scientific fields. Almost all Chinese science organizations publish their own journal. The government owns or supports most journals with only a small number being privately owned. The "[[publish or perish]]" system has been argued to contribute to many low quality journals and articles that are infrequently cited and also to [[plagiarism]] and fraud. The Chinese government has put into place stricter regulations, punished or terminated some journals, and aims increase quality control and peer evaluation of journals as well as to create five to ten large publishing groups.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20110227085921588|title=CHINA: Crackdown on sub-standard journals - University World News|work=universityworldnews.com}}</ref> As part of the reforms, in 2012 the [[China Association for Science and Technology]], which oversees 1,050 journals, in a declaration listed various forms of misconduct, plagiarism, and fraud and as well,  the penalties for perpetrating them such as written warnings, blacklisting, contacting the researcher's home institution or funding agencies, or public disclosure. It has also been seen as important by increasing pressure on other journals and by informing editors who may not know that some actions such as favoring researchers based on personal relations are unacceptable. China also plans to give substantial financial incentives to top journals based on factors such as their Chinese and international [[impact factor]]. It has been questioned if this will have an effect on the many poor quality journals who in return for money help researchers fill their institutional requirements for published papers.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Cyranoski | first1 = D. | doi = 10.1038/nature.2012.10509 | title = Chinese publishers vow to cleanse journals | journal = Nature | year = 2012 | s2cid = 178903332 }}</ref> It has been suggested that intense and high profile scrutiny of publication misconduct in China is unsympathetic to the unrealistic pressures Chinese institutes place on their employees to publish, that this scrutiny is disproportionate to scrutiny of similar practices elsewhere in the world, and that this may reflect nationalist and racist biases.<ref>[https://doi.org/10.1080/18752160.2025.2482324 McLellan, Timothy. 2025. “Asian Tricks and Research Misconduct: From Orientalism and Occidentalism to Solidarity against Audit Cultures.” ''East Asian Science, Technology and Society'' doi:10.1080/18752160.2025.2482324.]</ref>

In 2022, China passed both the US and the European Union in the number of high-impact research papers published.<ref name=":02"/>

== State-owned enterprises ==
Chinese [[state-owned enterprise]]s are owned by a variety of actors such as local governments and governmental agencies. They may benefit from advantages not available for smaller, more innovative firms which have been seen as problematic. In 2010 state owned enterprises won many biddings for renewable energy projects since they did not have worry about paying off investments for several decades and could ignore risks and costs. The owners may attempt to protect their enterprises from competition by regulations or otherwise use their influence in an unfair manner which may stifle more innovative, private competitors. Private enterprises surpassed stated owned enterprises during the 2002-2007 period regarding rapidity of increase of research spending, patent applications, and R&D laboratories. The number of research scientists and engineers increased rapidly in private enterprises while they declined in state owned enterprises.<ref name=Centra2011/>

== Corruption ==
Concerned about corruption in Chinese science,<ref>See for example the mid March 2006 issue of China Newsweek 中国新闻周刊 "A SARS-like Epidemic of Corruption in Higher Education and Science", 9 June 2006: Vol. 312. no. 5779, pp. 1464–1466.</ref> some Chinese scientists, including Professor Liu Ming (刘明) of [[Zhejiang University]] in his 2005 book ''Critique of the Academic Evaluation System'' (学术评价制度批判), argue that interference from government officials and university bureaucrats makes [[peer review]] far less effective in China than it could be. The time scientists spend cultivating politically influential people is lost to scientific research. Liu argues that the command economy mentality of measuring everything by the numbers combined with pervasive political interference results in a great waste of money, human talent as well as considerable corruption in Chinese science.<ref>Liu Ming, Critique of the Academic Evaluation System 学术评价制度批判 Changjiang Wenyi Chubanshe, 2005.</ref> A 2008 investigation into a certification for high tech enterprises allowing large tax breaks and other advantages found that more than 70% of the enterprises had gained this under questionable circumstances and an investigation of a sample found that 73% did not pass the requirements.<ref name=Centra2011/>

== Awards ==
The [[State Science and Technology Prizes]], including the [[State Preeminent Science and Technology Award]], are the highest honor in People's Republic of China in science and technology, in order to recognize citizens and organizations who have made remarkable contributions to scientific and technological progress, and to promote the development of science and technology.

== Specific areas of R&D ==
[[File:Value high-tech exports 2009.PNG|thumb|Value in [[United States dollar|dollars]] of [[high tech]] exports by country in 2009. The value of Chinese high tech exports was more than twice that of any other nation.]]The ''13th Five-Year Plan for the National Economy and Social Development'' (2016–2020) will initiate the key Scientific and Technological Innovation 2030 Project in the following key areas: aero-engines and gas turbines; a deep sea station; quantum communication and quantum computers; brain sciences and brain research. The project also encompasses nine other sub-projects, including an innovative seed industry, smart grid, space-terrestrial information network, intelligent manufacturing and robots.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.china.org.cn/china/NPC_CPPCC_2016/2016-03/11/content_38000088.htm|title=China's new vision for the next five years|last1=Tang|first1=Shubiao|date=11 March 2016|website=China Today}}</ref>

=== Agriculture ===
There is a lack of arable land and water which means only new technology can increase the output of [[Agriculture in China|Chinese agriculture]]. [[Chinese Communist Party]] former general secretary [[Jiang Zemin]] has therefore called for a "new revolution in agricultural science and technology."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.caas.net.cn/engforcaas/intrduction.htm|title=Untitled Document|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120127032051/http://www.caas.net.cn/engforcaas/intrduction.htm|archive-date=2012-01-27|access-date=2012-03-02}}</ref> Restrictions and regulations concerning [[genetically modified food]]s have been introduced or proposed after widespread public concern.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://thediplomat.com/china-power/2012/02/29/china-shuts-down-ge-rice/|title=China Shuts Down GE Rice?|author=Monica Tan, The Diplomat|work=The Diplomat}}</ref> China has been buying millions of foreign breeder animals as well as large amount of foreign semen and livestock embryos in order to rapidly improve the genetics of Chinese livestock.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/business/sns-rt-us-usa-china-foodbre83j05r-20120419,0,5334830.story?page=1|title=Insight: U.S. barnyards help China super-size food production|date=19 April 2012|work=tribunedigital-chicagotribune}}</ref> More advanced agricultural methods such as increasing use of [[pesticide]]s has contributed to concerns regarding the [[Food safety in China]].

=== Aquaculture and fishing ===
[[File:Cyprinus carpio.jpeg|thumb|The [[common carp]] (''Cyprinus carpio'').]]
In 2008 the [[fishing industry in China]] accounted for 34% of the global output. [[Aquaculture in China]] had more than twice the output of capture fishing and contributed 62.3% of the global aquaculture output.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/fishery/sofia/en|title=FAO Fisheries & Aquaculture - Topics|work=fao.org}}</ref> The rapid growth of aquaculture is in part due to Chinese research such as regarding the artificial breeding of [[carp]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/fishery/countrysector/naso_china/en|title=FAO National Aquaculture Sector Overview (NASO)|date=1 February 2005|work=fao.org}}</ref><ref name="research">{{cite web|url=http://www.cafs.ac.cn/english/Research-Achievement.html|title=CAFS-Research Achievement|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120328012249/http://www.cafs.ac.cn/english/Research-Achievement.html|archive-date=2012-03-28|access-date=2012-05-24}}</ref>

===Chemistry, materials science and nanotechnology===
A 2012 study found that China's share of academic papers in the field of [[nanotechnology]] had increased from less than 10% in 2000 to nearly a quarter in 2009 and had overtaken the United States for first position. However, China was less influential in the top three journals and regarding citations, suggesting a lesser quality.<ref name=":3">{{cite web|url=http://www.scidev.net/en/new-technologies/nanotechnology/news/china-soaring-ahead-in-nanotechnology-research.html|title=China 'soaring ahead' in nanotechnology research|work=SciDev.Net}}</ref>  In terms of the density of publication, however, the United States remained ahead, with 68.76 articles on nanotechnology per million inhabitants, compared to 25.44 per million for China in 2014.<ref name=":4" /> China was in second place for the number of patents granted. A number of bodies have been created to establish national standards and ensure oversight.<ref name=":3" />

According to the Institute of Scientific and Technical Information of China, which is affiliated with the Ministry of Science and Technology, China contributed about one-quarter of all academic articles published around the world in materials science and chemistry and 17% of those published in physics between 2004 and 2014 but just 8.7% of those in molecular biology and genetics. This nevertheless represents a steep rise from just 1.4% of the world share of publications in molecular biology and genetics over 1999–2003.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":2" />[[File:Ganjiaxiang - industrial panorama - P1070643.JPG|thumb|right|Jinling oil refinery in [[Nanjing]].]]
[[KPMG]] in 2010 predicted that the Chinese [[chemical industry]] will become world's largest producer by 2015. The Chinese government aims to make China self-sufficient regarding [[petrochemicals]] and [[plastics]] with the exception of the raw feedstock of oil and gas. The Chinese industry is increasing R&D in order to create higher value products using more advanced technology.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kpmg.de/WhatWeDo/23632.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120803184829/http://www.kpmg.de/WhatWeDo/23632.htm |access-date=2012-04-12|archive-date=August 3, 2012|title=KPMG - High Growth Markets magazine - Chemicals }}</ref>

=== Deep sea exploration ===
China is developing its [[deep sea exploration]] capabilities, such as by the [[Jiaolong (submersible)|Jiaolong]] [[submersible]], with an eye to future applications such as [[deep sea mining]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/12/science/12deepsea.html|title=China Explores a Frontier 2 Miles Deep|last1=Broad|first1=William J.|date=11 September 2010|work=The New York Times}}</ref>

=== Electronics and information technology ===
{{see also|Electronics industry in China|Telecommunications industry in China|Internet in China|Software industry in China}}
In 2009 China manufactured 48.3% of the world's televisions, 49.9% of mobile phones, 60.9% of personal computers and 75% of LCD monitors. Indigenously made electronic components have become an important source of recent growth.

==== Artificial intelligence ====
On 8 July 2017, the Chinese State Council announced plans to turn China into the world leader in [[Artificial intelligence|artificial intelligence (AI)]] by 2030, seeking to make the industry worth 1 trillion yuan.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2017/07/21/china-ai-world-leader-by-2030.html|title=China wants to be a $150 billion world leader in AI by 2030|last1=Kharpal|first1=Arjun|website=[[CNBC]] |date=2017-07-21|access-date=2017-07-24}}</ref> The State Council published a three-step [[Technology roadmap|road map]] to that effect in which it outlined how it expects AI to be developed and deployed across a wide number of industries and sectors, such as in areas from the military to city planning.<ref name=":1" /> According to the road map, China plans to catch up to current AI world leaders' technological abilities by 2020, make major breakthroughs by 2025 and be the world leader in 2030.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.scmp.com/tech/enterprises/article/2103568/world-dominance-three-steps-china-sets-out-road-map-lead-artificial|title=China sets out road map to lead world in artificial intelligence by 2030|work=South China Morning Post|access-date=2017-07-24|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.caixinglobal.com/2017-07-21/101119663.html|title=China Outlines Ambitions to Become World Leader in AI by 2025 - Caixin Global|website=Caixin Global|language=en|access-date=2017-07-24}}</ref>

==== Drones and robotics ====
China is the leader in [[Unmanned aerial vehicle|drone]] technology, it is the first country in the world to create large scale transport drones, as well as the first to produce an amphibious drone. Chinese drone companies such as [[DJI (company)|DJI]] and [[Ehang UAV|Ehang (Beijing Yi-Hang Creation Science & Technology)]] conquered majority of the civilian drone industry, with DJI alone dominating 85% of the global market share. Ehang also created the world's first ''flying taxi'' drone, [[Ehang UAV|Ehang 184]], an [[Environmentally friendly|eco-friendly]] low altitude [[Unmanned aerial vehicle|autonomous aerial vehicle]] capable of providing transportation and medium distance communication.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://adage.com/article/cmo-strategy/china-s-drone-makers-teach-chinese-brands/308870/|title=What China's Drone Makers Could Teach Other Chinese Brands|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nationthailand.com/detail/Startup_and_IT/30327383|title=Chinese engineers make plane into first large delivery drone - The Nation|work=The Nation|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://thedronegirl.com/2017/02/26/dji-yuneec-autel-mota/|title=DJI is dominating the consumer drone industry, so which companies are left? - The Drone Girl|date=26 February 2017|work=The Drone Girl}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbn.co.za/component/k2/first-city-in-the-world-to-have-flying-taxis-the-future-is-here|title=First city in the world to have flying taxis; the future is here - Cape Business News|language=en-gb}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://money.cnn.com/2017/09/27/technology/china-amphibious-drone/index.html|title=This Chinese drone can take off and land on water|last1=Pham|first1=Sherisse|work=CNNMoney}}</ref>

In some regions, such as the [[Pearl River Delta]], manufacturers have problems with labor shortages, raising wages, and higher expectations regarding work from more highly educated young people. This has increased the demand for [[industrial robot]]s. As of 2017, China is the largest user and producer of [[robotics]] technology, as well as the first country in the world to perform an [[Automation|automated]] [[dental implant]]. It is the largest and fastest-growing robotics market in the world, and plans to manufacture at least 100,000 industrial robots annually by 2020.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/usa/weekly/2011-12/30/content_14354888.htm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120109013847/http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/usa/weekly/2011-12/30/content_14354888.htm | date = 30 December 2011 | archive-date= 9 January 2012 | title= A message from robots: it's our turn | work = China Daily  | author1= Edward Tse | author2= Matthias Hendrichs | url-status= dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://time.com/4952886/china-world-first-dental-surgery-robot-implant/|title=Chinese Robot Installed Dental Implant Without Human Help|last1=Lui|first1=Kevin|magazine=Time}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2017/09/06/chinas-blueprint-to-crush-the-us-robotics-industry.html|title=China's blueprint to crush the US robotics industry|first=Andrew |last=Zaleski|date=6 September 2017|work=CNBC}}</ref>

==== Software industry ====
The Chinese software industry in 2010 had a higher than 15% share of the world's software and information service market and had been growing by an average 36% each year during the previous decade. Chinese IT companies have been moving away from narrow downstream services and products to having a full range. China, with the active support of the Chinese government, is a leading pioneer in [[Internet of Things]] technology.<ref name="IT">[http://readperiodicals.com/201201/2562864021.html#b] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120326004219/http://readperiodicals.com/201201/2562864021.html|date=2012-03-26}}</ref>

According to the [[China Internet Network Information Center]] there were 751 million [[internet]] users as of 2017, with 53.2% of the population being internet users. The number of mobile internet users reached 724 million, with high penetration rates for [[mobile phone]]s and [[Internet access|broadband internet]].<ref>{{cite news|title=China's audacious and inventive new generation of entrepreneurs|url=https://www.economist.com/news/briefing/21729429-industries-and-consumers-around-world-will-soon-feel-their-impact-chinas-audacious-and|newspaper=The Economist|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Chinese apps dominate most-used Android app rankings|url=http://www.straitstimes.com/asia/east-asia/chinese-apps-dominate-most-used-android-app-rankings|work=The Straits Times|date=21 September 2017|language=en}}</ref> By 2017, China has the largest [[e-commerce]] market in the world, worth US$1.132 trillion, with a significant lead on other markets and almost tripling US market, the second largest.<ref>{{cite news|title=China's ecommerce market to pass $1.1tn in 2017|url=http://www.thedrum.com/news/2017/07/05/china-s-ecommerce-market-pass-11tn-2017|work=The Drum|language=en}}</ref>

In 2017, there were more than 1.36 billion mobile subscribers in China, with the number of [[Landline|fixed line subscriptions]] hitting 310 million. The number of [[4G]] users increased significantly, hitting 932 million by August 2017.<ref>{{cite web|title=China: mobile users 2017 {{!}} Statista|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/278204/china-mobile-users-by-month/|website=Statista|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=China 4G subscriber base hits 932M - Mobile World Live|url=https://www.mobileworldlive.com/featured-content/top-three/china-4g-user-base-hits-927m/|work=Mobile World Live|date=20 September 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=China's Fixed-line Broadband Penetration Rate To Hit 63% This Year – China Money Network|url=https://www.chinamoneynetwork.com/2017/04/27/chinas-fixed-line-broadband-penetration-rate-to-hit-63-this-year|work=www.chinamoneynetwork.com}}</ref> By 2020, China plans to adopt [[5G]] network nationwide. State-owned [[China Telecom]] has already deployed 5G-oriented C-RAN fronthaul network, unveiling that it will be conducting commercial trials of 5G technology in 2019 and carry out network field trials in six Chinese cities in the latest sign of China's determination to lead the global deployment of the next-generation mobile technology.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://asiatimes.com/article/chinas-advanced-5g-network-set-adoption-2020/|title=China's advanced 5G network set for adoption in 2020|date=August 30, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Daniels|first1=Guy|title=China Telecom deploys 5G-oriented C-RAN fronthaul network|url=http://www.telecomtv.com/articles/5g/china-telecom-deploys-5g-oriented-c-ran-fronthaul-network-15974/|work=TelecomTV|date=22 September 2017|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=China Telecom Plans Commercial 5G Trials in 2019 {{!}} Light Reading|url=http://www.lightreading.com/mobile/5g/china-telecom-plans-commercial-5g-trials-in-2019/d/d-id/735684|work=Light Reading|language=en}}</ref>

====Microprocessors====
China has its own versions of microprocessors, manufactured and developed domestically, which are also used to build the world's most powerful supercomputers.
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!processor architecture
!Processor name
!Manufacturer
!supported OS
!Supercomputer
|-
|RISC64
|[[SW26010]]
|[[Sunway (processor)|ShenWei]]
|RaiseOS (Linux)
|[[Sunway TaihuLight]]
|-
|MIPS64
|[[Loongson]], Godson
|ICT & [[Chinese Academy of Sciences|CAS]]
|Android, Linux, BSD
|[[Dawning Information Industry#Dawning 6000|Dawning 6000]]
|-
|Power8, Power9 (IBM)
|PowerCore CP1, CP2
|Suzhou PowerCore
|[[SUSE Linux Enterprise Server|Suse Linux]]
|
|-
|SPARC64
|[[FeiTeng]]3rd gen, Galaxy FT-1500
|[[YinHeFeiTeng]]
|[[Kylin (operating system)|Kylin Linux]]
|[[Tianhe-2]]
|-
|IA64 (Itanium)
|[[FeiTeng]] 1st gen
|[[YinHeFeiTeng]]
|
|
|-
|ARM64
|Phytium Mars, Xiaomi
|Phytium Technology
|[[Kylin (operating system)|Kylin Linux]]
|
|-
|x86-64 (VIA)
|KX-7000, KH-40000 
|[[Zhaoxin]]
|[[Unity Operating System]]
|
|-
|ARM64
|Kungpeng
|[[HiSilicon]]
|[[EulerOS]]/[[Unity Operating System]]
|
|-
|ARM64
|Kirin 900
|[[HiSilicon]]
|[[Android (operating system)|Android]]/[[Harmony OS]]
|
|-
|x86-64 (AMD Zen)
| 
|THATIC
|
|
|}

==== Supercomputing ====
[[Supercomputing in China]] has expanded rapidly. [[Supercomputing]] affects the possibility to do cutting-edge research in many areas such as design of [[pharmaceuticals]], [[cryptanalysis]], [[natural resource]] exploration, [[climate model]]s, and [[military technology]]. As of 2017, China had 202 of the 500 most powerful [[supercomputer]]s in the world, far exceeding any other country (including the US which has 143), in addition to possessing the top 2 most powerful supercomputers.<ref>{{cite news|title=Chinese supercomputer is the world's fastest — and without using US chips|url=https://www.theverge.com/2016/6/20/11975356/chinese-supercomputer-worlds-fastes-taihulight|work=The Verge}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=China dominates top supercomputers list|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-41971380|work=BBC News|date=13 November 2017}}</ref> China is developing the capacity to manufacture the components domestically and plans to be the first to build an [[Exascale computing|exascale supercomputer]]. China may also be planning to create much more powerful large-scale distributed supercomputing by connecting its supercomputer centers together.<ref name="auto">{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailybeast.com/|title=The Daily Beast|website=The Daily Beast}}</ref> [[Tianhe-I|Tianhe-1]] was for a period in 2010-2011 the world's fastest supercomputer.<ref name="Tianhe-I">{{citation
 | title = China's Defense University builds World Third fastest supercomputer
 | url = http://www.china-defense-mashup.com/?p=5180
 | publisher = china-defense-mashup.com
 | date = 29 October 2009}}</ref> In June 2013, [[Tianhe-2]], the successor to Tianhe-1, took the crown from its predecessor. In 2016, China's new supercomputer, [[Sunway TaihuLight]] became the world's most powerful supercomputer, significantly surpassing Tianhe-2's capabilities by three folds, while using Chinese-made chips. This signals China's success not only in the supercomputing industry, but also its domestic chip-making technology.<ref>{{cite magazine|title=China's New Supercomputer Puts the U.S. Even Farther Behind—Like, Way Behind|url=https://www.wired.com/2016/06/fastest-supercomputer-sunway-taihulight/|magazine=WIRED}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=China's Tianhe-2 Caps Top 10 Supercomputers|author=Davey Alba|author-link=Davey Alba|date=June 17, 2013|work=IEEE Spectrum|url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/tianhe2-caps-top-10-supercomputers}}</ref>

==== Semiconductors ====

China's [[semiconductor industry]] has, despite extensive governmental support, had many problems, such as innovative new designs. This may be due to factors such as poorly guided state and local government support for soon outdated technologies and geographically scattered efforts, lacking engineering education, and poor protection of intellectual property. However various trends may change this, such a new emphasis on market mechanisms rather than direct support, concentration of efforts, the return of Chinese who have studied abroad, increased pressure on foreign companies to transfer technology, indigenous Chinese technological standards, and increased demands for indigenous technology in the local market.<ref name="semi" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nationmultimedia.com/opinion/Opportunities-for-Chinas-semiconductor-industry-30178694.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130403034147/http://www.nationmultimedia.com/opinion/Opportunities-for-Chinas-semiconductor-industry-30178694.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=April 3, 2013|title=Opportunities for China's semiconductor industry|date=26 March 2012|work=The Nation}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitimes.com/Reports/Report.asp?datepublish=2011/08/03&pages=RS&seq=400|title=Expectations for China's semiconductor industry during the 12th Five Year Plan|first=Nobunaga|last= Chai|date=August 3, 2011 }}</ref>

The country has rapidly progressed in the semiconductor industry, while backing its largest chip maker and developer, [[Tsinghua Unigroup]], with a US$150 billion funding to secure China's dominance in the semiconductor technology, and build a world-class semiconductor industry over the next 5 years.<ref>{{cite news|title=China's Top Chipmaker Secures $22 Billion to Expand Globally|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-03-28/china-s-largest-chipmaker-secures-22-billion-to-expand-globally|work=Bloomberg.com|date=28 March 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=China's largest chipmaker secures US$22bn in funds|url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/biz/archives/2017/03/29/2003667650|work=www.taipeitimes.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=China will dominate the global semiconductor market in the next 5 years|url=http://electroiq.com/blog/2017/07/china-will-dominate-the-global-semiconductor-market-in-the-next-5-years/|work=electroiq.com}}</ref> However, as of 2020 China has yet to achieve dominance.<ref>{{cite news|title=Semiconductors are China's Choke Point|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/newsletters/2020-10-24/bloomberg-new-economy-semiconductors-are-china-s-choke-point|work=Bloomberg.com|date=24 October 2020}}</ref>

=== Entertainment-related technologies ===
The [[Chinese animation]] industry and access to the latest technology, such as [[3D computer graphics|3D]] [[computer-generated imagery]] technology, is actively supported by the Chinese government and included in the latest national planning. In part, this may be because of a desire to increase Chinese [[soft power]]. The same technology as in Hollywood is available and much [[postproduction]] is outsourced to China. Successful indigenous artistic creativity is seen as a problem and may be restricted by factors such as production being aimed at getting government patronage rather than public approval, censorship, and some storylines based on Chinese culture not appealing to foreign audiences.<ref>Benjamin Haas, Chinese make big push into animation, August 17, 2011, [[Los Angeles Times]]</ref> [[DreamWorks Animation]], in a joint venture with Chinese companies, will set up a studio in Shanghai that may eventually get bigger than DreamWorks HQ, in part to avoid to quota restrictions on foreign films with China within a decade having been predicted to become the world's biggest cinema and entertainment market.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/dreamworks-animation-unveil-landmark-joint-291260|title=DreamWorks Animation to Unveil Landmark Joint Venture in China (Report)|author=Georg Szalai|work=The Hollywood Reporter}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/entertainmentnewsbuzz/2012/02/dreamworks-animation-china-studio-oriental-dreamworks.html|title=DreamWorks Animation unveils China studio plans|date=17 February 2012|work=Los Angeles Times}}</ref> [[Disney]] has also entered into a partnership in order to help develop the Chinese animation industry.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.latimes.com/entertainment/la-xpm-2012-apr-11-la-fi-ct-disney-china-animation-20120411-story.html|title=Disney, China to join in animation initiative|last1=Pierson|first1=David|date=11 April 2012|work=Los Angeles Times|last2=Verrier|first2=Richard}}</ref>

The China Research Institute of Film Science & Technology and the [[China Film Group Corporation]] developed and in 2012 put into commercial use the [[DMAX (company)|DMAX]] [[motion picture]] [[film format]] as well as associated technologies. It has been described as a competitor to [[IMAX]] and as laying the foundation for Chinese film projection technology using indigenous Chinese technology and intellectual property.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.cri.cn/6909/2012/04/09/2724s692318.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120417024158/http://english.cri.cn/6909/2012/04/09/2724s692318.htm|archive-date=April 17, 2012|title=Makers of DMAX Aim to Break IMAX Monopoly|work=cri.cn}}</ref>

=== Environment-friendly technologies ===
{{Main|Environmental issues in China}}
Rapid industrialization has been accompanied by many [[Environmental issues in China|environmental problems]] and rising [[pollution in China]]. One part of the Chinese response involves advanced technology such as the world's largest high-speed rail network and high fuel efficiency requirements for vehicles.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Zhang|first1=J.|last2=Mauzerall|first2=D. L.|last3=Zhu|first3=T.|last4=Liang|first4=S.|last5=Ezzati|first5=M.|last6=Remais|first6=J. V.|year=2010|title=Environmental health in China: Progress towards clean air and safe water|journal=The Lancet|volume=375|issue=9720|pages=1110–9|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60062-1|pmc=4210128|pmid=20346817}}</ref> China is rapidly expanding its [[wastewater]] treatment systems and power plant emission reduction systems.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2007/09/25/000310607_20070925111156/Rendered/PDF/409640P0704130Public.pdf|title=Stepping up - Improving the performance of China's urban water utilities|author=Greg Browder|year=2007|website=worldbank.org|display-authors=etal}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lu|first1=Z.|last2=Streets|first2=D. G.|last3=Zhang|first3=Q.|last4=Wang|first4=S.|last5=Carmichael|first5=G. R.|last6=Cheng|first6=Y. F.|last7=Wei|first7=C.|last8=Chin|first8=M.|last9=Diehl|first9=T.|year=2010|title=Sulfur dioxide emissions in China and sulfur trends in East Asia since 2000|journal=Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics|volume=10|issue=13|page=6311|doi=10.5194/acp-10-6311-2010|last10=Tan|first10=Q.|bibcode=2010ACP....10.6311L|doi-access=free}}</ref> Due to the [[Chinese water crisis]], as well as for future exports, China is building up its [[desalination]] technological abilities and plans to create an indigenous industry. Some cities have introduced extensive [[water conservation]] and recycling programs and technologies.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/26/world/asia/china-takes-loss-to-get-ahead-in-desalination-industry.html?pagewanted=all|title=China Takes Loss to Get Ahead in Desalination Industry|last1=Wines|first1=Michael|date=25 October 2011|work=The New York Times}}</ref>

=== Health sciences ===
==== Biotechnology and genetics ====
{{Main|Biotechnology industry in China}}
[[Monitor Group]] in a 2010 report predicted that China within a decade will become the world leader in discovery and innovation in [[life science]]s. Some research is seen as less controversial in China than elsewhere such as research regarding the genetic causes of intelligence. [[Beijing Genomics Institute|BGI]], formerly Beijing Genomics Institute, has been described as having the world's largest [[DNA sequencing]] facilities.<ref name="auto" />

[[Stem cell]] research and [[stem cell treatments]] are less controversial in Chinese culture which have supported Chinese research as well [[medical tourism]] to China in order to receive experimental and often unproven therapies. In 2012 a regulatory crackdown was instituted which may increase the ability of the Chinese industry to get approval for sales of future therapies to other nations.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/node/15268869|title=Wild_East_Or_Scientific_Feast_|date=16 January 2010|newspaper=The Economist}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.newscientist.com/blogs/shortsharpscience/2012/01/china-halts-new-stem-cell-tria.html|title=Short Sharp Science: China attempts to halt unproven stem cell therapies|work=newscientist.com}}</ref> More generally, China aims and has made progress towards becoming a world leader in [[regenerative medicine]] which also includes areas such as [[tissue engineering]] and [[gene therapy]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=McMahon|first1=D. S.|last2=Thorsteinsdóttir|first2=H.|last3=Singer|first3=P. A.|last4=Daar|first4=A. S.|year=2010|title=Cultivating regenerative medicine innovation in China|journal=Regenerative Medicine|volume=5|issue=1|pages=35–44|doi=10.2217/rme.09.78|pmid=20055687|s2cid=207353199}}</ref>

China in 2011 stated that [[biotechnology]] (including [[biopharmacy]], [[biological engineering]], bio-agriculture and biomanufacturing) was a major priority for science and technology spending. Biotechnology will be used to enhance economic development as well as for improving [[Chinese environmental protection]], nutrition, healthcare, and medicine. The Chinese governments expects biotechnology to add 1 million jobs during the 2011-2015 period.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/business/2011-06/28/content_12790544.htm|title=China placing priority on biotechnology|website=www.chinadaily.com.cn}}</ref>

==== Neuroscientific research ====
On 22 March 2018, an agreement was signed establishing the Chinese Institute for Brain Science, Beijing.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-018-04122-3|title=Beijing launches pioneering brain-science centre|last1=Cyranoski|first1=David|date=5 April 2018}}</ref> The launch of this institute may represent a significant departure from the current policy focus on applied research and development.<ref name=":2" />

Once completed, the new brain institute will serve as a core facility for the country's planned project to study the human brain. The institute will not be part of the Chinese Academy of Sciences. Rather, it will collaborate with the academy, along with Beijing's other leading biomedical institutions, including Tsinghua University, Peking University and the Academy of Military Medical Sciences.<ref name=":2" />

The new institute will probably receive funding both from the National Natural Science Foundation and from the megascience programs within the Scientific and Technological Innovation 2030 Project. In March 2018, the government announced plans to place the National Natural Science Foundation under the Ministry of Science and Technology but the implications of this latest reorganization of science are unclear, as the two agencies have different missions in support of basic research.<ref name=":2" />

==== Pharmaceuticals and medical technology ====
[[File:Artemisinin.svg|thumb|The [[malaria]] drug [[artemisinin]] was developed by Chinese scientists from traditional [[Chinese herbology]] which is part of [[traditional Chinese medicine]].]]
{{Further|Pharmaceutical industry in China}}
[[Merrill Lynch]] predicted in 2011 that China would become the world's second largest pharmaceutical market in 2013 and the largest in 2020.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://articles.marketwatch.com/2011-01-14/markets/30792439_1_drug-makers-drug-industry-drug-market|title=In China drug industry, reward may outweigh risk - MarketWatch|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130413232805/http://articles.marketwatch.com/2011-01-14/markets/30792439_1_drug-makers-drug-industry-drug-market|archive-date=2013-04-13|access-date=2012-03-22}}</ref> The chief executive of [[Hoffmann-La Roche]] in 2012 stated a few years ago many Chinese life sciences scientists had to leave China but that many were now returning to conditions often better than in the West regarding laboratories, funding, and political support for the industry.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pharmatimes.com/article/12-03-06/China_more_positive_about_pharma_than_many_in_west_-_Schwan.aspx|title=China more positive about pharma than many in west - Schwan|work=pharmatimes.com}}</ref> [[Counterfeit drug]]s have caused a number of scandals as well as being a problem for drug development and authorities have increased regulations and enforcement.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mooney|first1=P.|year=2010|title=China cracks down on counterfeiters|journal=Nature Medicine|volume=16|issue=4|page=360|doi=10.1038/nm0410-360a|pmid=20376025|s2cid=205377696|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052970204528204577011500428003264|title=China Police Nab Fake-Drug Ring - WSJ|author=Laurie Burkitt|date=2 November 2011|work=WSJ}}</ref>

A 2011 report by [[PwC]] stated that a decade earlier China barely had any presence in the [[medical technology]] industry but its abilities had been rapidly growing. China could well become more important than Europe by 2020.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/node/17963427|title=Frugal_Healing|date=22 January 2011|newspaper=The Economist}}</ref>

=== Industrial manufacturing ===
Development of advanced [[machine tool]]s, such as [[computer numerical control]] machine tools, are seen as a priority and supported by the Chinese government. China is the world's leading producer and consumer of machine tools.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.marketresearch.com/Freedonia-Group-Inc-v1247/Machine-Tools-China-6501659/|title=Machine Tools in China|website=www.marketresearch.com}}</ref> A 2010 US government report stated that US export controls of advanced five axis machine tools were ineffectual due to the technical capabilities of Chinese and [[Taiwan]]ese manufacturers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.manufacturingnews.com/news/10/0305/fiveaxis.html|title=U.S. Precision Machine Tool Industry Is No Longer A Global {{as written|Compe|tetitive [sic]}} Force|work=manufacturingnews.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100313172945/http://www.manufacturingnews.com/news/10/0305/fiveaxis.html|archive-date=13 March 2010}}</ref>

=== Military technology ===

{{See also|Chinese cyberwarfare}}
One example of new Chinese military technology is the [[DF-21D]] [[anti-ship ballistic missile]] which reportedly has contributed to a quick and major change in US naval strategy.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.usni.org/forthemedia/ChineseKillWeapon.asp|title=Report: Chinese Develop Special "Kill Weapon" to Destroy U.S. Aircraft Carriers - U.S. Naval Institute|work=usni.org|access-date=March 2, 2012|archive-date=January 21, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130121141828/http://www.usni.org/news-and-features/chinese-kill-weapon}}</ref> China is developing [[anti-satellite weapon]]s and plans to make the navigational [[Beidou system]] global by 2020.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.space.com/14697-china-space-program-military-threat.html|title=China's Space Advances Worry US Military|work=Space.com|date=February 28, 2012}}</ref> Other new technologies include [[Anti ballistic missile#People's Republic of China|Chinese anti ballistic missile]] developments, the [[Chengdu J-20]] [[fifth-generation jet fighter]], and possibly [[electromagnetic pulse]] weapons.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-16588557|title=How China is advancing its military reach|work=BBC News | date=18 January 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2011/jul/21/beijing-develops-radiation-weapons/?page=all|title=Report: China building electromagnetic pulse weapons for use against U.S. carriers|work=The Washington Times}}</ref> Chinese [[reconnaissance satellite]]s are, according to a 2011 report, almost equal to those of the United States in some areas in which China had almost no capability a decade earlier.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/cf83817a-abaa-11e0-8a64-00144feabdc0.html|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210201203/https://www.ft.com/content/cf83817a-abaa-11e0-8a64-00144feabdc0|archive-date=December 10, 2022|url-access=subscription|title=China's 'eye-in-the-sky' nears par with US|work=Financial Times|date=July 11, 2011|access-date=April 13, 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> Despite increased defense spending, China's share of the world's import of arms is rapidly falling, in part reflecting the increased abilities of the indigenous military production.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-03-18/china-buys-fewer-weapons-as-local-industry-expands-sipri-says.html|title=China's Share of Global Arms Imports Falls, Sipri Says|author=Daniel Ten Kate|date=18 March 2012|work=Bloomberg.com}}</ref>  China is also developing [[power projection]] military capabilities such as through the [[Chinese aircraft carrier programme|Chinese aircraft carrier program]] and the [[Type 071 amphibious transport dock]].

15-28% of governmental R&D expenditures may go to military research according to some unofficial estimates. The Chinese defense sector remains almost completely state-owned but military equipment production has been reorganized into corporate bodies allowing limited competition and the defense patent system has been reformed to allow greater rewards to innovative enterprises and individuals. The organizational structure has shed civilian applications while at the same time cooperation with the civilian sector has increased and state supported civilian research sometimes have [[dual use]] applications.<ref name="Centra2011" /> Chinese [[jet engine]]s remains a problematic area that has caused concern at the highest levels with China still being largely dependent on imports from foreign manufacturers. One possible explanation is a continued Soviet style fragmentation of the research and production line into many isolated units having little contact with one another causing problems with overall standardization, integration, and quality control. More problems from this may be duplication of efforts, dispersal of efforts, and unproductive competition over patronage causing problems such as dishonest reporting of problems. High precision jet engines may be particularly sensitive to accumulated quality problems.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://blogs.wsj.com/chinarealtime/2012/05/14/is-china-about-to-get-its-military-jet-engine-program-off-the-ground/?mod=google_news_blog|title=Is China About to Get Its Military Jet Engine Program Off the Ground?|work=WSJ | date=14 May 2012}}</ref>

==== History of China's hydrogen bomb ====
China became a nuclear power in the 1960s.<ref name=":152" />{{Rp|page=356}} China successfully tested a [[hydrogen bomb]] on June 17, 1967, at Lop Nur Nuclear Weapon Test Base, in Malan, Xinjiang (also known as "Test No. 6"). China became the fourth country to have successfully developed a [[thermonuclear weapon]] after the [[United States]], [[Soviet Union]] and the [[United Kingdom]]. The device was dropped from a [[Xian H-6|Hong-6]] (Chinese manufactured [[Tu-16]]) and was parachute-retarded for an airburst at 2960 meters. The bomb was a three-stage device with a boosted [[Uranium-235|U-235]] primary and [[Uranium-238|U-238]] pusher. The [[Nuclear weapon yield|yield]] was 3.3 [[TNT equivalent|megatons]].

It was a fully functional, full-scale, three-stage [[hydrogen bomb]], tested 32 months after China had made its first fission device. China thus produced the shortest fission-to-fusion development known in history. China had received extensive technical help from the Soviet Union to jump-start their nuclear program, but by 1960, the rift between the Soviet Union and China had become so great that the Soviet Union ceased all assistance to China.<sup>[[Test No. 6|[1]]]</sup> Thus, the Number 6 test was indeed an independent endeavor, after the induced military and economic sanctions enacted by the superpowers at the time, the United States and the Soviet Union.

China's H-bomb was different from the traditional [[History of the Teller–Ulam design|Teller-Ulam configuration]]. As an advantage, it was completed without the calculations needed from supercomputers, which would consume a lot of time. To shrink the size of the weapon, the reflectors were made parabolic with the solid fusion fuel located at the foci. It is also known as Yu Min Design (or Yu-[[Deng Jiaxian|Deng]] Design) as Yu Min made major contributions including the solutions to a series of fundamental and critical theoretical problems of nuclear weapons, which led to breakthrough of the unique hydrogen bomb.

The goal of China was to produce a thermonuclear device of at least a megaton in yield that could be dropped by an aircraft or carried by a ballistic missile. Several explosions to test thermonuclear weapon designs, characteristics and yield boosting preceded the thermonuclear test.<sup>[[Test No. 6|[1]]]</sup>

=== Mining and rare earth industry ===
[[File:Coal mine in Inner Mongolia 002.jpg|thumb|right|[[Coal in China|Coal mining]] in [[Inner Mongolia]].]]
{{See also|Rare earth element#Global rare earth production|Rare earth industry in China|Mining industry of China}}

Advisory firm The Beijing Axis director Lilian Luca in 2010 stated that China was becoming a world leader in [[mining engineering|mining technology]]. Technological solutions were initially concentrated on achieving massive low-cost production but increasing emphasis has been placed on environmental and safety issues in part reflecting greater [[Environmental issues in China|concern in China with environmental issues]]. China was already a world leader in certain areas such as [[rare earth element]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://knowledge.insead.edu/economy-China-mining-100608.cfm|title=Economy; China mining|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100719143620/http://knowledge.insead.edu/economy-China-mining-100608.cfm|archive-date=2010-07-19|access-date=2012-04-02}}</ref> China has imposed export quotas on rare earth elements, 95% of which are mined in China, citing environmental issues, but has been accused of wanting to force high tech industry using rare earth elements to move to China.

Finding rare earth elements is only the first and some argue the easiest step. Other steps towards manufacturing such as [[refining]] is controlled by China and Japan with the previously dominant United States having lost all of its producers and much of its fundamental technological ability with the number of scientists and engineers in the area declining dramatically.<ref>Lou Kilzer, http://www.pittsburghlive.com/x/pittsburghtrib/news/s_790579.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120413033534/http://www.pittsburghlive.com/x/pittsburghtrib/news/s_790579.html |date=April 13, 2012 }}</ref>

=== Polar research ===
The [[Chinese Arctic and Antarctic Administration]] (CAA) organizes China's scientific program for both the [[Arctic]] and [[Antarctic]]. Polar research by China, in particular in [[Antarctica]], has been growing rapidly. China now has three Antarctic research stations and one in the [[Arctic]] on the Norwegian island of [[Svalbard]].<ref>John Garnaut, [http://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/world/science/china-has-antarctica-in-its-sights-20100903-14uc1.html China has Antarctica in its sights] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120430021513/http://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/world/science/china-has-antarctica-in-its-sights-20100903-14uc1.html |date=April 30, 2012 }}, September 4, [[Brisbane Times]], 2010</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chinare.gov.cn/en/|title=Chinese Arctic and Antarctic Administration(CAA)|website=www.chinare.gov.cn}}</ref>

=== Space science ===
[[File:长征五号遥二火箭转场.jpg|thumb|[[Long March 5]] heavy-lifted rocket, China's most powerful launch vehicle.]]
{{Main|Chinese space program}}
The [[Chinese space program]] is a major source of national pride.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/china/8872196/Chinas-huge-leap-forward-into-space-threatens-US-ascendancy-over-heavens.html|title=China's huge leap forward into space threatens US ascendancy over heavens|author=David Eimer in Beijing|date=5 November 2011|work=Telegraph.co.uk|location=London}}</ref> In 1970 the first Chinese satellite, [[Dong Fang Hong I]], was launched.  In 2003 China become the third country to independently send humans into space with Yang Liwei's spaceflight aboard [[Shenzhou 5]]. In 2008 China conducted a [[Extra-vehicular activity|spacewalk]] with the [[Shenzhou 7]] mission. In 2011 [[Tiangong-1]] was launched which was the first step towards a [[Chinese space station]] around 2020. The active [[Chinese Lunar Exploration Program]] includes a [[Chang'e 3|lunar rover in 2013]] and possibly a crewed [[lunar landing]] in the 2020s. Experience gained from the lunar program will be used for future programs such as [[exploration of Mars]] and [[Venus]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://abcnews.go.com/Technology/wireStory?id=14043200#.T3pzd6vmN3k|title=Technology and Science News - ABC News|author=ABC News|work=ABC News}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/sep/20/china-could-make-moon-landing-by-2025|title=China could make moon landing in 2025|author=Tania Branigan|date=20 September 2010|work=the Guardian|location=London}}</ref>

China plans to launch 5 commercial satellites for foreign customers in 2012 and aims to capture 15% of the commercial launch market and 10% of the satellite export market by 2015. In 2011 China launched a total of 19 rockets, which was the second most after Russia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.china.org.cn/video/2012-04/01/content_25045687.htm|title=China's growing space industry to become leading force|author=颜筱箐|work=china.org.cn}}</ref>

The [[Five hundred meter Aperture Spherical Telescope]], completed in 2016, is the world's largest [[radio telescope]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg21028165-300-china-starts-building-worlds-biggest-radio-telescope/|title=China starts building world's biggest radio telescope|first1=Anil|last1=Ananthaswamy|website=New Scientist}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.space.com/33357-china-largest-radio-telescope-alien-life.html|title=China Finishes Building World's Largest Radio Telescope|author=Mike Wall|date=July 6, 2016|publisher=Space.com|access-date=April 6, 2018}}</ref>

=== Textiles ===
China in 2012 produced more than one-third of the developed world's apparel import but the share has been decreasing in recent years as low-technology and labor-intensive production has been moving to regions like Southeast Asia and Eastern Europe.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.moneycontrol.com/smementor/mentorade/starting-up/chinas-textile-industrycrisis-686377.html|title=China's textile industry in crisis|work=moneycontrol.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/where-madeinchina-textiles-are-emigrating-01122012.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120115031057/http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/where-madeinchina-textiles-are-emigrating-01122012.html|archive-date=January 15, 2012|title=Where Made-in-China Textiles Are Emigrating|author=Dexter Roberts|work=Businessweek.com|date=January 12, 2012}}</ref>

=== Transportation ===
{{See also|Transport in China}}
Transportation infrastructure continues to be rapidly developed. The [[National Trunk Highway System]] was in 2011 estimated to surpass the [[Interstate Highway System|US interstate system]] in length.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newgeography.com/content/002003-china-expressway-system-exceed-us-interstates|title=China Expressway System to Exceed US Interstates, newgeography.com, Feb 10, 2011|date=2011-01-22|publisher=newgeography.com|access-date=2012-06-25}}</ref> Many Chinese cities have or are planning to build [[Rapid transit in the People's Republic of China|metros or other forms of rapid transit]].

==== Commercial aircraft ====
The state owned [[Comac]] [[aerospace manufacturer]] aims to reduce Chinese dependency on foreign companies for large passenger aircraft.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/7394596.stm|title=Chinese plane business gets wings|author=Staff writers|date=11 May 2008|work=BBC News|access-date=25 June 2011}}</ref> The future [[C919]] aims to be completely made in China.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/china/2010/05/17/chinas-aviation-industry-takes-flight/|title=China's Aviation Industry Takes Flight|author=China Tracker|work=Forbes}}</ref>

==== Motor vehicles ====
The [[automotive industry in China]] is the world's largest producer of [[motor vehicle]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://oica.net/category/production-statistics/|title=OICA 2011 statistic|publisher=[[OICA]]|access-date=2012-06-25}}</ref> However, China's indigenous car companies have had difficulties on the global market and the growing [[electric vehicle]] market has been seen as way to remedy this. China in 2010 proposed controversial legislation requiring foreign electric vehicle producers to form minority [[joint-venture]]s and share technologies with Chinese carmakers in order to get market access.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748704394704575495480368918268|title=Auto Makers Join Criticism of Chinese Policy Makers - WSJ|author=Norihiko Shirouzu|date=16 September 2010|work=WSJ}}</ref> A 2011 report financed by the [[World Bank]] stated that China was becoming the world leader on electric vehicles.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/13139673|title=China leading electric vehicle race, study says|date=21 April 2011|work=BBC News}}</ref>

==== Shipbuilding ====
In 2009-2010 China became the world's largest [[shipbuilder]], however [[South Korea]] regained the top position in 2011 due to more advanced technology. China is developing its technological abilities and competition is expected to increase.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/biz/2012/01/123_102558.html|title=Korea overtakes China as world's top shipbuilder in 2011|date=10 January 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2011-09-29/korea-shipyards-lng-skill-beats-china-dry-bulk-focus-freight|title=Korea Shipyards' LNG Skill Beats China Bulk Focus: Freight|last1=Park|first1=Kyunghee|date=September 30, 2011 |website=Bloomberg.com}}</ref>

==== Trains ====
[[File:CR400BF-C-5162@SPK (20201123164927).jpg|thumb|A Changchun-built [[Fuxing (train)|CR400BF-C]] intelligent EMU in 2020]]
The BBC wrote in a 2011 article on [[high-speed rail in China]] that China in 2005 had no [[high-speed railways]]. In 2010 it had more than Europe and in 2012 China was expected to have more than the rest of the world combined. China demanded that foreign companies wanting to participate had to share their technology. Some 10,000 Chinese engineers and academics then in three years produced a faster Chinese high-speed train that China is now exporting to other nations.<ref name="BBC2011" />

==See also==
{{Portal|China|Science|Technology}}
*[[CERNET]]
*[[Chinese Academy of Sciences]]
*[[Chinese Academy of Engineering]]
*[[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]]
*[[China–United States trade war (2018–present)]]
*[[CSTNET]]
*[[History of science and technology in the People's Republic of China]]
*[[List of Chinese inventions]]
*[[Made in China 2025]]
*[[Science in newly industrialized countries]]

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Sources ===
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| documentURL = http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002354/235406e.pdf
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| license = CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0
}}
* {{citation |surname1=Fraser |given1=Ian W. |editor-given=Kerry |editor-surname=Brown |chapter=Zhang Heng 张衡 |title=The Berkshire Dictionary of Chinese Biography |location=Great Barrington |publisher=Berkshire Publishing |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-933782-66-9 }}
* {{citation |last=Needham |first=Joseph  |title = Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 3, Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth |year=1986b |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge }}
* {{citation |last=Needham |first=Joseph  |title = Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 3: Civil Engineering and Nautics |year=1986d |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge }}
* {{citation |last=Sivin |first=Nathan |title = Science in Ancient China |year=1995 |publisher=VARIORUM, Ashgate Publishing |location=Brookfield, Vermont }}
* {{Citation |doi=10.1086/352793|last=Xi|first=Zezong|year=1981|title=Chinese Studies in the History of Astronomy, 1949–1979|journal=Isis|volume=72|issue=3|pages=456–470|bibcode=1981Isis...72..456X|s2cid=144323050}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category}}
* [http://www.most.gov.cn/eng Ministry of Science and Technology]
* [http://www.cast.org.cn/ China Association for Science and Technology] (CAST)
* [http://chicago.chineseconsulate.org/eng/kj/t31892.htm Science & Technology Links]
* [http://en.chinabroadcast.cn/scitech SciTech: Popular Science in China] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061109134426/http://en.chinabroadcast.cn/scitech |date=November 9, 2006 }} China Radio International
* [http://china-us.uoregon.edu/pdf/Minerva-2004.pdf Chinese Science and the 'Nobel Prize Complex'] by Cong Cao
* [http://www.iias.nl/iiasn/iiasn5/eastasia/needham.html In Memoriam: Dr. Joseph Needham, 1900–1995] Erik Zürcher, International Institute for Asian Studies (IIAS) Newsletter
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20010303150429/http://www.usembassy-china.org.cn/english/sandt/stdec2.htm 1995 CCP Central Committee and State Council "Decision on Accelerating S&T Development"]
* [http://nanoecosystem.cn Nanotechnology Ecosystem of China]
* [https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2020/05/21/business/china-plan-tech-crown/]

; Videos
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Rf-HBsfzzMA Modern Unbelievable High Technologies in China]

{{Clear}}
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{{Economy of China}}
{{Asia topic|Science and technology in}}
{{S&T in China}}
{{Philosophy of science}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Science And Technology In China}}
[[Category:History of science and technology in China]]
[[Category:Science and technology in China| ]]