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{{Short description|Medieval school of philosophy}}
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[[File:Laurentius de Voltolina Vorlesung vor Studenten - Min 1233 - Kupferstichkabinett Berlin.jpg|upright=1.2|right|thumb|14th-century image of a university lecture]]
{{Scholasticism}}
'''Scholasticism''' was a [[medieval]] European philosophical movement or methodology that was the predominant education in Europe from about 1100 to 1700.<ref>See Steven P. Marone, "Medieval philosophy in context" in A. S. McGrade, ed., ''The Cambridge Companion to Medieval Philosophy'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003). On the difference between scholastic and medieval monastic postures towards learning, see Jean Leclercq, ''The Love of Learning and the Desire for God'' (New York: Fordham University Press, 1970) esp. 89; 238ff.</ref> It is known for employing logically precise analyses and reconciling [[classical philosophy]] and [[Catholic Christianity]].<ref>Grayling, A. C. (2019). ''The History of Philosophy''. Penguin Press, pp. 146-7.</ref>

The Scholastics, also known as '''Schoolmen''',<ref>{{Cite Dictionary.com|Schoolmen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |editor1-first=Timothy P. |editor1-last=Campbell |editor2-first=Timothy M. |editor2-last=Harrison |editor3-first=Josephine |editor3-last=McDonagh |editor4-first=Benjamin A. |editor4-last=Saltzman |title=Modern Philology |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/mp.1950.47.issue-4 |website=[[University of Chicago Press]] |access-date=15 June 2023 |language=en |doi=10.1086/mp.1950.47.issue-4 |date=May 1950 |issn=0026-8232 |volume=47 |number=4|url-access=subscription }}</ref> used [[dialectical reasoning]] predicated upon [[Aristotelianism]] and the [[categories (Aristotle)|Ten Categories]]. Scholasticism emerged within the [[monastic school]]s that translated medieval [[Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)|Judeo-Islamic philosophies]], and "rediscovered" the [[Corpus Aristotelicum|collected works of Aristotle]]. Endeavoring to harmonize Aristotle's [[metaphysics (Aristotle)|metaphysics]] and [[Latin Catholic]] theology, these monastic schools became the basis of the earliest European [[medieval university|medieval universities]], and thus became the bedrock for the development of [[History of science|modern science]] and [[Western philosophy|philosophy]] in the Western world. The rise of scholasticism was closely associated with these schools that flourished in [[Italy in the Middle Ages|Italy]], [[Kingdom of France|France]], [[Portuguese Empire|Portugal]], [[Spanish Empire|Spain]] and [[Kingdom of England|England]].<ref>Gracia, Jorge JE, and Timothy B. Noone, eds. A companion to philosophy in the middle ages. John Wiley & Sons, 2008, 55–64</ref>

Scholasticism is a method of learning more than a philosophy or a theology, since it places a strong emphasis on dialectical reasoning to extend knowledge by [[inference]] and to resolve [[contradictions]]. Scholastic thought is also known for rigorous conceptual analysis and the careful drawing of distinctions. In the classroom and in writing, it often takes the form of explicit [[disputation]]: a topic drawn from the tradition is broached in the form of a proposition on a question to be debated, oppositional responses are given, a counterproposal is argued and oppositional arguments rebutted. Because of its emphasis on rigorous dialectical method, scholasticism was eventually applied to many other fields of study.<ref name=cambridgedict>Patte, Daniel. ''The Cambridge Dictionary of Christianity.'' Ed. Daniel Patte. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010, 11132-1133</ref><ref>Grant, Edward. ''God and Reason in the Middle Ages.'' Cambridge University Press, 2004, 159</ref>

Scholasticism was initially a program conducted by medieval Christian thinkers attempting to harmonize the various authorities of their own tradition, and to reconcile Christian theology with classical and late antique philosophy, especially that of [[Aristotle]] but also of [[Neoplatonism]].<ref>Particularly through [[Pseudo-Dionysius]], [[Augustine]], and [[Boethius]], and through the influence of [[Plotinus]] and [[Proclus]] on Muslim philosophers. In the case of Aquinas, for instance, see Jan Aertsen, "Aquinas' philosophy in its historical setting" in ''The Cambridge Companion to Aquinas'', ed. Norman Kretzmann and Eleonore Stump (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993). Jean Leclerq, ''The Love of Learning and the Desire for God'' (New York: Fordham University Press, 1970).</ref> Prominent scholastic figures include [[Anselm of Canterbury]] ("the father of scholasticism"<ref>Grant, Edward. ''God and Reason in the Middle Ages.'' Cambridge University Press, 2004, 56</ref>), [[Peter Abelard]], [[Alexander of Hales]], [[Albertus Magnus]], [[Duns Scotus]], [[William of Ockham]], [[Bonaventure]], and [[Thomas Aquinas]]. Aquinas's masterwork, ''[[Summa Theologica]]'' (1265–1274), is widely considered to be the pinnacle of scholastic, medieval, and Christian philosophy.<ref name=GilsonP>{{cite book|last=Gilson|first=Etienne|title=The Spirit of Medieval Philosophy (Gifford Lectures 1933–35)|year=1991|publisher=University of Notre Dame Press|location=Notre Dame, IN|isbn=978-0-268-01740-8|pages=490}}</ref> Important work in the scholastic tradition has been carried on well past Aquinas's time, such as with English scholastics [[Robert Grosseteste]] and his student [[Roger Bacon]], by [[Francisco Suárez]] and [[Luis de Molina]], and also among Lutheran and Reformed thinkers.

== Etymology ==

The terms "scholastic" and "scholasticism" derive from the [[Latin]] word ''{{lang|la|scholasticus}}'', the Latinized form of the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] {{lang|grc|σχολαστικός}} (''{{lang|grc-Latn|scholastikos}}''), an adjective derived from {{lang|grc|σχολή}} (''{{lang|grc-Latn|scholē}}''), "[[school]]".<ref>{{cite web|title=school|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=school&allowed_in_frame=0}} {{cite dictionary|title=scholastic|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=scholastic&allowed_in_frame=0|dictionary=[[Online Etymology Dictionary]]}} {{LSJ|sxolh/|σχολή}}, {{LSJ|sxolastiko/s|σχολαστικός|ref}}.</ref> ''Scholasticus'' means "of or pertaining to schools". The "scholastics", therefore, were roughly "schoolmen".

== History ==

The foundations of Christian scholasticism were laid by [[Boethius]] through his logical and theological essays.<ref name=cambridgedict /> Later forerunners (and then companions) to scholasticism were Islamic [[Kalām|Ilm al-Kalām]], meaning "science of discourse",<ref name="Wolfson">Winter, Tim J. "Introduction." Introduction. The Cambridge Companion to Classical Islamic Theology. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2008. 4–5. Print.</ref> and [[Jewish philosophy#Jewish scholarship after destruction of Second Temple|Jewish philosophy]], especially [[Jewish Kalam]].<ref>Madeleine Pelner Cosman, Linda Gale Jones, Handbook to Life in the Medieval World, p. 391. {{ISBN|1438109075}}</ref>

=== Early scholasticism ===
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The first significant renewal of learning in the West came with the [[Carolingian Renaissance]] of the [[Early Middle Ages]]. [[Charlemagne]], advised by [[Peter of Pisa]] and [[Alcuin of York]], attracted the scholars of England and Ireland, where some Greek works continued to survive in the original. By a 787 decree, he established schools at every abbey in his empire. These schools, from which the name ''scholasticism'' derived,{{dubious|date=May 2024}}<!--book unavailable but almost certainly unsupported since entirely untrue; scholasticism not immediately connected to Charlemagne's schools--> became centers of medieval learning.<ref>[[Marcia Colish|Colish, Marcia L.]] ''Medieval foundations of the western intellectual tradition, 400–1400.'' Yale University Press, 1999, 66–67</ref>

During this period, knowledge of Ancient Greek had vanished in the West except in Ireland, where its teaching and use was fairly common in its [[monastic school]]s.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sandys |first1=John Edwin |author1-link=John Sandys (classicist) |title=A History of Classical Scholarship |date=1903 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=438 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=godfAAAAMAAJ}}</ref> Irish scholars had a considerable presence in the [[Carolingian Empire|Frankish court]], where they were renowned for their learning.<ref name="StanfordEriugena">{{cite web |title=John Scottus Eriugena |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/scottus-eriugena/ |website=[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] |publisher=[[Stanford University]] |date=2004-10-17 |access-date=2008-07-21 }}</ref> Among them was [[Johannes Scotus Eriugena]] (815–877), one of the founders of scholasticism.<ref name="Gothic">{{harvnb|Toman|2007|p=10}}: "[[Peter Abelard|Abelard]] himself was&nbsp;... together with John Scotus Erigena (9th century), and [[Lanfranc]] and [[Anselm of Canterbury]] (both 11th century), one of the founders of scholasticism."</ref> Eriugena was the most significant Irish intellectual of the early monastic period and an outstanding philosopher in terms of originality.<ref name="StanfordEriugena"/> He had considerable familiarity with the Greek language and translated many works into Latin, affording access to the [[Cappadocian Fathers]] and the [[Eastern Orthodox Christian theology|Greek theological tradition]].<ref name="StanfordEriugena"/> Three other primary founders of scholasticism were the 11th-century archbishops [[Lanfranc of Canterbury|Lanfranc]] and [[Anselm of Canterbury|Anselm]] of [[archdiocese of Canterbury|Canterbury]] in [[Kingdom of England|England]] and [[Peter Abelard]] in [[Kingdom of France|France]].<ref name="Gothic"/>

This period saw the beginning of the "[[Transmission of Greek philosophical ideas in the Middle Ages|rediscovery]]" of many Greek works which had been lost to the Latin West. As early as the latter half of the 10th century, the [[Toledo School of Translators]] in [[Al-Andalus|Muslim Spain]] had begun translating Arabic texts into Latin.{{sfn|Lindberg|1978|pp=60–61}} After a successful burst of [[Reconquista]] in the 12th century, Spain opened even further for Christian scholars and, as these Europeans encountered [[Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)|Judeo-Islamic philosophies]], they opened a wealth of Arab and Judaic knowledge of mathematics and astronomy.<ref name=institutions>Grant, Edward, and Emeritus Edward Grant. The foundations of modern science in the Middle Ages: their religious, institutional and intellectual contexts. Cambridge University Press, 1996, 23–28</ref> The [[Latin translations of the 12th century]] also included figures like [[Constantine the African]] in Italy and [[James of Venice]] in Constantinople. Scholars such as [[Adelard of Bath]] traveled to Spain and Sicily, translating works on astronomy and mathematics, including the first complete translation of [[Euclid]]'s ''[[Euclid's Elements|Elements]]'' into Latin.{{sfn|Clagett|1982|p=356}}

At the same time, the [[School of Chartres]] produced [[Bernard of Chartres]]'s commentaries on [[Plato]]'s ''[[Timaeus (dialogue)|Timaeus]]'' and a range of works by [[William of Conches]] that attempted to reconcile the use of classical pagan and philosophical sources in a medieval Christian concept using the kludge of {{lang|la|integumentum}}, treating the obviously [[Heresy in the Catholic Church|heretical]] surface meanings as coverings disguising a deeper (and more orthodox) truth.<ref>{{citation |last=Adamson |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Adamson (philosopher) |title=Medieval Philosophy |series=''A History of Philosophy without Any Gaps'', Vol. 4 |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=2019 |isbn=978-0-19-884240-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hverDwAAQBAJ |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hverDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA93 93 ff] }}.</ref> Abelard himself was condemned by [[Bernard of Clairvaux]] at the [[1141 Council of Sens]] and William avoided a similar fate through systematic self-bowdlerization of his early work, but his commentaries and encyclopedic {{lang|la|[[De Philosophia Mundi]]}} and {{lang|la|[[Dragmaticon]]}} were miscredited to earlier scholars like [[Venerable Bede|Bede]] and widely disseminated. [[Anselm of Laon]] systematized the production of the [[gloss (annotation)|gloss]] on Scripture, followed by the rise to prominence of [[dialectic]] (the middle subject of the medieval [[trivium (education)|trivium]]) in the work of [[Abelard]]. [[Peter Lombard]] produced a collection of ''[[Sentences]],'' or opinions of the Church Fathers and other authorities.<ref>{{cite web |first=Andrew |last=Hoffecker |title=Peter Lombard, Master of the Sentences|url=http://www.ligonier.org/learn/articles/peter-lombard-master-of-the-sentences/|publisher=Ligonier Ministries}}</ref>

More recently, [[Ulrich Leinsle|Leinsle]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Leinsle |first=Ulrich G. |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1303318773 |title=Introduction to Scholastic Theology |isbn=0-8132-1925-6 |oclc=1303318773}}</ref> [[Alex Novikoff|Novikoff]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Novikoff |first=Alex J. |date=April 2012 |title=Toward a Cultural History of Scholastic Disputation |journal=The American Historical Review |language=en |volume=117 |issue=2 |pages=331–364 |doi=10.1086/ahr.117.2.331|s2cid=163903902 |doi-access=free }}</ref> and others have argued against the idea that scholasticism primarily derived from philosophical contact, emphasizing its continuity with earlier [[Patristic Christianity]]. This remains, however, a minority viewpoint.{{cn|date=September 2024}}

=== High scholasticism ===

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The 13th and early 14th centuries are generally seen as the high period of scholasticism. The early 13th century witnessed the culmination of the [[recovery of Aristotle|recovery of Greek philosophy]]. Schools of translation grew up in Italy and Sicily, and eventually in the rest of Europe. Powerful Norman kings gathered men of knowledge from Italy and other areas into their courts as a sign of their prestige.{{sfn|Lindberg|1978|pp=70–72}} [[William of Moerbeke]]'s translations and editions of Greek philosophical texts in the middle half of the thirteenth century helped form a clearer picture of Greek philosophy, particularly of Aristotle, than was given by the Arabic versions on which they had previously relied. [[Edward Grant]] writes "Not only was the structure of the Arabic language radically different from that of Latin, but some Arabic versions had been derived from earlier Syriac translations and were thus twice removed from the original Greek text. Word-for-word translations of such Arabic texts could produce tortured readings. By contrast, the structural closeness of Latin to Greek, permitted literal, but intelligible, word-for-word translations."<ref name=institutions />

[[university|Universities]] developed in the large cities of Europe during this period, and rival clerical orders within the church began to battle for political and intellectual control over these centers of educational life. The two main orders founded in this period were the [[Franciscans]] and the [[Dominican Order|Dominicans]]. The Franciscans were founded by [[Francis of Assisi]] in 1209. Their leader in the middle of the century was [[Bonaventure]], a traditionalist who defended the theology of [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]] and the philosophy of [[Plato]], incorporating only a little of Aristotle in with the more neoplatonist elements. Following Anselm, Bonaventure supposed that reason can only discover truth when philosophy is illuminated by religious faith.<ref>Hammond, Jay, Wayne Hellmann, and Jared Goff, eds. ''A companion to Bonaventure.'' Brill, 2014, 122</ref> Other important Franciscan scholastics were [[Duns Scotus]], [[Peter Auriol]] and [[William of Ockham]].<ref>Evans, Gillian Rosemary. ''Fifty key medieval thinkers.'' Routledge, 2002, 93–93, 147–149, 164–169</ref><ref>Gracia, Jorge JE, and Timothy B. Noone, eds. A companion to philosophy in the middle ages. John Wiley & Sons, 2008, 353–369, 494–503, 696–712</ref>

By contrast, the Dominican order, a teaching order founded by [[St Dominic]] in 1215, to propagate and defend Christian doctrine, placed more emphasis on the use of reason and made extensive use of the [[recovery of Aristotle|new Aristotelian sources]] derived from the East and Moorish Spain. The great representatives of Dominican thinking in this period were [[Albertus Magnus]] and (especially) [[Thomas Aquinas]], whose artful synthesis of Greek rationalism and Christian doctrine eventually came to define Catholic philosophy. 

Aquinas's masterwork, ''[[Summa Theologica]]'' (1265–1274), is considered to be the pinnacle of scholastic, medieval, and Christian philosophy.<ref name=GilsonP/> It began while Aquinas was regent master at the ''studium provinciale'' of [[Santa Sabina]] in Rome, the forerunner of the [[Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas]]. Aquinas placed more emphasis on reason and argumentation, and was one of the first to use the new translation of Aristotle's metaphysical and epistemological writing. This was a significant departure from the [[Neoplatonism|Neoplatonic]] and Augustinian thinking that had dominated much of early scholasticism. Aquinas showed how it was possible to incorporate much of the philosophy of Aristotle without falling into the "errors" of the Commentator, [[Averroes]].<ref>Hannam, James. The genesis of science: How the Christian Middle Ages launched the scientific revolution. Simon and Schuster, 2011, 90–93</ref>

=== Post-scholasticism ===
{{single source|section|date=October 2024}}
Philosopher Johann Beukes has suggested that from 1349 to 1464, the era between the deaths of [[William of Ockham]] and [[Nicholas of Cusa]], there was a distinct period characterized by "robust and independent philosophers" who departed from high scholasticism on issues such as institutional criticism and materialism but retained scholasticism's method. These philosophers include [[Marsilius of Padua]], [[Thomas Bradwardine]], [[John Wycliffe]], [[Catherine of Sienna]], [[Jean Gerson]], [[Gabriel Biel]] and ended with Nicholas of Cusa.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Beukes |first1=Johann |title=The case for post-scholasticism as an internal period indicator in Medieval philosophy |journal=HTS Teologiese Studies / Theological Studies |date=19 March 2021 |volume=77 |issue=4 |doi=10.4102/hts.v77i4.6270|doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Spanish scholasticism ===

{{Main|School of Salamanca}}

=== Late Scholasticism ===
{{Main|Second scholasticism}}
===Protestant Scholasticism===
{{main|Protestant Scholasticism}}
=== Lutheran Scholasticism ===
{{Main|Lutheran scholasticism}}

=== Reformed scholasticism ===

{{Main|Reformed scholasticism}}

Following the Reformation, [[Calvinists]] largely adopted the scholastic method of theology, while differing regarding sources of authority and content of theology.<ref>[[Jane Dempsey Douglass|Douglass, Jane Dempsey]], et al. The Cambridge Companion to John Calvin. Cambridge University Press, 2004, 227–228</ref>

=== Neo-scholasticism ===
{{Main|Neo-scholasticism}}

The revival and development from the second half of the 19th century of medieval scholastic philosophy is sometimes called neo-[[Thomism]].<ref name=:0>{{cite web |url=http://edwardfeser.blogspot.com/2009/10/thomistic-tradition-part-i.html |author=Edward Feser |author-link=Edward Feser |title=The Thomistic tradition, Part I (archived copy) |date=15 October 2009 |access-date=2011-01-02 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101129133527/http://edwardfeser.blogspot.com/2009/10/thomistic-tradition-part-i.html |archive-date=29 November 2010 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

=== Thomistic scholasticism ===

As J. A. Weisheipl [[Order of Preachers|O.P.]] emphasizes, within the [[Dominican Order]] Thomistic scholasticism has been continuous since the time of Aquinas: "Thomism was always alive in the Dominican Order, small as it was after the ravages of the Reformation, the French Revolution, and the Napoleonic occupation. Repeated legislation of the General Chapters, beginning after the death of St. Thomas, as well as the Constitutions of the Order, required all Dominicans to teach the doctrine of St. Thomas both in philosophy and in theology."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://domcentral.org/blog/the-revival-of-thomism-an-historical-survey-weisheipl/ |title=The Revival of Thomism: An Historical Survey |first=James |last=Weisheipl |year=1962 |access-date=2013-08-21 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927202339/http://domcentral.org/blog/the-revival-of-thomism-an-historical-survey-weisheipl/ |archive-date=2013-09-27 }}</ref>

"Thomistic scholasticism" or "scholastic [[Thomism]]" identifies with the philosophical and theological tradition stretching back to the time of St. Thomas Aquinas. It focuses not only on exegesis of the historical Aquinas but also on the articulation of a rigorous system of orthodox Thomism to be used as an instrument of critique of contemporary thought. Due to its suspicion of attempts to harmonize Aquinas with non-Thomistic categories and assumptions, scholastic Thomism has sometimes been called, according to philosophers like [[Edward Feser]], "Strict Observance Thomism".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://edwardfeser.blogspot.com/2009/10/thomistic-tradition-part-i.html |title=Edward Feser: The Thomistic tradition, Part I |website=edwardfeser.blogspot.com |date= 15 October 2009|access-date=5 September 2013}}</ref> A discussion of recent and current Thomistic scholasticism can be found in ''La Metafisica di san Tommaso d'Aquino e i suoi interpreti'' (2002) by {{ill|Battista Mondin|it}}, which includes such figures as Sofia Vanni Rovighi (1908–1990),<ref>[http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/sofia-vanni-rovighi_(Dizionario-di-filosofia) Vanni Rovighi, Sofia]. [[Treccani]] Encyclopedia./ Accessed 17 August 2013</ref> [[Cornelio Fabro]] (1911–1995), Carlo Giacon (1900–1984),<ref>[http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/carlo-giacon_(Dizionario-Biografico) GIACON, Carlo]. Treccani Encyclopedia./ Accessed 9 April 2013</ref> [[Tomas Tyn]] [[Order of Preachers|O.P.]] (1950–1990), Abelardo Lobato [[Order of Preachers|O.P.]] (1925–2012), Leo Elders (1926– ) and [[Ventimiglia Giovanni|Giovanni Ventimiglia]] (1964– ), among others. Fabro in particular emphasizes Aquinas' originality, especially with respect to the ''actus essendi'' or act of existence of finite beings by participating in being itself. Other scholars such as those involved with "Il Progetto Tommaso" seek to establish an objective and universal reading of Aquinas' texts.<ref>See {{cite book |first=Raffaele |last=Rizzello |chapter=Il Progetto Tommaso |title=Vita quaerens intellectum |editor1=Giacomo Grasso, O.P. |editor2=Stefano Serafini |publisher=Millennium Romae |location=Rome |year=1999 |pages=157–161 |chapter-url=http://www.phmae.it/rec35.htm |access-date=2013-09-25 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928013141/http://www.phmae.it/rec35.htm |archive-date=2013-09-28 }}</ref>

Thomistic scholasticism in the English speaking world went into decline in the 1970s when the Thomistic revival that had been spearheaded by [[Jacques Maritain]], [[Étienne Gilson]], and others, diminished in influence. Partly, this was because this branch of [[Thomism]] had become a quest to understand the historical Aquinas after the [[Second Vatican Council]].

=== Analytical scholasticism ===

A renewed interest in the "scholastic" way of doing philosophy has recently awoken within [[analytic philosophy]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |editor1-last=Peterson |editor1-first=Craig |editor2-last=Pugh |editor2-first=Matthew |title=Analytical Thomism: traditions in dialogue |year=2006 |location=Aldershot, England |publisher=Ashgate|isbn=0754634388 }}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |editor1-last=Simpson |editor1-first=William M. R.|editor2-last=Koons|editor2-first=Robert C.|editor3-last=Orr |editor3-first=James |title=Neo-Aristotelian Metaphysics and the Theology of Nature |date=11 October 2021 |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/edit/10.4324/9781003125860/ |location=New York |publisher=Routledge |via=Taylor & Francis Group |isbn=9781003125860 |doi=10.4324/9781003125860-3|s2cid=244179976 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Attempts emerged to combine elements of scholastic and analytic methodology in pursuit of a contemporary philosophical synthesis. Proponents of various incarnations of this approach include [[Anthony Kenny]], Peter King, Thomas Williams or [[David Oderberg]].{{cn|date=September 2024}}

== Scholastic method ==

Cornelius O'Boyle explained that Scholasticism focuses on how to acquire knowledge and how to communicate effectively so that it may be acquired by others. It was thought that the best way to achieve this was by replicating the discovery process (''modus inveniendi'').<ref>{{Cite book|title=The art of medicine: medical teaching at the University of Paris, 1250–1400|last=Cornelius|first=O'Boyle|date=1998|publisher=Brill|isbn=9789004111240|location=Leiden|oclc=39655867}}</ref>

The scholasticists would choose a book by a renowned scholar, ''[[Author|auctor]]'' (author), as a subject for investigation. By reading it thoroughly and critically, the disciples learned to appreciate the theories of the author. Other documents related to the book would be referenced, such as Church councils, papal letters and anything else written on the subject, be it ancient or contemporary. The points of disagreement and contention between multiple sources would be written down in individual sentences or snippets of text, known as [[sententiae]]. Once the sources and points of disagreement had been laid out through a series of [[dialectic]]s, the two sides of an argument would be made whole so that they would be found to be in agreement and not contradictory. (Of course, sometimes opinions would be totally rejected, or new positions proposed.) This was done in two ways. The first was through [[philology|philological]] analysis. Words were examined and argued to have multiple meanings. It was also considered that the ''auctor'' might have intended a certain word to mean something different. Ambiguity could be used to find common ground between two otherwise contradictory statements. The second was through logical analysis, which relied on the rules of formal [[logic]] – as they were known at the time – to show that contradictions did not exist but were subjective to the reader.<ref name=westintel>Colish, Marcia L. ''Medieval foundations of the western intellectual tradition, 400–1400.'' Yale University Press, 1999, 265–273</ref>

== Scholastic instruction ==

Scholastic instruction consisted of several elements. The first was the ''lectio'': a teacher would read an authoritative text followed by a commentary, but no questions were permitted. This was followed by the ''meditatio'' ([[wikt:meditatio|meditation]] or reflection) in which students reflected on and appropriated the text. Finally, in the ''quaestio'' students could ask questions (''quaestiones'') that might have occurred to them during ''meditatio''. Eventually the discussion of ''quaestiones'' became a method of inquiry apart from the ''lectio'' and independent of authoritative texts. ''Disputationes'' were arranged to resolve controversial ''quaestiones''.{{sfn|van Asselt|2011|p=59}}

Questions to be disputed were ordinarily announced beforehand, but students could propose a question to the teacher unannounced – ''disputationes de quodlibet''. In this case, the teacher responded and the students rebutted; on the following day the teacher, having used notes taken during the disputation, summarised all arguments and presented his final position, riposting all rebuttals.<ref name=westintel />{{sfn|van Asselt|2011|p=60}}

The ''quaestio'' method of reasoning was initially used especially when two authoritative texts seemed to contradict one another. Two contradictory propositions would be considered in the form of an either/or question, and each part of the question would have to be approved (''sic'') or denied (''non''). Arguments for the position taken would be presented in turn, followed by arguments against the position, and finally the arguments against would be refuted. This method forced scholars to consider opposing viewpoints and defend their own arguments against them.{{sfn|van Asselt|2011|pp=61–62}}

== See also ==
* ''[[Actus primus]]''
* [[Allegory in the Middle Ages]]
* [[Casuistry]]
* [[History of science in the Middle Ages]]
* [[Medieval philosophy]]
* [[Nominalism]]
* [[Pardes (Jewish exegesis)]]
* [[Renaissance of the 12th century]]
* [[Scotism]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

=== Works cited ===
* {{cite book|title=Inleiding in de Gereformeerde Scholastiek|language=nl|trans-title=Introduction to Reformed Scholasticism|year=2011|publisher=Reformation Heritage Books|location=Grand Rapids, Michigan|isbn=978-1-60178-121-5|first1=Willem J. |last1=van Asselt |author1-link=Willem van Asselt |others=With contributions by T. Theo J. Pleizier, Pieter L. Rouwendal, and Maarten Wisse; Translated by Albert Gootjes}}
* {{cite journal |last=Clagett |first=Marshall |year=1982 |title=William of Moerbeke: Translator of Archimedes |journal=Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society |volume=126 |issue=5 |pages=356–366 |jstor= 986212 }}
* Decock, W. (2013), ''[https://brill.com/view/title/21931 Theologians and Contract Law: The Moral Transformation of the Ius Commune (c. 1500–1650)]'', Leiden/Boston, Brill/Nijhoff, {{ISBN|978-90-04-23284-6}}. 
* Fryde, E., ''The Early Palaeologan Renaissance'', Brill 2000.
* Gracia, J. G. and Noone, T. B., eds., (2003) ''A Companion to Philosophy in the Middle Ages''. London: Blackwell, {{ISBN|0-631-21672-3}}
* McGrade, A. S., ed., (2003) ''The Cambridge Companion to Medieval Philosophy''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
* {{cite book |title=Science in the Middle Ages |last=Lindberg |first=David C. |year=1978 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |isbn=978-0-226-48232-3 }}
* {{cite book |title=The Art of Gothic: Architecture, Sculpture, Painting |last=Toman |first=Rolf |others=photography by Achim Bednorz |year=2007 |publisher=[[Tandem Verlag GmbH]] |isbn=978-3-8331-4676-3}}

== Further reading ==
; Primary
* {{cite book |title=Philosophy in the Middle Ages |editor-last=Hyman |editor-first=J. |editor2=Walsh, J. J. |year=1973 |publisher=Hackett Publishing |location=Indianapolis |isbn=978-0-915144-05-1 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |title=Readings in Medieval Philosophy |editor-last=Schoedinger |editor-first=Andrew B. |year=1996 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-19-509293-6 |ref=none}}

; Secondary
* {{cite web |url=http://users.sbuniv.edu/~hgallatin/ht34632e18.html#res |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090201183302/http://users.sbuniv.edu/~hgallatin/ht34632e18.html#res |url-status=dead |archive-date=2009-02-01 |title=Medieval Intellectual Life and Christianity |last=Gallatin |first=Harlie Kay |year=2001 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |title=Medieval Philosophy |url=https://archive.org/details/medievalphilosop0000maur |url-access=registration |last=Maurer |first=Armand A. |year=1982 |edition=2nd |publisher=Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies |location=Toronto |isbn=978-0-88844-704-3 |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last1=Rexroth |first1=Frank |title=Knowledge True and Useful: A Cultural History of Early Scholasticism |year=2023 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-1-5128-2471-1 |language=en |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Trueman |editor1-first=Carl R |editor2-first=R. Scott |editor2-last=Clark |year=1999 |title=Protestant Scholasticism: Essays in Reassessment |place=Carlisle, UK |publisher=Paternoster Press |isbn=0-85364-853-0 |ref=none}}

== External links ==
{{external links|date=August 2024}}
* [http://scholasticon.fr Scholasticon by Jacob Schmutz]
* [http://capricorn.bc.edu/siepm/ Medieval Philosophy Electronic Resources] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121017182202/http://capricorn.bc.edu/siepm/ |date=17 October 2012 }}
* [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9108672/Scholasticism "Scholasticism"]. In ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' Online.
* [http://www.nd.edu/Departments/Maritain/etext/scholas1.htm ''Scholasticism''] Joseph Rickaby, (1908), 121 pp. [https://archive.org/details/scholasticism00rickgoog <!-- quote=Joseph Rickaby. --> (also at googlebooks)]
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13548a.htm Scholasticism] in The Catholic Encyclopedia
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20020406104415/http://dir.yahoo.com/Arts/Humanities/Philosophy/Scholasticism/ Yahoo! directory category: Scholasticism]
* [http://web.maths.unsw.edu.au/~jim/scholastics.html The genius of the scholastics and the orbit of Aristotle], article by James Franklin on the influence of scholasticism on later thought
* [http://jameshannam.com/medievalscience.htm Medieval Philosophy, Universities and the Church] by James Hannam
* {{in lang|de}} [http://www.alcuin.de/ ALCUIN – Regensburger Infothek der Scholastik] – Huge database with information on biography, text chronology, editions.

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