View source for Sansei

{{distinguish|Sensei}}
{{short description|Grandchildren of Japanese-born emigrants}}
{{Italic title|reason=[[:Category:Japanese words and phrases]]}}
{{nihongo3|"third generation"|三世|'''Sansei'''}} is a [[Japanese language|Japanese]] and North American English term<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/sansei|title=Definition of SANSEI|website=www.merriam-webster.com|access-date=21 April 2018}}</ref> used in parts of the world (mainly in [[South America]] and [[North America]]) to refer to the children of children born to ethnically Japanese emigrants (''[[Issei]]'') in a new country of residence, outside of Japan. The ''[[nisei]]'' are considered the second generation, while grandchildren of the Japanese-born emigrants are called ''Sansei''. The fourth generation is referred to as ''[[Yonsei (Japanese diaspora)|yonsei]]''.<ref> In Japanese counting, "one, two, three, four" is "ichi, ni, san, yon"&mdash;''see'' [[Japanese numerals]]</ref> The children of at least one ''nisei'' parent are called ''Sansei''; they are usually the first generation of whom a high percentage are mixed-race, given that their parents were (usually), themselves, born and raised in America.<ref>Nomura, Gail M. (1998). "Japanese American Women," in {{Google books|d9lhBw8t410C|''The Reader's Companion to U.S. Women's History'' (Mankiller, Barbara Smith, ed.), pp. 288-290.|page=288}}</ref>

The character and uniqueness of the ''sansei'' is recognized in its social history.<ref>Numrich, Paul David. (2008). North [https://books.google.com/books?id=sAy1s626lE0C&pg=PA127  ''American Buddhists in Social Context,'' p. 110].</ref>

==By country==
[[File:Japanese Immigrants disembarkment in Brazil 1937.jpg|thumb|right|The grandchildren of these Japanese-Brazilian (''Nipo-brasileiros'') immigrants are called ''Sansei''.]]
Although the earliest organized group of Japanese emigrants settled in [[Mexico]] in 1897,<ref name="mofa-Mexico">Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MOFA), [http://www.mofa.go.jp/region/latin/mexico/index.html  ''Japan-Mexico Relations'']; retrieved 2011-05-17</ref> the four largest populations of Japanese and their descendants are in [[Brazil]], the [[United States]], [[Canada]], and [[Peru]].

===Brazilian ''Sansei''===
{{main|Japanese Brazilians}}
Brazil is home to the largest Japanese population outside of [[Japan]], with an estimate of more than 1.5 million people (including those of mixed-race or mixed-ethnicity),<ref>MOFA, [http://www.mofa.go.jp/region/latin/brazil/index.html "Japan-Brazil Relations"]; retrieved 2011-05-17</ref> more than that of the 1.2 million in the [[United States]].<ref>US Census, [http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/IPTable?_bm=y&-geo_id=01000US&-qr_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201&-qr_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201PR&-qr_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201T&-qr_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201TPR&-reg=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201:041;ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201PR:041;ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201T:041;ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201TPR:041&-ds_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_&-_lang=en "Selected Population Profile in the United States; Japanese alone or in any combination," 2005] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20200212035921/http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/IPTable?_bm=y&-geo_id=01000US&-qr_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201&-qr_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201PR&-qr_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201T&-qr_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201TPR&-reg=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201:041;ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201PR:041;ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201T:041;ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201TPR:041&-ds_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_&-_lang=en |date=2020-02-12 }}; retrieved 2011-05-17</ref>  The ''Sansei'' Japanese of Brazil are an important ethnic minority in the South American nation.<ref>Simons, Marlise. [https://www.nytimes.com/1988/05/08/world/japanese-gone-brazilian-unhurried-workaholics.html  "Japanese Gone Brazilian: Unhurried Workaholics,"] ''New York Times.'' May 8, 1988; retrieved 2011-05-17</ref>

===American ''Sansei''===
{{main|Japanese Americans}} 
Most American ''Sansei'' were born during the [[Baby Boom]] after the end of [[World War II]]; older ''Sansei'', who were living in the western United States during the war, were forcibly incarcerated with their parents (''Nisei'') and grandparents (''[[Issei]]'') after [[Executive Order 9066]] was promulgated to exclude everyone of Japanese descent from the [[West Coast of the United States|West Coast]] and from [[Southern Arizona]]. The ''Sansei'' were forceful activists in the [[Japanese American redress and court cases|redress movement]] of the 1980s, which resulted in an [[Civil Liberties Act of 1988|official apology]] to the internees.<ref>Sowell, Thomas. (1981). [https://books.google.com/books?id=m60q57zoReUC&dq=sansei&pg=PA176  ''Ethnic America: A History,'' p. 176.]</ref>  In some senses, the ''Sansei'' seem to feel they are caught in a dilemma between their "quiet" Nisei parents and their other identity model of "verbal" and outspoken Americans.<ref>Miyoshi, Nobu. (1978). [http://www.momomedia.com/CLPEF/sansei/identity.htm  "Identity Crisis of the Sansei and the Concentration Camp,"] Sansei Legacy Project (NIMH Grant No. 1 R13 MH25655-01); retrieved 2011-05-17</ref>

In the United States, an iconic ''Sansei'' is General [[Eric Shinseki]] (born November 28, 1942, 34th [[Chief of Staff of the United States Army]] (1999–2003) and former [[United States Secretary of Veterans Affairs]]. He is the first [[Asian American]] in U.S. history to be a [[four-star general]], and the first to lead one of the four U.S. military services.<ref>Zweigenhaft, Richard L. ''et al.'' (2006). {{Google books|0V0gO8tArK8C|''Diversity in the Power Elite: How it Happened, why it Matters,'' pp. 191-192|page=191}}; US Army, Center of Military History, [https://web.archive.org/web/20080109055503/http://www.history.army.mil/books/cg%26csa/Shinseki.htm Eric Ken Shinksei]; retrieved 2011-05-17</ref>

===Canadian ''Sansei''===
{{main|Japanese Canadians}} 
Within Japanese-Canadian communities across Canada, three distinct subgroups developed, each with different sociocultural referents, generational identities, and wartime experiences.<ref name="mclellan36">McLellan, Janet. (1999). {{Google books|NMm024458s4C|''Many Petals of the Lotus: Five Asian Buddhist Communities in Toronto,'' p. 36|page=36}}; Ikawa, Fumiko. [https://www.jstor.org/pss/667278  "Reviews: ''Umi o Watatta Nippon no Mura'' by Masao Gamo and "''Steveston Monogatari: Sekai no Naka no Nipponjin''" by Kazuko Tsurumi], ''American Anthropologist'' (US). New Series, Vol. 65, No. 1 (Feb., 1963), pp. 152-156; retrieved 2011-05-17</ref>

===Peruvian ''Sansei''===
{{main|Japanese Peruvians}} 
Among the approximately 80,000 Peruvians of Japanese descent, the ''Sansei'' Japanese Peruvians comprise the largest number. Former Peruvian President [[Alberto Fujimori]], who was in office from 28 July 1990 until 22 November 2000, was the ''nisei'' son of ''Issei'' emigrants from [[Kumamoto|Kumamoto City]], [[Kumamoto Prefecture]], Japan.

==Cultural profile==

===Generations===
Japanese-Americans and Japanese-Canadians have special names for each of their generations in North America. These are formed by combining one of the [[Japanese numbers]] corresponding to the [[generation]] with the Japanese word for generation (''sei'' 世). The Japanese-American and Japanese-Canadian communities have themselves distinguished their members with terms like ''Issei'', ''Nisei'' and ''Sansei'' which describe the first, second and third generation of immigrants. The fourth generation is called ''Yonsei'' (四世) and the fifth is called ''Gosei'' (五世).  The ''Issei'', ''Nisei'' and ''Sansei'' generations reflect distinctly different attitudes to authority, gender, non-Japanese involvement, religious belief and practice and other matters.<ref>McLellan, {{Google books|NMm024458s4C|p. 59.|page=59}}</ref> The age when individuals faced the wartime evacuation and internment is the single, most significant factor which explains these variations in their experiences, attitudes and behaviour patterns.<ref name="mclellan36"/>  

The term ''[[Japanese diaspora|Nikkei]]'' (日系) encompasses all of the world's Japanese immigrants across generations.<ref>Japanese American National Museum, [http://www.discovernikkei.org/en/what/ "What is Nikkei?"] retrieved 2011-05-17</ref>   The collective memory of the ''Issei'' and older ''Nisei'' was an image of Meiji Japan from 1870 through 1911, which contrasted sharply with the Japan that newer immigrants had more recently left.  These differing attitudes, social values and associations with Japan were often incompatible with each other.<ref name="mclellan37">McLellan, {{Google books|NMm024458s4C|p. 37.|page=37}}</ref>  In this context, the significant differences in post-war experiences and opportunities did nothing to mitigate the gaps which separated generational perspectives.

{|class="wikitable "
! [[Generation]]!![[Wiktionary:cohort|Cohort]] description
|-
|[[Issei]] (一世) || The generation of people born in Japan who later immigrated to another country.
|-
|[[Nisei]] (二世) ||The generation of people born outside Japan to at least one ''Issei'' parent.
|-
|Sansei (三世) ||The generation of people born to at least one ''Nisei'' parent.
|-
|[[Yonsei (fourth-generation Nikkei)|Yonsei]] (四世) || The generation of people born to at least one ''Sansei'' parent.
|-
|[[Gosei (fifth-generation Nikkei)|Gosei]]&nbsp;(五世) || The generation of people born to at least one ''Yonsei'' parent.<ref>Ikezoe-Halevi, Jean. [http://www.discovernikkei.org/en/journal/2006/10/31/voices-of-chicago/  "Voices of Chicago: Day of Remembrance 2006,"] ''Discover Nikkei'' (US). October 31, 2006.</ref>
|}

In North America since the redress victory in 1988, a significant evolutionary change has occurred.  The ''Sansei'', their parents, their grandparents, and their children are changing the way they look at themselves and their pattern of accommodation to the non-Japanese majority.<ref>McLellan, {{Google books|NMm024458s4C|p. 68.|page=68}}</ref>

There are currently just over one hundred thousand [[Japanese in the United Kingdom|British Japanese]], mostly in [[London]]; but unlike other ''[[Japanese diaspora|Nikkei]]'' communities elsewhere in the world, these Britons do not conventionally parse their communities in generational terms as ''Issei'', ''Nisei'' or ''Sansei''.<ref>Itoh, Keiko. (2001). {{Google books|VBijCPLvWyUC|''The Japanese Community in Pre-War Britain: From Integration to Disintegration,''  p. 7.|page=7}}</ref><ref>See also “Japan is Not Invited to Lord Mountbatten’s Funeral,” New York Times (September 5, 1979).</ref>

====Sansei====
The third generation of immigrants, born in the United States or Canada to parents born in the United States or Canada, is called ''Sansei'' (三世). Children born to the ''Nisei'' were generally born after 1945. They speak English as their first language and are completely acculturized in the contexts of Canadian or American society. They tend to identify with Canadian or American values, norms and expectations. Few speak Japanese and most tend to express their identity as Canadian or American rather than Japanese. Among the ''Sansei'' there is an overwhelming percentage of marriages to persons of non-Japanese ancestry.<ref name="mclellan37"/>

====Aging====
The ''[[kanreki]]'' (還暦), a traditional, pre-modern Japanese rite of passage to old age at 60, was sometimes celebrated by the ''Issei'' and is now being celebrated by increasing numbers of ''Nisei'' and a few ''Sansei''. Rituals are enactments of shared meanings, norms, and values and this  Japanese rite of passage highlights a collective response among the Nisei to the conventional dilemmas of growing older.<ref>Doi, Mary L. [https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00056753  "A Transformation of Ritual: The Nisei 60th Birthday."] ''Journal	Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology.'' Vol. 6, No. 2 (April, 1991); retrieved 2011-05-17</ref>

==History==
{{main|Japanese diaspora|Japanese American history}}

===Internment and redress===
{{main|Internment of Japanese Americans|Japanese American redress and court cases|Internment of Japanese Canadians}}

Some responded to internment with lawsuits and political action; and for others, poetry became an unplanned consequence:
{{poemquote|With new hope.
We build new lives.
Why complain when it rains?
This is what it means to be free.
: [[Lawson Fusao Inada]], [[Tom McCall Waterfront Park#Japanese American Historical Plaza|Japanese American Historical Plaza]], Portland, Oregon.<ref>[[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]]: [https://web.archive.org/web/20100903042034/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/indepth_coverage/entertainment/poetry/profiles/poet_inada.html "Oregon Laureate Reflects on Japanese Internment,"] [[The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer|NewsHour]]. October 3, 2008; retrieved 2011-05-17</ref>}}

=== Life under United States policies before and after World War II ===
{{main|Japanese American life before World War II|Japanese American life after World War II}}

==Politics==
{{See also|Anti-Japanese sentiment in the United States}}
The ''sansei'' became known as the "activist generation"<ref>US Congresswoman Nancy Pelosi website: [http://pelosi.house.gov/news/press-releases/2006/09/releases-Sept06-Japantown.shtml  "Japantown Represents More than 100 Years of a Unique Immigrant Experience,"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110116163128/http://pelosi.house.gov/news/press-releases/2006/09/releases-Sept06-Japantown.shtml |date=2011-01-16 }} inserted into the Congressional Record to commemorate the 100th anniversary of San Francisco's Japantown. September 19, 2006; excerpt, "... the emergence of the activist third generation &mdash; the Sansei &mdash; who are now "baby boomers" and the parents and grandparents of the fourth and fifth generations &mdash; the Yonsei and Gosei"; retrieved 2011-05-17</ref> because of their large hand in the [[Japanese American redress and court cases|redress movement]] and individuals that have become a part of the American mainstream political landscape.

== Notable individuals ==
{{see also|List of Japanese Americans}}
The numbers of ''sansei'' who have earned some degree of public recognition has continued to increase over time; but the quiet lives of those whose names are known only to family and friends are no less important in understanding the broader narrative of the ''Nikkei.'' Although the names highlighted here are over-represented by ''sansei'' from North America, the Latin American member countries of the [[Pan American Nikkei Association]] (PANA) include [[Argentina]], [[Bolivia]], [[Brazil]], [[Chile]], [[Colombia]], [[Mexico]], [[Paraguay]], [[Peru]], [[Uruguay]], in addition to the English-speaking [[United States]] and [[Canada]].<ref>National Association of Japanese Canadians: [http://www.najc.ca/thenandnow/relations_pana.php Pan American Nikkei Association] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090218195725/http://www.najc.ca/thenandnow/relations_pana.php |date=2009-02-18 }} (PANA); retrieved 2011-05-17</ref>
 
{{dynamic list}}
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
* [[Francis Fukuyama]]<ref>Discover Nikkei: [https://archive.today/20120731082159/http://www.discovernikkei.org/wiki/Francis_Fukuyama  Francis Fukuyama bio]; retrieved 2011-05-17</ref>
* [[Robert Hamada (professor)|Robert S. Hamada]]<ref>Zweigenhaft, {{Google books|0V0gO8tArK8C|p. 182.|page=182}}</ref>
* [[Ryan Higa]] 
* [[Kyle Higashioka]]
* [[Mike Honda]]<ref>DiscoverNikkei: [http://www.discovernikkei.org/wiki/Mike_Honda   Mike Honda bio] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081203213647/http://www.discovernikkei.org/wiki/Mike_Honda |date=2008-12-03 }}; retrieved 2011-05-17</ref>
* [[Kaisei Ichiro]]
* [[Lawson Fusao Inada]]
* [[Soji Kashiwagi]]
* [[Janice Kawaye]] 
* [[Kyle Larson]]
* [[Doris Matsui]]
* [[Robert Matsui]]<ref>DiscoverNikkei: [https://archive.today/20120730015445/http://www.discovernikkei.org/wiki/Robert_T._Matsui  Robert Matsui bio]; retrieved 2011-05-17</ref>
* [[Dale Minami]]<ref>Minami, Dale. (2005). [http://www.law.washington.edu/News/Articles/Default.aspx?YR=2005&ID=Commencement2005  University of Washington Law School, Commencement Address]; retrieved 2011-05-17</ref>
* [[Patsy Mink]]<ref>DiscoverNikkei: [https://archive.today/20120803115026/http://www.discovernikkei.org/wiki/Patsy_Takemoto_Mink  Mink bio]; Nomura, {{Google books|d9lhBw8t410C|pp. 288-290.|page=288}}; retrieved 2011-05-17</ref>
* [[Kent Nagano]]<ref>Zia, Helen ''et al.'' (1995). "Kent Nagano" in [https://books.google.com/books?id=dZsYAAAAIAAJ&q=kent+nagano  ''Notable Asian Americans,'' p. 273.]</ref>
* [[Suzy Nakamura]]
* [[Desmond Nakano]]
* [[Lane Nishikawa]]<ref>Kim, Esther. (2006). {{Google books|Rj2W7MrqgRUC|''A History of Asian American Theatre,'' p. 162.|page=162}}</ref>
* [[Linda Nishio]]
* [[Bev Oda]]
{{col-2}}
* [[Sophie Oda]] 
* [[Steven Okazaki]]<ref>Willingham, Mandy. [http://japanfocus.org/-Mandy-Willingham/1751  "A-bomb Legacy Fading: Steven Okazaki films hibakusha stories for future generations,"] ''Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus'' (US). April 16, 2006, citing ''Japan Times,'' April 15, 2006; Kamiya, Gary. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AecDAAAAMBAJ&dq=Steven+Okazaki+sansei&pg=PA62  "With a Japanese Heart,"] ''Mother Jones Magazine'' (US). Sept-Oct 1990, p. 62; retrieved 2011-05-17</ref>
* [[Yuji Okumoto]]
* [[Ellison Onizuka]]<ref>Murase, Kenji. [http://www.nikkeiheritage.org/nh/nhvxin4.html  "Ellison Onizuka: the First Nikkei Astronaut,"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120316154408/http://www.nikkeiheritage.org/nh/nhvxin4.html |date=2012-03-16 }} ''Nikkei Heritage'' (US).  Vol. XI, No. 4, Fall 1999; retrieved 2011-05-17</ref>
* [[Pete Rouse]]<ref>Franke-Ruta, Garance. [http://www.whorunsgov.com/politerati/uncategorized/rouse-hailed-as-first-asian-american-chief-of-staff/  "Rouse hailed as first Asian American chief of staff,"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101003212031/http://www.whorunsgov.com/politerati/uncategorized/rouse-hailed-as-first-asian-american-chief-of-staff/ |date=2010-10-03 }} ''Washington Post'' (US). OCtober 1, 2010; retrieved 2011-05-17</ref>
* [[Lenn Sakata]]<ref>Nakagawa, Kerry Yo. [https://archive.org/details/throughdiamond1000naka <!-- quote=lenn sakata. -->  "Through a Diamond: 100 years of Japanese American Baseball" p. 123.]</ref>
* [[Roger Shimomura]]
* [[Mike Shinoda]]<ref>{{cite book |title=On Gratitude: Sheryl Crow, Jeff Bridges, Alicia Keys, Daryl Hall, Ray Bradbury, Anna Kendrick, B.B. King, Elmore Leonard, Deepak Chopra, and 42 More Celebrities Share What They're Most Thankful For |first=Todd Aaron |last=Jensen |publisher=F+W Media, Inc. |year=2010 |isbn= 9781440508929|page=224 |access-date=October 26, 2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PkRKuy5gYrkC&dq=Mike+Shinoda+third+generation+Japanese&pg=PT224}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Marcello|url=http://japancinema.net/2012/02/01/creative-spotlight-episode-93-mike-shinoda/|title=Creative Spotlight: Episode #93 – Mike Shinoda Interview|date=February 1, 2012|publisher=japancinema.net|access-date=October 27, 2012}}</ref>
* [[Eric Shinseki]]<ref>Obata, Hiroshi. [http://www.hiroshimapeacemedia.jp/mediacenter/article.php?story=20090130144958922_ja 　両祖父母は広島出身] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721215538/http://www.hiroshimapeacemedia.jp/mediacenter/article.php?story=20090130144958922_ja |date=2011-07-21 }} ("Shinseki: both grandparents are from Hiroshima"). ''Hiroshima Peace Media'' (Japan). January 30, 2009; retrieved 2011-05-17</ref>
* [[David Suzuki]]
* [[Ronald Takaki]]<ref>{{cite web|title=''In Depth'' with Ronald Takaki|url=http://www.c-span.org/video/?284353-1/depth-ronald-takaki|publisher=[[C-SPAN]]|access-date=19 April 2015|date=28 February 2009}}</ref>
* [[Mark Takano]]<ref>Goad, Ben. [http://www.pe.com/local-news/politics/ben-goad-headlines/20121106-congress-district-41-takano-beats-tavaglione-in-nationally-watched-race.ece  "Congress District 41: Takano beats Tavaglione in nationally watched race,"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121110100509/http://www.pe.com/local-news/politics/ben-goad-headlines/20121106-congress-district-41-takano-beats-tavaglione-in-nationally-watched-race.ece |date=2012-11-10 }} ''Press-Enterprise''(Riverside, California). November 6, 2012; retrieved 2012-12-2.</ref>
* [[Dan Tani]]<ref>Seigel, Shizue. [http://www.nikkeiheritage.org/nh/nhvxin4.html  "Dan Tani: NASA’s Newest Japanese American Astronaut,"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120316154408/http://www.nikkeiheritage.org/nh/nhvxin4.html |date=2012-03-16 }} ''Nikkei Heritage'' (US).  Vol. XI, No. 4, Fall 1999; retrieved 2011-05-17</ref>
* [[Chris Tashima]]
* [[David Tsubouchi]]
* [[Gedde Watanabe]] 
* [[Kristi Yamaguchi]]
* [[Jan Yanehiro]]
{{col-end}}

== See also ==
{{columns-list|colwidth=30em|
* [[Asian American]]
* [[Asian Canadian]]
* [[Hyphenated American]]
* [[Japanese American Citizens League]]
* [[Japanese American National Library]]
* [[Japanese American Internment Museum]]
* [[Japanese American National Museum]]
* [[Japanese Canadian]]
* [[Japanese Brazilian]]
* [[Japanese community in the United Kingdom]]
* [[Japanese people]]
* [[List of Japanese Americans]]
* [[Model minority]]
* [[Nisei Baseball Research Project]]
* [[Pacific Movement of the Eastern World]]
* [[Japanese American internment]]
* [[Gila River War Relocation Center]]
* [[Granada War Relocation Center]]
* [[Heart Mountain War Relocation Center]]
* [[Jerome War Relocation Center]]
* [[Manzanar|Manzanar National Historic Site]]
* [[Minidoka National Historic Site]]
* [[Poston War Relocation Center]]
* [[Rohwer War Relocation Center]]
* [[Topaz War Relocation Center]]
* [[Tule Lake War Relocation Center]]
* [[100th Infantry Battalion (United States)]]
* [[442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)]]
* [[Go For Broke Monument]]
}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
* Harth, Erica. (2003). ''Last Witnesses: Reflections on the Wartime Internment of Japanese Americans.'' New York: Macmillan.  {{ISBN|9780312221997}}; [https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/46364694  OCLC 46364694]
* Hosokowa, Fumiko. (1978). ''The Sansei: Social Interaction and Ethnic Identification Among the Third Generation Japanese.'' San Francisco: R & E Research Associates.  {{ISBN|9780882474908}}; [https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/4057372  OCLC 4057372]
* Itoh, Keiko. (2001). ''The Japanese Community in Pre-War Britain: From Integration to Disintegration.'' Richmond, Surrey: Curzon. {{ISBN|9780700714872}}; [https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/48937604  OCLC 48937604]
* Leslie, Gerald R. and Sheila K. Korman. (1967). ''The Family in Social Context.''  New York: Oxford University Press. [https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/530549 OCLC 530549]
* Makabe, Tomoko. (1998). ''The Canadian Sansei.'' Toronto: University of Toronto Press. {{ISBN|9780802041791}}; {{ISBN|9780802080387}}; [https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/39523777  OCLC 39523777]
* McLellan, Janet. (1999). ''Many Petals of the Lotus: Five Asian Buddhist Communities in Toronto.'' Toronto: University of Toronto Press. {{ISBN|9780802044211}}; {{ISBN|9780802082251}}; [https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/43521129  OCLC 43521129]
* Nomura, Gail M. (1998). [http://www.credoreference.com/entry/rcuswh/japanese_american_women  "Japanese American Women,"] in ''The Reader's Companion to U.S. Women's History'' (Mankiller, Barbara Smith, ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin. {{ISBN|9780618001828}}; [https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/43338598  OCLC 43338598]
* [[Thomas Sowell|Sowell]], Thomas. (1981). ''Ethnic America: A History.'' New York: [[Basic Books]]. {{ISBN|9780465020744}}; [https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/7306301  OCLC 7306301]
* Takahashi, Jere. (1997). ''Nisei Sansei: Shifting Japanese American Identities and Politics.'' Philadelphia: Temple University Press. {{ISBN|9781566395502}}; [https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37180842  OCLC 37180842]
* Tamura, Eileen and Roger Daniels. (1994). ''Americanization, Acculturation, and Ethnic Identity: The Nisei Generation in Hawaii.'' Urbana: University of Illinois Press. {{ISBN|9780252020315}}; {{ISBN|9780252063589}}; [https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/27383373  OCLC 27383373]
* Zweigenhaft, Richard L. and G. William Domhoff. (2006). ''Diversity in the Power Elite: How it Happened, Why it Matters.'' Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield.  {{ISBN|9780742536982}}; {{ISBN|9780742536999}}; [https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/62281556  OCLC 62281556]

== Further reading ==
* Gehrie, Mark Joshua. (1973). ''Sansei: An Ethnography of Experience'' (Ph.D. thesis,  Anthropology). Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University. [https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/71849646  OCLC 71849646]
* Kaihara, Rodney and Patricia Morgan. (1973). ''Sansei Experience''. San Fullerton, Calif. : Oral History Program, California State University, Fullerton. [https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/23459152  OCLC 23352676]
* Oana, Leilani Kyoko. (1984). ''Ethnocultural Identification in Sansei (Third Generation Japanese American) Females: An Evaluation of Alternative Measures'' (M.A. thesis). Washington, D.C.: George Washington University. [https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/8702688  OCLC 12726534]
* Okamura, Randall F. (1978). ''The Contemporary Sansei'' (M.A. thesis, Community Development and Public Service).  San Francisco: Lone Mountain College. [https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/13182634  OCLC 13182634]
* Tanaka, Shaun Naomi. (2003). ''Ethnic Identity in the Absence of Propinquity Sansei and the Transformation of the Japanese-Canadian Community'' (M.A. thesis). Kingston, Ontario: Queen's University Press. [https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/60673221 OCLC 60673221]

==External links==

* [http://www.janm.org Japanese American National Museum]; [https://web.archive.org/web/20101224165059/http://blogs.laweekly.com/squidink/2010/12/janm_chado_intro_5_new_generational_teas.php  JANM generational teas]
* [http://www.us.emb-japan.go.jp/english/html/index.htm Embassy of Japan] in [[Washington, DC]]
* [http://www.jacl.org Japanese American Citizens League]


{{Asian Americans}}
{{Japanese diaspora}}

[[Category:Japanese words and phrases]]
[[Category:Japanese diaspora]]
[[Category:Japanese-American history]]
[[Category:Cultural generations]]

[[fr:Sansei]]