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{{Short description|Italic people living in Samnium in south-central Italy}}
[[File:Scène du retour du guerrier - Carafa di Noja, Nola - Musée archéologique national de Naples - inv 9364.jpg|thumb|Samnite soldiers depicted on a tomb [[frieze]] in [[Nola]]. From the 4th century BC|331x331px]]
The '''Samnites''' ({{langx|osc|Safineis}}) were an ancient [[Italic peoples|Italic people]] who lived in [[Samnium]], which is located in modern inland [[Abruzzo]], [[Molise]], and [[Campania]] in south-central [[Italy]].
[[File:Italy 400bC en.svg|thumb|Italy in 400 BC<br>{{legend|#037E3E|Samnites}}]]
An [[Oscan language|Oscan-speaking]] [[Osci|people]], who originated as an offshoot of the [[Sabines]], they formed a confederation consisting of four tribes: the [[Hirpini]], [[Caudini]], [[Caraceni (tribe)|Caraceni]], and [[Pentri]]. Ancient Greek historians considered the [[Umbri]] as the ancestors of the Samnites.<ref>[[Strabo]], ''Geography'', book 4, 7 BCE, p. 465, Alexandria,</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=[[Dionysius of Halicarnassus]]|title=Roman Antiquities|chapter=Book II.49|quote=But Zenodotus of Troezen, a...historian, relates that the Umbrians, a native race, first dwelt in the Reatine territory, as it is called, and that, being driven from there by the Pelasgians, they came into the country which they now inhabit and changing their name with their place of habitation, from Umbrians were called Sabines. But Porcius Cato says that the Sabine race received its name from Sabus, the son of Sancus, a divinity of that country, and that this Sancus was by some called Jupiter Fidius.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dyer |first=Thomas Henry |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yMgPAAAAYAAJ |title=The History of the Kings of Rome |date=1868 |publisher=Bell and Daldy |isbn=978-0-8046-1199-2 |language=en}}</ref> Their migration was in a southward direction, according to the rite of [[ver sacrum]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ancillotti |first1=Augusto |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YYoZAQAAMAAJ |title=Le tavole di Gubbio e la civiltà degli Umbri: lo 'scavo nelle parole' del testo iguvino mostra tutta la specificità della cultura umbra e fa emergere le tracce di una grande civiltà del passato, degna di stare alla pari di quella etrusca e di quella romana |last2=Cerri |first2=Romolo |date=1996 |publisher=Jama |language=it}}</ref>

Although allied together against the [[Gauls]] in 354 BC, they later became enemies of the [[Roman Republic|Romans]] and fought them in a series of [[Samnite Wars|three wars]]. Despite an overwhelming victory at the [[Battle of the Caudine Forks]] (321 BC), the Samnites were subjugated in 290 BC. Although severely weakened, the Samnites would still side against the Romans, first in the [[Pyrrhic War]] and then with [[Hannibal]] in the [[Second Punic War]]. They also fought in the [[Social War (Italian)|Social War]] and later in [[Sulla's civil war]] as allies of the Roman consuls [[Gnaeus Papirius Carbo (consul 85 BC)|Papirius Carbo]] and [[Gaius Marius the Younger|Gaius Marius]] against [[Sulla]], who defeated them and their leader [[Pontius Telesinus]] at the [[Battle of the Colline Gate]] (82 BC). Afterward, they were assimilated by the Romans and ceased to exist as a distinct people.

The Samnites had an economy focused upon [[livestock]] and [[agriculture]]. Samnite agriculture was highly advanced for its time, and they practiced [[transhumance]]. Aside from relying on agriculture, the Samnites exported goods such as ceramics, [[bronze]], iron, olives, wool, pottery, and [[terracotta]]s. Their [[Trade|trade networks]] extended across Campania, [[Latium]], [[Apulia]], and [[Magna Graecia]].

Samnite society was stratified into cantons. Each city was a ''vicus''. Many ''vici'' were grouped into a ''pagus'', and many ''pagi'' were grouped into a ''touto''. There were four Samnite ''touto'', one for each of the Samnite tribes. Aside from this system of government, a few Samnite cities had political entities similar to a [[Roman Senate|senate]]. It was rare, although possible, for the Samnites to unify under a coalition; normally the tribes and cities functioned independently from one another.

Samnite religion worshipped both spirits called ''[[Numen|numina]]'' and gods and goddesses. The Samnites honored their gods by [[Sacrifice|sacrificing]] live [[animal]]s and using [[votive offering]]s. [[Superstition]] was prominent in the Samnite religion. It was believed that [[Magic (supernatural)|magical chants]] could influence reality, that [[Talisman|magical amulets]] could protect people, and that [[augur]]s could [[Precognition|see the future]]. Samnite [[priest]]s would manage religious festivals and they could bind people to oaths. Sanctuaries were a major part of the Samnite religion. These might have been used to benefit from trade networks, may have marked the border between territories, and may have been intertwined with government. Samnite sanctuaries may have also been used to reinforce group identity.

== Etymology ==
{{Main|Oscan language}}[[File:OsqueBritishMuseum.jpg|thumb|[[Oscan language|Oscan]] inscription. From right to left it reads: "V[ibius] Popidius, son of V[ibius], chief magistrate, was responsible for this work and approved it."]]
The [[Proto-Indo-European language|Indo-European]] [[Root (linguistics)|root]] ''Saβeno'' or ''Sabh'' evolved into the word ''Safen'', which later became ''Safin''. The word ''Safin'' may have been the first word used to describe the Samnite people and the Samnite Kingdom.<ref name=":2">Edward Togo Salmon (1967). ''Samnium and the Samnites''. Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-521-06185-8}}.</ref><ref>Bakkum, Gabriël C. L. M. (2009). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=vUvIWIQMDokC The Latin Dialect of the Ager Faliscus: 150 Years of Scholarship]''. [[Amsterdam University Press]]. p. 66 {{ISBN|978-90-5629-562-2}}.</ref><ref name=":37">Stuart-Smith, Jane (2004-06-17). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=TFUTDAAAQBAJ Phonetics and Philology: Sound Change in Italic]''. OUP Oxford. pp. 28, 139 {{ISBN|978-0-19-925773-7}}.</ref>  Etymologically, this name is generally recognized to be a form of the name of the [[Sabines]], who were [[Umbri]]ans.{{sfn|Salmon|1967|p=29}} From ''Safinim'', ''Sabinus'', ''Sabellus'' and ''Samnis'', an [[Indo-European language|Indo-European]] root can be extracted, *''sabh''-, which becomes ''Sab-'' in [[Latino-Faliscan]] and ''Saf-'' in [[Osco-Umbrian]]: ''Sabini'' and *''Safineis''.{{sfn|Salmon|1967|p=30}} Some archaeologists believe ''Safin'' refers to all the people of the Italian peninsula, others say just the people of [[Molise]].<ref name=":33">Evans, Jane DeRose (2013). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=lY9BXrGjxXAC&q=Safin A Companion to the Archaeology of the Roman Republic]''. John Wiley & Sons. {{ISBN|978-1-118-55716-7}}.</ref><ref name=":4">Scopacasa, Rafael (2015). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=nq07CQAAQBAJ&q=Safin Ancient Samnium: Settlement, Culture, and Identity between History and Archaeology]''. OUP Oxford. pp. 18–295 {{ISBN|978-0-19-102285-2}}.</ref> It could also be an [[adjective]] used to describe a group of people. It appears on graves near [[Abruzzo]] from the 5th century, as well as [[Oscan language|Oscan]] inscriptions and slabs in [[Penna Sant'Andrea]].<ref name=":33" /> The last known usage of the word is on a coin from the [[Social War (91–87 BC)|Social War]].<ref name=":4" />

''Safin'' would go through a series of changes culminating in ''Safinim'', the Oscan word for Samnium, meaning "cult place of the ''Safin'' people''.''"<ref name=":53">{{Cite journal |last=Scopacasa |first=Rafael |date=2014 |title=Building Communities in Ancient Samnium: Cult, Ethnicity, and Nested Communities |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ojoa.12027 |journal=Oxford Journal of Archaeology |volume=John Wiley and Sons |pages=70–72|doi=10.1111/ojoa.12027 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> This became the word for the Samnite people, ''Safineis''.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":38">Sonnenschein, E. A. "[https://www.jstor.org/stable/691532 Sabellus: Sabine or Samnite?]" ''The Classical Review'', vol. 11, no. 7, Cambridge University Press, 1897, pp. 339–340, {{JSTOR|691532}}.</ref><ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Heitland |first=William Everton |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DllkAgAAQBAJ&dq=Safineis&pg=PA13 |title=The Roman Republic |year=2014 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-65347-4 |page=13 |language=en}}</ref> as well as other words in Greek such as ''Saini'', ''Saineis'', ''Samnītēs,'' ''Sabellī,'' and ''Saunìtai''.  These terms likely originated in the 5th century BC and derive from ''saunion'', the Greek word for [[javelin]].<ref name=":0">Farney, Gary D.; Bradley, Guy (2017-11-20). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=UElADwAAQBAJ The Peoples of Ancient Italy]''. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. pp. 70–71, 420 {{ISBN|978-1-5015-0014-5}}.</ref>

At some point in prehistory, a population speaking a common language extended over both Samnium and [[Umbria]]. Salmon conjectures that it was common Italic and puts forward a date of 600 BC, after which the common language began to separate into dialects. This date does not necessarily correspond to any historical or archaeological evidence; developing a synthetic view of the ethnology of proto-historic Italy is an incomplete and ongoing task.{{sfn|Salmon|1967|pp=29–30}}

Linguist [[Julius Pokorny]] carries the etymology somewhat further back. Conjecturing that the -a- was altered from an -o- during some prehistoric residence in [[Illyria]], he derives the names from an o-grade extension *''swo-bho-'' of an extended e-grade *''swe-bho-'' of the possessive adjective, *''s(e)we-'', of the reflexive pronoun, *''se-'', "oneself" (the source of English ''self''). The result is a set of Indo-European tribal names (if not the endonym of the Indo-Europeans): Germanic [[Suebi]] and [[Semnones]], [[Suiones]] as well as [[Swedes]]; Celtic [[Senones]]; Slavic [[Serbs]] and [[Sorbs]]; Italic [[Sabelli]], [[Sabini]], etc., as well as a large number of kinship terms.{{sfn|Pokorny|1959|pp=882–884}}

== History ==

=== Origins and early history ===
[[File:Regio IV Samnium map.svg|thumb|275x275px|Map of Ancient Samnium]]
The Greek [[geographer]] [[Strabo]] wrote that the Samnite civilization originated from a group of [[Sabines|Sabine]] [[exile]]s. According to this account, during either a [[famine]], or as part of an attempt to end a war with the [[Umbri]]ans, the Sabines [[Votum|vowed]] to hold a [[Ver sacrum|Ver Sacrum]]. As part of this ritual, all things produced that year were [[sacrifice]]d, including [[Infant|babies]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tikkannen |first=Karin W. |date=2017 |title=On the Building of a Narrative |journal=Mnemosyne |volume=70 |issue=6 |pages=964 |doi=10.1163/1568525X-12342173 |jstor=26572882 |url=http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-313463 |quote="There are statements of origin, such as that the Sabini are the oldest and most original people on the peninsula, from whom the Samnites originate (Str. 5.3.1), but Strabo also offers a long narrative concerning precisely how this 'originating' took place: the Sabines had been long at war with the Umbrians, and in order to end the hostilities made a vow—καθάπερ τῶν Ἑλλήνων τινές, 'common with some of the Grecian nations'—that they would consecrate to the gods the produce, τὰ γενόμενα, meaning everything born or otherwise come into existence (animal or agricultural produce) of the year.13 They were victorious, and accordingly of the produce the one kind were sacrificed, the other consecrated." |doi-access=free }}</ref> Once these babies had reached [[adult]]hood they were exiled, and then guided by a [[bull]] to their new [[homeland]].<ref name=":34">{{cite book |title=A history of Rome, from the earliest times to the establishment of the empire |date=1890 |ol=7070377M |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofromefro00liddrich/page/177 |publisher=American Book Company |place=New York|first=Henry George |last=Liddell |pages=177–178}}</ref><ref name=":23">Strabo, ''Geography'', book 4, 7 BCE, p. 465</ref> Upon reaching this land they sacrificed this bull to [[Mars (mythology)|Mars]].<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5">{{cite book |last=Rüpke |first=Jörg | title=A Companion to Roman Religion |date=2011 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sn0V41Z4iBIC&pg=PA46 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4443-3924-6 |oclc=709666554 |page=46 }}</ref> Other Samnite tribes claimed to have been guided by different animals. The [[Hirpini]] claimed they were guided by a [[wolf]], and the [[Picentes]] claimed to have been guided by a [[woodpecker]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tikkannen |first=Karin W. |title=On the Building of A Narrative: The Ver Sacrum Ritual |publisher=Brill |year=2015 |location=University of Gothenburg |pages=967 |quote="The practice is stated to have originated among the Sabines, who gave birth to the Samnites (Var. L. 29), as well as the Picentes (Str. 5.4.2; Plin. Nat. 3.110). The Samnites in turn sent out youths to populate the lands in the south, who, having become the Lucani, in their turn brought forth the Bruttii (Str. 5.3.1).20 In Strabo's tale of the Samnites the selected children were led by a bull, bos, and founded the city of Bovianum (Str. 5.4.12); there are other references stating that the Hirpini and the Lucani were guided by a hirpos and a lucos, in their respective tongues the word for 'wolf' (Str. 5.4.12; Fest. 93L), and that the future Picentes were guided by a picus, a woodpecker."}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | jstor=41616993 | title=Samnite and Roman Cumae | last1=Salmon | first1=E. T. | journal=The Vergilian Digest | year=1958 | issue=4 | pages=10–15 }}</ref> Alternatively, the Samnites may have been connected to [[Sparta]]. This legend is possibly [[apocrypha]]l. It might have been created by the [[Greeks]] for an alliance with the Samnites, or to include the [[Italic peoples]] within their worldview, and possibly to highlight similarities between the Samnites and Spartans.<ref>{{Cite book |last=McInerney |first=Jeremy |editor1-first=Jeremy |editor1-last=McInerney |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epub/10.1002/9781118834312 |title=A Companion to Ethnicity in the Ancient Mediterranean |publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Ltd |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-118-83431-2 |pages=448–450, 487, 514–522|doi=10.1002/9781118834312 }}</ref> Archaeological evidence shows that Samnite civilization likely developed from a preexisting Italian culture.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Van Dusen |first=Rachel |title=The Encyclopedia of Ancient History |chapter-url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/9781444338386.wbeah20121 |chapter=Sabines and Samnites |publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Ltd |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-4443-3838-6 |pages=1–2 |doi=10.1002/9781444338386.wbeah20121 |quote=It is more likely that the Sabines and Samnites arose out of existing cultures than that they entered by immigration. Archaeological evidence from Samnium and the interior of Sabinium reflects a cultural facies influenced by pre-existing cultures.}}</ref>

After the [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscans]] abandoned [[Campania]] in the [[5th century]], the Samnites conquered the region.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ring |first1=Trudy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fYH7AQAAQBAJ&dq=Samnites+expanded+into+Greek+territory&pg=PA81 |title=Southern Europe: International Dictionary of Historic Places |last2=Watson |first2=Noelle |last3=Schellinger |first3=Paul |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-25965-6 |pages=81–85 |language=en}}</ref> Cities like [[Pompeii]] and [[Herculaneum]] were conquered.<ref>Sparavigna, Amelia Carolina, [https://ssrn.com/abstract=2802439 "The Town Planning of Pompeii and Herculaneum Having Streets Aligned Along Sunrise on Summer Solstice"] (June 30, 2016). p. 3.</ref> It is unclear what Samnite cities took part in the campaign, or why.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ward |first1=Allen M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9Q83DAAAQBAJ&dq=Samnites+expanded+into+Greek+territory&pg=PA78 |title=History of the Roman People |last2=Heichelheim |first2=Fritz M. |last3=Yeo |first3=Cedric A. |date=2016 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-315-51120-7 |pages=78–79 |language=en}}</ref> They could have wanted its [[Soil fertility|fertile soil]], or to alleviate [[overpopulation]]. This theory relies on the Samnites having a poor agricultural industry, which is contradicted by other evidence. Alternatively, the Samnites could have wanted access to the [[Volturno|Volturno River]] and other [[resource]]s. Once Greek [[hegemony]] in Italy waned, the Samnites invaded and conquered much of their former land.<ref name=":14">Rotter, Timothy W. (1990). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=dLyYAnf9EPcC&q=Samnites Roman Italy]''. [[University of California Press]]. pp. 34–38, 42–47, 50, 53, 68, 74, 76–77  {{ISBN|978-0-520-06975-6}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Schultz |first1=Celia E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZQaQDwAAQBAJ&dq=Samnites+expanded+into+Greek+territory&pg=PT103 |title=A History of the Roman People |last2=Ward |first2=Allen M. |last3=Heichelheim |first3=F. M. |last4=Yeo |first4=C. A. |date=2019 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-75470-5 |pages= |language=en}}</ref><ref>[https://search-alexanderstreet-com.wikipedialibrary.idm.oclc.org/view/work/bibliographic_entity%7Cvideo_work%7C2233591 Cities of Vesuvius: Pompeii & Herculaneum]. Anonymous Prod. Sheppard Phil. Phil Sheppard Productions, 2008. "The Etruscans and Greeks dominated until the Samnites took possession of most of this area, uniting Campania. Pompeii became more Italic in character, relinquishing the last traces of Hellenistic influence. In 80 BC, after a war against Rome, the Samnites surrendered Pompeii, and from then on its history was linked to Rome."</ref> They conquered cities like [[Cumae]], only failing to take [[Naples]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Darwin |first=N.T |date=April 25, 2017 |title=Pompeii |pages=1 |work=The Northern Territory News |url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/1891389663 |id={{ProQuest|1891389663}} |quote=From Samnite Conquest to Roman Town: At the end of the 5th century the Samnites, an ancient people who lived in south central Italy, conquered Pompeii.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Master |first=Daniel M |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref:obso/9780199846535.001.0001/acref-9780199846535-e-119?rskey=QxayPy&result=5 |title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Bible and Archaeology |chapter=Pompeii and Herculaneum |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-984653-5 |quote=In the later fourth century b.c.e. Oscan-speaking Samnites, originally a nonurban culture, advanced from inland and gradually took over Greek and Etruscan centers throughout Campania. They took over Etruscan Capua in 424 b.c.e. and Greek Cumae in 421 b.c.e. and seem to have established a modest settlement in Pompeii by ca. 350 b.c.e. Only Greek Naples seems to have resisted successfully.}}</ref><ref>"[https://go-gale-com.wikipedialibrary.idm.oclc.org/ps/retrieve.do?tabID=News&resultListType=RESULT_LIST&searchResultsType=MultiTab&hitCount=3&searchType=BasicSearchForm&currentPosition=3&docId=GALE%7CA320956443&docType=Article&sort=Relevance&contentSegment=ZXAM-MOD1&prodId=BIC&pageNum=1&contentSet=GALE%7CA320956443&searchId=R3&userGroupName=wikipedia&inPS=true Pompeii exhibition: a timeline of Pompeii and Herculaneum; A brief history of the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum, which feature in a major new British Museum exhibition in London.]" Telegraph Online, 3 Mar. 2013. Gale In Context: Biography, "Samnites – a people from south-central Italy who spoke Oscan – invade the area."</ref> In the ensuing centuries, they would wage more war against the Campanians, [[Volsci]]ans, [[Epirote Greek|Epirot Greeks]], and other [[Latins (Italic tribe)|Latin]] communities.<ref name=":15">Roselaar, Saskia T. (2012). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=KMXeTELDkQoC Processes of Integration and Identity Formation in the Roman Republic]''. [[Brill Publishers|Brill]]. pp. 17, 189–196, 221–223, 242–244, 252 {{ISBN|978-90-04-22911-2}}.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | jstor=3290441 | last1=Robson | first1=D. O. | title=The Samnites in the Po Valley | journal=The Classical Journal | year=1934 | volume=29 | issue=8 | pages=599–608 }}</ref>

=== Samnite Wars ===
{{main|Samnite Wars}}[[File:Battle of the Caudine Forks.jpg|thumb|[[Lucanian vase painting|Lucanian depiction]] of the [[Battle of the Caudine Forks|Battle of Caudine Forks]]|250x250px]]The Samnites and Romans first came into contact after the Roman conquest of the Volscians. In 354&nbsp;BC, they agreed to set their border at the [[Liris River]].<ref name=":7">Oakley, SP (1998), [https://books.google.com/books?id=m0oTDAAAQBAJ&q=Samnites ''A Commentary on Livy Books VI–X'', Volume II: Books VII–VIII], Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 24–646, {{ISBN|978-0-19-815226-2}}</ref> [[Livy]], a Roman historian who serves as a source on the Samnite Wars, states that when the Samnites attacked the Campanians, the latter civilization formed an alliance with the Romans. Igniting war between them and the Samnites in 343&nbsp;BC.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Terrenato |first=Nicola |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RG2MDwAAQBAJ&dq=Samnites+expanded+into+Greek+territory&pg=PA139 |title=The Early Roman Expansion into Italy: Elite Negotiation and Family Agendas |date=2019 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-42267-3 |pages=127, 134, 139, 150, 190 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Tuck |first=Steven |title=The Encyclopedia of Ancient History |publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Ltd |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-4443-3838-6 |pages=1 |language=English |quote=Capua allied with Rome during the Samnitewars (343–290). The alliance allowed Capuato overthrow Samnite dominance while givingRome the chance to confront the Samnites with a two-front war.}}</ref><ref name=":13">Esposito, Gabriele (2021). [https://books.google.com/books?id=JBsJEAAAQBAJ ''Armies of Ancient Italy 753–218 BC: From the Foundation of Rome to the Start of the Second Punic War''. Pen and Sword Military.] pp. 23, 59–69, 74–81, 117, 128, 133–147, 151–153, 165, {{ISBN|978-1-5267-5188-1}}.</ref> This account of the war's cause is not universally accepted by modern historians.<ref name=":8">Forsythe, Gary (2006). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=F7MnW50qi1sC A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War]''. University of California Press. pp. 287–365 {{ISBN|978-0-520-24991-2}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rood |first=Tim |date=2018 |title=Cato the Elder, Livy, and Xenophon's Anabasis |url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1568525X-12342352 |journal=Mnemosyne |volume=71 |issue=5 |page=842 |doi=10.1163/1568525X-12342352 |s2cid=165356329 |quote=Like the Thermopylae comparison, the use of Xenophon operates teleologically to present the Romans as the heirs of Greece in the defense against barbarism. |via=The Wikipedia Library|url-access=subscription }}</ref>  Livy may be writing [[propaganda]] or trying to compare this war to other conflicts. After three Samnite defeats and a Roman invasion, the Samnites agreed to sign a [[peace treaty]].<ref name=":6">Cornell, Tim (2012). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=UgoOD2XDpzIC The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000–264 BC)]''. Routledge. 345–390, 458, 465, 507, {{ISBN|978-1-136-75495-1}}.</ref><ref name=":10">[[Polybius]]'', [https://www.yorku.ca/inpar/polybius_one.pdf The Histories]''. Vol.&nbsp;1. pp.&nbsp;4–5.</ref><ref name=":11">[[Eutropius (historian)|Eutropius]], [https://tertullian.org/fathers/eutropius_breviarium_2_text.htm Abridgment of Roman History] Vol. 2. VIII–XIV</ref>

There are two accounts of the cause of the Second Samnite War. Possibly, Rome declared war due to a Samnite alliance with the [[Vestini]] and wars against [[Fregellae]] and [[History of Naples|Paleopolis]].  Additionally, the Romans wished to use the economic prosperity of the city of [[Venafrum]] for their own benefit.<ref name=":7" /> Conflict may have also emerged because the Samnites desired to solidify their hold over crucial economic positions.<ref name=":2" /> After the Roman defeat at the [[Battle of the Caudine Forks]] both sides agreed to an [[armistice]].<ref name=":13" /><ref name=":8" /><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Spawforth |first1=Anthony |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198706779.001.0001/acref-9780198706779-e-553?rskey=QxayPy&result=16 |title=Rome (history) |last2=Eidinow |first2=Esther |work=The Oxford Companion to Classical Civilization |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-19-870677-9 |edition=2nd |quote=…in which the Romans, after a major setback at the Caudine Forks.}}</ref> Fighting resumed in 326 BC.<ref name=":8" /> The war ended after a Roman campaign into Apulia and Samnium.<ref name=":6" /> Following the end of the war, the Romans annexed [[Bojano|Bovianum]] and Fregellae, and forced the Samnites out of Apulia.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":10" /><ref name=":11" />

In 298&nbsp;BC, the [[Third Samnite War]] broke out due to tension over the [[Lucanians]], who had asked Rome for protection.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":10" /><ref>Harris, William Vernon (1985). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=tSE8PW5Eq1wC War and Imperialism in Republican Rome, 327–70 B.C].'' [[Oxford University Press|Clarendon Press]]. pp. 177–182, {{ISBN|978-0-19-814866-1}}.</ref> On another front, treaties between the Romans and Picentes caused conflict with the Etruscans. This war came to end after the Samnite defeat at the [[Battle of Aquilonia]].<ref name=":6" /> Afterwards, Samnium was conquered and the Samnites were assimilated into Roman society.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":11" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Antonelli |first1=Fabrizio |last2=Taelman |first2=Devi |title=Provenance of the white and polychrome marbles used for the architecture and sculpture of roman Sentinum (Sassoferrato, Marche, Italy) |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/arcm.12690 |journal= Archaeometry|year=2022 |volume=64 |issue=1 |pages=3 |doi=10.1111/arcm.12690 |bibcode=2022Archa..64....1T |s2cid=236563924 |quote=The site is best known from the final battle of the Third Samnite War (295 BCE) in which the Romans defeated a coalition of Samnites, Etruscans, Umbrians and Senones, and which paved the way for Roman control over Central Italy. |via=Wiley Online Library|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

=== Later history ===
[[File:Social War AR Syd 621.1.jpg|thumb|[[Social War (91–87 BC)|Social War]] coin depicting the Samnite soldiers taking an oath to fight the Romans]]
The Samnites were one of the Italian peoples that allied with King [[Pyrrhus of Epirus]] during the [[Pyrrhic War]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sabini. |url=http://mek.niif.hu/03400/03410/html/7286.html |access-date=2022-05-03 |website=mek.niif.hu |language=en}}</ref> After Pyrrhus left for [[Sicily]], the Romans invaded Samnium and were crushed at the [[Battle of the Cranita hills|Battle of the Cranita Hills]], but after the defeat of Pyrrhus, the Samnites could not resist on their own and surrendered to Rome. Some of them joined and aided [[Hannibal]] during the [[Second Punic War]], but most stayed loyal to Rome.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book |last=Sagarna |first=Iñaki |chapter=Cult Places and the Samnite Identity |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/36238910 |title=Σαυνῖται: The identity of Samnite through their cult places |series=Case Studies of Pietrabbondante and San Giovani di Galdo |language=en |pages=1–14 |via=Academia.edu}}</ref> After the Romans refused to grant the Samnites [[Roman citizenship|citizenship]], they, along with other Italic peoples, rebelled against the Romans. This war, known as the [[Social War (Italian)|Social War]], lasted almost four years and resulted in a Roman victory. After this bloody conflict, Samnites and other Italic tribes were granted citizenship to avoid the possibility of another war.

The Samnites supported the faction of [[Gaius Marius the Younger|Marius]] and [[Gnaeus Papirius Carbo (consul 85 BC)|Carbo]] in the [[Sulla's civil war|civil war]] against [[Sulla]]. The Samnites and their allies were led by [[Pontius Telesinus]] and a Lucanian named [[Lamponia gens|Marcus Lamponius]]. They gathered an army of 40,000 men and fought a battle against Sulla at the [[Battle of the Colline Gate|Colline Gates]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Knoow.net |first=Equipa |title=Samnitas – Knoow |url=https://knoow.net/historia/historiaantiga/samnitas/ |access-date=2022-05-03}}</ref> After their defeat in the battle, and subsequently the war, Pontius was executed.<ref>Crawford, Michael Hewson (1993). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=PoTAz6MHlosC The Roman Republic]''. Harvard University Press. pp. 16–17, 21, 33–35, 43, 53, 75, 149–150, 189, 211, 221, 238
{{ISBN|978-0-674-77927-3}}.</ref><ref>Dart, Dr Christopher J. (2014). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=yRidBQAAQBAJ The Social War, 91 to 88&nbsp;BCE: A History of the Italian Insurgency against the Roman Republic]''. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 206 {{ISBN|978-1-4724-1678-0}}.</ref><ref>"[[Appian]], [https://www.livius.org/sources/content/appian/appian-samnite-wars-1/#:~:text=Appian%2C%20Samnite%20Wars%201%20Appian%20of%20Alexandria%20%28c.95-c.165%29%3A,a%20Roman%20History%20in%20twenty-four%20books.%20The%20Author Samnite History], Fragments". Retrieved 2021-12-30. p. 9</ref>

As a consequence of Sulla's victory and his establishment as [[Roman dictator|dictator of Rome]] he ordered the punishment of those who had opposed him.<ref>Roller, Matthew B.. "[https://courses.knox.edu/latin211_311/MRoller_exemplarity.pdf Exemplarity in Roman Culture: The Cases of Horatius Cocles and Cloelia]." ''[[Classical Philology (journal)|Classical Philology]]'' 99 (2004): 1–57.</ref> Samnites, who were some of the most prominent supporters of the Marians, were punished so severely that it was recorded, "some of their cities have now dwindled into villages, some indeed being entirely deserted." The Samnites did not play any prominent role in history after this, and they were [[Romanization (cultural)|Latinized]] and assimilated into the Roman world.<ref name=":23" /><ref name=":9">"Lacus Curtius, Vellius Paterculus, Book II, Chapters 1–28". ''penelope.uchicago.edu''. Retrieved 2021-12-30.</ref> Several of their [[gens|gentes]] would go on to achieve high distinction, including the [[Cassia gens|Cassii]], the [[Herennia gens|Herennii]], [[Pontia gens|Pontii]] and the [[Vibia gens|Vibii]].<ref name=":4" />

== Society ==

=== Economy ===
[[File:Samnite coin depicting javelin head with a laurel wreath.jpg|thumb|235x235px|Samnite coin depicting a javelin head with a [[laurel wreath]]]]
Most of Samnium consisted of rugged and [[mountain]]ous terrain lacking in [[natural resource]]s. This resulted in a [[mixed economy]] focused on using the small amounts of fertile land to practice highly developed forms of [[subsistence agriculture]], [[mixed farming]], [[animal husbandry]], [[sheep farming]], [[pastoralism]], and [[smallholding]]s.<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":19">[[Graeme Barker|Barker, Graeme]] (1995). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=zVWvAwAAQBAJ&q=Samnite Mediterranean Valley]''. [[Bloomsbury Publishing]].  {{ISBN|978-0-567-31285-3}}.</ref><ref name=":18">[[Emma Dench|Dench, Emma]] (1995). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=cJNeh81j7ZYC From Barbarians to New Men : Greek, Roman, and Modern Perceptions of Peoples from the Central Apennines: Greek, Roman, and Modern Perceptions of Peoples from the Central Apennines]''. [[Oxford University Press|Clarendon Press]]. pp. 1–22, 100 {{ISBN|978-0-19-159070-2}}.</ref> The prosperity of the Samnite [[Agriculture|agricultural industry]] likely resulted in conflicts between them and other civilizations, and possibly one of the causes of the Samnite Wars.<ref name=":15" />

The prominence of pastoralism and [[livestock]] in the Samnite economy was also a consequence of their homeland's terrain.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Scopacasa |first=Rafael |title=Gender and Ritual in Ancient Italy: A Quantitative Approach to Grave Goods and Skeletal Data in Pre-Roman Samnium |journal=American Journal of Archaeology |publisher=Archaeological Institute of America |year=2014 |volume=118 |issue=2 |pages=241–266|doi=10.3764/aja.118.2.0241 |jstor=10.3764/aja.118.2.0241 |s2cid=194721221 }}</ref><ref name=":1">{{cite book |last=Stek |first=Tesse D. |title=Cult Places and Cultural Change in Republican Italy: A Contextual Approach to Religious Aspects of Rural Society after the Roman Conquest |date=2009 |publisher=Amsterdam University Press |pages=8–222|jstor=j.ctt46mtf2.12 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Самниты – это... Что такое Самниты? |url=https://dic.academic.ru/dic.nsf/hist_dic/13358 |access-date=2022-05-03 |website=Словари и энциклопедии на Академике |language=ru}}</ref> [[Horse]]s, [[poultry]], [[cattle]], [[goat]]s, [[pig]]s, and [[sheep]] were all common and important kinds of livestock.<ref name=":17">[[Anthony Everitt|Everitt, Anthony]] (2012). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Zu6MDQAAQBAJ&q=The+Rise+of+Rome:+The+Making+of+the+World%27s+Greatest+Empire The Rise of Rome: The Making of the World's Greatest Empire]''. [[Random House]]. pp. 151–180 {{ISBN|978-1-4000-6663-6}}</ref> These animals were valued because they could serve as a tradeable good, and as a source of [[food]]. [[Transhumance]], or the seasonal movement of livestock from [[summer]] to [[winter]] [[pasture]]s, was an important aspect of the Samnite economy.<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":16">Edwards, Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen; Gadd, Cyril John; Hammond, Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière; Boardman, John; Lewis, David Malcolm; Walbank, Frank William; Astin, A. E.; Crook, John Anthony; Lintott, Andrew William (1970). ''The Cambridge Ancient History''. [[Cambridge University Press]]. p. 353 {{ISBN|978-0-521-23446-7}}.</ref><ref name=":21">Marco, Michele Antonio Di (2020). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=NzMPEAAAQBAJ&q=Mundunur:+A+Mountain+Village+Under+the+Spell+of+South+Italy Mundunur: A Mountain Village Under the Spell of South Italy]''. Via Media Publishing. pp. 41–47 {{ISBN|978-1-893765-58-0}}.</ref> Annual short distance transhumance formed the basis of the aristocracy's wealth.<ref name=":56" /> Long distance transhumance was practiced between Apulia and Samnium.<ref name=":19" /><ref name=":15" />

During the [[5th century BC|fifth]] and [[4th century BC|fourth centuries BC]], an [[Population growth|increasing population]] combined with trade links to other Italians contributed to further agricultural and [[Urban planning|urban development]]. This change was most drastic in [[Larino|Larinum]]. The city began as a major [[grain]] producer with a [[Mill (grinding)|mill]] and a [[threshing floor]], and later developed into the [[Financial centre|hub]] for all [[Economics|economic activity]] in the [[Biferno|Biferno Valley]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Robinson |first=Elizabeth |title=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Classics |chapter-url=https://oxfordre.com/classics/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-3592 |chapter=Larinum |date=2016 |publisher=Oxford Classical Dictionary |page=4 |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.3592 |isbn=978-0-19-938113-5 |quote=The city interacted heavily with its surrounding territory, as shown by evidence of trade and monetary exchange with the Frentani, Samnites, and Daunians.}}</ref> The Samnites exported goods such as [[cereal]]s, [[cabbage]]s, [[olive]]s, [[olive oil]], [[wine]], [[bronze]], [[iron]], [[textile]]s, [[legume]]s, and [[vine]]s.<ref name=":35">[[Dan-el Padilla Peralta|Peralta, Dan-el Padilla]] (2020). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=KXnnDwAAQBAJ&q=Divine+Institutions:+Religions+and+Community+in+the+Middle+Roman+Republic Divine Institutions: Religions and Community in the Middle Roman Republic]''. [[Princeton University Press]]. p. 280 {{ISBN|978-0-691-16867-8}}</ref><ref name=":39">[[Elizabeth Robinson|Robinson, Elizabeth C]]. (2021). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=4NAiEAAAQBAJ&q=Urban+Transformation+in+Ancient+Molise:+The+Integration+of+Larinum+Into+the+Roman+State Urban Transformation in Ancient Molise: The Integration of Larinum Into the Roman State]''. [[Oxford University Press]]. p. 50 {{ISBN|978-0-19-064143-6}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Lomas |first=H. Kathryn |title=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Classics |chapter-url=https://oxfordre.com/classics/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-6720 |chapter=Venafrum |year=2015 |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.6720 |isbn=978-0-19-938113-5 |quote=It continued to flourish and was famous for its agriculture, particularly olives.}}</ref> They also [[import]]ed materials such as bronze [[bowl]]s and [[bucchero]] from places like Campania, [[Etruria]], [[Latium]], [[Apulia]], and [[Magna Graecia]].<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":15" /> These trade networks resulted in the adoption of products and ideas from other cultures such as the Sabines, Latins, and Etruscans.<ref name=":15" /><ref>[https://search-alexanderstreet-com.wikipedialibrary.idm.oclc.org/view/work/bibliographic_entity%7Cvideo_work%7C3935137 "Rome's Glorious Cities"]. Anonymous Prod. Fuller Linda, and Paola Di Florio. [[A&E Networks|A&E Television Networks]], 1997. "The Etruscans lived side by side with the Latins, the Samnites and the Sabines. These tribes intermixed in trade and lifestyle"</ref><ref>"[https://go-gale-com.wikipedialibrary.idm.oclc.org/ps/retrieve.do?tabID=T004&resultListType=RESULT_LIST&searchResultsType=SingleTab&hitCount=107&searchType=BasicSearchForm&currentPosition=9&docId=GALE%7CA429847573&docType=Article&sort=Relevance&contentSegment=ZNEW-FullText-Exclude-FT&prodId=STND&pageNum=1&contentSet=GALE%7CA429847573&searchId=R5&userGroupName=wikipedia&inPS=true Tomb discovered in Pompeii is window into world scientists know little about.]" ''Christian Science Monitor'', 25 Sept. 2015. ''Gale OneFile: News.'' "Scientists think that the pottery buried near the newly discovered Samnite woman comes from other regions of Italy, suggesting that there was trade between the Samnites and the other cultures of Italy at that time."</ref>

Samnite currency developed in the late fifth and early fourth centuries BC, likely as a consequence of interaction with the Greeks, and war, which created a need for [[Mercenary|mercenaries]]. Their bronze or silver currency might have been produced in Naples, and then "ordered" from the city's [[workshop]]s. Alternatively, Samnite cities might have supplied the materials necessary for making currency. Or coins could have been imported from cities that Samnite mercenaries worked for. Such as [[Taranto]]. Currency at this time generally depicted places like [[Allifae]], [[Nola]], [[Philistia]], or peoples such as the Campani. These images are associated with the development of the Samnite political structure. [[Coin]]s may have not been used by individuals, but instead by government institutions to finance administrative tasks. Following this early period of high currency production, the Samnites began to [[Mint (facility)|mint]] less [[money]].<ref name=":15" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Termeer |first=Marleen K |date=2016 |title=Roman colonial coinages beyond the city-state: a view from the Samnite world |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/jah-2016-0012/html |journal=Journal of Ancient History |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=158–190 |doi=10.1515/jah-2016-0012 |s2cid=164635061 |via=De Gruyter|url-access=subscription }}</ref>  [[File:Loom weights with a fibula and a tweezers design.jpg|thumb|304x304px|Samnite loom weight with a design of [[Fibula (brooch)|fibulas]] and [[tweezers]]]]
[[Wool]] and [[leather]] were likely harvested by the Samnites in significant quantities, as evidenced by the numerous loom weights found throughout Samnium. Most loom weights used [[Cutting|incised]] lines, dots, [[oval]] stamps, [[Gemstone|gem]] impressions, or imprints from metal [[Seal (emblem)|signet rings]] to create [[Pattern hair loss|patterns]]. Common patterns included [[pyramid]]s, [[star]]s, or dotted or incised cross [[Motif (visual arts)|motifs]]. Motifs could have been shaped like [[Leaf|leaves]], [[flower]]s, [[pomegranate]]s, or [[Myth|mythological figures]]. One loom weight from the town of [[Locri]] is decorated with a gem impression of a [[satyr]] playing the [[lyre]]. Numerous pieces of Samnite pottery with [[Greek language|Greek]] words incised into them have been found. These Greek words may have served a variety of possibilities, such as instructing the weaver how to order the threads in the textile patterns, or they could also have marked the piece's quality. The Greek inscriptions may also have stated the [[weight]] of either the loom weight or the cloth, and possibly the cloth's [[dimension]]s.<ref name=":20">Sofroniew, Alexandra. "[https://journals.openedition.org/pallas/2155 Women's Work: The Dedication of Loom Weights in the Sanctuaries of Southern Italy]." ''Pallas'', no. 86, Presses Universitaires du Midi, 2011, pp. 191–209, {{JSTOR|43606691}}.</ref>

The Samnites also produced [[amphora]]e, terracottas, and [[impasto]] [[pottery]] with [[black]] [[Gloss (optics)|gloss]]. Protective coating, also called [[varnish]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=2007-05-04 |title=The Many Faces of Varnish |url=https://www.popularwoodworking.com/article/the_many_faces_of_varnish/ |access-date=2022-03-27 |website=Popular Woodworking |language=en-US |quote=it provides excellent protection for wood surfaces and resistance to scratches, heat, solvents and chemicals.}}</ref> was used to cover pottery and amphorae. Most amphorae came from [[Rhodes]], and pottery was commonly purchased from [[Ancient Greece|Greece]].<ref>"[https://go-gale-com.wikipedialibrary.idm.oclc.org/ps/retrieve.do?tabID=T003&resultListType=RESULT_LIST&searchResultsType=SingleTab&hitCount=11&searchType=BasicSearchForm&currentPosition=5&docId=GALE%7CCX3427400365&docType=Topic+overview&sort=Relevance&contentSegment=&prodId=GVRL&pageNum=1&contentSet=GALE%7CCX3427400365&searchId=R2&userGroupName=wikipedia&inPS=true The Dominance of Athens]." ''[https://go-gale-com.wikipedialibrary.idm.oclc.org/ps/eToc.do?contentModuleId=GVRL&resultClickType=AboutThisPublication&searchType=BasicSearchForm&docId=GALE%7C5BBV&userGroupName=wikipedia&inPS=true&rcDocId=GALE%7CCX3427400365&prodId=GVRL Arts and Humanities Through the Eras]'', edited by Edward I. Bleiberg, et al., vol. 2: Ancient Greece and Rome 1200 B.C.E.–476 C.E. Gale, 2005, pp. 397–402. ''Gale eBooks'',</ref> Pottery was also rarely imported from [[North Africa]] or areas by the [[Adriatic Sea|Adriatic]]. After the urbanization of Samnite society, the production of [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic]] or Italian pottery dramatically increased.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hutchinson |first=Harry |date=2005 |title=Reverse engineering a lost culture |url=https://go.gale.com/ps/retrieve.do?tabID=T002&resultListType=RESULT_LIST&searchResultsType=SingleTab&hitCount=106&searchType=BasicSearchForm&currentPosition=1&docId=GALE%7CA134315142&docType=Article&sort=Relevance&contentSegment=ZONE-Exclude-FT&prodId=AONE&pageNum=1&contentSet=GALE%7CA134315142&searchId=R1&userGroupName=wikipedia&inPS=true |journal=Mechanical Engineering-CIME |publisher=American Society of Mechanical Engineers |volume=127 |pages=62 |via=Gale Academic Onefile}}</ref> Ceramics, pottery, and amphorae often used patterns. The majority of these patterns were [[trademark]]s or [[signature]]s from the craftsmen. On other occasions, they depicted places such as the island of Rhodes, or named government officials., such as the Meddíss Túvtíks.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":48">Vargas, Enrique García; Almeida, Rui Roberto de; Cesteros, Horacio González; Romero, Antonio Sáez (2019). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=mRUSEAAAQBAJ The Ovoid Amphorae in the Central and Western Mediterranean: Between the last two centuries of the Republic and the early days of the Roman Empire]''. Archaeopress Publishing Ltd. pp. 259–261 {{ISBN|978-1-78969-297-6}}.</ref> One example of a pottery stamp is:<ref name=":0" />

{{Blockquote|text=Detfri (slave) of Herennis Sattis signed in planta pedis.|source=Impressed on a tile in Pietrabbondante in the Second Century BC.}}

=== Government ===
[[File:Description of the Samnite Pagus-vicus system.png|thumb|A depiction of the Samnite Pagus-vicus system]]Throughout the [[Iron Age]] Samnium was ruled by [[Tribal chief|chieftains]] and aristocrats who used funerary displays to flaunt their wealth. During the early third and fourth centuries, the Samnite political system developed into an organization focused on rural settlements led by magistrates.<ref name=":53" /> The Samnite settlements, or ''vici'', were at the bottom of the Samnite [[Social stratification|social hierarchy]]. They were grouped into [[Canton (administrative division)|cantons]] called ''pagi'', which were run by an elected official known as a ''meddiss''. The ''pagi'' were organized into ''toutos'', which were the Samnite tribes. Each ''touto'' was led by an annually elected official with supreme [[Executive (government)|executive]] and [[Judiciary|judicial]] powers called the ''meddíss túvtiks'' (Latin: ''meddix tuticus'').

[[Polity|Political entities]] similar to councils, assemblies, or [[Roman Senate|senates]] such as the ''kombennio'' possibly existed.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Frank |first=Tenney |date=1919 |title=Representative Government in the Ancient Polities |journal=The Classical Journal |volume=14 |issue=9 |pages=548 |jstor=3287871 |quote=However, we know that tribal sentiment was very strong among the Samnites, the Marsi, and the other tribes. They had long had local self-government, had had assemblies, senates, and magistrates of their own. }}</ref> The ''Kombennio'' was a [[Democracy|democratic]] organization in Pompeii responsible for electing officials, as well as [[Legislature|making laws]] and enforcing them.<ref name=":2" /><ref>Enrico Campanile, Cesare Letta, "Studi sulle magistrature indigene e municipali in area italica", Giardini, 1979, pp. 24–25</ref> Senates were located at the [[Capital city|capitals]] of the Samnite tribes, such as Bovianum, the [[Pentri]]an capital. It is unclear if these forms of government existed before the Roman conquest.<ref name=":25">McDonald, Katherine (2021). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=RIM_EAAAQBAJ Italy Before Rome: A Sourcebook]''. Routledge. p. 111 {{ISBN|978-0-429-62970-9}}.</ref> Despite these democratic institutions, Samnite society was still dominated by a small group of aristocratic families such as the ''[[Papia gens|Papii]]'', ''[[Statia gens|Statii]]'', ''[[Egnatia gens|Egnatii]]'', and ''[[Staia gens|Staii]]''.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":57">Van Dusen, Rachel (June 1, 2009). "[https://www-degruyter-com.wikipedialibrary.idm.oclc.org/document/doi/10.1515/etst.2009.12.1.153/html Saving Face: Pentrian Samnite Elites in the Aftermath of the Samnite Wars (343-290 B.C.)]". ''Etruscan Studies''. '''12''': 153–168 – via De Gruyter.</ref>
Each Samnite tribe functioned independently from the others. However, a union similar to the [[Latin League]] would occasionally form between the tribes. Such an alliance would be primarily [[Militarism|militaristic]], with a [[Commander-in-chief|commander and chief]] enforcing all laws enacted by the alliance.<ref name=":3">"[https://www.britannica.com/topic/Samnite-people Samnite (people)]". ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''. [[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]] "Four cantons formed a Samnite confederation: Hirpini, Caudini, Caraceni, and Pentri. The league probably had no federal assembly, but a war leader could be chosen to lead a campaign."</ref> In order for the alliance to pass [[legislation]], leading men of each tribe would have to unanimously agree before a [[Bill (law)|bill]] could become a law.<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":8" /> Such an alliance was rare, and even if some tribes unified others might refuse to unite with the other tribes. The [[Frentani]] was another Italic tribe that might have been included in this alliance, however, their importance to the union might be exaggerated. The relevance of the Samnite tribes in this organization might also be exaggerated; cities could have had more [[Power (social and political)|political power]].<ref>Nikoletta Farkas, "Leadership among the Samnites and related Oscan-speaking peoples between the fifth and first centuries BC" (PhD diss., Kings College of London, September 2006)</ref>

This system of government maintained itself after the Roman conquest of Samnium albeit with some reductions in power. The ''touto'' and ''pagus'' began to function as miniature Republics, while the ''vicus'' remained unchanged. The only interference from the Romans would be that the [[Municipium|Municipum]] held authority over all previous institutions and could override them, while the [[prefect]]ures had little authority over the Samnites.<ref name=":1" />

=== Military ===
Roman historians believed that Samnite society was highly militaristic. They feared Samnite [[cavalry]] and [[infantry]], and nicknamed them ''Belliger Samnis'', which translates to "Warrior Samnites".<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":49">{{Cite book |last1=Waldman |first1=Carl |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kfv6HKXErqAC&dq=belliger+samnis&pg=PA688 |title=Encyclopedia of European Peoples |last2=Mason |first2=Catherine |date=2006 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-1-4381-2918-1 |page=686 |language=en |quote=}}</ref> It is unclear if this portrayal is accurate as most Roman historical accounts of the Samnites were written after this civilization had disappeared. Much of this work could also be propaganda.<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":55">Schneider-Herrmann, Georg (1996). Herring, Edward (ed.). ''The [https://www.jstor.org/stable/43768463 Samnites of the Fourth Century BC: as depicted on Campanian Vases and in other sources]'' (PDF). Oxford University Press. pp. 1–151.</ref> In the early periods of Samnite history, the military consisted of trained warriors led by local leaders. Access to the military (and military equipment) was dependent on one's [[wealth]] and [[Social status|status]], while poorer and lower status individuals were relegated to work such as agriculture.<ref name=":44">{{Cite journal |last=Sparacello |first=Vitale Stefano |date=2014 |title=A Bioarcheological Approach to the Reconstruction of Changes in Military Organization Among Iron Age Samnites (Vestini) From Abruzzo, Central Italy |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/ajpa.22650 |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Ltd |volume=156 |issue=3 |pages=305–316 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.22650 |pmid=25360793 |via=Wiley Online Library}}</ref> Samnite soldiers would have been trained in the [[triangular forum]] in Pompeii from an early age as part of a group known as the ''Vereiia''. The ''Vereiia'' evolved into a community service group after the Roman conquest.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Trümper |first=Monika |chapter=A Reassessment of the Urban Context of the Republican Baths (VIII 5, 36) |chapter-url=https://core.ac.uk/reader/225124595 |editor=Ulrich Mania |editor2=Monika Trümper |title=Development of Gymnasia and Graeco-Roman Cityscapes |year=2019 |location=Berlin |publisher=Edition Topoi |isbn=978-3-9819685-0-7 |doi=10.17171/3-58 |doi-access=free |pages=87–94 |via=CORE}}</ref> During the Samnite Wars, the army evolved to resemble the [[Ancient Greek warfare|armies of Ancient Greek city states]]. This new system used [[phalanx]]es, [[hoplite]]s, [[Maniple (military unit)|maniples]], and [[Cohort (military unit)|cohorts]] made of 400 men, creating an army flexible enough to fight in mountainous terrain.<ref>Brand, S. (2009). ''[https://www.proquest.com/docview/304830108 Mighty men and the public thing: The virtue of citizen armies in the ancient world]'' (Order No. 3368817). Available from ProQuest Central. (304830108). p. 334 " The Samnites were particularly skilled at mountainous warfare and fought in small, well-armed maniples that specialized in the use of the pilum."</ref><ref>''Ineditum Vaticanum'', H. Von Arnim (1892), Hermes 27: 118. [[Diodorus Siculus]], ''[[Bibliotheca historica]]'', XXIII, 2.</ref><ref name=":36">{{Cite book |last=Magnani |first=Stefano |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/9781118318140.wbra1320 |title=The Encyclopedia of the Roman Army |publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-118-31814-0 |pages=1–2|doi=10.1002/9781118318140.wbra1320 }}</ref> Low class soldiers began to be conscripted into the army, increasing its size to several thousand soldiers, although these recruits were less skilled and poorly trained.

Livy mentions a ''legio linteata'' ("linen legion");<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Dillon |first1=Matthew |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rfPWAQAAQBAJ |title=Ancient Rome: A Sourcebook |last2=Garland |first2=Lynda |author2-link=Lynda Garland |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-136-76136-2 |pages=52–53}}</ref> this unit used flamboyant equipment to differentiate itself from other Samnite warriors. According to Livy, this legion took an oath to never flee battle inside a linen structure.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Aldrete |first1=Gregory |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=isn-7ZlBJrEC |title=Reconstructing Ancient Linen Body Armor: Unraveling the Linothorax Mystery |last2=Aldrete |first2=Alicia |last3=Bartell |first3=Scott |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-4214-0820-0 |pages=16}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Livius |first1=Titus |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jP7_eMqzuXgC |title=Rome's Italian Wars |last2=Hoyos |first2=Dexter |publisher=OUP Oxford |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-956485-9 |pages=276, 365 |language= |translator-last=Yardley |translator-first=J.C.}}</ref> Scholars believe that this description was designed to highlight the differences between the "civilized" Romans, and the barbaric enemies of Rome.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gilliver |first=Kate |date=January 2007 |title=Display in Roman Warfare: The Appearance of Armies and Individuals on the Battlefield |journal=War in History |volume=14 |issue=1 |page=8 |doi=10.1177/0968344507071038 |jstor=26061904 |s2cid=159517905 }}</ref> Livy also could have been attempting to try and convey Samnite historical and religious power through a single unit.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Feldherr |first=Andrew |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G70AUTgN0gUC |title=Spectacle and Society in Livy's History |publisher=University of California Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-520-91969-3 |pages=56–57}}</ref> Due to corroborating [[Archaeological record|archaeological evidence]], other scholars state that it would be "rash" to completely dismiss this entire story.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":18" />

==== Armor ====
[[File:Samnite Bronze Cuirass Body Armor, South Italy, 400-300 BC (10458801043).jpg|thumb|Bronze Samnite cuirass. This piece is from 400 to 300&nbsp;BC in Southern Italy]]
Samnite soldiers wore a small single disc [[breastplate]]. This breastplate, called the [[Mirror armour|kardiophylax]] consisted of straps that passed around the shoulders, chest, and back, and attached around points. Although the [[triple-disc cuirass]] offered more protection, this armor continued to be used as a [[status symbol]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Naso|first=Alessandro|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uk8_DwAAQBAJ&dq=Samnite+Armor&pg=PA172|title=Etruscology|year=2017|publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG|isbn=978-1-934078-49-5|language=en}}</ref> There were three types of triple-disc cuirasses.<ref name=":46">Burns, Michael T. (2003). "The Homogenisation of Military Equipment Under the Roman Republic". ''Digressus''. ''Supplementum'' 1: 60–85</ref><ref name=":28">Llewellyn-Jones, Lloyd; Davies, Glenys (2007). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=nTaCAgAAQBAJ&q=Samnite Greek and Roman Dress from A to Z]''. pp 19, 24, 29, 68, 84, 102, 160, 181 Routledge. {{ISBN|978-1-134-58916-6}}.</ref> The first used bronze to fill the space between the three identical discs. Small rings were attached to this bronze, and side straps were used to hold the armor together. Shoulder straps were also fastened to these small rings. The second type utilized an edge to outline the discs, while the third used plates to depict the heads of religious figures such as [[Athena]] or [[demon]]s. All three types were constructed by placing a disc below and between two upper discs forming a triangular shape.<ref name=":51" />

Broad belts made of leather, gold, or bronze were common pieces of armor, and significant to Samnite culture. They were likely dedicated to protecting the [[abdomen]]. Samnite belts were made by heating up [[tin alloys]] at 800 degrees [[Celsius]]. Afterward, work would be performed on the belt at a [[temperature]] ranging from 600 to 800 degrees Celsius. [[Hammer]]s and [[abrasive]]s were used to grind the strips, giving them the appearance of [[silver]]. When making the belts, a [[thermal treatment]] was used in repeated cycles to increase the durability of the [[material]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Faraldi |first1=Federica |last2=De Caro |first2=Tilde |last3=Di Carlo |first3=Gabriella |last4=Pierigè |first4=Maria Isabella |last5=Parisi |first5=Erica Isabella |last6=Faustoferri |first6=Amalia |last7=Ingo |first7=Gabreilla Maria |last8=Riuccucci |first8=Cristina |date=2013 |title=Micro-chemical and metallurgical study of Samnite bronze belts from ancient Abruzzo (central Italy, VIII–IV BC) |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00339-013-7723-2?CJEVENT=8a4830c6b8d711ec8143f9000a82b832& |journal=Applied Physics A: Materials Science & Processing |volume=113 |issue=4 |publisher=Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg |pages=959–970 |doi=10.1007/s00339-013-7723-2 |bibcode=2013ApPhA.113..959R |s2cid=98129001 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Samnite helmets were based on [[Ancient Greek military personal equipment|Greek military equipment]]{{mdash}}they used cheek guards, crests, and plumes. Crests were usually made by [[Fastener|fastening]] horse tails to a metal piece that hung at the back of the helmet. [[Rivet]]s could also be used to pin crests to the helmet's peak. Another type of crest was thin and bushy with long free-flowing ends. [[Feather]]s and [[Horn (anatomy)|horns]] were a common feature of Samnite crests and [[Plume (feather)|plumes]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hart |first1=Mary Louise |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_dhwVAA-A4IC&dq=Chiton+samnite&pg=PA79 |title=The Art of Ancient Greek Theater |last2=Walton |first2=J. Michael |date=2010 |publisher=Getty Publications |isbn=978-1-60606-037-7 |page=79 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":51" /> Soldiers would don their greaves by resting their leg on a rock whilst using their hands to test the [[Fit model|fit]] of the equipment. This piece of equipment reached down to the [[ankle]] and was likely custom-made to fit the owner. There are few depictions of Samnite soldiers wearing graves, implying that they were rarely used outside of rituals and "mock-fights."<ref name=":51" />

==== Weaponry ====
[[File:Hydria.jpg|thumb|Pottery depicting a Samnite warrior|296x296px]]
[[Projectile]]s such as [[spear]]s and javelins were commonly used by the Samnites. Spearheads were made from two bronze or iron parts.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Sage|first=Michael|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JAXMDwAAQBAJ&dq=Samnite+Equipment&pg=PT159|title=The Army of the Roman Republic: From the Regal Period to the Army of Julius Caesar|year=2016|publisher=Casemate Publishers|isbn=978-1-4738-8095-5|language=en}}</ref> The upper part was the spearhead proper, and a lower part, which used a tube to hold up the end of a wooden shaft. To fasten the shaft to the spearhead, [[Nail (fastener)|nails]] were driven through a hole in the shaft. Tubes were used to fit the spear into a bronze [[chape]], which would protect the wooden shaft. Projectile weaponry was so essential to Samnite tactics that if a soldier ran out of projectiles, they would throw rocks off the ground.

Alongside spears, soldiers would use [[sword]]s or even [[hand-to-hand combat]].<ref name=":52">{{Cite book |last=Doberstein |first=William |url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/1626727166 |title=The Samnite legacy: An examination of the Samnitic influences upon the Roman state |year=2014 |isbn= |location=Canada |pages=20, 23–33, 62–82 |id={{ProQuest|1626727166}} }}</ref> Depictions on pottery, and figurines such as the [[Warrior of Capestrano|Capestrano Warrior]] showcase Samnite soldiers using a kind of [[Bronze Age]] sword called an [[Bronze Age sword|antenna sword]]. Another kind of sword associated with the Samnite civilization is the [[Classification of swords|short sword]]. Short swords were carried using a long strap fastened to either the warrior's body or the sword's [[hilt]].<ref name=":51" /> Samnite art depicts soldiers receiving swords in ritual ceremonies, and warriors eager to receive swords, implying that short swords were highly valued in Samnite society. [[Mace (bludgeon)|Maces]] were rarer than spears or javelins, yet still common. They had heavy and undecorated iron heads attached to a handle hoisted with a hole or a [[List of screw drives|socket]]. [[Axe]]s were rarely used; they may have primarily been symbols of power.<ref name=":13" />

There is little archaeological record of the Samnite shield, as most of the remaining shields have had much of their components destroyed. Samnite art commonly depicts Samnite soldiers using a [[round shield]] called an ''[[aspis]]''. To carry the shield, two [[strap]]s were used. One strap was leather, decorated with patterns, and ran vertically over the middle of the shield. Another strap {{ndash}} used to provide a firm grip {{ndash}} ran vertically near the shield's edge. Alongside ''aspides'', the Samnites possibly used bronze oval shields with pointed ends and incised decorations. It is possible that the Samnites used ''[[Scutum|scuta]]''. It is also possible that the Samnite ''scutum'' influenced the Roman shield;<ref name=":52" /> however, evidence for this is unclear. Samnite art depicts their soldiers carrying ''scuta''; however, it is either as [[Trophy|trophies]] taken from the enemy or an attempt to mimic [[ancient Greek art]].<ref>Taylor, M. J. (2020). [https://www.proquest.com/docview/2444277983 "Panoply and Identity During the Roman Republic"]. ''Papers of the British School at Rome, 88'', 31–65. "One origin story for the scutum is surely false, namely that it was adopted from the Samnites. Fourth-century BC Oscan warriors carried round shields, including the infantryman on a well-preserved wall painting from Paestum. The first scuta turn up in Oscan painting not as weapons but rather as loot triumphantly carried home in 'return of the warrior' scenes (perhaps captured from the Romans!)</ref><ref>Taylor, Michael J. "[https://go-gale-com.wikipedialibrary.idm.oclc.org/ps/retrieve.do?tabID=T003&resultListType=RESULT_LIST&searchResultsType=SingleTab&hitCount=38&searchType=BasicSearchForm&currentPosition=20&docId=GALE%7CA244280723&docType=Article&sort=Relevance&contentSegment=ZGPP-MOD1&prodId=ITOF&pageNum=1&contentSet=GALE%7CA244280723&searchId=R6&userGroupName=wikipedia&inPS=true Fear the phalanx: the Macedonian formation terrified opponents—and at times overwhelmed the vaunted Roman legion]." ''MHQ: The Quarterly Journal of Military History'', vol. 23, no. 2, winter 2011, pp. 10+. ''Gale General OneFile'' "They likely adopted javelins (pila) and oblong, concave shields from the Samnites, a central Italian people."</ref> Livy states that the Samnite shield was broad near the shoulder and chest, but thinner closer to the feet.<ref name=":47">{{Cite book |last=Sage |first=Michael M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f4zSyQH-0PIC&dq=Samnite+Equipment&pg=PA17 |title=The Republican Roman Army: A Sourcebook |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-68288-1 |pages=17–18, 43, 54, 67–68, 90 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=McCartney |first=Eugene |date=1912 |title=The Genesis of Rome's Military Equipment |journal=The Classical Weekly |volume=6 |issue=10 |pages=74–79 |doi=10.2307/4386664 |jstor=4386664 |quote= }}</ref> Archaeological evidence does not substantiate this idea. Livy possibly mistook the equipment of a [[Samnite (gladiator type)|Samnite gladiator]] for that of a Samnite soldier.<ref name=":51" />

== Culture ==

=== Religion ===
{{main|Samnite religion}}
[[File:Face mefitis.jpg|thumb|Face of [[Mefitis]], a Samnite goddess]][[Superstition]] dominated Samnite culture.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":24">Carpenter, T. H.; Lynch, K. M.; Robinson, E. G. D. (2014). ''The [https://books.google.com/books?id=WmSnBAAAQBAJ Italic People of Ancient Apulia: New Evidence from Pottery for Workshops, Markets, and Customs]'' {{JSTOR|24759857}} Cambridge University Press. pp. 32–33, 140–141, 181, 350–351 {{ISBN|978-1-139-99270-1}}.</ref><ref>Levene, David (2018-07-17). ''Religion in Livy''. Brill. {{ISBN|978-90-04-32923-2}}.</ref> They believed [[Magic (supernatural)|magic]] could influence reality and practiced [[augury]].<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":21" /> Vaguely defined spirits called ''[[Numen|numina]]'' were also prominent in Samnite mythology.<ref name=":1" /><ref>Carlà-Uhink, Filippo (2017). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=dSY-DwAAQBAJ The "Birth" of Italy: The Institutionalization of Italy as a Region, 3rd–1st Century&nbsp; BCE]''. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. {{ISBN|978-3-11-054478-7}}.</ref><ref name=":27">Cowan, Ross (2009). ''Roman Conquests: Italy''. Casemate Publishers. {{ISBN|978-1-84468-276-8}}.</ref> It was essential to establish proper relations with these spirits, which evolved into the Samnite gods and goddesses.<ref>Fishwick, Duncan (1991). ''Imperial cult in the latin west ii-1''. Brill. {{ISBN|978-90-04-09144-3}}.</ref><ref>Adams, J. N. (2007-12-13). ''The Regional Diversification of Latin 200 BC – AD 600''. Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|978-1-139-46881-7}}.</ref><ref>Sir John Edwin Sandys (1921). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=gR09AAAAIAAJ A Companion to Latin Studies]''. Third Edition. CUP Archive. [[Cambridge University Press]].  pp. 32–34, 115–118, 150, 422, 459, 468</ref> Few of these Samnite deities are known.<ref>Mehta-Jones, Shilpa (2005). ''Life in Ancient Rome''. Crabtree Publishing Company. {{ISBN|978-0-7787-2034-8}}.</ref><ref>"[http://www.sanniti.info/ Sanniti E Sannio  – Il Popolo  E Le Comunita ]'". ''www.sanniti.info''. Retrieved 2022-01-16.</ref><ref>"boiano.org : Boianos, Matese Samnites". 2008-09-07. Archived from the original on 2008-09-07. Retrieved 2022-01-16.</ref> It is known that gods such as [[Vulcan (mythology)|Vulcan]], [[Diana (mythology)|Diana]], and ''[[Mefitis]]'' were all worshipped, with Mars being the most prominent in the Samnite religion.<ref name=":1" /><ref>Lisio, Antonio Di; Russo, Filippo. "Geocartographic history of a natural monument of Southern Apennines: the Geosite of Mephite in Ansanto Valley".</ref> To honor their gods, [[votive offering]]s and animals would be sacrificed.<ref name=":1" /><ref>"Aufidenate Civic Museum – Castel di Sangro (AQ) | Regione Abruzzo – Dipartimento Turismo, Cultura e Paesaggio". ''abruzzoturismo.it''. Retrieved 2022-01-16.</ref><ref>"Patrimonio culturale della regione Abruzzo". ''AbruzzoCultura'' (in Italian). Retrieved 2022-01-16.</ref> In a practice known as the ''Ver Sacrum'', all things produced in a particular year would be exiled or offered to the gods.<ref name=":2" /><ref>Zoch, Paul A. (2020). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=E_ayDwAAQBAJ Ancient Rome: An Introductory History]''. [[University of Oklahoma Press]]. pp {{ISBN|978-0-8061-6665-0}}.</ref><ref>Ridgeway, William (2014). ''The Early Age of Greece''. Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|978-1-107-43458-5}}.</ref> The description of these practices may have been fabricated by Livy for propaganda purposes.<ref name=":21" /><ref name=":36" /><ref>Christensen, Lisbeth Bredholt; Hammer, Olav; Warburton, David (2014). ''The Handbook of Religions in Ancient Europe''. Routledge. {{ISBN|978-1-317-54453-1}}.</ref>

Samnite gravesites often contained goods. For example, wealthy individuals had graves with statues or steles. These goods indicated the wealth and status of the individual in life.<ref name=":12" /> Burials required that certain practices be observed in order to bury the dead adequately.<ref name=":41">Perego, Elisa; Scopacasa, Rafael (2016). ''Burial and Social Change in First Millennium BC Italy: Approaching Social Agents''. Oxbow Books. {{ISBN|978-1-78570-185-6}}.</ref><ref name=":29">Dolfini, Andrea; Crellin, Rachel J.; Horn, Christian; Uckelmann, Marion (2018). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=8e1lDwAAQBAJ Prehistoric Warfare and Violence: Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches]''. Springer. pp. 61–66 {{ISBN|978-3-319-78828-9}}.</ref><ref name=":40">Welch, Katherine E. (2007). ''The Roman Amphitheatre: From Its Origins to the Colosseum''. Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-521-80944-3}}.</ref> Burial was likely a sign of social status as it was rare to be buried, despite the Samnite belief in an [[afterlife]].

Sanctuaries were important to the Samnite religion.<ref name=":22" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":21" /> They served a variety of purposes: they siphoned money off transhumance routes, marked borders, served as centers for communication and places of worship, and played a role in government.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":22" />  Over time, sanctuaries become much less prominent in Samnite culture, and were all abandoned soon afterwards.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":43">Watts, James W. (2021). ''Understanding the Bible as a Scripture in History, Culture, and Religion''. John Wiley & Sons. {{ISBN|978-1-119-73038-5}}.</ref><ref name=":42">Mansfield, Harvey C. (2001). ''Machiavelli's New Modes and Orders: A Study of the Discourses on Livy''. University of Chicago Press. {{ISBN|978-0-226-50370-7}}.</ref>

=== Gender roles ===
[[File: Graph depicting grave goods and their correlation with gender at Campo Consolino.png|thumb|Graph showcasing the correlation between burial goods and gender at [[Alfedena|Campo Consolino]]]]
There were two major roles for Samnite women: domestic and ceremonial. Women would [[Weaving|weave]], which likely played an important role in the economy.<ref name=":12" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Goodman |first=Martin |date=1998 |title=Jewish Women in Greco-Roman Palestine: an Inquiry into Image and Status |url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/2212106652 |journal=The Journal of Roman Studies |language=English |location=London |publisher=Cambridge University Press |volume=88 |pages=189–190 |doi=10.2307/300824 |jstor=300824 |s2cid=161473089 |issn=0075-4358 |id={{ProQuest|2212106652}} |eissn=1753-528X |quote=For example, the observation that scenes of women working with wool represent no more and no less than that this was 'obviously an important activity for Samnite women' |via=ProQuest|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name=":56">{{Cite journal |last=Sparacello |first=V.S |date=2011 |title=Changes in Skeletal Robusticity in an Iron Age Agropastoral Group: The Samnites From the Alfedena Necropolis (Abruzzo, Central Italy) |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/ajpa.21377 |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |volume=144 |issue=1 |pages=119–130 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.21377 |pmid=20718040 |via=Wiley Online Library|url-access=subscription }}</ref> They also likely exercised a small amount of political power through the [[symposium]], which was a kind of ancient Greek or Etruscan banquet.<ref>Peter Garnsey, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=iFSPK9dWqQgC&dq=convivium+symposium&pg=PA136 Food and Society in Classical Antiquity]'' (Cambridge University Press, 1999), p. 136; Sara Elise Phang, ''Roman Military Service: Ideologies of Discipline in the Late Republic and Early Principate'' (Cambridge University Press, 2008), pp. 263–264.</ref> Other responsibilities included teaching young girls how to [[dance]], [[Parenting|childrearing]], and possibly managing the [[household]].<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":17" /> Relationships between Samnite wives and husbands are unclear. [[Libation]] scenes might suggest that a [[wife]] was supposed to be dutiful and loyal to her [[husband]].<ref name=":51" /> Women may have been expected to be [[discipline]]d{{mdash}}in [[Horace|Horace's]] ''[[Odes (Horace)|Odes]]'' he complains about women lacking these traits. He possibly based his expectations of women on Samnite customs.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Horace (65 BC–8 BC) – The Odes: Book III |url=https://www.poetryintranslation.com/PITBR/Latin/HoraceOdesBkIII.php#anchor_Toc40263851 |access-date=2022-04-02 |website=www.poetryintranslation.com}}</ref> Another possibility is that women were capable of acquiring large amounts of wealth. However, they might have only been capable of displaying their partner's wealth. Artwork and pottery depicting Samnite women showcase them involved in rituals or nearby altars with votive offerings.<ref name=":51">{{Cite journal |date=2011 |title=Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies Supplement 61: The Samnites of the Fourth Century BC |url=https://academic.oup.com/bics/issue/40/Supplement_61 |journal=Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies |publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Ltd |volume=40 |issue=S61 |pages=3–123 }}</ref> These rituals usually involve women honoring their husbands through offerings of wine, or possibly [[Prayer|praying]] for their husbands before they leave to fight.

The geographer Strabo states that the Samnites would take ten [[Virginity|virgin]] women and ten young men, who were considered to be the best representation of their [[sex]], and marry them.<ref>''[[iarchive:Strabo08Geography17AndIndex/Strabo 02 Geography 3-5/page/n471/mode/2up|Geographica]]'', [[Strabo]], Book 5, p. 467. "And they say that among the Samnitae there is a law which is indeed honourable and conducive to noble qualities; for they are not permitted to give their daughters in marriage to whom they wish, but every year ten virgins and ten young men, the noblest of each sex, are selected, and, of these, the first choice of the virgins is given to the first choice of the young men, and the second to the second, and so on to the end; but if the young man who wins the meed of honour changes and turns out bad, they disgrace him and take away from him the woman given him."</ref> Following this, the second-best women would be given to the second-best males. This would continue until all 20 people had been assigned to one another. It is possible that the "best" men and women were chosen based on [[Sport|athletic]] capabilities. If any of the individuals involved dishonored themselves, they would be displaced and forcibly separated from their partners.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":17" />

Samnite society may have enforced a [[Gender role|distinction between men]], who were supposed to be warriors, and women, who were supposed to be "bejeweled".<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pastorelli |first=A. A |date=2014 |title=Exposure to Cadmium and Lead in an Agropastoral Iron Age Population |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/oa.2403 |journal=International Journal of Osteoarchaeology |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=132–140 |doi=10.1002/oa.2403 |quote=The strongly gendered ideology of Samnites suggests a strict sexual division of labor, with women primarily performing sedentary tasks. |via=Wiley Online Library|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Ancient historians describe the Samnites as a warlike people; however much of this is possibly propaganda. Campanian pottery often depicts Samnite warriors and cavalrymen fighting, while Apulian pottery tends to depict them in a wider variety of circumstances. Pottery from those same cultures also depicts armed men involved with other activities such as burying the dead or marriage.<ref name=":55" /> Differences between male and female graves also support this theory. Men were buried with weapons and armor, while women were buried with domestic goods such as spindles or [[Jewellery|jewelry]]. [[Young adult]] women were typically buried with coils, pendants, beads, clothing, spindles, and [[Fibula (brooch)|fibulae]] similar to those worn by boys,<ref>Riccio, Anthony V. (2014). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=j76TAwAAQBAJ Farms, Factories, and Families: Italian American Women of Connecticut]''. SUNY Press. {{ISBN|978-1-4384-5232-6}}.</ref> possibly meaning that [[femininity]] was tied to [[youth]] in Samnite culture. Men wore much smaller and less elaborate fibulae, possibly indicating that the male identity was tied to [[Maturity (psychological)|maturity]].<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":54">{{Cite journal |last=Scopacasa |first=Rafael |date=2010 |title=Beyond the Warlike Samnites: Rethinking Grave Goods, Gender Relations and Social Practice in Ancient Samnium (Italy) |journal=Theoretical Roman Archaeology Conference |issue=2009 |pages=120–131|doi=10.16995/TRAC2009_120_131 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The skeletons of men and women also show differences in [[Injury|trauma]]. Male skeletons found near [[Pontecagnano Faiano]] have a [[Head injury|cranial trauma]] rate of 13%, while only 8% of female skeletons showed cranial trauma. Another community at [[Alfedena]] has male Samnite skeletons with similar rates of cranial injury. This indicates that Samnite men may have been expected to serve as warriors and fight, while women were not.<ref name=":50">{{Cite journal |last1=Paine |first1=R. R |last2=Mancinelli |first2=D |last3=Ruggieri |first3=M |last4=Coppa |first4=A |date=2006 |title=Cranial trauma in iron age Samnite agriculturists, Alfedena, Italy: Implications for biocultural and economic stress |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ajpa.20461 |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Ltd |volume=132 |issue=1 |pages=48–57 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.20461 |pmid=16883566 |via=Wiley Online Library|url-access=subscription }}</ref> 
[[File: Graph depicting grave goods at Campo Consolino.png|thumb|269x269px|Graph depicting the percentage of male or female graves at Campo Consolino buried with a certain good]]
However, a large number of graves are not buried with their respective gender's items. Samnite men have been buried with goods typically associated with women, and a few Samnite women have been buried with goods associated with men.<ref name=":26">Jones, Howard (2004). ''Samnium: Settlement and Cultural Change : the Proceedings of the Third E. Togo Salmon Conference on Roman Studies''. Center for Old World Archaeology and Art. {{ISBN|978-0-9755249-0-9}}.</ref> Only 3% of men in Campo Consolino were buried with their respective gender's goods, while one in five women were buried with weaponry. Men have also been found buried with domestic goods. This could be explained if these goods were not indicative of the person's responsibilities in life, but instead were offerings to the dead. The rarity of certain burial goods could indicate that they were exclusive to high-status individuals. For example, jewelry could be explained as an indication of wealth or femininity. Differences in jewelry between the graves of adolescent and young adult women could be a form of [[Preventive healthcare|preventative healthcare]]; it may have been done to protect them in [[childbirth]].<ref name=":54" />

Analysis of [[skeleton]]s has shown that both genders have [[fracture]]s, [[lesion]]s, and injuries, although men have these injuries much more commonly.<ref name=":50" /> This difference could be explained by greater amounts of male skeletons than female skeletons.<ref name=":12" /> Other skeletons showcase similarities between the lives of men and women. For example, both have [[Dentistry|healthy teeth]], implying that they had [[healthy diet]]s with low amounts of [[carbohydrate]]s. The art depicts groups of both men and women honoring both dead men and women, indicating that Samnite men and women could be honored in similar ways after death.<ref name=":51" /> Each gender may have had different, but equally important roles. Another possibility is that the Samnites had two categories for gender, one being adult males, and the other, everyone else.<ref name=":12" />

The Samnites possibly practiced ritualized [[prostitution]]. Young women of all social standings would engage in [[Human sexual activity|sexual activities]] as a [[rite of passage]]. It is possible this practice would transform from a ritual into a [[profession]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Williams |first=Daniel |date=2004 |title=What Lies Beneath in Pompeii; Going Deep Yields New Perspective on Ancient Roman City |page=3 |newspaper=The Washington Post |location=Washington D.C. |url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/409671837 |id={{ProQuest|409671837}} |quote="The bath and amulets indicate the Samnite practice of ritual prostitution, in which young women, rich and poor alike, submitted to sex as a rite of passage, said Curti, the archaeologist. 'To our post-Victorian minds, the practice seems strange. But we can't look at this society through our eyes,' he observed. Probably, the practice became professional at some point. This was, after all, a port city.'"}}</ref><ref>Williams, D. (2004, Aug 05). [https://www.proquest.com/docview/420097170 <nowiki>A whole new subculture emerges in old pompeii ; archeologists dig below the roman ruins and discover an even more ancient civilization that ultimately gave in to imperial conquerors: [chicago final edition]</nowiki>]. ''Chicago Tribune "''The bath and amulets indicate the Samnite practice of ritual prostitution, in which young women submitted to sex as a rite of passage, said Curti, the archeologist.''"''</ref>

=== Art ===
[[File:Frammento Sannita.jpg|thumb|171x171px|Fragment of Samnite art from the [[Museo Campano]]]]
The first [[Style (visual arts)|art style]] used by the Samnites [[Pompeian Styles|in Pompeii]] developed when Greek painters traveled to Italy to paint for local [[Aristocracy|aristocrats]].<ref name=":31">{{Cite book |last=Kleiner |first=Fred S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G-25DQAAQBAJ&dq=Samnite+art&pg=PA47 |title=A History of Roman Art |year=2016 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-1-337-51577-1 |language=en}}</ref> It borrows elements from Greek, [[Etruscan art|Etruscan]], and other [[Italic art]]. For example, [[Hierarchical proportion|hierarchy of scale]], clothing demonstrating status, [[Closed captioning|captions]], [[Episodic storytelling|episodic narratives]], and depictions of history were all borrowed from other cultures.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tuck |first=Steven L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0SEnEAAAQBAJ&dq=Samnite+art&pg=PA66 |title=A History of Roman Art |year=2021 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-119-65330-1 |language=en}}</ref>

Samnite art featured [[polychrome]] [[mural]]s and [[painting]]s. The murals usually used black or red cement pavements outlined with designs that ran across [[tessera]]e. There were two different styles of tesserae: worm-like, or ''miculatum'', and  woven-style, or ''[[Opus tessellatum|oppus tessellatum]],''. ''Miculatum'' consisted of inserting [[marble]] and terracotta trays into a mosaic floor. The ''oppus tessellatum'' style used tesserae to create an appearance resembling weaving. Samnite art was usually colorful, and it often depicted myths, [[warrior]]s, or Greek subjects.<ref name=":31" /> Murals found in Pompeii were designed to create an idyllic sense.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/2493829781 |title=Return splendor in Pompeii to fresh Samnite from the 2nd century BC |year=2021 |publisher=ContentEngine LLC |location=United States |pages=1 |id={{ProQuest|2493829781}} |quote=The paintings, according to a pap statement, were intended to expand the dimensions of these spaces and evoke in them an idyllic atmosphere.}}</ref>

Aside from the murals, other works of Samnite art have survived to the modern day. On the walls of a sanctuary at [[Pietrabbondante|Pietrabbondate]] there is an unidentifiable relief that is possibly an [[atlas]]. Another possible work of Samnite or [[Roman art|Roman origin]] in [[Isernia]] depicts two helmeted warriors.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":31" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Towne|first=Henry Robinson|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tm0JAAAAIAAJ&dq=Samnite+art&pg=PA339|title=Locks and Builders Hardware: A Hand Book for Architects|date=1904|publisher=J. Wiley & sons|language=en}}</ref> One example of Samnite [[figurative art]] may be the Warrior of Capestrano.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Dolfini |first1=Andrea |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8e1lDwAAQBAJ&dq=Samnite+art&pg=PA63 |title=Prehistoric Warfare and Violence: Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches |last2=Crellin |first2=Rachel J. |last3=Horn |first3=Christian |last4=Uckelmann |first4=Marion |date=2018 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-78828-9 |language=en}}</ref> The statue was, however, found in Vestini territory and depicts a Picentine warrior.<ref name=":27" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Connolly |first=Peter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ScSIDwAAQBAJ&dq=The+Capestrano+Warrior&pg=PT297 |title=Greece and Rome at War |date=2012 |publisher=Grub Street Publishers |isbn=978-1-78346-971-0 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Clothing ===
[[File:Bronze belt and clasps MET DP219009.jpg|thumb|Samnite bronze belt with a clasp|173x173px]]Most Samnite clothes were loose, pinned, [[Draped garment|draped]], folded, and not [[Stitch (textile arts)|stitched]] or [[Sewing|sewn]]. Clothing held [[Symbolism (arts)|symbolic]] and ritual purposes in Samnite society. For example, clothing indicated social status, and [[Chiton (garment)|chitons]] were often used in ceremonies. The most valuable kind of clothing was a fastened bronze or leather [[girdle]] covered in bronze.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Friedlaender |first=Ludwig Henrich |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B-tTDwAAQBAJ&dq=girdle+samnite&pg=PA71 |title=Revival: Roman Life and Manners Under the Early Empire |orig-date=1913 |date=2018 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-34529-3 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Mommsen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H_Oh_36ETcIC&dq=Chiton+samnite&pg=PA4 |title=Mommsen's History of Rome |date=2008 |publisher=Wildside Press LLC |isbn=978-1-4344-6232-9 |language=en}}</ref>

Men wore [[Ring (jewellery)|rings]], [[amulet]]s with [[snake]] heads, and [[Collar (clothing)|collars]]. Collars were usually pierced with holes from which they suspended amulets and pendants and engraved with incised decorations. Collars would be given to the man in [[boy]]hood, and never removed. Bearskins were also common clothing.<ref name=":49" /><ref name=":28" />

Female clothing was similar to [[Clothing in ancient Greece|Greek apparel]]. Women wore long sleeveless [[Peplos|peplum]], [[cap]]s, [[hat]]s similar to a [[Pileus (hat)|pileus]], [[Chiton (garment)|chiton]]s, decorated belts, and [[Chatelaine (chain)|chatelaine]]. The chatelaine had a central section consisting of mail and metal spirals made from perforated discs of metal.<ref name=":51" /><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Delfino |first1=Davide |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dIBEEAAAQBAJ&dq=chatelaine+Samnite&pg=PA24 |title=Understanding and Accessibility of Pre-and Proto-Historical Research Issues: Sites, Museums and Communication Strategies: Proceedings of the XVIII UISPP World Congress (4–9 June 2018, Paris, France) Volume 17, Session XXXV-1 |last2=Nizzo |first2=Valentino |date=2021-09-09 |publisher=Archaeopress Publishing Ltd |isbn=978-1-80327-079-1 |language=en}}</ref><ref>Horsnaes, Helle W.; Helle, W. Horsnaes (2002). ''The Cultural Development in North Western Lucania C. 600–273 BC''. L'Erma  di Bretschneider. {{ISBN|978-88-8265-194-7}}.</ref> An essential part of Samnite women's clothing was garments long enough to touch the ground. These were worn alongside colored [[cape]]s that were fastened beneath the [[chin]] and held together with a [[brooch]]. Samnite capes covered the whole [[Thorax|upper body]], the [[arm]]s, and the [[leg]]s, although [[necklace]]s and amulets remained visible, as the [[neckline]] of the cape did not touch the shoulders. Women also wore another kind of cape similar to a [[jacket]]. This jacket had [[sleeve]]s, was fastened at the front, used a low-cut neckline, and fit the body tightly, covering much of it with folding. The frontal part of the jacket hung just below the waist, which is also nearby where it was kept. Samnite [[skirt]]s were heavily influenced by Greek clothing. They covered with a [[himation]] that usually also covered the [[hip]]s as well as [[drapery]]. Women wore headdresses made from a folded piece of cloth. One depiction of this kind of headdress shows it as a long [[veil]] that was folded and ran across the head. Another piece of art shows a Samnite woman wearing a hairnet beneath a [[Cylinder|cylindrical]] headdress with white and red stripes running across it.<ref name=":51" /> Some kinds of clothing were [[Gender neutrality|gender neutral]]. Red, white, or black belts covered in motifs that were usually made by using hooks to fasten cloth or leather into holes were worn by both genders.<ref name=":51" />
It was common in ancient Samnium for both men and women to wear no [[footwear]]. Despite this, numerous shoe styles still existed. Some shoes were low, some reached to the ankles, and others had a small hole at their tip. Another kind used an accentuated upper edge and reached higher than the ankles. Styles of footwear did not vary greatly between gender, except for styles of [[boot]]. Female boots were usually ankle-high, while male boots reached higher. To secure the lacing of the shoe, white buttons and pointed, curved, or short lines that ran across horizontal laces could be used. Samnite sandals had white soles that used a strap to attach the soles to the foot. One kind of sandal left the foot uncovered, while the other covered it up. Socks may have existed in ancient Samnium. If they did not, an alternative could have existed, such as a sort of soft fabric used as a replacement for socks.<ref name=":51" />

Italic pottery and Samnite tomb paintings depict Samnite warriors wearing [[tunic]]s. These were usually made from one piece of cloth and decorated with black or white motifs that were almost always placed on the sleeves, though rarely on the lower part of the tunic. Common motifs included stripes or dots. Tunics were held together at the [[midriff]] by broad leather belts.

Livy describes Samnite soldiers wearing two kinds of clothing. One was referred to as versicolor, meaning the clothing used contrasting colors. These clothes might have been designed to give a [[chameleon]]-like appearance Livy may have intended to invoke ideas of [[Aeneas]], who once allied with a warrior named Astyr, who had multi-colored weapons and armor. It also may have been designed to showcase the worthiness of the Samnites as opponents of Rome. These are not the only possibilities{{mdash}}Livy may have wanted to reference [[Plato]]'s [[Republic (Plato)|Republic]], which compares Republics to a multi-colored garment. Also, multi-colored clothing may have symbolized wealth. The other group of Samnites wore silver clothing and carried weapons.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Goldman |first=Rachael B |date=2015 |title=The Multicolored World of the Romans |url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/1806002968 |journal=Glotta; Zeitschrift für Griechische und Lateinische Sprache. |location=Gottingen, Germany |publisher=Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht |volume=91 |pages=100–102 |issn=0017-1298 |id={{ProQuest|1806002968}} |eissn=2196-9043 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Livius |first=Titus |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0155%3Abook%3D9%3Achapter%3D40 |title=The History of Rome |language=English |quote=The tunics of the gilded warriors were parti–coloured; those of the silvern ones were linen of a dazzling white. |via=Perseus.tufts.edu}}</ref>

=== Recreation ===
[[File:Etruscan Bucchero Oinochoe & 4 Kantharoi (28733532095).jpg|thumb|199x199px|Etruscan bucchero. These kinds of cups would have been used by the Samnites]]
[[Drinking]] and [[eating]] were very important to the life of the Samnites. It served as a way to [[Entertainment|entertain]], and to establish [[social network]]s, and to negotiate [[politics]] or [[Work (human activity)|labor]].<ref name=":12" /> Whilst eating, the host would distribute food and drink to the guests. It was rare for wine to be given to adult men, although it was consumed by other demographics.<ref name=":2" /> [[Banquet]]s used large containers or mixing vessels, serving vessels, and small pieces for individuals' consumption. Large containers were often amphorae or [[krater]]s. Serving vessels were usually [[Ladle (spoon)|dippers]], or [[jug]]s. The smaller vessels were usually [[cup]]s, [[Beaker (archaeology)|beakers]], [[Kylix|kylikes]], and [[Kantharos|kantharoi]]. It was common to import these goods, for example, bucchero was commonly imported from Etruria.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":12" />

Gladiatorial games may have originated in Samnium. [[Latin literature|Roman]] and [[Ancient Greek literature|Greek authors]] such as Livy, Strabo, Horace, [[Athenaeus]], and [[Silius Italicus]] mention that the Campanian aristocrats would host gladiator games during their banquets.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mommsen |first=Theodor |chapter= V: Subjugation of the Latins and Campanians by Rome |title=History of Rome |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-511-70750-6 |pages=247–252 |translator-last=Dickinson |translator-first=William}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Larmour |first=David |title=Tracing Furrows in the Satiric Dust Echoes of Horace's Epistles in Juvenal 1 |journal=Illinois Classical Studies |publisher=University of Illinois Press |year=2010 |volume=35–36 |pages=165|doi=10.5406/illiclasstud.35-36.0155 |jstor=10.5406/illiclasstud.35-36.0155 }}</ref> It is possible that the Samnite gladiator originated from these Oscan and Samnite games. However, evidence for this is inconclusive. Other scholars believe that gladiatorial games originated from Etruria, the [[Celts]], or the city of [[Mantineia]]. The word ''[[Gladiator|lanista]]'' may imply a connection between gladiatorial games and the Etruscans. Although the earliest gladiators were called Samnites, the word ''lanista'' may have no connection to the Etruscans. Art from Campania depicts Samnites in gladiatorial games. One piece of art depicts a dead gladiator with a spear stuck in the head. This indicates that the Samnites likely were not averse to brutality. Art also showcases large gladiatorial games alongside [[chariot racing]] and banquets, implying that Samnite gladiatorial games were grandiose and for entertainment. Alternatively, these games may have been conducted at [[funeral]]s. Games are usually depicted taking place near funerals, and pomegranates are depicted in the background, which was symbols of the afterlife.<ref name=":52" /> The warriors in these funerary games are depicted wearing colorful armor.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Evans |first=James |title=Rome's Gladiatorial Games |date=2001 |journal=The Virginia Quarterly Review |volume=77 |issue=4 |page=734 |jstor=26440972 }}</ref>

Chariot racing and [[hunting]] with projectile weaponry were [[Recreation|recreational activates]] practiced by Samnite men.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":56" /><ref name=":51" /> In Pompeii, ancient [[Roman Baths (Bath)|baths]] were built during the time the Samnites ruled the city.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Telford |first=Thomas |url=https://www.icevirtuallibrary.com/doi/epdf/10.1680/iicep.1980.2401 |title=Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers |publisher=ICE Virtual Library |year=1980 |volume=68 |page=230 |language=English |issue=2|doi=10.1680/iicep.1980.2401 }}</ref>

=== Cities and engineering ===
[[File:Saepinum (19).JPG|thumb|Amphitheater in Saepinum|192x192px]]
From the Bronze to the Iron Age, the number of Samnite settlements drastically increased. Most of these settlements were small, with most people living in [[Hamlet (place)|hamlets]] and working for a living.<ref name=":14" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Gargain |first=Michael |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195170726.001.0001/acref-9780195170726-e-1114?rskey=QxayPy&result=2 |title=Samnites |work=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2010|isbn=978-0-19-517072-6 }}</ref> These small settlements organized around larger settlements, such as [[Saepinum]] and [[Caiazzo|Caiatia]].<ref name=":9" /> Samnite cities were generally not as large as those in the rest of Italy.<ref name=":4" /> They were largely disorganized, and generally lacked urban centers. Roads called ''tratturi'' were used to connect the summer pastures to those of winter.<ref>Boardman, John; Griffin, Jasper; Murray, Oswyn (2001). ''[[iarchive:oxfordillustrate0000unse y9b8|The Oxford Illustrated History of the Roman World]]''. OUP Oxford. pp. 10–14, 21–26, 426–427 {{ISBN|978-0-19-285436-0}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bell |first1=Tyler |last2=Wilson |first2=Andrew |last3=Wickham |first3=Andrew |date=2002 |title=Tracking the Samnites: Landscape and Communications Routes in the Sangro Valley, Italy |journal=American Journal of Archaeology |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |volume=106 |issue=2 |pages=169–186 |doi=10.2307/4126242 |jstor=4126242 |s2cid=193073621 }}</ref> Alongside these roads, Samnite cities had buildings such as [[temple]]s, [[restaurant|dining complexes]], [[house]]s, and [[Sanctuary|sanctuaries]].<ref>Berry, Dr Joanne; Berry, Joanne; Laurence, Ray (2002). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=nDgV5gsY8HMC Cultural Identity in the Roman Empire]''. Routledge. pp. 65, 75, 100–103 {{ISBN|978-1-134-77851-5}}.</ref> Their cities had no buildings similar to a [[Roman Forum|forum]] or an [[Agora]], except for the city of Pompeii, which had a small forum with irregular architecture and [[taberna]]e.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ball |first1=Larry F |last2=Dobbins |first2=John J |date=2013 |title=Pompeii Forum Project: Current Thinking on the Pompeii Forum |journal=American Journal of Archaeology |publisher=Archaeological Institute of America. |volume=117 |issue=3 |pages=469–478 |doi=10.3764/aja.117.3.0461 |jstor=10.3764/aja.117.3.0461 |s2cid=194675531 }}</ref>

Samnite cities began to develop walls and other defensive fortifications during the Samnite Wars. Walls were usually rough and crude, and located by the crest of a hill with no other defenses nearby. This indicated that they were built to allow the defending army to retreat and regroup, rather than protect the city. City gates were heavily fortified on the left side, but not on the right. This was done to force soldiers to attack the city on the side they were not holding their shield on.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":14" />

[[Hillfort]]s built with [[Walling|polygonal walling]] may have been either a common defensive fortification or a form of settlement that represented a transitional phase between a more [[Rural area|rural]] society and a more urban one. It is unclear if these hillforts were permanent defenses as they may have only been inhabited temporarily. Scholars have proposed other possible purposes for the Samnite hillforts. They may have played a role in government.<ref name=":1" /> Forts may have also been used to pass along [[Beacon|signals by fire]].<ref>Bispham, E.H., et al. "[https://go-gale-com.wikipedialibrary.idm.oclc.org/ps/retrieve.do?tabID=T002&resultListType=RESULT_LIST&searchResultsType=SingleTab&hitCount=106&searchType=BasicSearchForm&currentPosition=3&docId=GALE%7CA65536944&docType=Brief+article&sort=Relevance&contentSegment=ZONE-Exclude-FT&prodId=AONE&pageNum=1&contentSet=GALE%7CA65536944&searchId=R1&userGroupName=wikipedia&inPS=true Towards a phenomenology of Samnite fortified centres]." ''Antiquity'', vol. 74, no. 283, Mar. 2000, p. 23. ''Gale Academic OneFile "'' Samnite `hill-forts' for the purposes of passing fire signals between the Sangro and Volturno valleys''."''</ref>

[[File:Herculaneum — Samnite House (14732660248).jpg|thumb|Samnite house in [[Herculaneum]]]]
Samnite [[architecture]] in Pompeii or Herculaneum often resembled that of [[Ancient Greek architecture|Greek architecture]].<ref name=":1" /> For example, [[palaestra]]s, [[colonnade]]s, [[stoa]]i, and [[column]]s were all borrowed from the Greeks.<ref name=":31" /><ref name=":45">{{Cite book |last=Barrett |first=Caitlín Eilís |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8iePDwAAQBAJ&dq=Samnite+art&pg=PT460 |title=Domesticating Empire: Egyptian Landscapes in Pompeian Gardens |date=2019 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-064137-5 |language=en}}</ref> Other techniques were borrowed from the Etruscans. Such as breaking up [[orthostates]] with narrow blocks. The Samnite palaestra in Pompeii is made from a rectangular courtyard surrounded by [[portico]]s and [[Doric order|Doric columns]] made of [[tufa]]. A peristyle courtyard lies to the west of the palaestra. This building was similar to Greek palaestra, and was likely either a [[Gymnasium (ancient Greece)|gymnasium]], religious site, or a [[campus]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Henzel |first1=Rebecca |last2=Trümper |first2=Monika |chapter=Crowded or Empty Spaces? The Statuary Decoration of the 'Palaestrae' in Pompeii and Herculaneum |chapter-url=https://core.ac.uk/reader/225124704 |editor=Ulrich Mania |editor2=Monika Trümper |title=Development of Gymnasia and Graeco-Roman Cityscapes |year=2019 |location=Berlin |publisher=Edition Topoi |isbn=978-3-9819685-0-7 |doi=10.17171/3-58 |doi-access=free |pages=116–118 |via=CORE}}</ref> Houses were built on [[Foundation (engineering)|foundations]] topped with smaller blocks laid in courses. In order to elevate the foundation, [[Dado (architecture)|dados]] and orthostats were inserted into the [[Fauces (architecture)|fauces]]. Blocks of stone also needed to be put alongside the base of the wall. Walls were usually made of [[rubble]]. The rubble could have been carved to make it resemble carved blocks of stone, rather than rubble. Alongside this practice, layers of [[plaster]] were spread over it. Plaster was also used to make [[fresco]]es. This was done by applying [[pigment]] to the plaster whilst it was [[Moisture|damp]]. Another construction material called [[stucco]] was often painted, creating the appearance of a house covered in marble.<ref>"[https://go-gale-com.wikipedialibrary.idm.oclc.org/ps/retrieve.do?tabID=T003&resultListType=RESULT_LIST&searchResultsType=SingleTab&hitCount=11&searchType=BasicSearchForm&currentPosition=10&docId=GALE%7CCX3427400372&docType=Topic+overview&sort=Relevance&contentSegment=&prodId=GVRL&pageNum=1&contentSet=GALE%7CCX3427400372&searchId=R2&userGroupName=wikipedia&inPS=true Roman Painting]." ''Arts and Humanities Through the Eras'', edited by Edward I. Bleiberg, et al., vol. 2: Ancient Greece and Rome 1200 B.C.E.–476 C.E. Gale, 2005, p 435. ''Gale eBooks'',</ref> [[Atrium (architecture)|Atriums]] were a common feature of Samnite houses. They used [[Impluvium|impulviums]], [[loggia]], and [[cella]]e.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":30" /> [[Façade]]s made of [[tuff]], tabernae, [[peristyle]]s, [[dentil]] [[cornice]]s supported by [[Cube|cubic]] [[Capital (architecture)|capitals]], which are the upper part of a column, used [[figurine]]s and were all located outside of the houses.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mayer |first=Emanuel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eYNCB_HfZsEC&dq=Samnite+houses&pg=PT53 |title=The Ancient Middle Classes |date=2012 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-06534-5 |pages=36–37, 45, 48 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=De Marre |first=Martine |url=https://journals.co.za/doi/epdf/10.10520/AJA03031896_609 |title=Aedificia Domestica |publisher=University of Stellenbosch |year=1987 |location=South Africa |pages=25 |quote=Capitals with figures sculpted on them display a  similarity to Etruscan art,   but otherwise are clearly of Samnite origin.}}</ref> Roofs with [[downspout]]s made of stone and tiles.<ref name=":19" /><ref>"[https://go-gale-com.wikipedialibrary.idm.oclc.org/ps/retrieve.do?tabID=T003&resultListType=RESULT_LIST&searchResultsType=SingleTab&hitCount=11&searchType=BasicSearchForm&currentPosition=10&docId=GALE%7CCX3427400372&docType=Topic+overview&sort=Relevance&contentSegment=&prodId=GVRL&pageNum=1&contentSet=GALE%7CCX3427400372&searchId=R7&userGroupName=wikipedia&inPS=true Roman Painting]." ''Arts and Humanities Through the Eras'', edited by Edward I. Bleiberg, et al., vol. 2: Ancient Greece and Rome 1200 B.C.E.–476 C.E. Gale, 2005, pp. 435–439. ''Gale eBooks'',</ref>

Small, personal, and makeshift farms or houses were common buildings.<ref>Barker, Graeme. "The Archaeology of the Italian Shepherd." ''Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society'', no. 35 (215), 1989, pp. 1–19. {{JSTOR|44696933}}</ref> One farmhouse found near [[Campobasso]] consists of a square [[Modular building|module]], which was likely a stable house, and a series of rooms with [[hearth]]s centered around a courthouse. The house has a small mortar line basin, a dolia, and other container vessels. Indicating that these materials were used for the process and storage of produce.<ref name=":30">{{Cite book |last1=Yegül |first1=Fikret |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G8CkDwAAQBAJ&dq=Samnite+architecture&pg=PA50 |title=Roman Architecture and Urbanism: From the Origins to Late Antiquity |last2=Favro |first2=Diane |year=2019 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-47071-1 |pages=41–61 |language=en}}</ref> Another farmstead was built in 200&nbsp;BC using limestone blocks held together by yellow mortar.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kay |first1=Stephen |last2=Roberts |first2=Paul |last3=Dominic |first3=Rathbone |date=2019 |title=The Samnite and Roman Settlement at Santa Maria Della Strada (Commune di Matrice, Provincia di Campobasso, Regione Molise) |url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/2307423605 |journal=Papers of the British School at Rome |location=London |volume=87 |pages=341–344 |doi=10.1017/S0068246219000175 |s2cid=214177276 |id={{ProQuest|2307423605}} |doi-access=free |url-access=subscription }}</ref> An archaeological site known as "ACQ 11000" had a [[Terraced house|terrace]] covered in thick [[clay]], a walled space with a paved floor, and a stone wall.<ref>Smith, Christopher J, et al. "Archaeological Field Reports ." ''Papers of the British School at Rome'', vol. 83, 2015, pp. 310–311. {{JSTOR|24780044}}</ref>

== Notable Samnites ==
[[File:C. Papius Mutilus, denarius, 90 BC, Campana 100.png|thumb|Coin from 90&nbsp;BC depicting Gaius Papius Mutilus]]

=== Leaders of the Samnites ===

* [[Gaius Pontius]] ca. 320s&nbsp;BC.<ref>Buckley, F. J. "[https://go-gale-com.wikipedialibrary.idm.oclc.org/ps/retrieve.do?tabID=Biographies&resultListType=RESULT_LIST&searchResultsType=MultiTab&hitCount=3&searchType=BasicSearchForm&currentPosition=1&docId=GALE%7CK3407708835&docType=Biography&sort=Relevance&contentSegment=ZXAM-MOD1&prodId=BIC&pageNum=1&contentSet=GALE%7CK3407708835&searchId=R2&userGroupName=wikipedia&inPS=true Pontius Pilate]." New Catholic Encyclopedia, Gale, 2003. Gale In Context: Biography, "Roman procurator of Judea who condemned Jesus to be crucified. He was a Roman equestrian of the Samnite clan of the Pontii."</ref>
* [[Gellius Egnatius]] ca. 296 BC.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Titus Livius (Livy), The History of Rome, Book 10, chapter 21 |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0026:book=10:chapter=21 |access-date=2022-04-14 |website=www.perseus.tufts.edu}}</ref>
* [[Herennius Pontius|Herenius Pontius]], a Samnite [[philosopher]].<ref>Horky, Phillip Sidney. "[https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/ca.2011.30.1.119?read-now=1&refreqid=excelsior%3A41fafa951a59ed7dc452900a42aa815e&seq=1 Herennius Pontius: The Construction of a Samnite Philosopher]." ''Classical Antiquity'', vol. 30, no. 1, 2011, pp. 119–47, Accessed 10 Apr. 2022.</ref>
* Brutulus Papius, a Samnite aristocrat mentioned by Livy.<ref name=":57" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Titus Livius (Livy), The History of Rome, Book 8, Chapter 39 |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0026:book=8:chapter=39 |access-date=2022-04-14 |website=www.perseus.tufts.edu}}</ref>
* N. Papius Mr. f, ''Meddix Tuticus'' in 190&nbsp;BC.<ref name=":57" />
* [[Statius Gellius]], general during the Samnite Wars.<ref name=":57" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Titus Livius (Livy), The History of Rome, Book 9, Chapter 44 |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0155:book=9:chapter=44 |access-date=2022-04-14 |website=www.perseus.tufts.edu}}</ref>
* Staius Minatius, general during the Samnite Wars.<ref name=":57" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Titus Livius (Livy), The History of Rome, Book 10, Chapter 20 |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0026:book=10:chapter=20 |access-date=2022-04-14 |website=www.perseus.tufts.edu}}</ref>
* N. Papius Maras Metellus, ''Meddix Tuticus'' in 100&nbsp;BC.<ref name=":57" />
* Numerius Statius, ''Meddix Tuticus'' in 130&nbsp;BC.<ref name=":57" />
* Gaius Statius Clarus, ''Meddix Tuticus'' around 90&nbsp;BC.<ref name=":57" />
* Olus Egnatius, ''Meddix Tuticus'' in the 2nd century BC.<ref name=":57" />
* Titus Staius, Meddix Tuticus in the 2nd century BC.<ref name=":57" />
* Gnaeus Staius Marahis Stafidinus, Meddix Tuticus in the 2nd century BC.<ref name=":57" />
* Ovius Staius, Samnite in the 2nd century BC. May have built a statue to Hercules in the sanctuary by [[Campochiaro]].<ref name=":57" />
* Gaius Statius Clarus, Samnite who constructed the podium in the temple of Pietrabbondante.<ref name=":57" />
* Stenis Staius Metellus, ''Meddix Tuticus'' 130 BC. Possibly built the sanctuary in Campochiaro.<ref name=":57" />
* Maras Staius Bacius, builder of the Pietrabbondante sanctuary.<ref name=":57" />
* Pacius Staius Lucius, builder of the Pietrabbondante sanctuary.<ref name=":57" />
* Papius N. f, ''Meddix Tuticus'' in 160 BC.<ref name=":57" />
* C. Papius Met. f, ''Meddix Tuticus'' in 130 BC.<ref name=":57" />
* N. Papius Mr.f. Mt. n, ''Meddix Tuticus'' in 100 BC.<ref name=":57" />
* L. Staius Ov. f. Met. n, ''Meddix Tuticus'' in Bovianum in 130 BC.<ref name=":57" />
* Minatius Staius Stati f, ''Meddix Tuticus'' of Bovianum and Pietrabbondante in 120 BC.<ref name=":57" />
* L. Staius Mr. f, ''Meddix Tuticus'' in 120 BC.<ref name=":57" />
* Staius Sn. f, ''Meddix Tuticus'' in 100 BC.<ref name=":57" />
* [[File:Pseudo-Corbulo Musei Capitolini MC561.jpg|thumb|Bust of Gaius Cassius Longinus]]Gaius Papius, builder of the temple in the Schiavi d'Abruzzo sanctuary.<ref name=":57" />

=== Social war leaders ===

* [[Gaius Papius Mutilus]], served as ''Meddix Tuticus.''<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Gleba |first1=Margarita |author-link=Margarita Gleba |title=An offprint from Communicating Identity in Italic Iron Age Communities |last2=Horsnæs |first2=Helle W. |publisher=Oxbow Books |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-84217-991-8 |page=228 |quote="the Samnite Q. Papius Mutilus."}}</ref>
* [[Pontius Telesinus]], died 82 BC
* Marius Egnatius, Social War general

=== Romans of Samnite origin ===

* [[Gaius Cassius Longinus]] – assassin of [[Julius Caesar]]
* [[Pontius Pilate]] – the 5th [[Prefect|praefectus Iudaeae]] of the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] province of [[Judaea (Roman province)|Judaea]] from AD 26–36. He was responsible for ordering the [[crucifixion]] of [[Jesus]].
* [[Caecilius Statius]] – Roman comic poet that was possibly of Samnite origin.<ref>Smith, William, and Making of America Books. [https://play.google.com/store/books/details?id=uUPhhcdSACQC New Classical Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography, Mythology and Geography, Partly Based upon the Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology]. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1851.</ref><ref>Robson, D.O. (1938). "[https://www.jstor.org/stable/291581 The Nationality of the Poet Caecilius Statius]". ''The American Journal of Philology''. '''59''' (3): 301–308. {{doi|10.2307/291581}}, {{JSTOR|291581}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Șteflea |first=Corina-Ruxandra |url=https://www.ceeol.com/search/viewpdf?id=787964 |title=Urbanism and Elites – Rome and the Cities of Italy (2nd Century BC – 1st Century AD): an Overview |publisher=Centrul de Istorie Comparată a Societăților Antice |year=2015 |pages=63 |quote=Statius is the first senator known of samnite origin to get in the Senate.}}</ref>

=== Catholic Popes ===

* [[Pope Felix IV]]- [[Catholic pope|Catholic Pope]] from July 12, 526 to September 22, 530.<ref>Kirsch, Johaan (1913). [[wikisource:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Pope St. Felix IV|''Catholic Encyclopedia''. Vol. 6]]. England: [[The Encyclopedia Press]]. <q>through the powerful influence of this ruler, the cardinal-priest, Felix of Samnium, son of Castorius, was brought forward in Rome as John's successor, the clergy and laity yielded to the wish of the Gothic king and chose Felix pope</q></ref>

== See also ==
* [[Frentani]]
* [[Samnite Wars]]
* [[List of ancient Italic peoples]]
* [[Sabellians]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==
* {{cite thesis |last=Farkas |first=Nikoletta |date=2006 |title=Leadership among the Samnites and related Oscan-speaking peoples between the fifth and first centuries BC |url=https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/ws/portalfiles/portal/2928027/440508.pdf |type=PhD thesis |publisher=King's College London |docket= |oclc= |access-date=23 June 2024}}
* {{cite book |last1=Forsythe |first1=Gary |title=A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War |date=2005 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley}}
* {{cite book |last1=Howard |first1=Jones |title=Samnium: Settlement and Cultural Change: the Proceedings of the Third E. Togo Salmon Conference On Roman Studies |date=2004 |publisher=RI: Center for Old World Archaeology and Art |location=Providence}}
* {{cite book |last1=Paget |first1=R. F. |title=Central Italy: An Archaeological Guide; the Prehistoric, Villanovan, Etruscan, Samnite, Italic, and Roman Remains, and the Ancient Road Systems |date=1973 |publisher=Noyes Press |location=1st U.S. ed. Park Ridge, NJ}}
* {{cite book |first=Julius |last=Pokorny |author-link=Julius Pokorny |title=Indogermanisches etymologisches Woerterbuch |year=2005 |orig-year=1959 |location=Leiden |publisher=Leiden University Indo-European Etymological Dictiopnary (IEED) Project |url=http://www.indoeuropean.nl/index2.html |ref=CITEREFPokorny1959 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060927151807/http://www.indoeuropean.nl/index2.html |archive-date=2006-09-27 }}
* {{cite book |first=ET |last=Salmon |title=Samnium and the Samnites |location=London |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1967 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Salvucci |first1=Claudio |title=A Vocabulary of Oscan: Including the Oscan and Samnite Glosses |date=1999 |publisher=Pa.: Evolution Pub |location=Southampton}}
* {{cite book |last1=Stek |first1=Tesse |title=Cult Places and Cultural Change In Republican Italy: A Contextual Approach to Religious Aspects of Rural Society After the Roman Conquest |date=2010 |publisher=Amsterdam University Press |location=Amsterdam}}

== External links ==
{{Library resources box |by=no |onlinebooks=yes |others=yes |about=yes |label=Samnites |viaf= |lccn= |lcheading= |wikititle= }}
{{sister project links|s=1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Samnites|v=no|b=no|q=no|wikt=no|n=no|d=Q500272}}
* [http://www.sanniti.info/indexen.html Samnites and Samnium – History and Archaeology of Ancient Samnium]
* [https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/sanniti Samnites in the Treccani Encyclopedia]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20210302145132/https://pleiades.stoa.org/places/442765 Samnites: a Pleiades place resource (archive.org)]

{{Italy topics}}

[[Category:Samnites| ]]
[[Category:Italic peoples]]
[[Category:Ancient Abruzzo]]
[[Category:History of Campania]]