View source for Samarkand

{{Short description|City in southeastern Uzbekistan}}
{{Redirect|Markanda}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name               = Samarkand
| native_name        = {{lang|uz|Самарқанд}} / {{native name|uz|Samarqand}}<br/>{{lang|tg|Самарқанд}} / {{native name|tg|سمرقند}}
| native_name_lang   = 
| settlement_type    = City 
| image_skyline      = {{Photomontage
 |photo1a = RegistanSquare Samarkand.jpg
 |photo2a = Mausoleum of Amir Temur (1).JPG
 |photo2b = Shah-i-Zinda (8145369659).jpg
 |photo3a = Sherdor madrasah 3.jpg
 |photo3b = Mosque Bibi Khanum (5).JPG
 |photo4a = Mausolées du groupe central (Shah-i-Zinda, Samarcande) (6009956484).jpg
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| image_caption      = <div>Clockwise from the top:<br/>[[Registan]] square, [[Shah-i-Zinda]] necropolis, [[Bibi-Khanym Mosque]], view inside [[Shah-i-Zinda]], Sher-Dor Madrasah in Registan, [[Timur]]'s Mausoleum [[Gur-e-Amir]].</div>
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| pushpin_map        = Uzbekistan#West Asia#Asia
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| pushpin_mapsize    = 300
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Uzbekistan
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| coordinates        = {{coord|39|39|17|N|66|58|33|E|region:UZ-SA_type:city|display=it}}
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| subdivision_type   = Country
| subdivision_name   = {{flag|Uzbekistan}}
| subdivision_type1  = [[Regions of Uzbekistan|Vilayat]]
| subdivision_name1  = [[Samarqand Region|Samarqand Vilayat]]
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| established_title  = Settled
| established_date   = 8th century BCE
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| government_type    = City Administration
| governing_body     = Hakim (Mayor)
| leader_party       = Furqat Rahimov
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| unit_pref          = Metric
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| area_total_km2     = 120
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| elevation_m        = 705
| population_as_of   = 1 January 2025
| population_footnotes = 
| population_total   = 595,200<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.stat.uz/en/181-ofytsyalnaia-statystyka-en/6383-demography |title=The State Committee of the Republic of Uzbekistan on Statistics |access-date=2020-04-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200429095401/https://stat.uz/en/181-ofytsyalnaia-statystyka-en/6383-demography |archive-date=2020-04-29 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_metro   = 1,300,000
| population_note    = 
| population_demonym = Samarkandian / Samarkandi
| timezone1          = 
| utc_offset1        = +5
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| postal_code_type   = Postal code
| postal_code        = 140100
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| website            = {{URL|https://samarkand.uz/en|samarkand.uz}}
| module             = {{Infobox UNESCO World Heritage Site
 |child = yes
 |Official_name = Samarkand – Crossroads of Cultures
 |Criteria = Cultural: i, ii, iv
 |ID = 603
 |Year = 2001
 |Area = 1,123 ha
 |Buffer_zone = 1,369 ha}}
| official_name      = 
}}
{{Contains special characters|Sogdian}}

'''Samarkand'''{{efn|{{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|æ|m|ər|k|æ|n|d}} {{respell|SAM|ər|kand}}; [[Uzbek language|Uzbek]] and {{langx|tg|Самарқанд|Samarqand}}, {{IPA|uz|sæmærˈqænd, -ænt|IPA}}.}} is a city in southeastern [[Uzbekistan]] and among the [[List of oldest continuously inhabited cities|oldest continuously inhabited cities]] in [[Central Asia]]. Samarkand is the capital of the [[Samarkand Region]] and a district-level city, that includes the [[urban-type settlement]]s [[Kimyogarlar]], [[Farxod|Farhod]] and [[Xishrav|Khishrav]].<ref name=class>{{cite web |url=https://stat.uz/uploads/docs/soato(mhobt)_2020.xlsx |title=Classification system of territorial units of the Republic of Uzbekistan |language=uz, ru |date=July 2020 |publisher=The State Committee of the Republic of Uzbekistan on statistics}}</ref> With 551,700 inhabitants (2021),<ref name=samstat>{{cite web |url=https://samstat.uz/files/284/Demografiya/1705/Hududlar-boyicha-shahar-va-qishloq-aholisi-soni.pdf |title=Urban and rural population by district |publisher=Samarkand regional department of statistics |language=uz |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220213143332/https://samstat.uz/uz/?option=com_dropfiles&format=&task=frontfile.download&catid=284&id=1705&Itemid=1000000000000 |archive-date=2022-02-13 |url-status=dead}}</ref> it is the [[List of cities in Uzbekistan|third-largest city in Uzbekistan]].

There is evidence of human activity in the area of the city dating from the late [[Paleolithic]] Era. Though there is no direct evidence of when Samarkand was founded, several theories propose that it was founded between the 8th and 7th centuries BC. Prospering from its location on the [[Silk Road]] between [[East Asia|China]], [[Persia]] and [[Europe]], at times Samarkand was one of the largest<ref>{{cite news |last1=Varadarajan |first1=Tunku |title=Metropolitan Glory |newspaper=The Wall Street Journal |date=24 October 2009 |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748704500604574483701746375742}}</ref> cities in [[Central Asia]],<ref name="ReferenceC">Guidebook of history of Samarkand", {{ISBN|978-9943-01-139-7}}</ref> By the time of the Persian [[Achaemenid Empire]], it was the capital of the [[Sogdia]]n [[satrap]]y. The city was conquered by [[Alexander the Great]] in 329 BC, when it was known as Markanda, which was rendered in [[Greek language|Greek]] as {{lang|grc|Μαράκανδα}}.<ref name="History of Samarkand">{{cite web |title=History of Samarkand |url=http://www.sezamtravel.com/en/Samarkand |publisher=Sezamtravel |access-date=1 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103035234/http://www.sezamtravel.com/en/Samarkand |archive-date=3 November 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> The city was ruled by a succession of [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]] and [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] rulers until it was conquered by the [[Mongols]] under [[Genghis Khan]] in 1220.       

Since the 11th century, the city has been under Turkic/Uzbek political control, but the city’s culture and dominant language has always been [[Persian language|Persian]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Samarkand &ndash; Crossroad of Cultures |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/603/ |access-date=2025-11-05 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |language=en}}</ref>

The city is noted as a centre of [[Islam]]ic [[Ulama|scholarly]] study and the birthplace of the [[Timurid Renaissance]]. In the 14th century, [[Timur]] made it the capital of his empire and the site of his mausoleum, the [[Gur-e Amir]]. The [[Bibi-Khanym Mosque]], rebuilt during the [[Soviet]] era, remains one of the city's most notable landmarks. Samarkand's [[Registan]] square was the city's ancient centre and is bounded by three monumental religious buildings. The city has carefully preserved the traditions of ancient crafts: embroidery, goldwork, silk weaving, copper engraving, ceramics, wood carving, and wood painting.<ref>Энциклопедия туризма Кирилла и Мефодия. 2008.</ref> In 2001, [[UNESCO]] added the city to its [[World Heritage List]] as ''Samarkand – Crossroads of Cultures''.

Modern Samarkand is divided into two parts: the old city, which includes historical monuments, shops, and old private houses; and the new city, which was developed during the days of the [[Russian Empire]] and [[Soviet Union]] and includes administrative buildings along with cultural centres and educational institutions.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.advantour.com/uzbekistan/samarkand/history.htm |title= History of Samarkand |website= Advantour |access-date= 2018-05-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180516174124/https://www.advantour.com/uzbekistan/samarkand/history.htm |archive-date=2018-05-16 |url-status=live}}</ref> On 15 and 16 September 2022, the city hosted the [[2022 SCO summit]].

Samarkand has a multicultural and [[plurilingualism|plurilingual]] history that was significantly modified by the process of [[National delimitation in the Soviet Union|national delimitation in Central Asia]]. Small group of inhabitants of the city are bilingual speakers of the [[Tajik language]],<ref>"The Persian-speaking cities of Bukhara and Samarkand, rightly considered by today’s Tajiks as the constituting the historical centres of Tajik civilization" Foltz, Richard. A History of the Tajiks: Iranians of the East. I.B. Tauris, 2019. p.9</ref><ref>D.I. Kertzer/D. Arel, [https://books.google.com/books?id=qMxbzF4NdFUC&pg=PA187 Census and identity] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221117053532/https://books.google.com/books?id=qMxbzF4NdFUC&pg=PA187&dq=&hl=en |date=2022-11-17 }}, Cambridge University Press, 2001, pp. 186–188.</ref> whereas [[Uzbek language|Uzbek]] is the official language and Russian is also widely used in the public sphere, as per [[Languages of Uzbekistan|Uzbekistan's language policy]]. 

==Etymology==
The name comes from the Iranian languages [[Persian language|Persian]] and [[Sogdian language|Sogdian]] {{lang|sog|samar}} "stone, rock" and {{lang|sog|kand}} "fort, town."<ref>{{cite book |last=Room |first=Adrian |title=Placenames of the World: Origins and Meanings of the Names for 6,600 Countries, Cities, Territories, Natural Features and Historic Sites |edition=2nd |year=2006 |publisher=McFarland |location=London |isbn=978-0-7864-2248-7 |page=330 |quote=Samarkand City, southeastern Uzbekistan. The city here was already named ''Marakanda'', when captured by Alexander the Great in 329 BCE. Its own name derives from the Sogdian words ''samar'', "stone, rock", and ''kand'', "fort, town".}}</ref> In this respect, ''Samarkand'' shares the same meaning as the name of the Uzbek capital [[Tashkent]], with ''tash-'' being the Turkic term for "stone" and ''-kent'' the Turkic analogue of ''kand'' borrowed from Iranian languages.<ref>Sachau, Edward C. Alberuni’s India: an Account of the Religion. Philosophy, Literature, Geography, Chronology, Astronomy, Customs, Laws and Astrology of India about AD 1030, vol. 1 London: KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRtJBNBR & CO. 1910. p.298.</ref>

According to 11th-century scholar [[Mahmud al-Kashgari|Mahmud al-Kashghari]], the city was known in [[Karakhanid language|Karakhanid Turkic]] as ''{{Transliteration|Arab|Sämizkänd}}'' ({{Script/Arabic|سَمِزْکَنْدْ}}), meaning "fat city."<ref>{{Cite book |last=al-Kashghari |first=Mahmud |url=https://archive.org/details/CompendiumOfTheTurkicDialectsPart1-MahmudAl-Kashghari/page/n283/mode/2up |title=Compendium of The Turkic Dialects |date=1074 |publisher=Harvard University Printing Office |series=Part 1 |publication-date=1982 |page=270 |translator-last=Dankoff |translator-first=Robert |quote=sämiz känd meaning “Fat city (balda samina)” is called thus because of its great size; it is, in Persian, Samarqand. |author-link=Mahmud al-Kashgari |translator-last2=Kelly |translator-first2=James Michael |translator-link=Robert Dankoff |via=[[Archive.org]]}}</ref> 16th-century Mughal emperor [[Babur]] also mentioned the city under this name, and 15th-century Castillian traveler [[Ruy González de Clavijo]] stated that Samarkand was simply a distorted form of it.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ragagnin |first=Elisabetta |date=2020 |title=About Marco Polo Samarkand |url=https://uzlc.navoiy-uni.uz/index.php/uzlangcult/article/view/41 |journal=Uzbekistan: Language and Culture |language=en |publisher={{Interlanguage link|Alisher Navo’i Tashkent State University of Uzbek Language and Literature|uz|Toshkent davlat oʻzbek tili va adabiyoti universiteti}} |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=79–87 |issn=2181-922X |archive-date=2024-01-23 |access-date=2024-01-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240123015507/https://uzlc.navoiy-uni.uz/index.php/uzlangcult/article/view/41 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==History==
{{More citations needed|section|date=November 2022}}

===Early history===
{{see also|Timeline of Samarkand}}

Along with [[Bukhara]],<ref>Vladimir Babak, Demian Vaisman, Aryeh Wasserman, ''Political organization in Central Asia and Azerbaijan: sources and documents'', p.&nbsp;374</ref> Samarkand is one of the oldest inhabited cities in [[Central Asia]], prospering from its location on the trade route between China and Europe. There is no direct evidence of when it was founded. Researchers at the Institute of Archaeology of Samarkand date the city's founding around 700 BC.<ref>{{cite book | last1=Hanks | first1=Reuel R. | title=Historical Dictionary of Uzbekistan | date=19 February 2024 | publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing PLC | isbn=978-1-5381-0229-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eW31EAAAQBAJ&dq=samarkand+700+bce&pg=PA175 }}</ref>

[[Archaeology|Archaeological]] excavations conducted within the city limits (Syob and midtown) as well as suburban areas (Hojamazgil, Sazag'on) unearthed 40,000-year-old evidence of human activity, dating back to the [[Upper Paleolithic]]. A group of [[Mesolithic]] (12th–7th millennia BC) archaeological sites were discovered in the suburbs of Sazag'on-1, Zamichatosh, and Okhalik. The Syob and Darg'om [[canal]]s, supplying the city and its suburbs with water, appeared around the 7th–5th centuries BC (early [[Iron Age]]).

From its earliest days, Samarkand was one of the main centres of [[Sogdia|Sogdian]] civilization. By the time of the [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid]] dynasty of Persia, the city had become the capital of the Sogdian [[satrapy]].

===Hellenistic period===
[[File:Afrasiyab ruins in Samarkand.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|right|Ancient city walls of Samarkand, 4th century BC]]
[[File:Daniël de Blieck - Alexander Slaying Cleitus.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|''[[Alexander the Great]] Slaying [[Cleitus the Black|Cleitus]] in Samarkand'', by [[Daniël de Blieck]].<br>[[Ferens Art Gallery]], Hull.]]
[[Alexander the Great]] conquered Samarkand in 329 BC. The city was known as '''Maracanda''' (Μαράκανδα) by the Greeks.<ref>''Columbia-Lippincott Gazetteer'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1972 reprint) p.&nbsp;1657</ref> Written sources offer small clues as to the subsequent system of government.<ref>{{cite book |last= Wood |first= Frances |year= 2002 |title= The Silk Road: Two Thousand Years in the Heart of Asia |location= Berkeley and Los Angeles |publisher= University of California Press |isbn= Berkeley and Los Angeles}}</ref> They mention one Orepius who became ruler "not from ancestors, but as a gift of Alexander."<ref>{{cite journal |last= Shichkina |first= G.V. |title= Ancient Samarkand: Capital of Soghd |journal= Bulletin of the Asia Institute |year= 1994 |volume= 8 |page= 83}}</ref>

While Samarkand suffered significant damage during Alexander's initial conquest, the city recovered rapidly and flourished under the new Hellenic influence. There were also major new construction techniques. Oblong bricks were replaced with square ones and superior methods of [[masonry]] and [[plastering]] were introduced.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Shichkina |first=G.V. |title=Ancient Samarkand: capital of Soghd |journal=Bulletin of the Asia Institute |year=1994 |volume=8 |page=86}}</ref>

Alexander's conquests introduced classical Greek culture into Central Asia and for a time, Greek aesthetics heavily influenced local artisans. This Hellenistic legacy continued as the city became part of various successor states in the centuries following Alexander's death, the Greek [[Seleucid Empire]], [[Greco-Bactrian Kingdom]], and [[Kushan Empire]] (even though the [[Yuezhi|Kushana]] themselves originated in Central Asia). After the Kushan state lost control of Sogdia during the 3rd century AD, Samarkand went into decline as a centre of economic, cultural, and political power. It did not significantly revive until the 5th century.

===Sasanian era===
Samarkand was conquered by the Persian [[Sasanians]] c. 260 AD. Under Sasanian rule, the region became an essential site for [[Manichaeism]] and facilitated the dissemination of the religion throughout Central Asia.<ref name="Dumper, Stanley 2007 319">{{cite book |last=Dumper, Stanley |title=Cities of the Middle East and North Africa: A Historical Encyclopedia |year=2007 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |location=California |pages=319–320}}</ref>

===Hephthalites and Turkic Khaganate era===
Between AD 350 and 375, Samarkand was conquered by the nomadic tribes of [[Xionites]], the origin of which remains controversial.<ref>Grenet Frantz, Regional interaction in Central Asia and northwest India in the Kidarite and Hephthalites periods in Indo-Iranian languages and peoples. Edited by Nicholas Sims-Williams. Oxford university press, 2003. Р.219–220</ref> The resettlement of nomadic groups to Samarkand confirms archaeological material from the 4th century. The culture of nomads from the Middle [[Syrdarya]] basin is spreading in the region.<ref>Buryakov Y.F. Iz istorii arkheologicheskikh rabot v zonakh oroshayemogo zemledeliya Uzbekistana // Arkheologicheskiye raboty na novostroykakh Uzbekistana. Tashkent, 1990. pp.&nbsp;9–10.</ref> Between 457 and 509, Samarkand was part of the [[Kidarite]] state.<ref>Etienne de la Vaissiere, Sogdian traders. A history. Translated by James Ward. Brill. Leiden. Boston, 2005, pp.&nbsp;108–111.</ref>
[[File:Turkish officers during a audience with king Varkhuman of Samarkand. 648-651 CE, Afrasiyab, Samarkand.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Western Turks|Turkic officers]] during an audience with king [[Varkhuman]] of Samarkand. 648–651 CE, [[Afrasiyab (Samarkand)|Afrasiyab murals]], Samarkand.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Baumer |first1=Christoph |title=History of Central Asia, The: 4-volume set |date=18 April 2018 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-83860-868-2 |page=243 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DhiWDwAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PA243}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Grenet |first1=Frantz |date=2004 |title=Maracanda/Samarkand, une métropole pré-mongole |journal=Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales |volume=5/6 |page=Fig. B |url=https://www.cairn.info/journal-annales-2004-5-page-1043.htm}}</ref>]]

After the [[Hephthalites]] ("White Huns") conquered Samarkand, they controlled it until the [[Göktürks]], in an alliance with the Sassanid Persians, won it at the [[Battle of Bukhara]], c. 560 AD.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bivar |first=A.D.H. |url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/hephthalites |title=Encyclopedia Iranica, Vol. XII, Fasc. 2 |publisher=London et al. |pages=198–201}}</ref>

In the middle of the 6th century, a Turkic state was formed in Altai, founded by the Ashina dynasty. The new state formation was named the [[First Turkic Khaganate|Turkic Khaganate]] after the people of the Turks, which were headed by the ruler – the Khagan. From 557 to 561, the [[Hephthalites]] empire was defeated by the joint actions of the Turks and Sassanids, which led to the establishment of a common border between the two empires.<ref>History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The crossroads of civilizations, AD 250 to 750. Vol. 3. Unesco, 1996. p.&nbsp;332</ref>

In the early Middle Ages, Samarkand was surrounded by four rows of defensive walls and had four gates.<ref>Belenitskiy A.M., Bentovich I.B., Bolshakov O.G. Srednevekovyy gorod Sredney Azii. L., 1973.</ref>

An ancient Turkic burial with a horse was investigated on the territory of Samarkand. It dates back to the 6th century.<ref>
Sprishevskiy V.I. Pogrebeniye s konem serediny I tysyacheletiya n.e., obnaruzhennoye okolo observatorii Ulugbeka. // Tr. Muzeya istorii narodov Uzbekistana. T.1.- Tashkent, 1951.</ref>

During the period of the ruler of the Western Turkic Khaganate, [[Tong Yabghu Qaghan]] (618–630), family relations were established with the ruler of Samarkand – Tong Yabghu Qaghan gave him his daughter.<ref>Klyashtornyy S. G., Savinov D. G., Stepnyye imperii drevney Yevrazii. Sankt-Peterburg: Filologicheskiy fakul'tet SPbGU, 2005 god, s. 97</ref>

Some parts of Samarkand have been Christian since the 4th century. In the 5th century, a [[Nestorian]] chair was established in Samarkand. At the beginning of the 8th century, it was transformed into a Nestorian metropolitanate.<ref>Masson M.Ye., Proiskhozhdeniye dvukh nestorianskikh namogilnykh galek Sredney Azii // Obshchestvennyye nauki v Uzbekistane, 1978, №10, p.&nbsp;53.</ref> Discussions and polemics arose between the Sogdian followers of [[Christianity]] and [[Manichaeism]], reflected in the documents.<ref>Sims-Williams Nicholas, [https://researchers.mq.edu.au/en/publications/a-christian-sogdian-polemic-against-the-manichaeans A Christian sogdian polemic against the manichaens // Religious themes and texts of pre-Islamic Iran and Central Asia.] Edited by Carlo G. Cereti, Mauro Maggi and Elio Provasi. Wiesbaden: Dr. Ludwig Reichert Verlag, 2003, pp.&nbsp;399–407</ref>

===Early Islamic era===
[[File:Coin of Sogdian ruler Turgar, Ikhshid of Samarkand, Penjikent, 8th century CE (obverse and reverse), Tajikistan National Museum of Antiquities (319).jpg|thumb|Coin of [[Sogdia]]n ruler [[Turgar]], last [[Ikhshid]] of Samarkand, [[Panjakent|Penjikent]], 8th century CE, [[National Museum of Antiquities of Tajikistan]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Tadjikistan : au pays des fleuves d'or |date=2021 |publisher=Musée Guimet |location=Paris |isbn=978-9461616272 |page=152}}</ref>]]
The armies of the [[Umayyad Caliphate]] under [[Qutayba ibn Muslim]] captured the city from the [[Tang dynasty]] c. 710 CE.<ref name="Dumper, Stanley 2007 319"/> During this period, Samarkand was a diverse religious community and was home to a number of religions, including [[Zoroastrianism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Hinduism]], [[Manichaeism]], [[Judaism]], and [[Nestorian Christianity]], with most of the population following Zoroastrianism.<ref>{{cite book |last=Dumper, Stanley |title=Cities of the Middle East and North Africa: A Historical Encyclopedia |year=2007 |location=California}}</ref>

Qutayba generally did not settle Arabs in Central Asia; he forced the local rulers to pay him tribute but largely left them to their own devices. Samarkand was the major exception to this policy: Qutayba established an Arab [[garrison]] and Arab governmental administration in the city, its Zoroastrian [[fire temple]]s were razed, and a [[mosque]] was built.<ref name="Wellhausen437438">{{cite book |last1=Wellhausen |first1=J. |author-link=Julius Wellhausen |editor1-last=Weir |editor1-first=Margaret Graham |title=The Arab Kingdom and its Fall |date=1927 |publisher=University of Calcutta |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qxPKpCcVOdcC |pages=437–438 |isbn=9780415209045 |access-date=2019-05-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190421054204/https://books.google.com/books?id=qxPKpCcVOdcC |archive-date=2019-04-21 |url-status=live}}</ref> Much of the city's population converted to Islam.<ref>{{cite book |last=Whitfield |first=Susan |author-link=Susan Whitfield |title=Life Along the Silk Road |year=1999 |publisher=University of California Press |location=California |page=33}}</ref>

As a long-term result, Samarkand developed into a center of Islamic and Arabic learning.<ref name="Wellhausen437438"/> At the end of the 740s, a [[Abbasid dynasty|movement]] of those dissatisfied with the power of the [[Umayyad dynasty|Umayyads]] emerged in the Arab Caliphate, led by the Abbasid commander [[Abu Muslim]], who, after the victory of the uprising, became the governor of Khorasan and Maverannahr (750–755). He chose Samarkand as his residence. His name is associated with the construction of a multi-kilometer defensive wall around the city and the palace.<ref>Bartold V. V., Abu Muslim//Akademik V. V. Bartol'd. Sochineniya. Tom VII. Moskva: Nauka, 1971</ref>

Legend has it that during [[Abbasid]] rule,<ref>Quraishi, Silim "A survey of the development of papermaking in Islamic Countries", ''Bookbinder'', 1989 (3): 29–36.</ref> the secret of [[papermaking]] was obtained from two [[Han Chinese|Chinese]] prisoners from the [[Battle of Talas]] in 751, which led to the foundation of the first [[paper mill]] in the Islamic world at Samarkand. The invention then spread to the rest of the Islamic world and thence to Europe.{{citation needed|date=November 2022}}

[[File:Dinar of al-Mu'tazz, AH 253.jpg|250px|thumb|[[Gold dinar]] of caliph [[al-Mu'tazz]], minted at Samarkand in [[Hijri year|AH]] 253 (867 CE). His reign marks the apogee of the [[Anarchy at Samarra|decline of the Caliphate]]'s central authority]]
Abbasid [[Anarchy at Samarra|control of Samarkand soon dissipated]] and was replaced with that of the [[Samanids]] (875–999), though the Samanids were still nominal vassals of the [[Abbasid caliph|Caliph]] during their control of Samarkand. Under Samanid rule the city became a capital of the Samanid dynasty and an even more important node of numerous trade routes. The Samanids were overthrown by the [[Karakhanids]] around 999. Over the next 200 years, Samarkand would be ruled by a succession of [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] tribes, including the [[Seljuqs]] and the [[Khwarazmshahs]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Dumper, Stanley |title=Cities of the Middle East and North Africa: A Historical Encyclopedia |year=2007 |location=California |page=320}}</ref>

The 10th-century Persian author [[Istakhri]], who travelled in [[Transoxiana]], provides a vivid description of the natural riches of the region he calls "Smarkandian Sogd":
<blockquote>I know no place in it or in Samarkand itself where if one ascends some elevated ground one does not see greenery and a pleasant place, and nowhere near it are mountains lacking in trees or a dusty steppe... Samakandian Sogd... [extends] eight days travel through unbroken greenery and gardens... . The greenery of the trees and sown land extends along both sides of the river [Sogd]... and beyond these fields is pasture for flocks. Every town and settlement has a fortress... It is the most fruitful of all the countries of [[Allah]]; in it are the best trees and fruits, in every home are gardens, cisterns and flowing water.</blockquote>

===Karakhanid (Ilek-Khanid) period (11th–12th centuries)===
[[File:Shah-i-Zinda.jpg|thumb|Shah-i Zinda memorial complex, 11th–15th centuries]]

After the fall of the [[Samanids]] state in 999, it was replaced by the Qarakhanid State, where the Turkic Qarakhanid dynasty ruled.<ref name="ReferenceE">Kochnev B. D., Numizmaticheskaya istoriya Karakhanidskogo kaganata (991—1209 gg.). Moskva «Sofiya», 2006</ref> After the state of the Qarakhanids split into two parts, Samarkand became a part of the West [[Kara-Khanid Khanate|Karakhanid Khaganate]] and from 1040 to 1212 was its capital.<ref name="ReferenceE"/> The founder of the Western Qarakhanid Khaganate was Ibrahim Tamgach Khan (1040–1068).<ref name="ReferenceE"/> For the first time, he built a madrasah in Samarkand with state funds and supported the development of culture in the region. During his reign, a public hospital (bemoristan) and a madrasah were established in Samarkand, where medicine was also taught.

The memorial complex [[Shah-i-Zinda]] was founded by the rulers of the Karakhanid dynasty in the 11th century.<ref>Nemtseva, N.B., Shvab, IU. Ansambl Shah-i Zinda: istoriko-arkhitektymyi ocherk. Tashent: 1979.</ref>

The most striking monument of the Qarakhanid era in Samarkand was the palace of Ibrahim ibn Hussein (1178–1202), which was built in the citadel in the 12th century. During the excavations, fragments of monumental painting were discovered. On the eastern wall, a Turkic warrior was depicted, dressed in a yellow caftan and holding a bow. Horses, hunting dogs, birds and periodlike women were also depicted here.<ref>Karev, Yury. Qarakhanid wall paintings in the citadel of Samarqand: First report and preliminary observations in Muqarnas 22 (2005): 45–84.</ref>

===Mongol period===
[[File:Afrosiab (8145369219).jpg|thumb|left|Ruins of Afrasiab – ancient Samarkand destroyed by Genghis Khan.]]

The Mongols [[Siege of Samarkand (1220)|conquered Samarkand]] in 1220. [[Ata-Malik Juvayni|Juvayni]] writes that Genghis killed all who took refuge in the [[citadel]] and the mosque, pillaged the city completely, and [[conscription|conscripted]] 30,000 young men along with 30,000 craftsmen. Samarkand suffered at least one other Mongol sack by [[Baraq (Chagatai Khan)|Khan Baraq]] to get treasure he needed to pay an army. It remained part of the [[Chagatai Khanate]] (one of four Mongol successor realms) until 1370.

''[[The Travels of Marco Polo|The Travels]]'' of [[Marco Polo]], where Polo records his journey along the Silk Road in the late 13th century, describes Samarkand as "a very large and splendid city..."<ref>{{cite web |title=Samarkand Travel Guide |url=https://caravanistan.com/uzbekistan/center/samarkand/ |access-date=2021-03-20 |website=Caravanistan}}</ref>

The [[Yenisei]] area had [[Semu#Similar practices in other areas of the Mongol Empire|a community of weavers of Chinese origin]], and Samarkand and [[Outer Mongolia]] both had artisans of Chinese origin, as reported by [[Qiu Chuji|Changchun]].<ref name="Gernet1996">{{cite book |author=Jacques Gernet |title=A History of Chinese Civilization |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern |url-access=registration |date=31 May 1996 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-49781-7 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern/page/377 377]– |access-date=25 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160615032106/https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern |archive-date=15 June 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> After Genghis Khan conquered Central Asia, foreigners were chosen as governmental administrators; Chinese and Qara-Khitays (Khitans) were appointed as co-managers of gardens and fields in Samarkand, which Muslims were not permitted to manage on their own.<ref>{{cite book |title=E.J.W. Gibb memorial series |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=35pFAQAAIAAJ |year=1928 |page=451}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=E. Bretschneider |date=1888 |title=Mediæval Researches from Eastern Asiatic Sources |chapter=The Travels of Ch'ang Ch'un to the West, 1220–1223 recorded by his disciple Li Chi Ch'ang |url=https://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/changchun.html |publisher=Barnes & Noble |pages=37–108 |access-date=2018-04-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180430220305/http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/changchun.html |archive-date=2018-04-30 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The khanate allowed the establishment of Christian bishoprics (see below).

===Timur's rule (1370–1405)===
[[File:Bibi-Khanym Mosque (8145400614).jpg|thumb|Bibi-Khanym Friday Mosque, 1399–1404]]
[[Ibn Battuta]], who visited in 1333, called Samarkand "one of the greatest and finest of cities, and most perfect of them in beauty." He also noted that the orchards were supplied water via ''[[noria]]s''.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Battutah |first1=Ibn |title=The Travels of Ibn Battutah |date=2002 |publisher=Picador |location=London |isbn=9780330418799 |page=143}}</ref>

In 1365, a revolt against Chagatai Mongol control occurred in Samarkand.<ref>''Encyclopædia Britannica'', 15th Ed, p.&nbsp;204</ref> In 1370, the conqueror [[Timur]] (Tamerlane), the founder and ruler of the [[Timurid Empire]], made Samarkand his capital. Timur used various tools for legitimisation, including urban planning in his capital, Samarkand.<ref>Malikov Azim, The cultural traditions of urban planning in Samarkand during the epoch of Timur. In: Baumer, C., Novák, M. and Rutishauser, S., Cultures in Contact. Central Asia as Focus of Trade, Cultural Exchange and Knowledge Transmission. Harrassowitz. 2022, p.343</ref> Over the next 35 years, he rebuilt most of the city and populated it with great artisans and craftsmen from across the empire. Timur gained a reputation as a patron of the arts, and Samarkand grew to become the centre of the region of [[Transoxiana]]. Timur's commitment to the arts is evident in how, in contrast with the ruthlessness he showed his enemies, he demonstrated mercy toward those with special artistic abilities. The lives of artists, craftsmen, and [[architect]]s were spared so that they could improve and beautify Timur's capital.{{citation needed|date=November 2022}}

Timur was also directly involved in construction projects, and his visions often exceeded the technical abilities of his workers. The city was in a state of constant construction, and Timur would often order buildings to be done and redone quickly if he was unsatisfied with the results.<ref name="Marefat 1992 33–38">{{cite journal |last= Marefat |first= Roya |title= The Heavenly City of Samarkand |journal= The Wilson Quarterly |date= Summer 1992 |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 33–38 |jstor= 40258334}}</ref> By his orders, Samarkand could be reached only by roads; deep ditches were dug, and walls {{cvt|5|mi|km|abbr=off|order=flip|0}} in circumference separated the city from its surrounding neighbors.<ref>{{cite book |last= Wood |first= Frances |year= 2002 |title= The Silk Road: Two Thousand Years in the Heart of Asia |location= Berkeley and Los Angeles |publisher= University of California Press |pages= 136–137 |isbn= Berkeley and Los Angeles}}</ref>  At this time, the city had a population of about 150,000.<ref name="ReferenceB">''Columbia-Lippincott Gazetteer'', p.&nbsp;1657</ref>

[[Henry III of Castile]]'s ambassador [[Ruy Gonzalez de Clavijo]], who visited Samarkand between 8 September and 20 November 1404, attested to the never-ending construction that went on in the city. "The Mosque which Timur had built seemed to us the noblest of all those we visited in the city of Samarkand."<ref>{{cite book |last=Le Strange |first=Guy (trans) |title=Clavijo: Embassy to Tamburlaine 1403–1406 |year=1928 |location=London |page=280}}</ref>

===Ulugh Beg's period (1409–1449)===
[[File:Ulugh Beg's Astronomic Observatory.jpg|thumb|left|Many prominent astronomers worked at [[Ulugh Beg Observatory|Ulugh Beg's observatory]], which contained this mural sextant, constructed in Samarkand during the 15th century.]]
Between 1417 and 1420, Timur's grandson [[Ulugh Beg]] built a [[madrasa]]h in Samarkand, which became the first building in the architectural ensemble of Registan. Ulugh Beg invited a large number of astronomers and mathematicians of the Islamic world to this madrasah. Under Ulugh Beg, Samarkand became one of the world centers of medieval science. In the first half of the 15th century, a whole scientific school arose around Ulugh Beg, uniting prominent astronomers and mathematicians including [[Jamshid al-Kashi]], [[Qāḍī Zāda al-Rūmī]], and [[Ali Qushji]]. Ulugh Beg's main interest in science was astronomy, and he constructed an observatory in 1428. Its main instrument was the [[Mural instrument|wall quadrant]], which was unique in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Ulugh_Beg/ |title=Ulugh Beg – Biography |website=Maths History}}</ref> It was known as the "Fakhri Sextant" and had a radius of 40 meters.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ulugh Beg |title=Dictionary of Scientific Biography}}</ref> Seen in the image on the left, the arc was finely constructed with a staircase on either side to provide access for the assistants who performed the measurements.

===16th–18th centuries===
In 1500, [[nomad]]ic [[Uzbeks|Uzbek]] warriors took control of Samarkand.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> The [[Shaybanids]] emerged as the city's leaders at or about this time. In 1501, Samarkand was finally taken by [[Muhammad Shaybani]] from the Uzbek dynasty of [[Shaybanid]]s, and the city became part of the newly formed “Bukhara Khanate”. Samarkand was chosen as the capital of this state, in which Muhammad Shaybani Khan was crowned. In Samarkand, Muhammad Shaybani Khan ordered to build a large madrasah, where he later took part in scientific and religious disputes. The first dated news about the Shaybani Khan madrasah dates back to 1504 (it was completely destroyed during the years of Soviet power). Muhammad Salikh wrote that Sheibani Khan built a madrasah in Samarkand to perpetuate the memory of his brother Mahmud Sultan.<ref name="ReferenceF">Mukminova R. G., K istorii agrarnykh otnosheniy v Uzbekistane XVI veke. Po materialam «Vakf-name». Tashkent. Nauka. 1966</ref>

Fazlallah ibn Ruzbihan {{Who|date=November 2022}} in "Mikhmon-namei Bukhara" expresses his admiration for the majestic building of the madrasah, its gilded roof, high hujras, spacious courtyard and quotes a verse praising the madrasah.<ref>Fazlallakh ibn Ruzbikhan Isfakhani. Mikhman-name-yi Bukhara (Zapiski bukharskogo gostya). M. Vostochnaya literatura. 1976, p.&nbsp;3</ref> Zayn ad-din Vasifi, who visited the Sheibani-khan madrasah several years later, wrote in his memoirs that the veranda, hall and courtyard of the madrassah are spacious and magnificent.<ref name="ReferenceF"/>

Abdulatif Khan, the son of Mirzo Ulugbek's grandson Kuchkunji Khan, who ruled in Samarkand from 1540 to 1551, was considered an expert in the history of Maverannahr and the Shibanid dynasty. He patronized poets and scientists. Abdulatif Khan himself wrote poetry under the literary pseudonym Khush.<ref>B.V. Norik. Rol' shibanidskikh praviteley v literaturnoy zhizni Maverannakhra XVI veka. Sankt-Peterburg: Rakhmat-name, 2008. p.&nbsp;233.</ref>

During the reign of the Ashtarkhanid [[Imam Quli Khan of Bukhara|Imam Quli Khan]] (1611–1642) famous architectural masterpieces were built in Samarkand. In 1612–1656, the governor of Samarkand, Yalangtush Bahadur, built a cathedral mosque, Tillya-Kari madrasah and Sherdor madrasah.{{citation needed|date=November 2022}}

[[Zarafshan Water Bridge]] is a brick bridge built on the left bank of the [[Zarafshan River]], 7–8&nbsp;km northeast of the center of Samarkand, built by [[Muhammad Shaybani|Shaibani Khan]] at the beginning of the 16th century.<ref>{{Cite web|url= https://uzsmart.uz/encyclopedia/encyclopedia/66708.html|title= ZARAFSHON SUVAYIRGʻICH KOʻPRIGI |website= uzsmart.uz |accessdate= 2023-11-14}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url= https://www.centralasia-travel.com/ru/countries/uzbekistan/places/most-sheybanixana |title= МОСТ ШЕЙБАНИ-ХАНА |website= www.centralasia-travel.com |accessdate= 2023-11-14}}</ref>

After an assault by the [[Afsharid dynasty|Afshar]] [[Shah]]anshah [[Nader Shah]], the city was abandoned in the early 1720s.<ref>''Britannica''. 15th Ed, p.&nbsp;204</ref> From 1599 to 1756, Samarkand was ruled by the [[Astrakhan Khanate|Ashtrakhanid]] branch of the [[Khanate of Bukhara]].
<gallery mode="packed" heights="120">
File:Rajasthan3.jpg|Ulugh Beg Madrasah
File:Rajasthan.jpg|Sher-Dor Madrasah
File:Registan Tillya-Kari madrasah2014.JPG|Tilya Kori Madrasah
Ulugh-beg Madrassa courtyard.JPG|Ulugh Beg Madrasah courtyard
File:Lion(or tiger) on the Sher-dor madrassa.JPG|Tiger on the Sher-Dor Madrasah [[iwan]]
</gallery>

===Second half of the 18th–19th centuries===
[[File:Mosque Hazrat-Hyzr (1).JPG|thumb|right|Khazrat Hizr mosque, 1854]]

From 1756 to 1868, it was ruled by the [[Manghud]] Emirs of [[Emirate of Bukhara|Bukhara]].<ref name="ReferenceA">''Columbia-Lippincott Gazetteer''. p.&nbsp;1657</ref> The revival of the city began during the reign of the founder of the Uzbek dynasty, the Mangyts, Muhammad Rakhim (1756–1758), who became famous for his strong-willed qualities and military art. Muhammad Rakhimbiy made some attempts to revive Samarkand.<ref>Materialy po istorii Sredney i Tsentral'noy Azii X—XIX veka. Tashkent: Fan, 1988, рр.&nbsp;270—271</ref>

===Russian Empire period===
{{See also|Russian Turkestan|Uzbeks#Russo-Soviet era}}
[[File:Самарканд - 6.jpg|thumb|Samarkand in 1890]]
The city came under [[imperial Russia]]n rule after the citadel had been taken by a force under Colonel [[Konstantin Petrovich von Kaufman]] in 1868. Shortly thereafter the small Russian garrison of 500 men were themselves [[Siege of Samarkand (1868)|besieged]]. The assault, which was led by Abdul Malik Tura, the rebellious elder son of the [[Emirate of Bukhara|Bukharan Emir]], as well as Baba [[Bey|Beg]] of [[Shahrisabz]] and Jura Beg of [[Kitab, Uzbekistan|Kitab]], was repelled with heavy losses. General [[Alexander Konstantinovich Abramov]] became the first Governor of the Military [[Okrug]], which the Russians established along the course of the [[Zeravshan River]] with Samarkand as the administrative centre. The Russian section of the city was built after this point, largely west of the old city.{{citation needed|date=November 2025}}

In 1886, the city became the capital of the newly formed [[Samarkand Oblast]] of [[Russian Turkestan]] and regained even more importance when the [[Trans-Caspian railway]] reached it in 1888.{{citation needed|date=November 2025}}

===Soviet period===
[[File:Samarqand.jpg|thumb|[[Downtown]] with Bibi-Khanym Mosque in 1990s]]
Samarkand was the capital of [[Turkestan Provisional Government]] in 1922 and was the capital of the [[Uzbek SSR]] from 1925 to 1930, before being replaced by [[Tashkent]]. During [[World War II]], after [[Nazi Germany]] [[Operation Barbarossa|invaded]] the [[Soviet Union]], a number of Samarkand's citizens were sent to [[Smolensk]] to [[Battle of Smolensk (1941)|fight the enemy]]. Many were [[German mistreatment of Soviet prisoners of war|taken captive or killed by the Nazis]].<ref name=Soldat>{{Cite web |title=Советское Поле Славы |url=https://www.soldat.ru/search/f_glory/soldiers.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200413043841/http://www.soldat.ru/search/f_glory/soldiers.html |url-status=dead |archivedate=April 13, 2020 |website=www.soldat.ru}}</ref><ref name="BBC2017CentralAsians">{{cite news |author=Rustam Qobil |publisher=BBC |title=Why were 101 Uzbeks killed in the Netherlands in 1942? |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-39849088 |date=2017-05-09 |access-date=2017-05-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200330201803/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-39849088 |archive-date=2020-03-30 |url-status=live}}</ref> Additionally, thousands of refugees from the occupied western regions of the USSR fled to the city, and it served as one of the main hubs for the fleeing civilians in the [[Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic]] and the [[Soviet Union]] as a whole.{{citation needed|date=November 2022}}
[[File:1872 Vereshchagin Triumphierend anagoria.JPG|thumb|upright=1.25|''Triumph'' by [[Vasily Vereshchagin]], depicting the Sher-Dor [[Madrasa]] in [[Registan]].]]
European study of the history of Samarkand began after the conquest of Samarkand by the Russian Empire in 1868. The first studies of the history of Samarkand belong to N. Veselovsky, V. Bartold and V. Vyatkin. In the Soviet period, the generalization of materials on the history of Samarkand was reflected in the two-volume ''History of Samarkand'' edited by the academician of Uzbekistan [[Ibrohim Moʻminov]].<ref>Montgomery David. Samarkand taarikhi (History of Samarkand) by I.M.Muminov, The American historical review, volume 81, no.8 (October 1976), pp.&nbsp;914–915</ref>

On the initiative of Academician of the Academy of Sciences of the Uzbek SSR I. Muminov and with the support of [[Sharof Rashidov|Sharaf Rashidov]], the 2500th anniversary of Samarkand was widely celebrated in 1970. In this regard, a monument to [[Ulugh Beg]] was opened, the Museum of the History of Samarkand was founded, and a two-volume history of Samarkand was prepared and published.<ref>Istoriya Samarkanda v dvukh tomakh. Pod redaktsiyey I. Muminova. Tashkent, 1970</ref><ref>Montgomery David, Review of Samarkand taarikhi by I. M. Muminov et al. // The American historical review, volume 81, no. 4 (October 1976)</ref>

After Uzbekistan gained independence, several monographs were published on the ancient and medieval history of Samarkand.<ref>Shirinov T.SH., Isamiddinov M.KH. Arkheologiya drevnego Samarkanda. Tashkent, 2007</ref><ref>Malikov A.M. Istoriya Samarkanda (s drevnikh vremen do serediny XIV veka). Tom. 1. Tashkent: Paradigma, 2017.</ref>

==Geography==
[[File:Samarkand, Uzbekistan.jpg|thumb|Samarkand from space in September 2013.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=82116 |title=Samarkand, Uzbekistan |date=23 September 2013 |publisher=Earthobservatory.nasa.gov |access-date=2014-08-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150917201736/http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=82116 |archive-date=2015-09-17 |url-status=live}}</ref>]]
Samarkand is located in southeastern Uzbekistan, in the [[Zeravshan (river)|Zarefshan River]] valley, 135&nbsp;km from [[Qarshi]]. Road M37 connects Samarkand to [[Bukhara]], 240&nbsp;km away. Road M39 connects it to [[Tashkent]], 270&nbsp;km away. The [[Tajikistan]] border is about 35&nbsp;km from Samarkand; the Tajik capital [[Dushanbe]] is 210&nbsp;km away from Samarkand. Road M39 connects Samarkand to [[Mazar-i-Sharif]] in [[Afghanistan]], which is 340&nbsp;km away.

===Climate===
Samarkand has a [[cold semi-arid climate]] ([[Köppen climate classification]]: ''BSk'') with hot, dry summers and relatively wet, variable winters that alternate periods of warm weather with periods of cold weather. July and August are the hottest months of the year, with temperatures reaching and exceeding {{cvt|40|C}}. Precipitation is sparse from June through October, but increases to a maximum from February to April. January 2008 was particularly cold; the temperature dropped to {{cvt|-22|°C|0}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.samarkand.info/html/weather.html |title=Weather in Samarkand |access-date=2009-06-11 |author=Samarkand.info |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090604132408/http://www.samarkand.info/html/weather.html |archive-date=2009-06-04 |url-status=live}}</ref>
{{Weather box
|width=auto
|location=Samarkand (1991–2020, extremes 1891–present)
|metric first=yes
|single line=yes
| Jan record high C=23.2
| Feb record high C=26.7
| Mar record high C=32.2
| Apr record high C=36.2
| May record high C=39.5
| Jun record high C=41.6
| Jul record high C=42.4
| Aug record high C=41.0
| Sep record high C=38.6
| Oct record high C=35.2
| Nov record high C=31.5
| Dec record high C=27.5
|year record high C=42.4
| Jan high C=7.3
| Feb high C=9.5
| Mar high C=15.2
| Apr high C=21.4
| May high C=27.0
| Jun high C=32.4
| Jul high C=34.5
| Aug high C=33.3
| Sep high C=28.6
| Oct high C=22.0
| Nov high C=14.4
| Dec high C=9.1
|year high C=
| Jan mean C=2.3
| Feb mean C=4.0
| Mar mean C=9.3
| Apr mean C=15.2
| May mean C=20.4
| Jun mean C=25.4
| Jul mean C=27.2
| Aug mean C=25.6
| Sep mean C=20.6
| Oct mean C=14.1
| Nov mean C=8.0
| Dec mean C=3.7
|year mean C=
| Jan low C=−1.3
| Feb low C=−0.2
| Mar low C=4.6
| Apr low C=9.7
| May low C=14.1
| Jun low C=18.0
| Jul low C=19.5
| Aug low C=17.9
| Sep low C=13.5
| Oct low C=7.8
| Nov low C=3.2
| Dec low C=−0.2
|year low C=
| Jan record low C=−25.4
| Feb record low C=−22.0
| Mar record low C=−14.9
| Apr record low C=−6.8
| May record low C=−1.3
| Jun record low C=4.8
| Jul record low C=8.6
| Aug record low C=7.8
| Sep record low C=0.0
| Oct record low C=−6.4
| Nov record low C=−18.1
| Dec record low C=−22.8
|year record low C=−25.4
|precipitation colour =green
| Jan precipitation mm=41.1
| Feb precipitation mm=52.2
| Mar precipitation mm=73.2
| Apr precipitation mm=62.9
| May precipitation mm=40.0
| Jun precipitation mm=6.8
| Jul precipitation mm=1.6
| Aug precipitation mm=1.6
| Sep precipitation mm=2.7
| Oct precipitation mm=16.0
| Nov precipitation mm=40.3
| Dec precipitation mm=39.2
|year precipitation mm=377.6
|unit precipitation days = 1.0 mm
| Jan precipitation days = 14
| Feb precipitation days = 13
| Mar precipitation days = 15
| Apr precipitation days = 13
| May precipitation days = 11
| Jun precipitation days = 5
| Jul precipitation days = 2
| Aug precipitation days = 2
| Sep precipitation days = 2
| Oct precipitation days = 6
| Nov precipitation days = 10
| Dec precipitation days = 12
| year precipitation days = 105
| Jan humidity=76
| Feb humidity=74
| Mar humidity=70
| Apr humidity=63
| May humidity=54
| Jun humidity=42
| Jul humidity=42
| Aug humidity=43
| Sep humidity=47
| Oct humidity=59
| Nov humidity=68
| Dec humidity=74
|year humidity=59
| Jan rain days=8
| Feb rain days=10
| Mar rain days=13
| Apr rain days=11
| May rain days=9
| Jun rain days=3
| Jul rain days=2
| Aug rain days=1
| Sep rain days=2
| Oct rain days=6
| Nov rain days=8
| Dec rain days=9
| year rain days= 82
| Jan snow days=9
| Feb snow days=7
| Mar snow days=3
| Apr snow days=0.3
| May snow days=0.1
| Jun snow days=0
| Jul snow days=0
| Aug snow days=0
| Sep snow days=0
| Oct snow days=0.3
| Nov snow days=2
| Dec snow days=6
|year snow days=28
| Jan sun=119.2
| Feb sun=130.9
| Mar sun=172.2
| Apr sun=228.8
| May sun=297.7
| Jun sun=345.5
| Jul sun=373.1
| Aug sun=358.9
| Sep sun=305.9
| Oct sun=242.6
| Nov sun=150.7
| Dec sun=120.2
|year sun=
| Jan dew point C=-2
| Feb dew point C=-1
| Mar dew point C=2
| Apr dew point C=6
| May dew point C=9
| Jun dew point C=9
| Jul dew point C=10
| Aug dew point C=9
| Sep dew point C=6
| Oct dew point C=4
| Nov dew point C=2
| Dec dew point C=-1
| Jan uv=2
| Feb uv=3
| Mar uv=3
| Apr uv=4
| May uv=5
| Jun uv=6
| Jul uv=6
| Aug uv=6
| Sep uv=4
| Oct uv=3
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| Dec uv=2
|source 1 = Pogoda.ru.net <ref name = Pogoda >
{{cite web
| url = http://www.pogodaiklimat.ru/climate.php?id=38696
| title = Weather and Climate-The Climate of Samarkand
| publisher = Weather and Climate
| language = ru
| access-date = 18 January 2021}}</ref>
|source 2=Weather Atlas (UV),<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.weather-atlas.com/en/uzbekistan/samarkand-climate |title=Samarkand, Uzbekistan – Detailed climate information and monthly weather forecast |publisher=Weather Atlas |access-date=1 August 2022}}</ref> Time and Date (dewpoints, 1985–2015),<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.timeanddate.com/weather/uzbekistan/samarkand/climate |title=Climate & Weather Averages in Samarkand |publisher=Time and Date |access-date=24 July 2022}}</ref> [[NOAA]]<ref name= NOAA>{{cite web |url=https://www.nodc.noaa.gov/archive/arc0216/0253808/2.2/data/0-data/Region-2-WMO-Normals-9120/Uzbekistan/CSV/Samarkand_38696.csv|title=Samarkand Climate Normals 1991–2020 |publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration |access-date=November 1, 2023}}</ref>
|date=August 2023
}}

==People==
According to official reports, a majority of Samarkand's inhabitants are [[Uzbeks]], while many sources refer to the city as majority [[Tajiks|Tajik]],<ref>Akiner, Shirin; Djalili, Mohammad-Reza; Grare, Frederic (2013). Tajikistan: The Trials of Independence. Routledge. {{ISBN|978-1-136-10490-9}} p.&nbsp;78, "Bukhara and Samarkand, inhabited by a marked Tajik majority (...)"</ref><ref name="Lena Jonson 2006. pg 108">Lena Jonson (1976) "Tajikistan in the New Central Asia", I.B.Tauris, p.&nbsp;108: "According to official Uzbek statistics there are slightly over 1 million Tajiks in Uzbekistan or about 3% of the population. The unofficial figure is over 6 million Tajiks. They are concentrated in the Sukhandarya, Samarqand and Bukhara regions."</ref><ref name="catoday.org">{{cite web |url=http://catoday.org/tjru/11180-uzbekistan-tadzhikskiy-yazyk-podavlyaetsya |title=Узбекистан: Таджикский язык подавляется |website=catoday.org — ИА "Озодагон" |access-date=22 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190322114708/http://catoday.org/tjru/11180-uzbekistan-tadzhikskiy-yazyk-podavlyaetsya |archive-date=22 March 2019 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="news.tj">{{cite web |url=https://news.tj/ru/news/opinion/20190318/tadzhiki-irantsi-vostoka-retsenziya-knigi-ot-kamoliddina-abdullaeva |title=Таджики – иранцы Востока? Рецензия книги от Камолиддина Абдуллаева |website=«ASIA-Plus» Media Group / Tajikistan — news.tj |access-date=22 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190327090939/https://news.tj/ru/news/opinion/20190318/tadzhiki-irantsi-vostoka-retsenziya-knigi-ot-kamoliddina-abdullaeva |archive-date=27 March 2019 |url-status=dead}}</ref> up to 70 percent of the city's population.<ref name="Foltz">{{cite journal |author-link=Richard Foltz |author=Richard Foltz |title=The Tajiks of Uzbekistan |journal=Central Asian Survey |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=213–216 |year=1996 |doi=10.1080/02634939608400946}}</ref> Tajiks are especially concentrated in the eastern part of the city, where the main architectural landmarks are.

According to various independent sources, Tajiks are Samarkand's majority ethnic group. Ethnic [[Uzbek people|Uzbeks]] are the second-largest group<ref name="PB">[[Paul Bergne]]: ''The Birth of Tajikistan. National Identity and the Origins of the Republic''. International Library of Central Asia Studies. [[I.B. Tauris]]. 2007. Pg. 106</ref> and are most concentrated in the west of Samarkand. Exact demographic figures are difficult to obtain since some people in Uzbekistan identify as "Uzbek" even though they speak [[Tajik language|Tajiki]] as their first language, often because they are registered as Uzbeks by the central government despite their Tajiki language and identity. As explained by [[Paul Bergne]]:

<blockquote>During the census of 1926 a significant part of the Tajik population was registered as Uzbek. Thus, for example, in the 1920 census in Samarkand city the Tajiks were recorded as numbering 44,758 and the Uzbeks only 3301. According to the 1926 census, the number of Uzbeks was recorded as 43,364 and the Tajiks as only 10,716. In a series of kishlaks [villages] in the Khojand Okrug, whose population was registered as Tajik in 1920 e.g. in Asht, Kalacha, Akjar i Tajik and others, in the 1926 census they were registered as Uzbeks. Similar facts can be adduced also with regard to Ferghana, Samarkand, and especially the Bukhara oblasts.<ref name="PB" /></blockquote>

Samarkand is also home to large ethnic communities of "[[Iranian peoples|Iranis]]" (the old, [[Persian language|Persian]]-speaking, [[Shia]] population of [[Merv]] city and oasis, deported en masse to this area in the late 18th century), [[Russians]], [[Ukrainians]], [[Belarusians]], [[Armenians]], [[Azeris]], [[Tatars]], [[Koryo-saram|Koreans]], [[Polish people|Poles]], and [[Germans]], all of whom live primarily in the centre and western neighborhoods of the city. These peoples have emigrated to Samarkand since the end of the 19th century, especially during the Soviet Era; by and large, they speak the [[Russian language]].

In the extreme west and southwest of Samarkand is a population of [[Central Asian Arabs]], who mostly speak Uzbek; only a small portion of the older generation speaks [[Central Asian Arabic]]. In eastern Samarkand there was once a large mahallah of [[Bukharian Jews|Bukharian (Central Asian) Jews]], but starting in the 1970s, hundreds of thousands of Jews left Uzbekistan for [[Israel]], [[United States]], [[Canada]], [[Australia]], and [[Europe]]. Only a few Jewish families are left in Samarkand today.

Also in the eastern part of Samarkand there are several quarters where [[:ru:Среднеазиатские цыгане|Central Asian "Gypsies"]]<ref>{{cite conference |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/266387780 |title=Migrations and Identities of Central Asian 'Gypsies' |doi=10.1057/ces.2008.3 |author1=Marushiakova |last2=Popov |first2=Vesselin |date=January 2014 |s2cid=154689140 |accessdate=2022-02-28 |conference=Asia Pacific Sociological Association (APSA) Conference "Transforming Societies: Conestations and Convergences in Asia and the Pacific"}}</ref> ([[Lyuli]], Djugi, [[Parya language|Parya]], and other groups) live. These peoples began to arrive in Samarkand several centuries ago from what are now [[India]] and [[Pakistan]]. They mainly speak a dialect of the Tajik language, as well as their own languages, most notably [[Parya language|Parya]].

===Language===
[[File:Bilingual Samarkand.jpg|thumb|right|Greeting in two languages: Uzbek (Latin) and Tajik (Cyrillic) at the entrance to one of the [[mahallah]]s (Bo'zi) of Samarkand]]
The state and official language in Samarkand, as in all Uzbekistan, is the [[Uzbek language]]. Uzbek is one of the [[Turkic languages]] and the mother tongue of [[Uzbeks]], [[Turkmens]], {{ill|Samarkandian Iranians|ru|Среднеазиатские иранцы|uz|Oʻrta Osiyo eroniylari}}, and most [[Central Asian Arabs|Samarkandian Arabs]] living in Samarkand.

As in the rest of Uzbekistan, the [[Russian language]] is the [[de facto]] second official language in Samarkand, and about 5% of signs and inscriptions in Samarkand are in this language. [[Russians]], [[Belarusians]], [[Polish people|Poles]], [[Germans]], [[Koryo-saram|Koreans]], the majority of [[Ukrainians]], the majority of [[Armenians]], [[Greeks]], some [[Tatars]], and some [[Azerbaijanis]] in Samarkand speak Russian. Several Russian-language newspapers are published in Samarkand, the most popular of which is ''{{ill|Samarkandskiy vestnik|ru|Самаркандский вестник|uz|Samarkandskiy vestnik}}'' (Russian: Самаркандский вестник, lit. the Samarkand Herald). The Samarkandian TV channel STV conducts some broadcasts in Russian.

De facto, the most common native language in Samarkand is [[Tajik language|Tajik]], which is a dialect or variant of the [[Persian language]]. Samarkand was one of the cities in which the Persian language developed. Many classical Persian [[poetry|poets]] and writers lived in or visited Samarkand over the millennia, the most famous being [[Ferdowsi|Abulqasem Ferdowsi]], [[Omar Khayyam]], [[Jami|Abdurahman Jami]], [[Rudaki|Abu Abdullah Rudaki]], [[Suzani Samarqandi]], and [[Kamal Khujandi]].

While the official stance is that Uzbek is the most common language in Samarkand, some data indicate that only about 30% of residents speak it as a native tongue. For the other 70%, Tajik is the native tongue, with Uzbek the second language and Russian the third. However, as no population census has been taken in Uzbekistan since 1989, there are no accurate data on this matter. Despite Tajik being the second most common language in Samarkand, it does not enjoy the status of an official or regional language.<ref name="Karl Cordell 1999. pg 201">Karl Cordell, "Ethnicity and Democratisation in the New Europe", Routledge, 1998. p.&nbsp;201: "Consequently, the number of citizens who regard themselves as Tajiks is difficult to determine. Tajikis within and outside of the republic, Samarkand State University (SamGU) academic and international commentators suggest that there may be between six and seven million Tajiks in Uzbekistan, constituting 30% of the republic's 22 million population, rather than the official figure of 4.7% (Foltz 1996: 213; Carlisle 1995: 88).</ref><ref name="Lena Jonson 2006. pg 108"/><ref name="catoday.org"/><ref name="lingvomania.info">{{cite web |url=http://lingvomania.info/2016/status-tadzhikskogo-yazyka-v-uzbekistane.html |title=Статус таджикского языка в Узбекистане |website=Лингвомания.info — lingvomania.info |access-date=22 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161029222029/http://lingvomania.info/2016/status-tadzhikskogo-yazyka-v-uzbekistane.html |archive-date=29 October 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="news.tj"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.profi-forex.org/novosti-mira/novosti-sng/uzbekistan/entry1008185843.html |title=Есть ли шансы на выживание таджикского языка в Узбекистане — эксперты |website="Биржевой лидер" — pfori-forex.org |access-date=22 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190322113157/http://www.profi-forex.org/novosti-mira/novosti-sng/uzbekistan/entry1008185843.html |archive-date=22 March 2019 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Nevertheless, at Samarkand State University ten faculties offer courses in Tajiki, and the Tajik Language and Literature Department has an enrolment of over 170 students.<ref name="Bloomsbury Publishing">{{cite book|last1=Foltz|first1=Richard|author-link=Richard Foltz|title=A History of the Tajiks: Iranians of the East, 2nd edition |date=2023|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|isbn=978-0-7556-4964-8|page=186}}</ref> Only one newspaper in Samarkand is published in Tajiki, in the [[Tajik alphabet|Cyrillic Tajik alphabet]]: ''[[:ru:Овози Самарканд|Ovozi Samarqand]]'' (Tajik: ''Овози Самарқанд'' —''Voice of Samarkand''). Local Samarkandian STV and "Samarkand" TV channels offer some broadcasts in Tajik, as does one regional radio station. In 2022 a quarterly literary magazine in Tajiki, ''Durdonai Sharq'', was launched in Samarkand.<ref name="Bloomsbury Publishing"/>

In addition to Uzbek, Tajik, and Russian, native languages spoken in Samarkand include [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]], [[Armenian language|Armenian]], [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]], [[Tatar language|Tatar]], [[Crimean Tatar language|Crimean Tatar]], [[Arabic]] (for a very small percentage of Samarkandian Arabs), and others.

Modern Samarkand is a vibrant city, and in 2019 the city hosted the first Samarkand Half Marathon.<ref>[https://worldsmarathons.com/marathon/samarkand-marathon Samarkand Marathon].</ref> In 2022 this also included a full marathon for the first time.

==Religion==
===Islam===
[[Islam]] entered Samarkand in the 8th century, during the [[Muslim conquest of Transoxiana|invasion of the Arabs in Central Asia]] ([[Umayyad Caliphate]]). Before that, almost all inhabitants of Samarkand were [[Zoroastrians]], and many [[Nestorians]] and [[Buddhists]] also lived in the city. From that point forward, throughout the reigns of many Muslim governing powers, numerous [[mosque]]s, [[madrasa]]hs, [[minaret]]s, [[shrine]]s, and [[mausoleums]] were built in the city. Many have been preserved. For example, there is [[:ru:Мемориальный комплекс имама Аль-Бухари|the Shrine]] of [[Muhammad al-Bukhari|Imam Bukhari]], an [[Ulama|Islamic scholar]] who authored the [[History of hadith|hadith collection]] known as ''[[Sahih al-Bukhari]]'', which [[Sunni Islam|Sunni Muslims]] regard as one of the most authentic (''[[Saheeh|sahih]]'') [[hadith]] collections. His other books included ''[[Al-Adab al-Mufrad]]''. Samarkand is also home to [[:ru:Мавзолей Абу Мансура Матуриди|the Shrine]] of [[Abu Mansur al-Maturidi|Imam Maturidi]], the founder of [[Maturidi]]sm and the [[:ru:Мавзолей Ходжа Дониёр|Mausoleum of the Prophet Daniel]], who is revered in [[Islam]], [[Judaism]], and [[Christianity]].

Most inhabitants of Samarkand are Muslim, primarily [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] (mostly [[Hanafi]]) and [[Sufism|Sufi]]. Approximately 80–85% of Muslims in the city are Sunni, comprising almost all [[Tajiks]], [[Uzbeks]], and Samarkandian Arabs living therein. Samarkand's best-known Islamic sacred lineages are the descendants of Sufi leaders such as Khodja Akhror Wali (1404–1490) and Makhdumi A’zam (1461–1542), the descendants of Sayyid Ata (first half of 14th c.) and Mirakoni Khojas (Sayyids from Mirakon, a village in Iran).<ref>Malikov Azim, Sacred lineages of Samarqand: history and identity in Anthropology of the Middle East, Volume 15, Issue 1, Summer 2020, р.36</ref> The liberal policy of President [[Shavkat Mirziyoyev]] opened up new opportunities for the expression of the religious identity. In Samarkand, since 2018, there has been an increase in the number of women wearing the hijab.<ref>https://www.ajol.info/index.php/ijma/article/view/218533 Malikov A. and Djuraeva D. 2021. Women, Islam, and politics in Samarkand (1991–2021), International Journal of Modern Anthropology. 2 (16): 561</ref>
<gallery mode="packed">
File:AlBukhari mausoleum.jpg|[[:ru:Мемориальный комплекс имама Аль-Бухари|Imam Bukhari Shrine]]
File:Imammaturidi.jpg|[[:ru:Мавзолей Абу Мансура Матуриди|Imam Maturidi Shrine]]
File:Ruhabad.JPG|[[:ru:Мавзолей Рухабад|Ruhabad Mausoleum]]
File:Nuriddin Basir Mausoleum 1.jpg|[[:ru:Мавзолей Нуриддина Басира|Nuriddin Basir Shrine]]
File:Mausoleum Khoja Daniyar 5221.JPG|[[:ru:Мавзолей Ходжа Дониёр|Khoja Daniyar Mausoleum]]
</gallery>

====Shia Muslims====
The [[Samarqand Region|Samarqand Vilayat]] is one of the two regions of Uzbekistan (along with [[Buxoro Region|Bukhara Vilayat]]) that are home to a large number of Shiites. The total population of the Samarkand Vilayat is more than 3,720,000 people (2019).

There are no exact data on the number of Shiites in the city of Samarkand, but the city has several Shiite mosques and madrasas. The largest of these are the Punjabi Mosque, the Punjabi Madrassah, and the Mausoleum of Mourad Avliya. Every year, the Shiites of Samarkand celebrate [[Ashura]], as well as other memorable Shiite dates and holidays.

Shiites in Samarkand are mostly [[:ru:Среднеазиатские иранцы|Samarkandian Iranians]], who call themselves ''Irani''. Their ancestors began to arrive in Samarkand in the 18th century. Some migrated there
in search of a better life, others were sold as [[slavery|slaves]] there by [[Turkmens|Turkmen]] captors, and others were soldiers who were posted to Samarkand. Mostly they came from [[Khorasan Province|Khorasan]], [[Mashhad]], [[Sabzevar]], [[Nishapur]], and [[Merv]]; and secondarily from [[Iranian Azerbaijan]], [[Zanjan, Iran|Zanjan]], [[Tabriz]], and [[Ardabil]]. Samarkandian Shiites also include [[Azerbaijanis]], as well as small numbers of Tajiks and Uzbeks.

While there are no official data on the total number of Shiites in Uzbekistan, they are estimated to be "several hundred thousand." According to [[United States diplomatic cables leak|leaked diplomatic cables]], in 2007–2008, the [[United States Ambassador-at-Large for International Religious Freedom|US Ambassador for International Religious Freedom]] held a series of meetings with Sunni [[mullah]]s and Shiite [[imam]]s in Uzbekistan. During one of the talks, the imam of the Shiite mosque in [[Bukhara]] said that about 300,000 Shiites live in the Bukhara Vilayat and 1&nbsp;million in the Samarkand Vilayat. The Ambassador slightly doubted the authenticity of these figures, emphasizing in his report that data on the numbers of religious and ethnic minorities provided by the government of Uzbekistan were considered a very "delicate topic" due to their potential to provoke interethnic and interreligious conflicts. All the ambassadors of the ambassador tried to emphasize that traditional Islam, especially [[Sufism]] and [[Sunnism]], in the regions of Bukhara and Samarkand is characterized by great religious tolerance toward other religions and sects, including Shiism.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.islamsng.com/uzb/pastfuture/5570 |title=Шииты в Узбекистане |work=www.islamsng.com |access-date=April 3, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171003214455/http://www.islamsng.com/uzb/pastfuture/5570 |archive-date=October 3, 2017 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dn.kz/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1545:2013-11-29-08-08-10&catid=2:2011-10-23-11-43-45&Itemid=17 |title=Ташкент озабочен делами шиитов |work=www.dn.kz |access-date=April 3, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403133434/http://www.dn.kz/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1545:2013-11-29-08-08-10&catid=2:2011-10-23-11-43-45&Itemid=17 |archive-date=2019-04-03 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://catoday.org/centrasia/uzbekistan-irancy-shiity-stalkivayutsya-c-problemami-s-pravoohranitelnymi-organami-iran |title=Узбекистан: Иранцы-шииты сталкиваются c проблемами с правоохранительными органами |work=catoday.org |access-date=April 3, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170905092804/http://catoday.org/centrasia/uzbekistan-irancy-shiity-stalkivayutsya-c-problemami-s-pravoohranitelnymi-organami-iran |archive-date=September 5, 2017 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
<gallery mode="packed">
File:Panjab Shia Mosque in Samarkand.jpg|[[:ru:Панджоб (мечеть)|Panjab Shia Mosque]]
File:Panjab Madrasa in Samarkand.jpg|[[:ru:Медресе Панджоб|Panjab Shia Madrasa]]
File:Murad Avliya Mausoleum and Courtyard.jpg|[[:ru:Мавзолей Мурад Авлия|Murad Avliya Shrine]]
</gallery>

===Christianity===
{{More citations needed section|date=March 2024}}[[File:Church of the East provinces 10 c.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.5|Provinces of the [[Church of the East]] in 10th century]]
[[Christianity]] was introduced to Samarkand when it was part of Sogdiana, long before the penetration of [[Islam]] into Central Asia. The city then became one of the centers of [[Nestorianism]] in [[Central Asia]].<ref>Dickens, Mark "Nestorian Christianity in Central Asia. p.&nbsp;17</ref> The majority of the population were then [[Zoroastrians]], but since Samarkand was the crossroads of trade routes among [[East Asia|China]], [[Greater Iran|Persia]], and [[Europe]], it was religiously tolerant. Under the [[Umayyad Caliphate]], Zoroastrians and Nestorians were persecuted by the [[Arabs|Arab]] conquerors;{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}} the survivors fled to other places or converted to Islam. Several Nestorian temples were built in Samarkand, but they have not survived. Their remains were found by archeologists at the ancient site of [[Afrasiyab (Samarkand)|Afrasiyab]] and on the outskirts of Samarkand.

In the three decades of 1329–1359, the [[:ru:Самаркандская епархия (титулярная)|Samarkand eparchy]] of the [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic Church]] served several thousand Catholics who lived in the city. According to [[Marco Polo]] and Johann Elemosina, a descendant of [[Chagatai Khan|Chaghatai Khan]], the founder of the [[Chagatai Khanate|Chaghatai dynasty]], [[Eljigidey]], converted to Christianity and was baptized. With the assistance of Eljigidey, the Catholic Church of [[St. John the Baptist]] was built in Samarkand. After a while, however, Islam completely supplanted Catholicism.

Christianity reappeared in Samarkand several centuries later, from the mid-19th century onward, after the city was seized by the [[Russian Empire]]. [[Russian Orthodox Church|Russian Orthodoxy]] was introduced to Samarkand in 1868, and several churches and temples were built. In the early 20th century several more Orthodox cathedrals, churches, and temples were built, most of which were demolished while Samarkand was part of the [[USSR]].

In present time, Christianity is the second-largest religious group in Samarkand with the predominant form is the [[Russian Orthodox Church|Russian Orthodox Church (Moscow Patriarchate)]]. More than 5% of Samarkand residents are Orthodox, mostly [[Russians]], [[Ukrainians]], and [[Belarusians]], and also some [[Koryo-saram|Koreans]] and [[Greeks]]. Samarkand is the center of the Samarkand branch (which includes the [[Samarqand Region|Samarkand]], [[Qashqadaryo Region|Qashqadarya]], and [[Surxondaryo Region|Surkhandarya]] provinces of Uzbekistan) of the [[:ru:Ташкентская и Узбекистанская епархия|Uzbekistan and Tashkent eparchy]] of the [[:ru:Среднеазиатский митрополичий округ|Central Asian Metropolitan District]] of the [[Russian Orthodox Church|Russian Orthodox Church of the Moscow Patriarchate]]. The city has several active Orthodox churches: [[:ru:Собор Святителя Алексия Московского (Самарканд)|Cathedral of St. Alexiy Moscowskiy]], [[:ru:Храм Покрова Пресвятой Богородицы (Самарканд)|Church of the Intercession of the Holy Virgin]], and [[:ru:Храм Святого Георгия Победоносца (Самарканд, действующий)|Church of St. George the Victorious]]. There are also a number of inactive Orthodox churches and temples, for example that of [[:ru:Храм Святого Георгия Победоносца (Самарканд, недействующий)|Church of St. George Pobedonosets]].<ref>В. А. Нильсен. У истоков современного градостроительства Узбекистана (ΧΙΧ — начало ΧΧ веков). —Ташкент: Издательство литературы и искусства имени Гафура Гуляма, 1988. 208 с.</ref><ref>''Голенберг В. А.'' «Старинные храмы туркестанского края». Ташкент 2011 год</ref>

There are also a few tens of thousands of [[Catholic Church|Catholics]] in Samarkand, mostly [[Polish people|Poles]], [[Germans]], and some [[Ukrainians]]. In the center of Samarkand is [[St. John the Baptist Church, Samarkand|St. John the Baptist Catholic Church]], which was built at the beginning of the 20th century. Samarkand is part of the [[Apostolic Administration of Uzbekistan]].<ref>Католичество в Узбекистане. Ташкент, 1990.</ref>

The third largest Christian sect in Samarkand is the [[Armenian Apostolic Church]], followed by a few tens of thousands of Armenian Samarkandians. Armenian Christians began emigrating to Samarkand at the end of the 19th century, this flow increasing especially in the Soviet era.<ref>Armenians. Ethnic atlas of Uzbekistan, 2000.</ref> In the west of Samarkand is the [[:ru:Церковь Святой Богородицы (Самарканд)|Armenian Church Surb Astvatsatsin]].<ref>Назарьян Р.Г. Армяне Самарканда. Москва. 2007</ref>
<gallery mode="packed">
File:Orthodox church in Samarkand 11-09.JPG|[[:ru:Собор Святителя Алексия Московского (Самарканд)|Orthodox Cathedral of St. Alexiy Moscowskiy]]
File:Church Cover Blessed Virgin in Samarkand 12-55.JPG|[[:ru:Храм Покрова Пресвятой Богородицы (Самарканд)|Orthodox Church of the Intercession of the Holy Virgin]]
File:Church of St. George Victorious Samarkand 08-19.JPG|[[:ru:Храм Святого Георгия Победоносца (Самарканд, действующий)|Orthodox Church of St. George the Victorious]]
File:Church of St. George Victorious in Samarkand 08-18.JPG|[[:ru:Храм Святого Георгия Победоносца (Самарканд, недействующий)|Orthodox Church of St. George Pobedonosets]]
File:Church Saint John Baptist in Samarkand 23-38.JPG|[[St. John the Baptist Church, Samarkand|St. John the Baptist Catholic Church]]
File:St. Mary Church in Samarkand 10-54.JPG|[[:ru:Церковь Святой Богородицы (Самарканд)|Armenian Church Surb Astvatsatsin]]
</gallery>

Samarkand also has several thousand [[Protestantism|Protestants]], including [[Lutheranism|Lutherans]], [[Baptists]], [[Mormons]], [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], [[Adventism|Adventists]], and members of the [[Korean Presbyterian church]]. These Christian movements appeared in Samarkand mainly after the independence of [[Uzbekistan]] in 1991.<ref>Бабина Ю. Ё. Новые христианские течения и страны мира. Фолкв, 1995.</ref>

==Landmarks==
=== Silk Road Samarkand (Eternal city) ===
Silk Road Samarkand is a modern multiplex which opened in early 2022 in eastern Samarkand. The complex covers 260 hectares and includes world-class business and medical hotels, eateries, recreational facilities, park grounds, an ethnographic corner and a large congress hall for hosting international events.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Silk Road Samarkand Tourist Complex |url=https://www.advantour.com/uzbekistan/samarkand/silk-road-samarkand.htm |access-date=2023-01-20 |website= Advantour}}</ref>

Eternal city situated in Silk Road Samarkand complex. This site which occupies 17 hectares accurately recreates the spirit of the ancient city backed up by the history and traditions of Uzbek lands and Uzbek people for the guests of the Silk Road Samarkand. The narrow streets here house multiple shops of artists, artisans, and craftsmen. The pavilions of the Eternal City were inspired by real houses and picturesque squares described in ancient books. This is where you can plunge into a beautiful oriental fairy tale: with turquoise domes, mosaics on palaces, and high minarets that pierce the sky.

Visitors to the Eternal City can taste national dishes from different eras and regions of the country and also see authentic street performances. The Eternal City showcases a unique mix of Parthian, Hellenistic, and Islamic cultures so that the guests could imagine the versatile heritage of bygone centuries in full splendor. The project was inspired and designed by Bobur Ismoilov, a famous modern artist.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Eternal City |url=https://www.silkroad-samarkand.com/resort/eternal-city/ |access-date=2023-01-20 |website=www.silkroad-samarkand.com}}</ref>

==Architecture==
[[File:Building Samarkand Mosque.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Building the Great Mosque of Samarkand. Illustration by [[Bihzad]] for the [[Zafarnama (Yazdi biography)|Zafar-Nameh]]. Text copied in [[Herat]] in 1467–68 and illuminated the late 1480s. John Work Garret Collection, Milton S. Eisenhower Library, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore.]]

Timur initiated the building of Bibi-Khanym after his 1398–1399 campaign in India. The Bibi-Khanym originally had about 450 marble columns, which were hauled there and set up with the help of 95 elephants that Timur had brought back from Hindustan. Artisans and stonemasons from India designed the mosque's dome, giving it its distinctive appearance amongst the other buildings. An 1897 earthquake destroyed the columns, which were not entirely restored in the subsequent reconstruction.<ref name="Marefat 1992 33–38"/>

The best-known landmark of Samarkand is the mausoleum known as Gur-i Amir. It exhibits the influences of many cultures, past civilizations, neighboring peoples, and religions, especially those of Islam. Despite the devastation wrought by Mongols to Samarkand's pre-Timurid Islamic architecture, under Timur these architectural styles were revived, recreated, and restored. The blueprint and layout of the mosque itself, with their precise measurements, demonstrate the Islamic passion for [[geometry]]. The entrance to the Gur-i Amir is decorated with Arabic [[calligraphy]] and inscriptions, the latter a common feature in Islamic architecture. Timur's meticulous attention to detail is especially obvious inside the mausoleum: the tiled walls are a marvelous example of [[mosaic]] [[faience]], an Iranian technique in which each tile is cut, colored, and fit into place individually.<ref name="Marefat 1992 33–38"/> The tiles of the Gur-i Amir were also arranged so that they spell out religious words such as "[[Muhammad]]" and "Allah."<ref name="Marefat 1992 33–38"/>

The ornamentation of the Gur-i Amir's walls includes floral and vegetal motifs, which signify gardens; the floor tiles feature uninterrupted floral patterns. In Islam, gardens are symbols of paradise, and as such, they were depicted on the walls of tombs and grown in Samarkand itself.<ref name="Marefat 1992 33–38"/> Samarkand boasted two major gardens, the New Garden and the Garden of Heart's Delight, which became the central areas of entertainment for ambassadors and important guests. In 1218, a friend of Genghis Khan named Yelü Chucai reported that Samarkand was the most beautiful city of all, as "it was surrounded by numerous gardens. Every household had a garden, and all the gardens were well designed, with canals and water fountains that supplied water to round or square-shaped ponds. The landscape included rows of willows and cypress trees, and peach and plum orchards were shoulder to shoulder."<ref>{{cite book |last=Liu |first=Xinru |title=The Silk Road in world history |year=2010 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-19-516174-8}}</ref> Persian carpets with floral patterns have also been found in some Timurid buildings.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Cohn-Wiener |first=Ernst |title=An Unknown Timurid Building |journal=The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs |date=June 1935 |volume=66 |issue=387 |pages=272–273+277 |jstor=866154}}</ref>

The elements of traditional Islamic architecture can be seen in traditional mud-brick Uzbek houses that are built around central courtyards with gardens.<ref name=":1">{{cite web |title=Samarkand – Crossroad of Cultures |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/603/ |access-date=2018-05-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180516103352/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/603/ |archive-date=2018-05-16 |url-status=live}}</ref> Most of these houses have painted wooden ceilings and walls. By contrast, houses in the west of the city are chiefly European-style homes built in the 19th and 20th centuries.<ref name=":1" />

Turko-Mongol influence is also apparent in Samarkand's architecture. It is believed that the melon-shaped domes of the mausoleums were designed to echo [[Yurt|''yurts'' or ''gers'']], traditional Mongol tents in which the bodies of the dead were displayed before burial or other disposition. Timur built his tents from more-durable materials, such as bricks and wood, but their purposes remained largely unchanged.<ref name="Marefat 1992 33–38"/> The chamber in which Timur's own body was laid included "[[Tug (banner)|tugs]]", poles whose tops were hung with a circular arrangement of horse or yak tail hairs. These banners symbolized an ancient Turkic tradition of sacrificing horses, which were valuable commodities, to honor the dead.<ref name="Marefat 1992 33–38"/> Tugs were also a type of cavalry standard used by many nomads, up to the time of the Ottoman Turks.

Colors of buildings in Samarkand also have significant meanings. The dominant architectural color is blue, which Timur used to convey a broad range of concepts. For example, the shades of blue in the Gur-i Amir are colors of mourning; in that era, blue was the color of mourning in Central Asia, as it still is in various cultures today. Blue was also considered the color that could ward off "the [[evil eye]]" in Central Asia; this notion is evidenced by in the number of blue-painted doors in and around the city. Furthermore, blue represented water, a particularly rare resource in the Middle East and Central Asia; walls painted blue symbolized the wealth of the city.

Gold also has a strong presence in the city. Timur's fascination with vaulting explains the excessive use of gold in the Gur-i Amir, as well as the use of [[Goldwork (embroidery)|embroidered gold fabric]] in both the city and his buildings. The Mongols had great interests in Chinese- and Persian-style golden silk textiles, as well as ''nasij''<ref>{{cite web |title=Textiles in "The world of Kubilai Khan" @ Metropolitan Museum, New York |date=25 December 2010 |url=http://www.alaintruong.com/archives/2010/12/25/19964881.html |access-date=2020-05-23 |website=Alain.R.Truong |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191118044543/http://www.alaintruong.com/archives/2010/12/25/19964881.html |archive-date=2019-11-18 |url-status=deviated}}</ref> woven in [[Iran]] and Transoxiana. Mongol leaders like [[Ögedei Khan]] built textile workshops in their cities to be able to produce gold fabrics themselves.

===Suburbs===
Suburbs of the city include: Gulyakandoz, Superfosfatnyy, Bukharishlak, Ulugbek, Ravanak, Kattakishlak, Registan, Zebiniso, Kaftarkhona, Uzbankinty.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.google.com/maps/place/Superfosfatnyy,+Uzbekistan/@39.6761233,66.9140197,28690m/data=!3m1!1e3!4m5!3m4!1s0x3f4d1af650279a57:0x4ff7249d3d5dafb8!8m2!3d39.67305!4d66.853607 |title=Superfosfatnyy · Uzbekistan |website=Superfosfatnyy · Uzbekistan}}</ref>

==Transport==

===Local===
Samarkand has a strong public-transport system. From Soviet times up through today, municipal [[bus]]es and [[taxi]]s ([[GAZ-21]], [[GAZ-24]], [[GAZ-3102]], [[VAZ-2101]], [[VAZ-2106]] and [[VAZ-2107]]) have operated in Samarkand. Buses, mostly [[SamAuto]] and [[Isuzu]] buses, are the most common and popular mode of transport in the city. Taxis, which are mostly [[Chevrolet]]s and [[Daewoo Motors|Daewoo]] sedans, are usually yellow in color. Since 2017, there have also been [[Trams in Samarkand|several Samarkandian tram lines]], mostly Vario LF.S Czech trams. From the [[Soviet]] Era up until 2005, Samarkandians also got around via [[trolleybus]]. Finally, Samarkand has the so-called "[[Marshrutka]]," which are [[Daewoo Damas]] and [[GAZelle]] [[minibuses]].
<gallery mode="packed">
File:Beruni street in Samarkand.jpg|Many yellow taxis on the streets of Samarkand
File:Hotel in Rudaki and Dahbed Streets in Samarkand.jpg|Taxi and tram on Rudaki Street in Samarkand
File:Tram in Samarkand.jpg|Tram in Samarkand
</gallery>
Until 1950, the main forms of transport in Samarkand were [[carriage]]s and "[[Araba (carriage)|arabas]]" with [[horse]]s and [[donkey]]s. However, the city had a [[steam]] tram from 1924 to 1930, and there were more modern trams from 1947 to 1973.

===Air transport===
In the north of the city is [[Samarkand International Airport]], which was opened in the 1930s, under the Soviets. As of spring 2019, Samarkand International Airport has flights to [[Tashkent]], [[Nukus]], [[Moscow]], [[Saint Petersburg]], [[Yekaterinburg]], [[Kazan]], [[Istanbul]], and [[Dushanbe]]; charter flights to other cities are also available.

===Railway===
Modern Samarkand is an important rail junction of Uzbekistan, and all national east–west railway routes pass through the city. The most important and longest of these is [[Tashkent]]–[[Kungrad]]. High-speed [[Tashkent–Samarkand high-speed rail line]] trains run between Tashkent, Samarkand, and Bukhara. Samarkand also has international railway connections: [[Saratov]]–Samarkand, [[Moscow]]–Samarkand, and [[Astana]]–Samarkand.
<gallery mode="packed">
File:Samarkand Railway Station.jpg|Samarkand railway station
File:Afrosiyob Express Train in Station - Samarkand - Uzbekistan (7502824436) (3).jpg|Afrasiyab (Talgo 250) high-speed train in Samarkand railway station
</gallery>
Between 1879 and 1891, the [[Russian Empire]] built the [[Trans-Caspian Railway]] to facilitate its expansion into Central Asia. The railway originated in Krasnovodsk (now [[Türkmenbaşy, Turkmenistan|Turkmenbashi]]) on the [[Caspian Sea]] coast. Its terminus was originally Samarkand, whose station first opened in May 1888. However, a decade later, the railway was extended eastward to Tashkent and [[Andijan]], and its name was changed to Central Asian Railways. Nonetheless, Samarkand remained one of the largest and most important stations of the [[Uzbek SSR]] and [[Soviet Central Asia]].

==International relations==
{{See also|List_of_twin_towns_and_sister_cities_in_Asia#Uzbekistan|l1=List of twin towns and sister cities in Uzbekistan}}
Samarkand is [[Sister city|twinned]] with:<ref name=samarkand>{{cite web |title=Самарканд и Валенсия станут городами-побратимами |url=https://podrobno.uz/cat/podrobno/samarkand-i-valensiya-stanut-gorodami-pobratimami/ |website=podrobno.uz |language=ru |date=2018-01-27 |access-date=2020-11-15}}</ref>
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
*{{flagicon|IND}} [[Agra]], India
*{{flagicon|AFG}} [[Balkh]], Afghanistan
*{{flagicon|IDN}} [[Banda Aceh]], Indonesia
*{{flagicon|PER}} [[Cusco]], Peru
*{{flagicon|LVA}} [[Jūrmala]], Latvia
*{{flagicon|TUN}} [[Kairouan]], Tunisia
*{{flagicon|TJK}} [[Khujand]], Tajikistan
*{{flagicon|RUS}} [[Krasnoyarsk]], Russia
*{{flagicon|PAK}} [[Lahore]], Pakistan
*{{flagicon|BEL}} [[Liège]], Belgium
*{{flagicon|TKM}} [[Mary, Turkmenistan|Mary]], Turkmenistan
*{{flagicon|TKM}} [[Merv]], Turkmenistan
*{{flagicon|MEX}} [[Mexico City]], Mexico
*{{flagicon|IND}} [[New Delhi]], India
*{{flagicon|IRN}} [[Nishapur]], Iran
*{{flagicon|BUL}} [[Plovdiv]], Bulgaria
*{{flagicon|BRA}} [[Rio de Janeiro]], Brazil
*{{flagicon|RUS}} [[Samara]], Russia
*{{flagicon|CHN}} [[Xi'an]], China
*{{flagicon|JPN}} [[Nara (city)|Nara]], Japan<ref>{{cite web | url=https://samarkand.uz/en/press/news/nara-va-samarqand-shaharlari-ortasida-birodarlik-bitimi-imzolandi | title=A brotherhood agreement has been signed between the cities of Nara and Samarkand }}</ref>

<!--rest of cities - other form of cooperation, they don't list Samarkand as their twin town-->
{{div col end}}

Samarkand has friendly relations with:<ref name=samarkand/><ref>{{cite web |title=Внешнеэкономическое сотрудничество |url=http://bobruisk.by/economics/part/?curPos=2 |website=bobruisk.by |publisher=Babruysk |language=ru |access-date=2020-11-15 |archive-date=2020-10-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201028022318/http://bobruisk.by/economics/part/?curPos=2 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
*{{flagicon|TUR}} [[Antalya]], Turkey
*{{flagicon|BLR}} [[Babruysk]], Belarus
*{{flagicon|GER}} [[Bremen]], Germany
*{{flagicon|AUS}} [[Canberra]], Australia
*{{flagicon|TUR}} [[Eskişehir]], Turkey
*{{flagicon|ITA}} [[Florence]], Italy
*{{flagicon|KOR}} [[Gyeongju]], South Korea
*{{flagicon|TUR}} [[Istanbul]], Turkey
*{{flagicon|TUR}} [[İzmir]], Turkey
*{{flagicon|FRA}} [[Lyon]], France
*{{flagicon|UKR}} [[Lviv]], Ukraine
*{{flagicon|ESP}} [[Valencia]], Spain
{{div col end}}

==In literature==
The [[frame story]] of [[One Thousand and One Nights|<u>''One Thousand and One Nights''</u>]] involves a [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanian]] king who assigns his brother, [[Shah Zaman (One Thousand and One Nights)|Shah Zaman]], to rule over Samarkand.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Burton |first=Richard |title=The Arabian Nights |date=2011 |publisher=Canterbury Classics |isbn=978-1-60710-309-7 |editor-last=Mondschein |editor-first=Ken |pages=1}}</ref>

The poet [[James Elroy Flecker]] published the poem ''The Golden Journey to Samarkand'' in 1913. It was included in his play, ''Hassan''. ''Hassan'' (''The Story of Hassan of Bagdad and How He Came to Make the Golden Journey to Samarkand'') is a five-act drama in prose with verse passages. It tells the story of Hassan, a young man from Baghdad who embarks on a journey to Samarkand. Along the way, he encounters various challenges and obstacles, including bandits, treacherous terrain, and political turmoil.

In 2002, Nobel Laureate [[Wole Soyinka]] titled his collection of poetry ''Samarkand and Other Markets I Have Known.''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Samarkand and Other Markets I Have Known {{!}} poetry by Soyinka {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Samarkand-and-Other-Markets-I-Have-Known |access-date=2023-09-17 |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |language=en}}</ref>

English author [[Jonathan Stroud]] published his book ''[[The Amulet of Samarkand]]'' in 2003. The book contains no allusions to Samarkand other than namesake.{{cn|date=August 2024}}

The city of Samarkand is famous for being the subject of an Uzbek tale called "The Rendezvous at Samarkand."
It was recounted by a 12th-century Persian storyteller and mystic, Farid Al-Din Attar.
In a legendary Baghdad, ruled by a powerful caliph, lived a young, healthy vizier. He seemed to have his whole life ahead of him. One day, he went to the city market, incognito, as he often did. Amidst the stalls of the spice merchants, he encountered a skeletal woman, who turned around as he passed and reached out to him. The vizier, a wise man, immediately recognized death. Terrified by what he saw, he begged his caliph to let him flee Baghdad, explaining that death was here and wanted to take him. His only hope was to immediately saddle his fastest horse and gallop off far from the city. The caliph therefore granted him permission to leave and asked him where he would be going. The vizier replies that to escape death, he is going to Samarkand, the desert city, on the edge of the kingdom, on the borders of Asia and the Middle East, thinking he will be safe there, far from the death that lurks in Baghdad! However, the caliph also decides to go to the market to check for the presence of death. He recognizes her very quickly and addresses her without fear, asking her the meaning of the gesture she made towards the vizier. "It was only a gesture of surprise..." replies death "Because I saw him in Baghdad while I must take him tonight in Samarkand..."
This tale illustrates the inevitability of human destiny in the face of death. {{Citation needed|date=June 2025}}

This tale also inspired Agatha Christie to title her novel "Appointment with Death."{{Citation needed|date=July 2025}}

==Notable people==
*[[Bakhtiyor Fazilov]]
*[[Takhmina Ikromova]], Uzbek rhythmic gymnast
*[[Igor Sarukhanov]], Russian pop musician, composer and artist of Armenian descent

==See also==
*[[Samarkand non]]
*[[The Mongol Invasion (trilogy)]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

==Citations==
{{reflist}}

==General and cited references==
*Azim Malikov, "Cult of saints and shrines in the Samarqand province of Uzbekistan". ''International Journal of Modern Anthropology''. No. 4. 2010, pp.&nbsp;116–123.
*Azim Malikov, "The politics of memory in Samarkand in post-Soviet period". ''International Journal of Modern Anthropology''. (2018) Vol. 2. Issue No. 11. pp.&nbsp;127–145.
*Azim Malikov, "Sacred lineages of Samarqand: history and identity". ''Anthropology of the Middle East'', Volume 15, Issue 1, Summer 2020, рp.&nbsp;34–49.
*Alexander Morrison, ''Russian Rule in Samarkand 1868–1910: A Comparison with British India'' (Oxford, OUP, 2008) (Oxford Historical Monographs).

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
{{Wikivoyage}}
* Forbes, Andrew, & Henley, David: ''[http://www.cpamedia.com/article.php?pg=archive&acid=120613150427&aiid=120613151433 Timur's Legacy: The Architecture of Bukhara and Samarkand]'' (CPA Media).
* [http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/cities/uz/samarkand/samarkand.html Samarkand – Silk Road Seattle Project], University of Washington
* {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20070311131202/http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/sup/Samarqand.html The history of Samarkand]}}, according to Columbia University's Encyclopædia Iranica (archived 11 March 2007)
* [https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/603 Samarkand – Crossroad of Cultures]. UNESCO World Heritage Committee documentation on Samarkand.
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Samarkand (city) |volume= 24 |last1= Kropotkin |first1= Peter Alexeivitch |author1-link= Peter Kropotkin |last2= Bealby |first2= John Thomas |pages= 112–113 |short= 1}}
* [http://www.gcatholic.org/dioceses/former/sama1.htm GCatholic – former Latin Catholic bishopric]
*[http://www.people-travels.com/uzbekistan-cities/samarkand/ Samarkand: Photos, History, Sights], Useful information for travelers
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20180818044736/http://samarkand.com/samarkand/about-samarkand-uzbekistan/ About Samarkand in Uzbekistan Latest] (archived 18 August 2018)
* [https://damda.uz/en/blog/medrese-tillya-kori Tilla-Kori Madrasa was included in the UNESCO World Heritage List] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190702062426/https://damda.uz/en/blog/medrese-tillya-kori |date=2019-07-02 }}

{{S-start}}
{{s-bef|before=-}}
{{s-ttl|title=Capital of the [[Samanid Empire]]|years=819–892}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Bukhara]]}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Gurganj]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=Capital of [[Khwarazmian Empire]] |years=1212–1220}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Ghazni|Ghazna]]}}
{{s-bef|before=-}}
{{s-ttl|title=Capital of the [[Timurid Empire]]|years=1370–1405}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Herat]]}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Bukhara]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=Capital of the [[Uzbek SSR]]|years=1925–1930}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Tashkent]]}}
{{S-end}}
{{Samarqand Region}}
{{Cities in Uzbekistan}}
{{Tourist attractions in Uzbekistan}}
{{Iranian Architecture}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Samarkand| ]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Uzbekistan]]
[[Category:Cities in Uzbekistan]]
[[Category:Former capitals of Iran]]
[[Category:Former national capitals]]
[[Category:Populated places along the Silk Road]]
[[Category:Populated places established in the 1st millennium BC]]
[[Category:Populated places in Samarqand Region]]
[[Category:Samarkand Oblast]]
[[Category:Sasanian cities]]
[[Category:Sogdian cities]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in Uzbekistan]]