View source for Samanid Empire

{{Short description|819–999 Sunni Iranian empire in Central Asia}}
{{Infobox country
| native_name            = سامانیان
| conventional_long_name = Samanid Empire
| common_name            = Samanid Empire
| era                    = [[Middle Ages]]
| status                 = 
| status_text            = 
| empire                 = 
| government_type        = [[Hereditary monarchy]]
| year_start             = 819
| year_end               = 999
| event_start            = 
| date_start             = 
| event_end              = 
| date_end               =
| p1                     = Saffarid dynasty
| flag_p1                = 
| p2                     = Abbasid Caliphate
| flag_p2                = 
| p3                     = Alid dynasties of northern Iran
| flag_p3                = 
| p4                     = Banijurids
| flag_p4                = 
| p5                     = Bukhar Khudahs
| flag_p5                = 
| p6                     = Principality of Ushrusana
| flag_p6                = 
| p7                     = Principality of Farghana
| flag_p7                = 
| p8                     = Sogdia
| s1                     = Ghaznavid dynasty
| flag_s1                = 
| s2                     = Karakhanids
| flag_s2                = 
| s3                     = Banu Ilyas
| flag_s3                = 
| s4                     = Farighunids
| flag_s4                = 
| s5                     = Muhtajids
| flag_s5                = 
| s6                     = Buyid dynasty
| flag_s6                = 
| image_flag             = 
| flag                   = 
| flag_type              = 
| image_coat             = 
| image_map              = Map of the Samanid amirate at the death of Nasr II, 943.svg
| image_map_caption      = Extent of the Samanid realm at the death of [[Nasr II]] in 943
| capital                = {{plainlist|
* [[Samarkand]] (819–892)
* [[Bukhara]] (892–999)
}}
| common_languages       = {{plainlist|
*[[Persian language|Persian]] ([[lingua franca]], court, academia, literary),<ref>"Persian Prose Literature." World Eras. 2002. HighBeam Research. (September 3, 2012);"''Princes, although they were often tutored in Arabic and religious subjects, frequently did not feel as comfortable with the Arabic language and preferred literature in Persian, which was either their mother tongue—as in the case of dynasties such as the Saffarids (861–1003), Samanids (873–1005), and Buyids (945–1055)...''". [https://web.archive.org/web/20130502180821/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G2-3034700041.html]</ref>{{sfn|Daniel|2001|p=74}}{{sfn|Frye|1975|p=146}}{{sfn|Bergne|2007|p=6}}
*[[Arabic]] (theology, bureaucracy){{sfn|Frye|1975|p=145}}
}}
| religion               = [[Sunni Islam]]<br/> (minority religions:<br/>[[Shia Islam]],<br/> [[Zoroastrianism]]
| currency               = 
| leader1                = [[Ahmad ibn Asad]]
| leader2                = [[Abd al-Malik II (Samanid emir)|'Abd al-Malik II]]
| year_leader1           = 819–864/5
| year_leader2           = 999
| title_leader           = Amir ([[Emir]])
| stat_year1             = 928 est.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Turchin|first1=Peter|last2=Adams|first2=Jonathan M.|last3=Hall|first3=Thomas D | title = East-West Orientation of Historical Empires | journal = Journal of World-Systems Research|date=December 2006 |volume=12|issue=2 |page=222 |url=http://jwsr.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/jwsr/article/view/369/381|access-date=12 September 2016 |issn= 1076-156X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Taagepera|first=Rein|year=1997|title=Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia|journal=International Studies Quarterly|volume=41|issue=3|pages=475–504|doi=10.1111/0020-8833.00053|jstor=2600793|url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/3cn68807|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref name="OxfordArea">{{Cite book|last1=Bang|first1=Peter Fibiger|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9mkLEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA92|title=The Oxford World History of Empire: Volume One: The Imperial Experience|last2=Bayly|first2=C. A.|last3=Scheidel|first3=Walter|year=2020|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-977311-4|pages=92–94|language=en}}</ref>
| stat_area1             = 2850000
}}
{{History of Iran}}
The '''Samanid Empire''' ({{langx|fa|سامانیان|Sāmāniyān}}){{efn|Also known as the '''Samanian Empire''', '''Samanid dynasty''', '''Samanid amirate''', or simply as the '''Samanids'''.}} was a [[Persianate society|Persianate]] [[Sunni Islam|Sunni Muslim]] empire, ruled by a dynasty of [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]] ''[[dehqan]]'' origin, from 819 to 999. The empire was centred in [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]] and [[Transoxiana]], at its greatest extent included northeastern Iran and [[Central Asia]].

Four brothers: [[Nuh ibn Asad|Nuh]], [[Ahmad ibn Asad|Ahmad]], [[Yahya ibn Asad|Yahya]], and [[Ilyas ibn Asad|Ilyas]], founded the Samanid state. Each of them ruled territories under [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid suzerainty]]. In 892, [[Ismail Samani]], united the Samanids under his rule, thus effectively putting an end to the [[feudal]] system used by the Samanids. It was also under him that the Samanids became independent of the [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasids]]. However, by 945, the government had fallen under the de facto control of the Turkic military slave faction, and the Samanid family's authority had become purely symbolic.

The Samanid Empire is part of the [[Iranian Intermezzo]], which saw the creation of a Persianate culture and identity that brought Iranian speech and traditions into the fold of the [[Muslim world|Islamic world]]. This later contributed to the formation of the [[Turko-Persian tradition|Turko-Persian]] culture.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title = Turko-Persia in Historical Perspective|last = Canfield L.|first = Robert|publisher = Cambridge University Press|year = 2002|isbn = 978-0-521-52291-5|pages = 12 }}</ref>

The Samanids were patrons of the arts, leading to advancements in science and literature, and as a result attracted scholars such as [[Rudaki]], [[Ferdowsi]], and [[Avicenna]]. Under Samanid rule, [[Bukhara]], rivalled [[Baghdad]] in its glory.{{sfn|Daniel|2001|p=74}} Scholars note that the Samanids did more to revive [[Persian language]] and [[Persian culture|culture]] than did the [[Buyids]] or the [[Saffarids]], all the while continuing to use [[Arabic]] for science and religion. They considered themselves to be descendants of the [[Sasanian Empire]].{{sfn|Frye|1975|p=145–146}}{{sfn|Daniel|2001|p=74}} In a famous edict, the Samanids declare that "here, in this region, the language is Persian, and the kings of this realm are Persian kings."{{sfn|Daniel|2001|p=74}}

== History ==

=== Origins ===
The Samanid dynasty was founded by [[Saman Khuda]], his descendants became rulers of the Samanid Empire. He was a ''[[dehqan]]'' of Iranian origin from the village of Saman in [[Balkh province]],{{sfn|Bregel|2003|p=20}}{{sfn|Bosworth|1973|p=58}} in present-day northern Afghanistan.{{sfn|Bosworth|2004|p=162}} The earliest appearance of the Samanid family appears to be in [[Greater Khorasan]] rather than [[Transoxiana]].{{sfn|Frye|1975|p=136}} In some sources, the Samanids claimed to be descended from the [[House of Mihran]] of [[Bahram Chobin]].{{efn|Pourshariati refers to the Mihrans as Parthian,{{sfn|Pourshariati|2011|p=463}} while Frye refers to Bahram Chobin as Sasanian.{{sfn|Frye|1975|p=136}}}} This claim is further supported by a geographical treatise from the second half of the 8th century, compiled by five choirs (Togonians) and translated into the Tibetan language. In this chronicle, it is mentioned that the descendants of Bahram Chobin migrated to Balkh and settled there. According to Gumilev, they were considered the ancestors of the Samanids. This provides evidence of the claim even before the Samanid Empire existed.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Гумилев |first=Лев Николаевич |date=1967 |title=Древние тюрки |trans-title=Ancient Turks |publisher=Наука |pages=160–163 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KG4duQAACAAJ |language=ru |quote=P.160-161: .. "Fortunately, P. Pelliot’s expedition discovered a geographical treatise from the second half of the 8th century, compiled by five choirs (Togonians) and translated into Tibetan language." P.162-163: .. "The name gar-rga-pur consists of two words: "pur" – son (Persian), and Gar-rga – hag (Turkic) – crow. This is a calque from the Persian word "chubin" – crow 64, the nickname of Bahram Chubin in the court jargon of the time of Shah Hormizd 65. After his death, Bahram's descendants remained to live in Balkh, which in the 7th century was located within the Western Turkic Khaganate, they are considered the ancestors of the Samanids 66. Apparently, a handful of Persian emigrants who lived among the Turkuts in a privileged position were considered by contemporaries as one of the tribes that made up the Turkut.}}</ref> It has been claimed that the House of Saman belonged to the [[Oghuz Turks]], although the veracity is unlikely.{{sfn|Frye|1975|p=136}} Originally a Zoroastrian, Saman Khuda converted to Islam during the governorship of [[Asad ibn Abdallah al-Qasri]] in [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]], and named his oldest son as [[Asad ibn Saman]] in the governor's honour.{{sfn|Frye|1975|p=136}} In 819, the governor of Greater Khorasan, Ghassan ibn Abbad, rewarded the four sons of Asad ibn Saman for their aid against the rebel [[Rafi ibn al-Layth]]. [[Nuh ibn Asad]] received [[Samarkand]]; [[Ahmad ibn Asad]] received [[Farghana]]; [[Yahya ibn Asad]] received [[Tashkent]], and [[Ilyas ibn Asad]] received [[Herat]].{{sfn|Frye|1975|p=136}}

=== Rise ===

==== The Samanids in Herat (819–857) ====
{{Further|Anarchy at Samarra|Fifth Fitna}}
Ilyas died in 856, and his son [[Ibrahim ibn Ilyas]] became his successor. The [[Tahirid dynasty|Tahirid]] governor of Khorasan, [[Muhammad ibn Tahir]], subsequently appointed him as the commander of his army, and sent him on an expedition against the [[Saffarid dynasty|Saffarid]] ruler [[Ya'qub ibn al-Layth al-Saffar]] in [[Sistan]]. After facing defeat in battle near [[Pushang]] in 857, he fled to [[Nishapur]], only to be captured by Ya'qub al-Saffar and sent to Sistan as a hostage.{{sfn|Frye|1975|p=136}}

==== The Samanid dynasty in Transoxiana (819–892) ====
{{See also|Samanid Civil War of 888}}
[[File:Transoxiana 8th century.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.35|Map of [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]] and [[Transoxiana]].]]
In 839/40, Nuh seized [[Isfijab]] from the nomadic pagan Turks living in the steppe. Consequently, he had a wall constructed around the city to protect it from their attacks. He died in 841/2—his two brothers Yahya and Ahmad, were then appointed as the joint rulers of the city by the Tahirid governor of Khorasan.{{sfn|Frye|1975|p=136}} After Yahya died in 855, Ahmad took control over Châch, thus becoming the ruler of most of Transoxiana. He died in 864/5; his son [[Nasr I]] received Farghana and Samarkand, while his other son Ya'qub received Châch (areas around modern Tashkent/Chachkent).{{sfn|Frye|1975|p=137}}

Meanwhile, the Tahirids' authority had significantly weakened after suffering several defeats to Saffarid ruler Ya'qub al-Saffar. Hence, causing the Tahirids to lose their grip over the Samanids, who became more or less independent. Nasr I, used this opportunity to strengthen his authority by sending his brother [[Ismail Samani|Ismail]] to [[Bukhara]], which was in an unstable condition after suffering from raids by the [[Afrighids|Afrighid dynasty]] of [[Khwarazm]]. When Ismail reached the city, he was warmly received by its inhabitants, who saw him as one who could restore order.{{sfn|Frye|1975|p=137}}

After not so long, disagreement over where to distribute tax money caused a conflict between the brothers. Ismail was eventually victorious in the dynastic struggle and took control of the Samanid state. However, Nasr had been the one who had been invested with Transoxiana, and the Abbasid [[caliph]]s continued to recognize him as the rightful ruler.{{sfn|Blair|1992|p=27}} Because of this, Ismail continued to recognize his brother as well, but Nasr was completely powerless, a situation that would continue until his death in August 892.{{sfn|Frye|1975|p=137}}

=== Final unification and height of power (892–907) ===
[[File:13 Buhara Mavzolej Ismaila Samanija (2).JPG|thumb|right |upright=1.35|Picture of the [[Samanid Mausoleum]], the burial site of [[Ismail Samani]].]]
Following Nasr's death, Ismail moved the capital of the Samanid dynasty from Samarkand to Bukhara.{{sfn|de la Vaissière|2005|p=296}} A few months later the Saffarid emir, Ya'qub al-Saffar, also died and was succeeded by his brother [[Amr ibn al-Layth]], who saw himself as the heir of the Saffarids.{{sfn|Bosworth|1975|p=116}} In the spring of 900, Amr [[Battle of Balkh|clashed]] with Ismail near [[Balkh]], but was defeated and taken into captivity.{{sfn|Grousset|1991|p=142}} Ismail thereafter sent him to Baghdad, where he was executed.{{sfn|Frye|1975|p=138}} Ismail was thereafter recognized as the ruler of all of Khorasan and Transoxiana by the caliph.{{sfn|Frye|1975|p=138}} Furthermore, he also received the investiture over [[Tabaristan]], [[Ray, Iran|Ray]] and [[Isfahan]].{{sfn|Frye|1975|p=138}} It was also during this period that the Afrighid dynasty was forced into submission.{{sfn|Frye|1975|p=138}}

Before Ismail Samani's major victory against the Saffarids, he had made various expeditions in Transoxiana; in 892, he put an end to the [[Principality of Ushrusana]] by seizing all of its lands. During the same period, he put an end to the Bukhar Khudas in Bukhara. In 893, [[Ismail Samani]] invaded the territories of the [[Karluk Turks]], taking [[Taraz|Talas]] and converting the [[Church of the East|Nestorian]] church there into a mosque.<ref>Renee Grousset, ''The Empire of the Steppes:A History of Central Asia'', Transl. Naomi Walford, (Rutgers University Press, 1991), 142.</ref><ref>"Samanids", C. E. Bosworth, ''The Encyclopedia of Islam'', Vol. VIII, Ed. C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs and G. Lecomte, (E.J. Brill, 1995), 1026.</ref> The same year, he conducted a campaign to gather slaves, taking ten to fifteen thousand captives.<ref>{{cite book |title=Lost Enlightenment Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane |first=S. Frederick |last=Starr |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2015 |isbn=9780691165851 |page=233}}</ref>
The [[Samanid slave trade]] was the main trade income of the Samanid Empire, forming the base of economy of the state.<ref>Gangler, A., Gaube, H., Petruccioli, A. (2004). Bukhara, the Eastern Dome of Islam: Urban Development, Urban Space, Architecture and Population. Tyskland: Ed. Axel Menges. p. 39</ref>

In 900, Ismail sent an army under Muhammad ibn Harun al-Sarakhsi against [[Muhammad ibn Zayd]], the [[Alid dynasties of northern Iran|Zaydi]] ruler of Tabaristan and [[Gorgan]]. The invasion was successful; Muhammad ibn Zayd was killed and Tabaristan was conquered by the Samanids. However, Muhammad ibn Harun shortly revolted, forcing Ismail himself to invade the region the following year. Muhammad ibn Harun thereafter fled to [[Daylam]], while Ismail reconquered Tabaristan and Gorgan.{{sfn|Frye|1975|p=140}} In 901, [[Amr ibn al-Layth|Amr Saffari]] was defeated at the battle of Balkh by the Samanids, which reduced the Saffarid dynasty to a minor tributary in Sistan.{{sfn|Bosworth|1968|p=35}} It was during this period that the Samanids were at their height of power, ruling as far as [[Qazvin]] in the west<ref name="iranicaonline.org">{{cite web |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/esmail-b-ahmad-b-asad-samani |title=ESMĀʿĪL, b. Aḥmad b. Asad SĀMĀNĪ, ABŪ EBRĀHĪM |last1=Bosworth |first1=C. Edmund |author-link1=Clifford Edmund Bosworth |date=15 December 1998 |website=Encyclopædia Iranica |access-date=24 January 2015}}</ref> and [[Peshawar]] in the east.

Ismail is known in history as a competent general and a strong ruler; many stories about him are written in Arabic and Persian sources. Furthermore, because of his campaigns in the north, his empire was so safe from enemy incursions that the defences of Bukhara and Samarkand went unused. However, this later had consequences; at the end of the dynasty, the walls—earlier strong, but now falling apart—were greatly missed by the Samanids, who were constantly under attack by the [[Karakhanids]] and other enemies.{{sfn|Frye|1975|p=140}}

Ismail died in November 907, and was succeeded by his son [[Ahmad Samani]] (r. 907–914).

=== Intermediate period (907–961) ===
{{Continental Asia in 900 CE|right|The Samanids and main Asian polities {{c.|900}} }}
Not long after his accession, Ahmad invaded Sistan; by 911, Sistan was under complete Samanid control, and Ahmad's cousin [[Abu Salih Mansur]] was appointed as its governor. Meanwhile, an [[Alids|Alid]] named [[Hasan al-Utrush]] was slowly re-establishing Zaydi over Tabaristan. In 913, Ahmad sent an army under Muhammad ibn Sa'luk to deal with him. Although the Samanid army was much larger, Hasan managed to emerge victorious. Ahmad, before he could plan another expedition to Tabaristan, was the following year murdered by some of his slaves in a tent near Bukhara.{{sfn|Frye|1975|p=141}} During his reign, Ahmad is also said to have replaced the language of the court from Persian to [[Arabic]], which made him unpopular among his subjects, and forced him to change it back to Persian. After Ahmad's death, his eight-year-old son [[Nasr II]] (r. 914–943) succeeded him.
[[File:NasrIISamanidCoinHistoryofIran.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|right |Coin of [[Nasr II]], minted in [[Nishapur]] (933/4).]]
Due to Nasr's youth, his prime minister [[Abu Abdallah Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Jayhani|Abu 'Abd-Allah al-Jaihani]] took care over most of the state affairs. Jaihani was not only an experienced administrator, but also a prominent geographer and greatly educated man. Almost right after Nasr II had ascended the throne, several revolts erupted, the most dangerous one being under his paternal grand-uncle, Ishaq ibn Ahmad, who seized Samarkand and began minting coins there, while his son Abu Salih Mansur seized [[Nishapur]] and several cities in Khorasan. Ishaq was eventually defeated and captured, while Abu Salih Mansur died of natural causes in 915.{{sfn|Frye|1975|p=141}} Some time later Nasr II once again had to deal with rebels; in 919, the governor of Khorasan, Husayn ibn Ali Marvarrudhi, rebelled against Samanid authority. Nasr responded by sending an army under [[Ahmad ibn Sahl]] to suppress the rebellion, which the latter managed to accomplish. After a few weeks, however, Ahmad shortly rebelled himself at Nishapur, made incursions into Gorgan, and then fortified himself in [[Merv]] to avoid a Samanid counter-attack. Nevertheless, the Samanid general Hamuya ibn Ali managed to lure Ahmad out of Merv, and defeated him in a battle at [[Marw al-Rudh]]; he was captured and imprisoned in Bukhara, where he remained until his death in 920.

At considerable expense, Nasr II b. Ahmad erected a new palace for himself and for his officials in Bukhara, in the ancient Rigistan region.{{sfn|Marlow|2015|p=35}} In the west, Nasr II clashed several times with [[Daylamite]] and [[Gilaki people|Gilite]] rulers. In 921, the Zaydids under the Gilite ruler [[Lili ibn al-Nu'man]] invaded Khorasan, but were defeated by the [[Simjurids|Simjurid]] general [[Simjur al-Dawati]]. Later in 930, a Dailamite military leader, [[Makan ibn Kaki]], seized Tabaristan and Gurgan, and even took possession of Nishapur in western Khorasan. He was, however, forced to withdraw back to Tabaristan one year later, due to the threat that Samanids posed.{{sfn|Nazim|1987|p=164}}{{sfn|Madelung|1975|pp=211–212}} Makan then returned to Tabaristan, where he was defeated by the [[Ziyarid]] ruler [[Mardavij]], who managed to conquer the region.{{sfn|Nazim|1987|p=164}}{{sfn|Madelung|1975|p=212}} In 935, Nasr II re-established Samanid control in Gurgan and made Mardavij's successor [[Vushmgir]] his vassal. However, in 939 he declared independence, but was defeated the following year at [[Battle of Iskhabad|Iskhabad]].

In 943 several Samanid army officers, angry at Nasr's support of [[Isma'ili]] missionaries, formed a conspiracy to murder him. Nasr's son [[Nuh I]], however, learned of the conspiracy. He went to a banquet designed to organize the plot and had the head of their leader cut off. To appease the other officers, he promised to stop the Isma'ili missionaries from continuing their activities. He then convinced his father to abdicate, who died of [[tuberculosis]] after a few months.<ref>''A new text on Ismailism at the Samanid court'', Patricia Crone and Luke Treadwell, '''Texts, documents, and artefacts:Islamic Studies in Honour of D.S. Richards''', ed. Chase F. Robinson, (Brill, 2003), 46.</ref>

Right when Nuh I ascended the throne, a revolt erupted in Khwarazm, which he managed to suppress. Later in 945, he had to deal with the [[Muhtajids|Muhtajid]] ruler [[Abu 'Ali Chaghani]], who refused to relinquish his post as governor of Khorasan to [[Ibrahim ibn Simjur]]. Abu 'Ali Chaghani then rebelled, and was joined by several prominent figures such as [[Abu Mansur Muhammad]], whom he appointed as his commander-in-chief. In 947, he installed Nuh's uncle [[Ibrahim ibn Ahmad]] as ''amir'' in Bukhara. Abu 'Ali Chaghani then returned to his domains in [[Chaghaniyan]]. Ibrahim, however, was unpopular with the people of Bukhara, and Nuh soon retaliated by retaking the city and blinding Ibrahim and two brothers.

When Abu Ali Chaghani received the news of the re-capture of Bukhara, he once again marched towards it, but was defeated by an army sent by Nuh and withdrew back to Chaghaniyan. After some time, he left the region and tried to obtain support from other Samanid vassals. Meanwhile, Nuh had Chaghaniyan ravaged{{sfn|Bosworth|2011|p=63}} and its capital sacked.{{sfn|Frye|1975|pp=149–151}} Another battle shortly ensued between Abu 'Ali Chaghani and a Samanid army in [[Tukharistan]], which resulted in a Samanid victory. Fortunately for Abu Ali Chaghani, he managed to secure the support of other Samanid vassals, such as the rulers of [[Khuttal]], and the Kumiji [[mountain people]], but in the end made peace with Nuh, who allowed him to keep Chaghaniyan in return for sending his son Abu'l Muzaffar Abdallah as hostage to Bukhara.{{sfn|Bosworth|2011|p=63}}{{sfn|Bosworth|1984|pp=764–766}}
[[File:Iran in 10th century AD.png|thumb|right|upright=1.35|[[Iran]] in the mid-10th century.]]
By 945, the Turkic military slave faction (who were formerly recruited by the Samanid rulers in positions of governance) were fully in charge of the government. By this time, the Samanid family only held nominal power; similar to how the [[Buyids]] held de facto power over the [[Abbasid Caliphate]] around the same time.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hansen |first=Valerie |title=The Year 1000 |publisher=Penguin Random House |year=2020 |pages=150 |language=en}}</ref>

[[Alp Tigin]], nominal vassal of the Samanids, conquered Ghazna in 962 from the Lawik dynasty.<ref>Gardīzī, ed. Ḥabībī, pp. 161–62; Jūzjānī, Ṭabaqāt, I, pp. 226–27; Neẓām-al-Molk, pp. 142–58; Šabānkāraʾī, pp. 29–34;</ref>{{sfn|Bosworth|1965|pp=16–21}}{{full citation needed|date=December 2024}} The fifth of these commanders was Sebüktigin, who governed Ḡazna for twenty years till 387 AH/997 CE with the title (as it appears from his tomb inscription{{sfn|Flury||pp=62–63}}{{full citation needed|date=December 2024}}) of al-ḥājeb al-ajall (most noble commander). He would later be the founder of an independent dynasty based in Ghazna, following the decline of the Samanid Empire in the 990s.<ref>[http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ghaznavids "GHAZNAVIDS"] ''[[Encyclopædia Iranica]]''. Retrieved 17 August 2014</ref>

=== Decline and fall (961–999) ===
{{Main|Karakhanid–Samanid wars|Ghaznavid-Samanid war}}

[[File:Perso-Islamic world 998 AD.png|thumb|The Samanids in 998 shortly before its fall in 999 AD.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fisher |first=William Bayne |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=16yHq5v3QZAC |title=The Cambridge History of Iran |last2=Boyle |first2=J. A. |date=1968 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-06936-6 |volume=5 |pages=2 |language=en}}</ref>]]
The power of the Samanids began to crumble in the latter half of the 10th century. In 962, one of the [[Ghilman|ghulams]], [[Alp Tigin]], commander of the army in Khorasan, seized [[Ghazna]] and established himself there.<ref name="sinor">{{citation |year=1990|title=The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia|editor-last=Sinor|editor-first=Denis|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-24304-9}}</ref> His successors, however, including [[Sabuktigin]], continued to rule as Samanid "governors". With the weakened Samanids facing rising challenges from the [[Kara-Khanid Khanate|Karakhanids]] for control of [[Transoxiana]], Sabuktigin later took control of all the provinces south of the Oxus and established the [[Ghaznavids|Ghaznavid Empire]].{{Citation needed|date=September 2025}}

In 992, a [[Kara-Khanid dynasty|Karakhanid]], Harun Bughra Khan, grandson of the paramount tribal chief of the [[Karluks|Karluk]] confederation [[Sultan Satuq Bughra Khan]], captured [[Bukhara]], the Samanid capital.<ref name="UNESCO">{{citation|last=Davidovich |first=E.A. |year=1998 |title=History of Civilisations of Central Asia|editor-last=Asimov |editor-first=M.S. |editor2-last=Bosworth |editor2-first=C.E. |volume=4 part I |chapter=Chapter 6 The Karakhanids |pages=119–144 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |isbn=978-92-3-103467-1}}</ref> Harun died shortly afterwards, however, and the Samanids returned to Bukhara. In 999, Nasr b. Ali, a nephew of Harun, returned and took possession of Bukhara, meeting little resistance. The Samanid domains were split up between the [[Ghaznavids]], who gained [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]], and the [[Karakhanids]], who received [[Transoxiana]]; the [[Oxus River]] thus became the boundary between the two rival empires.<ref name="Bos106">{{cite book |last1=Bosworth |first1=C.E. |year=1998 |title=History of Civilizations of Central Asia |editor-last=Asimov |editor-first=M.S. |editor2-last=Bosworth |editor2-first=C.E. |volume=4 part I |chapter=The Ghaznavids |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |isbn=978-92-3-103467-1 |page=106 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=18eABeokpjEC&pg=PA99 |quote="An agreement was reached at this point with the Karakhanid Ilig Nasr [[Ali Arslan Khan|b. Ali]] making the Oxus the boundary between the two empires [the Karakhanids and the Ghaznavids], for the shrunken Samanid amirate came to an inglorious end when the Ilig occupied Bukhara definitively in 999"}}</ref>

=== Isma'il Muntasir's attempt to resurrect the Samanid state (1000–1005) ===
{{Unreferenced section|date=July 2025}}[[File:Isma'il Muntasir.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.15|"Battle Between Abu’l-Qasim and the Samanid Muntasir", 14th century illustration.<ref>{{cite web |title=Abu'l Qasim and the Samanid King Al-Muntasir about to engage in battle over territory in Central Asia |url=https://dlme-prod-lb.stanford.edu/ar/library/catalog/harvard_scw-10241 |last=Jami' al-tawarikh |publisher=Stanford University |year=1314 }}</ref>]]
[[Isma'il Muntasir]] was the youngest son of Nuh II—he was imprisoned by the Karakhanids after their conquest of Bukhara in 999. Some time later, Isma'il managed to escape to Khwarazm, where he gained support. Driving the Karakhanids out of Bukhara, he then moved on to and captured Samarkand. The approach of the Karakhanid army, however, forced Isma'il to give up all of his possessions, following which he travelled to Khorasan, where he captured Nishapur. Mahmud's army, however, made its way to the region, and Isma'il decided it necessary to flee again.

In 1003 Isma'il came back to Transoxiana, where he requested and received assistance from the Oghuz Turks of the [[Zarafshon|Zarafshan]] valley. They defeated the Karakhanids in several battles, even when Nasr Khan was involved. For various reasons, however, Isma'il came to feel that he could not rely on the Oghuz to restore him, so he went back to Khorasan. He tried to gain Mahmud's support for a campaign to restore the Samanid state, but failed. Some time afterwards, he returned to the Zarafshan valley, where he gained the support of the Oghuz and others. A Karakhanid army was defeated in May 1004, but subsequently the Oghuz deserted Isma'il during another battle, and his army fell apart.

Fleeing to Khorasan yet again, Isma'il attempted to reenter Transoxiana in the end of 1004. The Karakhanids stopped this and Isma'il was nearly killed. Following this, he sought the hospitality of an [[Arab]] tribe near [[Merv]]. Their chief, however, killed Isma'il in 1005. His death marked the defeat of the last attempt to restore the Samanid state. Descendants of the Samanid family continued to live in Transoxiana where they were well regarded, but their power was relatively broken.

=== Iranian intermezzo ===
Along with several other states, the Samanid Empire was part of the [[Iranian Intermezzo]], or "Persian renaissance". This period has been described as having a key importance in the formation of the Islamic civilization, both politically and culturally. In political terms, it saw an effective break up of the [[Abbasid|Abbasid power]] and the rise of several successor states such as the Samanids and Buyids while in cultural terms, it witnessed the rise of new Persian as an administrative and literary language.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OeiKDwAAQBAJ&q=Medieval+Central+Asia+and+the+Persianate+World%2C+A.C.S.+Peacock%2C+D.G.+Tor%2C+Iranian+Intermezzo&pg=PR19|title=Medieval Central Asia and the Persianate World: Iranian Tradition and Islamic Civilisation|last1=Peacock|first1=A. C. S.|last2=Tor|first2=D. G.|date=2017-08-30|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|isbn=978-0-85772-743-5|language=en|page=xix}}</ref>

== Culture ==

=== Government ===
[[File:Mansur I.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Silver medallion of the Samanid ruler [[Mansur I]] with bilingual Middle Persian and Arabic minted in [[Bukhara]].<br>''Obverse'' in Middle Persian: ''khvarrah apzut shahanshah'' "the [[King of Kings]] has increased the royal splendor"<br>''Reverse'' in Arabic: ''la ilaha illa allah wahdahu la sharik lahu muhammad rasul allah al-muti' lillah al-malik al-muzaffar mansur bin nuh "There is no god but [[Allah]], the One, there is no partner to Him, [[Muhammad]] is the messenger of Allah, [[al-Muti'|al-Muti' lillah]], the victorious king, Mansur son of [[Nuh I|Nuh]].'']]
The system of the Samanid state was modelled after the Abbasid system,{{sfn|Frye|1975|p=143}} which in turn was modelled after the Sasanian system.{{sfn|Frye|1975|p=146}}{{sfn|Shahbazi|2005}} The ruler of the state was the ''[[amir]]'', and the provinces were governed by appointed governors or local [[vassal]] rulers.{{sfn|Frye|1975|p=143}} The administrative, political and economic affairs were administered by the ''[[divan]]'', and the Samanid bureaucracy used Arabic in its diplomatic discourses.<ref>{{cite book |title=Lost Enlightenment Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane |first=S. Frederick |last=Starr |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2015 |isbn=9780691165851 |page=234 }}</ref> The economy was managed by the ''mustawfi'', diplomatic correspondence and important state papers by the ''diwanal-rasa'il'', and the royal guard and military affairs by the ''[[sahib al-shurta]]''.{{sfn|Negmatov|1998|p=86}} The main responsibility of both governors and local rulers was to collect taxes and support the Samanid ruler with troops if needed. The most important province in the Samanid Empire was Khorasan, which was initially given to a relative of the Samanid ruler or a local Iranian prince (such as the [[Muhtajids]]), but was later given to one of his most trusted slaves. The governor of Khorasan was normally the ''[[Sepahsālār|sipah-salar]]'' (commander-in-chief).{{sfn|Frye|1975|p=143}}

Like in the Abbasid Caliphate, Turkic slaves could rise to high office in the Samanid state, which would sometimes give them enough power to nearly make the ruler their puppet.{{sfn|Frye|1975|p=143}}

=== Cultural and religious efforts ===
The Samanids revived [[Persian culture]] by patronizing [[Rudaki]],<ref>{{cite book |chapter=Mihragan |author=J. Calmard |title=The Encyclopedia of Islam |volume=VII |editor1=C. E. Bosworth |editor2=E. van Donzel |editor3=W. P. Heinrichs |editor4=C. Pellat |publisher=Brill |year=1993 |page=18}}</ref> [[Bal'ami]] and [[Daqiqi]].<ref>{{cite book |first=C.E. |last=Bosworth |title=The Ghaznavids: 994–1040 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=1963 |page=131}}</ref> The Samanids determinedly propagated Sunni Islam, and repressed [[Ismaili]] Shiism<ref>An Ismaili Heresiography: The "Bab Al-Shaytan" from Abu Tammam's Kitab Al ... By Wilferd Madelung, Paul Ernest Walker, p. 5.</ref> but were more tolerant of [[Twelver]] Shiism.{{sfn|Daniel|2001|p=74}} Islamic architecture and Islamo-Persian culture was spread deep into the heartlands of [[Central Asia]] by the Samanids. Following the first complete translation of the Qur'an into Persian in the 9th century, populations under the Samanid empire began accepting Islam in significant numbers.<ref>{{cite book |author=Michael Dillon |title=Xinjiang: China's Muslim far Northwest |publisher=Routledge |location=Curzon |year=2004 |page=11}}</ref> The arabization of the Samanids was clearly minimal compared to the almost entirely arabized Tahirids.{{sfn|Bosworth|1973|p=58}} Despite Arabic literature and science flourishing in the Samanid Empire, its distance from Baghdad allowed the Samanids to be a crucial element in the renaissance of New Persian language and culture.{{sfn|Bosworth|1973|p=58}} This Persianate culture variant was the first to use a language besides Arabic in Islamic culture.{{sfn|Donner|1999|p=39–40}}

Although the Zoroastrian population had previously been suppressed by the Abbasid Caliphate,<ref>Marietta Stepaniants, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 52, No. 2 (Apr. 2002), pp. 166</ref> according to Al-Masudi, the Samanid empire{{efn|Specifically [[Kerman province|Kirman]], [[Sijistan]], and [[Khorasan province|Khorasan]]}}<ref name="Arnold1896" /> still had fire-temples that were still being venerated by the present Zoroastrian population.<ref name="Arnold1896">T.W. Arnold, ''The Preaching of Islam: A History of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith'', (Archibald Constable & Co, 1896), pp. 179-180 and [https://www.muslim-library.com/dl/books/english_The_Preaching_Of_Islam.pdf] on pp 161</ref> Despite the fact that the Samanids professed Sunni Islam, however, they were much more tolerant towards its Zoroastrian population than the previous empires.<ref>The Wiley Blackwell Companion to Zoroastrianism, eds. M. Stausberg & Y. S.-D. Vevaina, 2015, pp. 112</ref>

Through zealous missionary work as many as 30,000 tents of [[Turkic peoples|Turks]] came to profess Islam and later under the Ghaznavids more than 55,000 under the [[Hanafi]] school of thought. The mass conversion of the Turks to Islam eventually led to a growing influence of the [[Ghaznavids]], who would later rule the region.{{citation needed|date=March 2021}}

Under [[Nuh II]], a Hanafi work, which was being used to contest Ismailism, was translated into Persian.<ref>{{cite book |title=Arabs and Iranians in the Islamic Conquest Narrative: Memory and Identity Construction in Islamic Historiography, 750-1050 |first=Scott |last=Savran |publisher=Routledge |year=2017 |isbn=9780415749688 |page=45 }}</ref>

Agriculture and trading were the economic bases of the Samanid State. The Samanids heavily engaged in trade with [[Europe]]. Thousands of Samanid coins have been found in the [[Baltic region|Baltic]] and [[Scandinavia]].<ref>{{cite book |title=History of Bukhara |author=Narshakhi |translator=Richard N. Frye |page=143}}</ref>

=== Literature ===
[[File:Balami - Tarikhnama - Abu'l-'Abbas al-Saffah is proclaimed the first 'Abbasid Caliph (cropped).jpg|upright=1.5|thumb |Early 14th century copy of the Samanid-period [[Tarikhnama]] of Bal'ami (d. 992–997 CE) depicting al-Saffah (r. 750–754) as he receives pledges of allegiance in Kufa. This is the earliest known extant prose book in the Persian language.]]
[[File:Balami - Tarikhnama - The arrow of old Wahraz kills Masruq, the Ethiopian King of Yemen (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=1.5 |Early 14th century copy of the Samanid-period ''[[Tarikhnama]]'' of [[Muhammad Bal'ami|Bal'ami]], with [[Persian miniature]] depicting the arrow of old Wahraz killing [[Masruq ibn Abraha|Masruq]], the Ethiopian king of Yemen.]]
During the 9th and 10th centuries, there was a large amount of growth in literature, mostly in poetry. It was during the Samanid period that [[Persian literature]] appeared in Transoxiana and was formally recognized.{{sfn|Litvinsky|1998|p=97}} The advancement of an Islamic New Persian literature thus started in Transoxiana and Khorasan instead of [[Fars province|Fars]], the homeland of the Persians. The best known poets of the Samanid period were [[Rudaki]] (d. 941), [[Daqiqi]] (d. 977) and [[Ferdowsi]] (d. 1020).{{sfn|Litvinsky|1998|p=97}}

Although Persian was the most-favored language, Arabic continued to enjoy a high status and was still popular among the members of the Samanid family.{{sfn|Litvinsky|1998|p=97}} For example, [[Al-Tha'ālibī|al-Tha'alibi]] wrote an Arabic anthology named ''Yatimat al-Dahr'' ("The Unique Pearl"). The fourth section of the anthology included a detailed account of the poets that lived under the Samanids. It also states that the poets of Khwarazm mostly wrote in Arabic.{{sfn|Litvinsky|1998|p=97}}

The acknowledged founder of Persian classical poetry, and a man of great perception, was Rudaki, who was born in the village of [[Rudaki, Tajikistan|Panjrudak]], which is today part of the [[Panjakent District]] in [[Tajikistan]].{{sfn|Litvinsky|1998|p=97}} Rudaki was already becoming popular during his early years, due to his poems, his voice, and his great skill in using the [[Chang (instrument)|chang]] (an Iranian instrument similar to the [[harp]]). He was shortly invited to the Samanid court, where he stayed almost the rest of his life. Fewer than 2,000 lines of his poetry have survived, but are enough to prove his great poetic skills—he perfected every basic verse form of medieval Persian poetry: ''mathnawi'', ''[[qasida]]'', ''[[ghazal]]'' and ''[[ruba'i]]''.{{sfn|Litvinsky|1998|p=98}}

<div style="text-align: center;">
"Look at the cloud, how it cries like a grieving man
: Thunder moans like a lover with a broken heart.
: Now and then the sun peeks from behind the clouds
: Like a prisoner hiding from the guard."&nbsp;– Rudaki
</div>

Another prominent poet was [[Shahid Balkhi]], born in the village of Jakhudanak near Balkh. Not much is known about his life, but he is mentioned as being one of the best poets in the court of Nasr II, and one of the best scholars of the age. He was also a student of Rudaki, and had close relations with him. He died in 936, a few years before Rudaki's death. His death saddened Rudaki, who afterwards wrote an emotional [[elegy]] about him.{{sfn|Litvinsky|1998|p=98}}

Daqiqi, who was a native of [[Tus, Iran|Tus]], began his career at the court of the [[Muhtajids|Muhtajid]] ruler Abu'l Muzaffar ibn Muhammad in [[Chaghaniyan]], and was later invited to the Samanid court.{{sfn|Litvinsky|1998|p=98}} Under the Samanids, a special interest arose in ancient Iranian legends and heroic traditions, thus inspiring Daqiqi to write the [[Shahnameh]] ("The Book of Kings"), a long [[epic poem]] based on the history of the Iranians. However, by his death in 977, he had only managed to complete a small part of it, which was about the conflict between [[Vishtaspa|Gushtasp]] and [[Arjasp]].{{sfn|Litvinsky|1998|p=98}}

However, the most prominent poet of that age was Ferdowsi, born in Tus in 940 to a ''dehqan'' family. It was during his youth that there was a period of growth under the Samanids. The rapid growth of interest in ancient Iranian history made him continue the work of Daqiqi, completing the Shahnameh in 994, only a few years before the fall of the Samanid Empire. He later completed a second version of the Shahnameh in 1010, which he presented to the Ghaznavid Sultan Mahmud. However, his work was not as appreciated by the Ghaznavids as it had been by the Samanids.{{sfn|Litvinsky|1998|p=98}}

=== Population ===
Under the Samanid Empire, the [[Zarafshon|Zarafshan]] valley, [[Qashqadaryo Region|Kashka Darya]] and [[Usrushana]] were populated by [[Sogdia]]ns; [[Tukharistan]] by the Bactrians; [[Khwarezm]] by the Khwarazmians; the [[Fergana Valley|Ferghana valley]] by the Ferghanans; southern [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]] by Khorasanians; and the [[Pamir mountains]] and environs by the [[Saka]] and other early Iranian peoples. All these groups were of Iranian ethnicity and spoke dialects of [[Middle Iranian]] and [[New Persian]]. In the words of Negmatov, "they were the basis for the emergence and gradual consolidation of what became an Eastern Persian-Tajik ethnic identity."{{sfn|Litvinsky|1998|p=101}}

=== Language ===
[[File:Persian notes on Quranic booklets, written by a native of Tūs called Ahmad Khayqānī (905 CE).jpg|thumb|upright|Persian notes on [[Quran]]ic booklets, written by a native of [[Tus, Iran|Tus]] called Ahmad Khayqani in 292 AH (905 CE).]]
[[File:کتاب الابنیه عن الحقایق الادویه، برگی از دستنویس محفوظ در کتابخانه ملی اتریش در وین (rot).jpg|thumb|upright|A page from a manuscript of "Kitab al-Abniya 'an Haqa'iq al-Adwiya" by [[Abu Mansur Muwaffaq]], Copied by [[Asadi Tusi]] in 447 AH (1055 CE).]]
Ferghana, Samarkand, and Bukhara were starting to be linguistically [[Persian language|Persianized]] in originally Khwarazmian and Sogdian areas during Samanid rule.<ref name="NourzhanovBleuer2013">{{cite book|author1=Kirill Nourzhanov|author2=Christian Bleuer|title=Tajikistan: A Political and Social History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nR6oAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA30|date=8 October 2013|publisher=ANU E Press|isbn=978-1-925021-16-5 |page=30}}</ref> The Persian language spread and led to the extinction of Eastern Iranian languages like [[Bactrian language|Bactrian]] and [[Khwarezmian language|Khwarezmian]] with only a tiny amount of [[Sogdian language|Sogdian]]-descended [[Yaghnobi language|Yaghnobi]] speakers remaining among the now Persian-speaking Tajik population of Central Asia. This was due to the fact that the Arab-Islamic army which invaded Central Asia at the time also included some Persians who later governed the region like the Samanids.{{sfn|Bergne|2007|p=5}} Persian was rooted into Central Asia by the Samanids.{{sfn|Bergne|2007|p=6}}

=== Intellectual life ===
In the 9th and 10th centuries, intellectual life in Transoxiana and Khorasan reached a high level. In the words of N.N. Negmatov, "It was inevitable that the local Samanid dynasty, seeking support among its literate classes, should cultivate and promote local cultural traditions, literacy and literature."{{sfn|Litvinsky|1998|p=93}}

The main Samanid towns&nbsp;– [[Bukhara]], [[Samarkand]], [[Balkh]], [[Merv]], [[Nishapur]], [[Khujand]], [[Bunjikath]], [[Hulbuk]], [[Termez]] and others, became the major cultural centres under the state. Scholars, poets, artists and other men of education from many Muslim countries assembled in the Samanid capital of Bukhara, where a rich soil was created for the prosper of creative thought, thus making it one of the most distinguished cultural centres of the Eastern world. An outstanding library known as ''Siwān al-Hikma'' ("Storehouse of Wisdom") was put together in Bukhara, known for its various types of books.{{sfn|Litvinsky|1998|p=94}}

=== Arts ===
Due to extensive excavations at [[Nishapur]], Iran, in the mid-twentieth century, Samanid pottery is well-represented in Islamic art collections around the world. These ceramics are largely made from [[earthenware]] and feature either calligraphic inscriptions of Arabic proverbs, or colorful figural decorations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Grube|first=Ernst J.|date=February 1965|title=The Art of Islamic Pottery|journal=The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin|volume=23|issue=6|pages=209–228|doi=10.2307/3258167|issn=0026-1521|jstor=3258167}}</ref> The Arabic proverbs often speak to the values of "Adab" culture—hospitality, generosity, and modesty.<ref>Pancaroglu, Oya. "Serving wisdom: The contents of Samanid epigraphic pottery." Studies in Islamic and Later Indian Art from the Arthur M. Sackler Museum, Harvard University Art Museum (2002): 58-68.</ref>

<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px" perrow="4">
File:Seljuk Islamic Art (28085489314).jpg|Lute player. Samanid (or [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuk]])<ref>{{cite book |last1=Walker |first1=Alicia |title=The Emperor and the World: Exotic Elements and the Imaging of Middle Byzantine Imperial Power, Ninth to Thirteenth Centuries C.E. |year=2012 |page=129, Fig. 53 |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511791895.007 |publisher=Cambridge University Press }}</ref> metal work, [[Khorezm]], 10th century. Islamic Art Museum (Museum für Islamische Kunst), Berlin.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Collinet |first1=Annabelle |title=Splendeurs des oasis d'Ouzbékistan |date=2022 |publisher=Louvre Editions |location=Paris |isbn=978-8412527858 |page=199}}</ref>

File:Simurgh platter. From Iran. Samanids dynasty. 9th-10th century CE. Islamic Art Museum (Museum für Islamische Kunst), Berlin (parallax).jpg|"[[Simurgh]] platter", Iran, Samanid dynasty. 9th-10th century. Islamic Art Museum (Museum für Islamische Kunst), Berlin.
File:Two Bowls with Figures and a Footed Plate with Birds MET DP258911.jpg|Example of figural earthenware ceramics from Samanid period. From [[Nishapur]], [[Iran]], 10th century CE.
File:Bowl with Arabic Inscription.jpg|Bowl with Arabic inscription "Planning before work protects you from regret; prosperity and peace", 10th century CE, [[Iran]].
</gallery>

== Legacy ==

In commending the Samanids, the epic Persian poet [[Ferdowsi]] says of them:

<blockquote>
کجا آن بزرگان ساسانیان<br />
ز بهرامیان تا به سامانیان
</blockquote>

: "Where have all the great [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanians]] gone?<br />From the [[Bahram V of Persia|Bahrāmids]] to the Samanids what has come upon?"
:
A Bukharan historian writing in 943 stated that [[Ismail Samani]]: <blockquote>was indeed worthy and right for [[padishah]]ship. He was an intelligent, just, compassionate person, one possessing reason and prescience...he conducted affairs with justice and good ethics. Whoever tyrannized people he would punish...In affairs of state he was always impartial.<ref>{{cite book|author=Edward Allworth|title=The Modern Uzbeks: from the fourteenth century to the present: a cultural history|publisher=Hoover Press|year=2013 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=beCoAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA19 |isbn=978-08-17-98733-6|page=19}}</ref></blockquote>

The celebrated scholar [[Nizam al-Mulk]], in his famous work ''[[Siyasatnama]]'', stated that Ismail Samani: <blockquote>was extremely just, and his good qualities were many. He had pure faith in God (to Him be power and glory) and he was generous to the poor&nbsp;– to name only one of his notable virtues.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6u_Dz-BrosQC&pg=PA14|page=14|title=The Book of Government, Or, Rules for Kings: The Siyar Al-Muluk, Or, Siyasat-nama of Nizam Al-Mulk |author=Niẓām al-Mulk|publisher=Psychology Press|year=2002 |isbn=978-07-00-71228-1}}</ref></blockquote>

== Tajiks and Samanids ==
Tajik nationalism has been the domain of the government elite. The Tajik regime has been rewriting history and in doing so, redefining its political system.<ref>{{Cite book |editor1=Chandra Lekha Sriram |editor2=Karin Wermester |title=From Promise to Practice Strengthening UN Capacities for the Prevention of Violent Conflict |publisher=L. Rienner Publishers |location=Boulder |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-58826-112-0 |pages=270 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kDVQwN-qBAcC&dq=%22the+regime+has+been+rewriting+tajik+history%22&pg=PA270}}</ref> And the "drive for 'authenticity" let to rewriting history to foreground the modern Tajiks connection of the 9th-century Samanids. And to portray them as Tajiks for, historical heritage competition with Uzbekistan.<ref>{{Cite book |editor1=Jeanne Féaux de la Croix |editor2=Madeleine Reeves |title=The Central Asian World |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wonVEAAAQBAJ&dq=%27samanid+empire+and+competion%27&pg=PA298 |date=25 October 2023 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-000-87589-8}}</ref> Tajik nationalist historians have sought to portray, the Samanid empire as the original "Tajik" state with Ismail Samani as its founder. It should be conceded that this claim is occasionally exaggerated and distorted.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Foltz |first=Richard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1ca6EAAAQBAJ&dq=ismoil+as+its+founding+figure&pg=PA156 |title=A History of the Tajiks Iranians of the East |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |year=2023 |isbn=9780755649679 |pages=156}}</ref> The Samanids would not have approved of their classification as Tajiks separate from the larger Persian-speaking community.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Transformation of Tajikistan: The Sources of Statehood |last1=Heathershaw |first1=John |last2=Herzig |first2=Edmund |publisher=Routledge |year=2013 |isbn=9781135697600 |editor-last=Heathershaw |editor-first=John |location=New York, NY |pages=xii |chapter=From Resettlement to Conflict: Development-Induced Involuntary Displacement and Violence in Tajikistan |editor-last2=Herzig |editor-first2=Edmund}}</ref>

== Samanid rulers ==
{|style="width:100%;" class="wikitable"
! style="background:#f0dc82; width:10%;"| Bukhara
! style="background:#f0dc82; width:10%;"| Samarkand
! style="background:#f0dc82; width:10%;"| Ferghana
! style="background:#f0dc82; width:10%;"| Shash
! style="background:#f0dc82; width:10%;"| Herat
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|
| colspan="4" style="text-align:center;"| [[Saman Khuda]]<br /> {{langx|fa| سامان خدا}}<br /> <small>(A Persian landowner from the village of Saman in [[Balkh]] province in northern [[Afghanistan]], he arrived in [[Merv]] to the court of the [[Umayyad]] governor of Khorasan, [[Asad ibn Abdallah al-Qasri]], under whose influence he became a Muslim and served the governor till his death. He was the founder of the Samanid dynasty)</small>
|
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|
| colspan="4" style="text-align:center;"| [[Asad ibn Saman]]<br /> {{langx|fa| اسد بن سامان}}<br />
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Nuh ibn Asad]]<br /> {{langx|fa| نوح بن اسد}}<br />819–841/2
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Ahmad ibn Asad]]<br /> {{langx|fa| احمد بن اسد}}<br />819–864/5
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Yahya ibn Asad]]<br /> {{langx|fa| یحییٰ بن اسد}}<br />819–855
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Ilyas ibn Asad]]<br /> {{langx|fa| الیاس بن اسد}}<br />819–856
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|
| colspan="3" style="text-align:center;"| [[Ahmad ibn Asad]]<br /> {{langx|fa| احمد بن اسد}}<br />819–864/5
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Ibrahim ibn Ilyas]]<br /> {{langx|fa| ابراهیم بن الیاس}}<br />856–867
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Isma'il ibn Ahmad|Abu Ibrahim Isma'il ibn Ahmad]]<br /> {{langx|fa|ابو ابراهیم اسماعیل بن احمد}}<br />892–907
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"|[[Nasr I]]<br /> {{langx|fa|نصر بن احمد}}<br />864–892
| style="text-align:center;"|Ya'qub ibn Ahmad<br /> {{langx|fa|یعقوب بن احمد}}<br />?
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Saffarids]]<br />
|-
| colspan="4" style="text-align:center;"| [[Isma'il ibn Ahmad|Abu Ibrahim Isma'il ibn Ahmad]]<br /> {{langx|fa|ابو ابراهیم اسماعیل بن احمد}}<br />892–907
| style="text-align:center;"|
|-
| colspan="4" style="text-align:center;"| [[Ahmad Samani|Ahmad ibn Isma'il]]<br /> {{langx|fa|احمد بن اسماعیل}}<br />907–914
| style="text-align:center;"|
|-
| colspan="4" style="text-align:center;"| [[Nasr II]]<br /> {{langx|fa|ابوالحسن نصر بن احمد}}<br />914–943
| style="text-align:center;"|
|-
| colspan="4" style="text-align:center;"| [[Nuh I]]<br /> {{langx|fa|نوح بن نصر}}<br />943–954
| style="text-align:center;"|
|-
| colspan="4" style="text-align:center;"| [[Ibrahim ibn Ahmad]]<br /> {{langx|fa|ابراهیم بن احمد}}<br />947
| style="text-align:center;"|
|-
| colspan="4" style="text-align:center;"| [[Abd al-Malik I (Samanid emir)|Abd al-Malik ibn Nuh I]]<br /> {{langx|fa|عبدالملک بن نوح}}<br />954–961
| style="text-align:center;"|
|-
| colspan="4" style="text-align:center;"| [[Mansur I|Abu Salih Mansur ibn Nuh I]]<br /> {{langx|fa|ابو صالح منصور بن نوح}}<br />961–976
| style="text-align:center;"|
|-
| colspan="4" style="text-align:center;"| [[Nuh II|Nuh ibn Mansur]]<br /> {{langx|fa|نوح بن منصور}}<br />976–997
| style="text-align:center;"|
|-
| colspan="4" style="text-align:center;"| [[Abd al-Aziz ibn Nuh|Abd al-Aziz]]<br /> {{langx|fa|عبدالعزیز}}<br />992
| style="text-align:center;"|
|-
| colspan="4" style="text-align:center;"| [[Mansur II|Abu'l-Harith Mansur ibn Nuh II]]<br /> {{langx|fa|ابو الحارث منصور بن نوح}}<br />997–999
| style="text-align:center;"|
|-
| colspan="4" style="text-align:center;"| [[Abd al-Malik II (Samanid emir)|Abd al-Malik ibn Nuh II]]<br /> {{langx|fa|عبدالمالک بن نوح}}<br /> 999
| style="text-align:center;"|
|-
| colspan="4" style="text-align:center;"| [[Isma'il Muntasir]] ibn Nuh II<br /> {{langx|fa| اسماعیل منتصر بن نوح}}<br />1000&nbsp;– 1005
| style="text-align:center;"|
|-
| colspan="6" align="center" | ?
|}

==See also==
*[[Iranian Intermezzo]]
*[[List of kings of Persia|List of kings of Iran]]
*[[List of Sunni Muslim dynasties]]
*[[Samanid Epigraphic Ware]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Sources ==
{{Commons category|Samanid Empire}}
{{refbegin}}
*{{cite book|last=Bergne|first=Paul|date=2007|title=The Birth of Tajikistan: National Identity and the Origins of the Republic |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3coojMwTKU8C|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=978-1-84511-283-7}}
*{{cite book |title=The Monumental Inscriptions from Early Islamic Iran and Transoxiana |editor-first=Sheila |editor-last=Blair |volume=V |publisher=E.J. Brill |year=1992 }}
*{{cite book |title=An Historical Atlas of Central Asia |publisher=Brill |year=2003 |first=Yuri |last=Bregel |volume=9 |isbn=9789004123212 }}
*{{cite journal|title=The Development of Persian Culture under the Early Ghaznavids |first=C. E. |last=Bosworth |journal=Iran |volume= 6 |pages=33–44 |year=1968 |doi=10.2307/4299599 |jstor=4299599 }}
*{{cite journal |title=The Heritage of Rulership in Early Islamic Iran and the Search for Dynastic Connections with the Past |first=C. E. |last=Bosworth |journal=Iran |volume=11 |year=1973 |pages=51–62 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |doi=10.2307/4300484 |jstor=4300484 |url=https://doi.org/10.2307/4300484 |url-access=subscription }}
*{{The Cambridge History of Iran | volume = 4 | chapter = The Țāhirids and Şaffārids |first=C. E. |last=Bosworth | pages = 90–135 |year=1975 }}
*{{Encyclopaedia Iranica | volume = 1 | fascicle = 7 | article = ĀL-E MOḤTĀJ | last = Bosworth | first = C. E. |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/al-e-mohtaj-a-local-dynasty | pages = 764–766 }}
*{{Encyclopaedia Iranica | volume = 1 | fascicle = 6 | article = AḤMAD B. SAHL B. HĀŠEM | last = Bosworth | first = C. E. |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ahmad-b-14 | pages = 643–644 | year= 1984a}}
*{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mKpz_2CkoWEC&pg=PA162 |last=Bosworth |first=Clifford Edmund |title=The New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Manual |year=2004 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=9780748621378 }}
*{{cite book |last=Bosworth |first=C. E. |title=The Ornament of Histories: A History of the Eastern Islamic Lands AD 650–1041: The Persian Text of Abu Sa'id 'Abd Al-Hayy Gardizi |year=2011 |publisher=I.B.Tauris |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VG36ym3H3CQC&q=false |isbn=978-1-84885-353-9| pages=1–169}}
*{{cite book |last=Daniel |first=Elton |year=2001 |title=The History of Iran |series=The Greenwood Histories of the Modern Nations |location=Westport, CT |publisher=Greenwood Press |isbn=978-0-313-30731-7}}
*{{cite book |chapter=Muhammad and the Caliphate: Political history of the Islamic Empire up to the Mongol Conquest |first=Fred M. |last=Donner |title=The Oxford History of Islam |editor-first=John L. |editor-last=Esposito |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1999  }}
*{{The Cambridge History of Iran | volume = 4 | author-link = Richard N. Frye | chapter = The Sāmānids |first=R.N. |last=Frye | pages = 136–161 | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hvx9jq_2L3EC&pg=PA160 }}
*{{cite book |first=Renee |last=Grousset |title=The Empire of the Steppes:A History of Central Asia |translator-first=Naomi |translator-last=Walford |publisher=Rutgers University Press |year=1991 }}
*{{cite book |title=History of Civilizations of Central Asia: Age of Achievement, A.D. 750 to the end of the 15th-century |year=1998 |publisher=UNESCO |last=Litvinsky |first=Ahmad Hasan Dani |isbn=9789231032110 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=18eABeokpjEC}}
* {{cite book | title = The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4: From the Arab Invasion to the Saljuqs | year = 1975 | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge | editor-last = Frye | editor-first = R.N. | last = Madelung | first = W. | author-link = Wilferd Madelung | chapter = The Minor Dynasties of Northern Iran | pages = 198–249 | isbn = 978-0-521-20093-6 | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=hvx9jq_2L3EC&pg=PA198}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | article=Mākān b. Kākī | first = M. | last = Nazim | encyclopedia = E.J. Brill's first encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936, Volume V: L–Moriscos | editor-first = Martijn Theodoor | editor-last = Houtsma | publisher = BRILL | location = Leiden | year = 1987 | isbn = 90-04-08265-4 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=iJQ3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA164 | pages = 164–165 }}
*{{cite book |chapter=The ''khassa'' and the '''amma'': Intermediaries in the Samanid Polity |first=Louise |last=Marlow |pages=31{{endash}}55 |title=Medieval Central Asia and the Persianate World: Iranian Tradition and Islamic Civilisation |editor-first1=A. C. S. |editor-last1=Peacock |editor-first2=D. G. |editor-last2=Tor |publisher=I.B. Tauris |year=2015 }}
*{{cite book |title=History of Civilizations of Central Asia |editor-first1=M.S. |editor-last1=Asimov |editor-first2=C.E. |editor-last2=Bosworth |volume=IV, part one:The age of achievement: A.D. 750 to the end of the fifteenth century |chapter=The Samanids |first=N.N. |last=Negmatov |pages=77–94 |publisher=UNESCO |year=1998 }}
*{{cite book |last=Pourshariati |first=Parvenah |title=Decline and Fall of the Sasanian Empire: The Sasanian-Parthian Confederacy and the Arab Conquest of Iran |publisher=I.B. Tauris |year=2011 }}
*{{Encyclopaedia Iranica | volume=online | last = Shahbazi |year=2005 | first  = A. Shapur | title = SASANIAN DYNASTY |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sasanian-dynasty }}
*{{Cite thesis |last=Treadwell |first=W. L. |year=1991 |title=The Political History of the Sāmānid State |type=PhD thesis |publisher=University of Oxford |url=https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:2bcb89ab-29b3-401b-84b9-e25c477476bb}}
*{{cite book |title=Sogdian Traders: A History |first=Étienne |last=de la Vaissière |publisher=Brill |year=2005}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite journal |title=The ''Ṣiwān al-Ḥikma'' Cycle of Texts |first=Dimitri |last=Gutas |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=102 |number=4 |pages=645–650 |year=1982 |doi=10.2307/601973 |jstor=601973 }}
*{{cite book |last=Houtsma |first=M. Th. |title=First Encyclopaedia of Islam: 1913–1936 |year=1993 |publisher=Brill |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fWNpIGNFz0IC&q=false |isbn=9789004097964 |pages=579–1203}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Schindel |first1=Nikolaus |title=POLAND: The Sāmānid Hoard of Pepineg (?)/ Przemysl from the Year 1849 |journal=The Numismatic Chronicle |year=2017 |volume=177 |pages=451–458|jstor=26637395 }}

{{Samanid Rulers}}
{{Samanid Provinces}}
{{Iran topics}}
{{Iranian Intermezzo}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Samanid Empire| ]]
[[Category:Former countries in West Asia]]
[[Category:Sunni dynasties]]
[[Category:Tabaristan]]
[[Category:9th century in Iran]]
[[Category:10th century in Iran]]
[[Category:Former monarchies of Iran]]
[[Category:Medieval Khorasan]]
[[Category:819 establishments]]
[[Category:999 disestablishments]]
[[Category:States and territories established in the 810s]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in the 990s]]