View source for Rwanda

{{Short description|Country in East Africa}}
{{redirect|Ruanda}}
{{pp-move|small=yes}}
{{Use British English|date=July 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2021}}
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Republic of Rwanda
| common_name            = Rwanda
| native_name            = {{nowrap|{{native name|rw|Repubulika y'u Rwanda}}<hr/>{{native name|fr|République du Rwanda}}<br />{{native name|sw|Jamhuri ya Rwanda}}}}
| image_flag             = Flag of Rwanda.svg
| alt_flag               = The flag of Rwanda: blue, yellow and green stripes with a yellow sun in top right corner
| image_coat             = Coat of arms of Rwanda.svg
| alt_coat               = The seal of Rwanda: central tribal devices, surmounted on a cog wheel and encircled by a square knot
| Coat of arms           = 
| national_motto         = {{ubl|{{nowrap|{{native phrase|rw|Ubumwe, Umurimo, Gukunda Igihugu}}}}|{{native phrase|en|Unity, Work, Patriotism}}|{{native phrase|fr|Unité, Travail, Patriotisme}}|{{native phrase|sw|Umoja, Kazi, Uzalendo}}}}
| national_anthem        = "{{lang|rw|[[Rwanda Nziza|Rwanda nziza]]|italic=no}}"<br />({{langx|en|"Beautiful Rwanda"}})<br /><div style="position: relative; top:0.2em;">{{center|[[File:Hymne National du Rwanda.ogg]]}}</div>
| image_map              = {{Switcher|[[File:Rwanda (orthographic projection with locator).svg|frameless]]|Show globe|[[File:Location Rwanda AU Africa (locator box).svg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Show map of Africa|default=1}}
| alt_map                = 
| map_caption            = 
| image_map2             = 
| capital                = [[Kigali]]
| coordinates            = {{coord|1|56|38|S|30|3|34|E|type:city_region:RW-01|display=inline}}
| largest_city           = Kigali
| official_languages     = {{hlist |[[Kinyarwanda]] |[[English language|English]]|[[French language|French]] |[[Swahili language|Swahili]]<!--PLEASE DO NOT REMOVE ANY LANGUAGE OR CHANGE THE LANGUAGE ORDER WITHOUT A DISCUSSION ON THE TALK PAGE--> <ref name="GovRwanda_About">{{cite web |title=About Rwanda |url=https://www.gov.rw/about |publisher=Government of Rwanda |access-date=2 December 2025}}</ref>}}
| languages_type         = [[National language]]
| languages              = [[Kinyarwanda]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Rwanda's Constitution of 2003 with Amendments through 2015 |url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Rwanda_2015 |website=Constitute Project |publisher=Comparative Constitutions Project |access-date=21 September 2025}}</ref>
| languages2_type        = [[Working language]]
| languages2             = [[English Language|English]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Official Gazette no. Special of 20 October 2021 |url=https://archive.gazettes.africa/archive/rw/2021/rw-government-gazette-dated-2021-10-20-no-Special.pdf |website=Gazettes.Africa |publisher=Government of Rwanda |date=20 October 2021 |access-date=21 September 2025}}</ref><ref name="MINEDUC2019">{{Cite web
 |title=All schools to use English as medium of instruction
 |url=https://www.mineduc.gov.rw/news-detail/communique1
 |publisher=Ministry of Education (Rwanda)
 |date=2 December 2019
 |access-date=5 November 2025}}
</ref>
| ethnic_groups          = {{tree list}}
*100% [[Banyarwanda]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Rwanda: A Brief History of the Country|url=https://www.un.org/en/preventgenocide/rwanda/historical-background.shtml#:~:text=By%201994%2C%20Rwanda%27s%20population%20stood%20at%20more%20than%207%20million%20people%20comprising%203%20ethnic%20groups%3A%0Athe%20Hutu%20(who%20made%20up%20roughly%2085%25%20of%20the%20population)%2C%20the%20Tutsi%20(14%25)%2C%20and%20the%20Twa%20(1%25).|access-date=4 April 2018|website=United Nations|quote=By 1994, Rwanda's population stood at more than 7 million people comprising 3 ethnic groups: the Hutu (who made up roughly 85% of the population), the Tutsi (14%), and the Twa (1%).|archive-date=15 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230715050927/https://www.un.org/en/preventgenocide/rwanda/historical-background.shtml#:~:text=By%201994%2C%20Rwanda%27s%20population%20stood%20at%20more%20than%207%20million%20people%20comprising%203%20ethnic%20groups%3A%0Athe%20Hutu%20(who%20made%20up%20roughly%2085%25%20of%20the%20population)%2C%20the%20Tutsi%20(14%25)%2C%20and%20the%20Twa%20(1%25).|url-status=live}}</ref>
**85% [[Hutu]]
**14% [[Tutsi]]
**1% [[Great Lakes Twa|Twa]]
{{Tree list/end}}
| ethnic_groups_year     = 1994
| demonym                = {{hlist|Rwandan|Rwandese}}
| government_type        = Unitary [[semi-presidential republic]] under an [[authoritarianism|authoritarian]] [[dictatorship]]{{refn|
* {{cite book |last=Thomson |first=Susan |author-link=Susan Thomson |title=Rwanda: From Genocide to Precarious Peace |date=2018 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-23591-3 |page=185 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RbxODwAAQBAJ&q=one-party+state |access-date=11 November 2023 |archive-date=22 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231022072324/https://books.google.com/books?id=RbxODwAAQBAJ&q=one-party+state |url-status=live}}
* {{cite news |last1=Sebarenzi |first1=Joseph |last2=Twagiramungu |first2=Noel |title=Rwanda's economic growth could be derailed by its autocratic regime |url=https://theconversation.com/rwandas-economic-growth-could-be-derailed-by-its-autocratic-regime-114649 |access-date=5 September 2023 |work=The Conversation |date=8 April 2019 |archive-date=5 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230905203956/https://theconversation.com/rwandas-economic-growth-could-be-derailed-by-its-autocratic-regime-114649 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Waldorf |first=Lars |title=Handbook of Restorative Justice |date=2005 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-203-34682-2 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jGV_AgAAQBAJ&pg=PT619 ?] |chapter=Rwanda's failing experiment in restorative justice}}
* {{cite journal |last=Beswick |first=Danielle |title=Aiding State Building and Sacrificing Peace Building? The Rwanda–UK relationship 1994–2011 |journal=Third World Quarterly |date=2011 |volume=32 |issue=10 |pages=1911–1930 |doi=10.1080/01436597.2011.610593 |s2cid=153404360| issn=0143-6597 }}
* {{cite book |last=Bowman |first=Warigia |title=Four. Imagining a Modern Rwanda: Sociotechnological Imaginaries, Information Technology, and the Postgenocide State |date=2015 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-27666-3 |page=87 |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.7208/9780226276663-004/html?lang=en |doi=10.7208/9780226276663-004 |doi-broken-date=2 July 2025 |access-date=5 September 2023 |archive-date=5 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230905203958/https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.7208/9780226276663-004/html?lang=en |url-status=live}}
* {{cite journal |last=Reyntjens |first=Filip |title=Behind the Façade of Rwanda's Elections |journal=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |date=2011 |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=64–69 |jstor=43133887 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43133887 |issn=1526-0054 |access-date=5 September 2023 |archive-date=5 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230905203956/https://www.jstor.org/stable/43133887 |url-status=live}}}}
| leader_title1          = [[List of Presidents of Rwanda|President]]
| leader_name1           = [[Paul Kagame]]
| leader_title2          = [[Prime Minister of Rwanda|Prime Minister]]
| leader_name2           = [[Justin Nsengiyumva]]
| leader_title3          = [[Chamber of Deputies (Rwanda)|Speaker of the Chamber of Deputies]]
| leader_name3           = [[Gertrude Kazarwa]]<ref name="m549">{{cite web | title=Bureau | website=Home | date=2024-08-14 | url=https://www.parliament.gov.rw/chamber-of-deputies-2/organs/bureau | access-date=2025-12-09}}</ref>
| legislature            = [[Parliament of Rwanda|Parliament]]
| upper_house            = [[Senate (Rwanda)|Senate]]
| lower_house            = {{nowrap|[[Chamber of Deputies (Rwanda)|Chamber of Deputies]]}}
| sovereignty_type       = [[History of Rwanda|Formation]]
| established_event1     = [[Kingdom of Rwanda]]
| established_date1      = 15th century
| established_event2     = Part of [[German East Africa]]
| established_date2      = 1897–1916
| established_event3     = Part of [[Ruanda-Urundi]]
| established_date3      = 1916–1962
| established_event4     = [[Rwandan Revolution]]
| established_date4      = 1959–1961
| established_event5     = [[Republic of Rwanda|Republic declared]]
| established_date5      = 28 January 1961
| established_event6     = Independence from [[Belgium]]
| established_date6      = 1 July 1962
| established_event7     = Admitted to the [[United Nations|UN]]
| established_date7      = 18 September 1962
| established_event8     = [[Constitution of Rwanda|Current constitution]]
| established_date8      = 26 May 2003
| area_km2               = 26,338 <!--PLEASE DO NOT CHANGE THE AREA WITHOUT DISCUSSION ON THE TALK PAGE--> <ref name="GovRwanda_About"/><ref>{{Cite web
 |title=Rwanda – Country Profile
 |url=https://data.un.org/en/iso/rw.html
 |website=UN Data
 |access-date=6 November 2025
 |quote=Surface area (km²): 26 338 [b]
}}</ref>
| area_rank              = 144th <!-- Area rank should match [[List of countries and dependencies by area]] -->
| area_sq_mi             = 10,169 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]-->
| percent_water          = 6.3
| population_estimate    = {{IncreaseNeutral}} 14,104,969<ref>{{cite web |title=Resident Population |url=https://statistics.gov.rw/ |publisher=[[National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda]] (NISR) |website=www.statistics.gov.rw |access-date=1 July 2025}}</ref>
| population_estimate_year = 2025
| population_estimate_rank = 76th
| population_census_year = 2022
| population_census      = 13,206,731 <ref>{{cite web |title=Fifth Population and Housing Census 2022: Thematic Report on Population Projections |url=https://statistics.gov.rw/data-sources/censuses/Population-and-Housing-Census/fifth-population-and-housing-census-2022/rphc5-thematic-reports/rphc5-thematic-report-population-projection |publisher=[[National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda]] |access-date=29 November 2025}}</ref>
| population_density_km2 = 578
| population_density_sq_mi = 1,500
| population_density_rank = 21st
| GDP_PPP                = {{increase}} $58.120 billion<ref name="auto">{{cite web |title=World Economic Outlook Database, April 2025 |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2025/april |language=en}}</ref>
| GDP_PPP_year           = 2025
| GDP_PPP_rank           = 129th
| GDP_PPP_per_capita     = {{increase}} $4,100<ref name="auto"/>
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 159th
| GDP_nominal            = {{increase}} $14.770 billion<ref name="auto"/>
| GDP_nominal_year       = 2025
| GDP_nominal_rank       = 144th
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $1,040<ref name="auto"/>
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 170th
| Gini                   = 39.4 <!--number only-->
| Gini_year              = 2023
| Gini_change            = decrease
| Gini_ref               = {{sfn|World Bank (XII)}}
| Gini_rank              = 
| HDI                    = 0.578 <!--number only-->
| HDI_year               = 2023<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year-->
| HDI_change             = increase <!--increase/decrease/steady-->|
| HDI_ref                = <ref name="HDR2025">{{cite report |title=Human Development Report 2025 |url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2025reporten.pdf |publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]] |date=2025 |access-date=9 May 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250509000000/https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2025reporten.pdf |archive-date=9 May 2025 |url-status=live }}</ref>
| HDI_rank               = 159th
| currency               = [[Rwandan franc]]
| currency_code          = RWF
| time_zone              = [[Central Africa Time|CAT]]
| utc_offset             = +2
| date_format            = dd/mm/yyyy ([[Anno Domini|AD]])
| drives_on              = right
| calling_code           = [[+250]]
| cctld                  = [[.rw]]
| official_website       = {{URL|https://www.gov.rw}}
| religion               = {{ublist |item_style=white-space:nowrap;
 |93.8% [[Christianity]]
 |3.0% [[Irreligion|no religion]]
 |2.2% [[Islam in Rwanda|Islam]]
 |1.0% other<ref>{{cite web |url=http://globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/rwanda#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=2020&region_name=All+Countries&restrictions_year=2016 |title=Religions in Rwanda &#124; PEW-GRF |website=globalreligiousfutures.org |access-date=23 May 2021 |archive-date=23 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210523001751/http://globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/rwanda#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=2020&region_name=All+Countries&restrictions_year=2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>}}
}}

'''Rwanda''',{{efn|{{IPAc-en|UK|r|u|ˈ|æ|n|d|ə|audio=RwandaUK.wav}} {{respell|roo|AN|də}}, {{IPAc-en|US|audio=Rwanda pronunciation.ogg|r|u|ˈ|ɑː|n|d|ə}} {{respell|roo|AHN|də}};<ref>{{cite web |title=Rwanda |url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/pronunciation/english/rwanda |publisher=Cambridge Dictionary |access-date=6 December 2023 |archive-date=27 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240427003840/https://dictionary.cambridge.org/pronunciation/english/rwanda |url-status=live}}</ref> {{langx|rw|u Rwanda}} {{IPA|rw|u.ɾɡwaː.nda||Rwanda (rw) pronunciation.ogg}})<ref>{{cite web |title=Government of Rwanda: Welcome to Rwanda |url=https://www.gov.rw/ |access-date=22 February 2021 |archive-date=23 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210223181954/https://www.gov.rw/ |url-status=live}}</ref>}} officially the '''Republic of Rwanda''', is a landlocked country in [[East Africa]]. Known as the "Land of a Thousand Hills" for its high elevation and rolling terrain, its geography is dominated by mountains in the west and savanna in the southeast. The largest and most notable lakes are mainly in the western and northern regions of the country, and several volcanoes that form part of the [[Virunga Mountains|Virunga]] volcanic chain are primarily in the northwest. The climate is considered [[Highland temperate climate|tropical highland]], with two rainy seasons and two dry seasons each year. Its [[Capital city|capital]] and largest city is [[Kigali]], located at the centre of the country, at 1,567 metres above sea level. 

Rwanda lies a few degrees south of the [[Equator]] in the [[Great Rift Valley]] of [[East Africa]]. Rwanda is bordered by [[Uganda]] to the north, [[Tanzania]] to the east, [[Burundi]] to the south, and the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] to the west.

With a population of about 14 million people living within a total area of {{convert|26338|km2|sqmi}}, of which land accounts for about 93.7%, Rwanda is the [[List of countries and dependencies by population density|21st most densely]] populated country in the world, with an average of about {{nowrap|578 people per square kilometre}} ({{nowrap|1,500 per square mile}}).

[[Hunter-gatherer]]s settled the territory in the [[Stone Age|Stone]] and [[Iron Age]]s, followed later by [[Bantu peoples]]. The population coalesced first into [[Clans of Rwanda|clans]], and then into kingdoms. In the 15th century, one kingdom, under King Gihanga, managed to incorporate several of its close neighbor territories establishing the [[Kingdom of Rwanda]]. The Kingdom of Rwanda dominated from the mid-eighteenth century, with its Tutsi kings conquering others militarily, centralising power, and enacting unifying policies. In 1897, [[German colonial empire|Germany]] colonized Rwanda as part of [[German East Africa]], followed by [[Belgium]], which took control in 1916 during [[World War I]]. Both European nations ruled through the Rwandan king and perpetuated a pro-Tutsi policy. 

The Hutu population [[Rwandan Revolution|revolted]] in 1959. They massacred numerous Tutsi and ultimately established an independent, Hutu-dominated republic in 1962 led by President [[Grégoire Kayibanda]]. A [[1973 Rwandan coup d'état|1973 military coup]] overthrew Kayibanda and brought [[Juvénal Habyarimana]] to power, who retained the pro-Hutu policy. The Tutsi-led [[Rwandan Patriotic Front]] (RPF) launched a [[Rwandan Civil War|civil war]] in 1990. Habyarimana was [[Assassination of Juvénal Habyarimana and Cyprien Ntaryamira|assassinated]] in April 1994 by unknown parties. Social tensions erupted in the [[Rwandan genocide]] carried out by [[Hutu Power]] extremists against the Tutsis. RPF ended the genocide with a military victory in July 1994.

Rwanda has been governed by the RPF as a ''de facto'' [[one-party state]] since 1994 with former commander [[Paul Kagame]] as president since 2000. The country has been governed by a series of centralized [[authoritarianism|authoritarian governments]] since precolonial times. Although Rwanda has low levels of corruption compared with neighbouring countries, it ranks among the lowest in international measurements of government transparency and civil liberties, despite recent gains that have elevated it to the medium category on the [[Human Development Index]]. The population is [[Youth in Rwanda|young]] and predominantly rural; Rwanda has one of the youngest populations in the world. Rwandans are drawn from just one cultural and linguistic group, the [[Banyarwanda]]. However, within this group there are three subgroups: the [[Hutu]], [[Tutsi]], and [[Great Lakes Twa|Twa]]. The Twa are a forest-dwelling [[African Pygmies|Central African foragers]] and are often considered descendants of Rwanda's earliest inhabitants. Christianity is the largest religion in the country; the principal and national language is [[Kinyarwanda]], spoken by native Rwandans, with English, French, and Swahili serving as additional official foreign languages.

Rwanda's economy is based on services, agricultural exports, and manufacturing. [[Coffee]] and [[tea]] are the major [[cash crop]]s that it exports, although it is surpassed in banana production. [[Tourism in Rwanda|Tourism]] is a fast-growing sector and is now the country's leading foreign exchange earner. As of the most recent survey in 2024, 30.5% of the population is affected by [[Multidimensional Poverty Index|multidimensional poverty]] with 27.4% under the national poverty line. The country is a member of the [[African Union]], the [[United Nations]], the [[Commonwealth of Nations]] (one of few member states that does not have any historical links with the [[British Empire]]), [[Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa|COMESA]], [[Organisation internationale de la Francophonie|OIF]], and the [[East African Community]].

== Etymology ==
The name ''Rwanda'' derives from the word Ku-aanda, meaning "expansion" or "spreading out from the centre", reflecting the historical growth of the [[Kingdom of Rwanda]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Land of Violence, A Land of Conquest: Memory, Truth, Historical Continuity, and Imperialism in Rwanda {{!}} Journal of Public and International Affairs |url=https://jpia.princeton.edu/news/land-violence-land-conquest-memory-truth-historical-continuity-and-imperialism-rwanda |access-date=2025-10-10 |website=jpia.princeton.edu |language=en}}</ref>

== History ==
{{main|History of Rwanda|German East Africa|Ruanda-Urundi}}

Modern human settlement of what is now Rwanda dates from, at the latest, the [[last glacial period]], either in the [[Neolithic]] period around 8,000 BC, or in the [[Neolithic Subpluvial|long humid period]] which followed, up to around 3,000 BC.{{sfn|Chrétien|2003|p=44}} Archaeological excavations have revealed evidence of sparse settlement by [[hunter-gatherer]]s in the late [[Stone Age]], followed by a larger population of early [[Iron Age]] settlers, who produced dimpled [[pottery]] and iron tools.{{sfn|Dorsey|1994|p=36}}{{sfn|Chrétien|2003|p=45}} These early inhabitants were the ancestors of the [[Great Lakes Twa|Twa]], aboriginal [[Pygmy peoples|pygmy]] hunter-gatherers who remain in Rwanda today. Then by 3,000 BC, [[Central Sudanic]] and [[Kuliak languages|Kuliak]] farmers and herders began settling into Rwanda, followed by [[South Cushitic languages|South Cushitic]]–speaking herders in 2,000 BC.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/183030|jstor = 183030|title = We Are What We Eat: Ancient Agriculture between the Great Lakes|last = Schoenbrun|first = David L.|journal = The Journal of African History|year = 1993|volume = 34|issue = 1|pages = 15–16|doi = 10.1017/S0021853700032989| s2cid=162660041 |url-access = subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qHf8DwAAQBAJ|title=Sacrifice as Terror: The Rwandan Genocide of 1994|pages=63–65 |isbn=978-1-000-18448-8 |last1=Taylor |first1=Christopher C. |date=13 September 2020 |publisher=Routledge }}</ref>{{sfn|Mamdani|2002|p=61}} The forest-dwelling Twa lost much of their habitat and moved to the mountain slopes.{{sfn|King|2007|p=75}} Between 800 BC and 1500 AD, a number of [[Bantu peoples|Bantu]] groups migrated into Rwanda, clearing forest land for agriculture.{{sfn|Mamdani|2002|p=61}}{{sfn|Chrétien|2003|p=58}} Historians have several theories regarding the nature of the Bantu migrations; one theory is that the first settlers were [[Hutu]], while the [[Tutsi]] migrated later to form a distinct racial group, possibly of Nilo-hamitic origin.{{sfn|Prunier|1995|p=16}} An alternative theory is that the migration was slow and steady, with incoming groups integrating into rather than conquering the existing society.{{sfn|Mamdani|2002|p=61}}{{sfn|Mamdani|2002|p=58}} Under this theory, the Hutu and Tutsi distinction arose later and was a class distinction rather than a racial one.{{sfn|Chrétien|2003|p=69}}{{sfn|Shyaka|pp=10–11}}

[[File:Rwanda Nyanza Mwami Palace.jpg|thumb|left|A reconstruction of the ancient King's Palace at [[Nyanza, Rwanda|Nyanza]]]]

The earliest form of social organisation in the area was the [[Clans of Rwanda|clan]] (''ubwoko'').{{sfn|Chrétien|2003|p=88}} The clans were not limited to genealogical lineages or geographical area, and most included Hutu, Tutsi, and Twa.{{sfn|Chrétien|2003|pp=88–89}} From the 15th century, the clans began to merge into kingdoms.{{sfn|Chrétien|2003|p=141}} One kingdom, under King Gihanga, managed to incorporate several of its close neighbor territories establishing the [[Kingdom of Rwanda]]. By 1700, around eight kingdoms had existed in the present-day Rwanda.{{sfn|Chrétien|2003|p=482}} One of these, the [[Kingdom of Rwanda]] ruled by the Tutsi [[Nyiginya]] clan, became increasingly dominant from the mid-18th century.{{sfn|Chrétien|2003|p=160}} The kingdom reached its greatest extent during the 19th century under the reign of King [[Kigeli IV Rwabugiri|Kigeli Rwabugiri]]. Rwabugiri conquered several smaller states, expanded the kingdom west and north,{{sfn|Chrétien|2003|p=160}}{{sfn|Mamdani|2002|p=69}} and initiated administrative reforms; these included {{lang|rw|[[ubuhake]]}}, in which Tutsi patrons ceded cattle, and therefore privileged status, to Hutu or Tutsi clients in exchange for economic and personal service,{{sfn|Prunier|1995|pp=13–14}} and {{lang|rw|uburetwa}}, a [[corvée]] system in which Hutu were forced to work for Tutsi chiefs.{{sfn|Mamdani|2002|p=69}} Rwabugiri's changes caused a rift to grow between the Hutu and Tutsi populations.{{sfn|Mamdani|2002|p=69}} The Twa were better off than in pre-Kingdom days, with some becoming dancers in the royal court,{{sfn|King|2007|p=75}} but their numbers continued to decline.{{sfn|Prunier|1995|p=6}}

The [[Berlin Conference]] of 1884 assigned the territory to the [[German Empire]], who declared it to be part of [[German East Africa]]. In 1894, explorer [[Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] was the first European to cross the entire territory of Rwanda; he crossed from the south-east to Lake Kivu and met the king.{{sfn|Chrétien|2003|p=217}}{{sfn|Prunier|1995|p=9}} In 1897, Germany established a presence in Rwanda with the formation of an alliance with the king, beginning the colonial era.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lKFpAgAAQBAJ |last=Carney |first=J.J. |title=Rwanda Before the Genocide: Catholic Politics and Ethnic Discourse in the Late Colonial Era |page=24 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=9780199982288 |access-date=25 October 2022 |archive-date=1 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230701074114/https://books.google.com/books?id=lKFpAgAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> The Germans did not significantly alter the social structure of the country, but exerted influence by supporting the king and the existing hierarchy, and delegating power to local chiefs.{{sfn|Prunier|1995|p=25}}<ref>See also Helmut Strizek, "Geschenkte Kolonien: Ruanda und Burundi unter deutscher Herrschaft", Berlin: Ch. Links Verlag, 2006</ref>

[[Belgian colonial empire|Belgian]] forces invaded Rwanda and [[Burundi]] in 1916, during [[World War I]], and later, in 1922, they started to rule both Rwanda and Burundi as a [[League of Nations mandate]] called [[Ruanda-Urundi]] and started a period of more direct colonial rule.{{sfn|Chrétien|2003|p=260}} The Belgians simplified and centralised the power structure,{{sfn|Chrétien|2003|p=270}} introduced large-scale projects in education, health, public works, and agricultural supervision, including new crops and improved agricultural techniques to try to reduce the incidence of famine.{{sfn|Chrétien|2003|pp=276–277}} Both the Germans and the Belgians, in the wake of [[New Imperialism]], promoted Tutsi supremacy, considering the Hutu and Tutsi different [[Race (human categorization)|races]].{{sfn|Appiah|Gates|2010|p=450}} In 1935, Belgium introduced an identity card system, which labelled each individual as either Tutsi, Hutu, Twa or Naturalised. While it had been previously possible for particularly wealthy Hutu to become honorary Tutsi, the identity cards prevented any further movement between the classes.{{sfn|Gourevitch|2000|pp=56–57}}

[[File:Juvénal Habyarimana (1980).jpg|thumb|upright|right|[[Juvénal Habyarimana]], president from 1973 to 1994|alt=Photograph of President Juvénal Habyarimana arriving with entourage at Andrews Air Force Base, Maryland, USA on 25 September 1980.]]

Belgium continued to rule [[Ruanda-Urundi]] (of which Rwanda formed the northern part) as a [[United Nations trust territories|UN trust territory]] after the [[Second World War]], with a mandate to oversee eventual [[Decolonisation of Africa|independence]].{{sfn|United Nations (II)}}{{sfn|United Nations (III)}} Tensions escalated between the Tutsi, who favoured early independence, and the Hutu emancipation movement, culminating in the 1959 [[Rwandan Revolution]]: Hutu activists began killing Tutsi and destroying their houses,{{sfn|Linden|Linden|1977|p=267}} forcing more than 100,000 people to seek refuge in neighbouring countries.{{sfn|Gourevitch|2000|pp=58–59}}{{sfn|Prunier|1995|p=51}} In 1961, the suddenly pro-Hutu Belgians held [[1961 Rwandan monarchy referendum|a referendum]] in which the country voted to abolish the monarchy. Rwanda was separated from Burundi and gained independence on 1 July 1962,{{sfn|Prunier|1995|p=53}} which is commemorated as Independence Day, a national holiday.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.newtimes.co.rw/news/independence-day-did-rwanda-really-gain-independence-july-1-1962 |title=Independence Day: Did Rwanda really gain independence on July 1, 1962? |last=Karuhanga |first=James |date=30 June 2018 |work=[[The New Times (Rwanda)|The New Times]] |access-date=1 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180630010535/http://www.newtimes.co.rw/news/independence-day-did-rwanda-really-gain-independence-july-1-1962 |archive-date=30 June 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> Cycles of violence followed, with mainly Tutsi [[Inyenzi movement|exile rebels]] attacking from neighbouring countries and the Hutu-led government retaliating with large-scale slaughter and repression of the Tutsi civilians inside Rwanda.{{sfn|Prunier|1995|p=56}} In 1973, [[Juvénal Habyarimana]] took power in [[1973 Rwandan coup d'état|a military coup]]. Pro-Hutu discrimination continued, but there was greater economic prosperity and a reduced amount of violence against the Tutsi.{{sfn|Prunier|1995|pp=74–76}} The Twa remained marginalised, and by 1990 were almost entirely forced out of the forests by the government; many became beggars.{{sfn|UNPO|2008|loc=History}} Rwanda's population had increased from 1.6&nbsp;million people in 1934 to 7.1&nbsp;million in 1989, leading to competition for land.{{sfn|Prunier|1995|p=4}}

[[File:Nyamata Memorial Site 13.jpg|thumb|left|Human skulls at the [[Nyamata]] Genocide Memorial]]

In 1990, the [[Rwandan Patriotic Front]] (RPF), a rebel group composed of Tutsi refugees, invaded northern Rwanda from their base in Uganda, initiating the [[Rwandan Civil War]].{{sfn|Prunier|1995|p=93}} The group condemned the Hutu-dominated government for failing to democratize and confront the problems facing these refugees. Neither side was able to gain a decisive advantage in the war,{{sfn|Prunier|1995|pp=135–136}} but by 1992 it had weakened Habyarimana's authority; mass demonstrations forced him into a coalition with the domestic opposition and eventually to sign the 1993 [[Arusha Accords (Rwanda)|Arusha Accords]] with the RPF.{{sfn|Prunier|1995|pp=190–191}}

=== Rwandan genocide ===
{{main|Rwandan genocide|Rwandan Civil War}}

The cease-fire ended on 6 April 1994 when [[Assassination of Juvénal Habyarimana and Cyprien Ntaryamira|Habyarimana's plane was shot down]] near Kigali Airport, killing him.{{sfn|BBC News (III)|2010}} The shooting down of the plane served as the catalyst for the [[Rwandan genocide]], which began within a few hours. Over the course of approximately 100 days, between 500,000 and 1,000,000{{sfn|Henley|2007}} Tutsi and politically moderate Hutu were killed in well-planned attacks on the orders of the interim government.{{sfn|Dallaire|2005|p=386}} Many Twa were also killed, despite not being directly targeted.{{sfn|UNPO|2008|loc=History}}

The Tutsi RPF restarted their offensive, and took control of the country methodically, gaining control of the whole country by mid-July.{{sfn|Dallaire|2005|p=299}} The international response to the genocide was limited, with major powers reluctant to strengthen the already overstretched [[United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda|UN peacekeeping force]].{{sfn|Dallaire|2005|p=364}} When the RPF took over, approximately two million Hutu [[Great Lakes refugee crisis|fled to neighbouring countries]], in particular [[Zaïre]], fearing reprisals;{{sfn|Prunier|1995|p=312}} additionally, the RPF-led army was a key belligerent in the [[First Congo War|First]] and [[Second Congo War]]s.{{sfn|BBC News (V)|2010}} Within Rwanda, a period of reconciliation and justice began, with the establishment of the [[International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda]] (ICTR) and the reintroduction of {{lang|rw|[[Gacaca]]}}, a traditional village court system.{{sfn|Bowcott|2014}} Since 2000 Rwanda's economy,{{sfn|World Bank (X)}} tourist numbers,{{sfn|World Bank (XI)}} and [[Human Development Index]] have grown rapidly;{{sfn|UNDP (I)|2010}} between 2006 and 2011 the poverty rate reduced from 57% to 45%,{{sfn|National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda|2012}} while [[life expectancy]] rose from 46.6 years in 2000{{sfn|UNDP (V)|2013|p=2}} to 65.4 years in 2021.{{sfn|CIA (I)}}

===Since 1994===
In a bid to promote national unity and reconciliation, Rwanda's new [[Flag of Rwanda|flag]] and [[Rwanda Nziza|national anthem]] were unveiled at the end of 2001, removing overt ethnic distinctions in official state identity.

In 2009, Rwanda joined the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], although the country was never part of the [[British Empire]].

== Politics and government ==
{{main|Politics of Rwanda|Foreign relations of Rwanda|Elections in Rwanda}}

[[File:Paul Kagame 2014.jpg|thumb|upright|Rwandan President [[Paul Kagame]]|alt=Photograph of Paul Kagame, taken in Busan, South Korea, in 2014]]
Rwanda is a ''[[de facto]]'' [[one-party state]]<ref name="Yale University Press">{{cite book |last=Thomson |first=Susan |author-link=Susan Thomson |title=Rwanda: From Genocide to Precarious Peace |date=2018 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-23591-3 |page=185 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RbxODwAAQBAJ&q=one-party+state |access-date=11 November 2023 |archive-date=22 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231022072324/https://books.google.com/books?id=RbxODwAAQBAJ&q=one-party+state |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="The Conversation">{{cite news |last1=Sebarenzi |first1=Joseph |last2=Twagiramungu |first2=Noel |title=Rwanda's economic growth could be derailed by its autocratic regime |url=https://theconversation.com/rwandas-economic-growth-could-be-derailed-by-its-autocratic-regime-114649 |access-date=5 September 2023 |work=The Conversation |date=8 April 2019 |archive-date=5 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230905203956/https://theconversation.com/rwandas-economic-growth-could-be-derailed-by-its-autocratic-regime-114649 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Handbook of Restorative Justice">{{cite book |last=Waldorf |first=Lars |title=Handbook of Restorative Justice |date=2005 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-203-34682-2 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jGV_AgAAQBAJ&pg=PT619 ?] |chapter=Rwanda's failing experiment in restorative justice}}</ref><ref name="TWQ">{{cite journal |last=Beswick |first=Danielle |title=Aiding State Building and Sacrificing Peace Building? The Rwanda–UK relationship 1994–2011 |journal=Third World Quarterly |date=2011 |volume=32 |issue=10 |pages=1911–1930 |doi=10.1080/01436597.2011.610593 |s2cid=153404360| issn=0143-6597 }}</ref><ref name="University of Chicago Press">{{cite book |last=Bowman |first=Warigia |title=Four. Imagining a Modern Rwanda: Sociotechnological Imaginaries, Information Technology, and the Postgenocide State |date=2015 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-27666-3 |page=87 |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.7208/9780226276663-004/html?lang=en |doi=10.7208/9780226276663-004 |doi-broken-date=2 July 2025 |access-date=5 September 2023 |archive-date=5 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230905203958/https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.7208/9780226276663-004/html?lang=en |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="jstor.org">{{cite journal |last=Reyntjens |first=Filip |title=Behind the Façade of Rwanda's Elections |journal=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |date=2011 |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=64–69 |jstor=43133887 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43133887 |issn=1526-0054 |access-date=5 September 2023 |archive-date=5 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230905203956/https://www.jstor.org/stable/43133887 |url-status=live}}</ref> ruled by the [[Rwandan Patriotic Front]] (RPF) and its leader [[Paul Kagame]] continuously since the end of the civil war in 1994.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stroh |first1=Alexander |title=Electoral rules of the authoritarian game: undemocratic effects of proportional representation in Rwanda |journal=Journal of Eastern African Studies |date=2010 |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=1–19 |doi=10.1080/17531050903550066|s2cid=154910536}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Matfess |first1=Hilary |title=Rwanda and Ethiopia: Developmental Authoritarianism and the New Politics of African Strong Men |journal=African Studies Review |date=2015 |volume=58 |issue=2 |pages=181–204 |doi=10.1017/asr.2015.43|s2cid=143013060 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Although Rwanda is nominally democratic, elections are manipulated in various ways, which include banning opposition parties, arresting or assassinating critics, and [[electoral fraud]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Waldorf |first=Lars |editor-last=Themnér |editor-first=Anders |title=Warlord Democrats in Africa: Ex-Military Leaders and Electoral Politics |date=2017 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic / [[Nordic Africa Institute]] |isbn=978-1-78360-248-3 |url=http://files.webb.uu.se/uploader/1576/Warlord-Democrats-in-Africa.pdf#page=79 |chapter=The Apotheosis of a Warlord: Paul Kagame |access-date=27 September 2023 |archive-date=27 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231127084243/http://files.webb.uu.se/uploader/1576/Warlord-Democrats-in-Africa.pdf#page=79 |url-status=live}}</ref> The RPF is a [[Tutsi]]-dominated party but receives support from other communities as well.{{sfn|Clark|2010}}

The constitution was adopted following a national referendum in 2003, replacing the transitional constitution which had been in place since 1994.{{sfn|Panapress|2003}} The constitution mandates a multi-party system of government, with politics based on democracy and elections.{{sfn|CJCR|2003|loc=article 52}} However, the constitution places conditions on how political parties may operate. Article 54 states that "political organizations are prohibited from basing themselves on race, ethnic group, tribe, clan, region, sex, religion or any other division which may give rise to discrimination".{{sfn|CJCR|2003|loc=article 54}} The [[president of Rwanda]] is the [[head of state]],{{sfn|CJCR|2003|loc=article 98}} and has broad powers including creating policy in conjunction with the [[Cabinet of Rwanda]],{{sfn|CJCR|2003|loc=article 117}} commanding the [[Rwandan Defence Force]],{{sfn|CJCR|2003|loc=article 110}} negotiating and ratifying treaties,{{sfn|CJCR|2003|loc=article 189}} signing presidential orders,{{sfn|CJCR|2003|loc=article 112}} and declaring war or a state of emergency.{{sfn|CJCR|2003|loc=article 110}} The president is elected [[Elections in Rwanda|every five years]],{{sfn|CJCR|2003|loc=articles 100–101}} and appoints the [[Prime Minister of Rwanda|prime minister]] and all other members of the Cabinet.{{sfn|CJCR|2003|loc=article 116}} The [[Parliament of Rwanda|Parliament]] consists of two [[Legislative chamber|chambers]]. It makes legislation and is empowered by the constitution to oversee the activities of the president and the Cabinet.{{sfn|CJCR|2003|loc=article 62}} The lower chamber is the [[Chamber of Deputies (Rwanda)|Chamber of Deputies]], which has 80 members serving five-year terms. Twenty-four of these seats are reserved for women, elected through a joint assembly of local government officials; another three seats are reserved for youth and disabled members; the remaining 53 are elected by [[universal suffrage]] under a [[proportional representation]] system.{{sfn|CJCR|2003|loc=article 76}}
[[File:An aerial view of new look of Rwanda Parliament Building in Kimihurura, Kigali on May 16, 2019. Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|alt=Photograph of the Chamber of Deputies with highway in the foreground|left|thumb|261x261px|[[Chamber of Deputies of Rwanda|Chamber of Deputies building]]]]
Rwanda's legal system is largely based on [[Law of Germany|German]] and [[Law of Belgium|Belgian]] [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]] systems and [[customary law]].{{sfn|CIA (I)}} The judiciary is independent of the executive branch,{{sfn|CJCR|2003|loc=article 140}} although the president and the Senate are involved in the appointment of Supreme Court judges.{{sfn|CJCR|2003|loc=article 148}} Human Rights Watch has praised the Rwandan government for progress made in the delivery of justice including the abolition of the death penalty,{{sfn|Human Rights Watch|Wells|2008|loc=I. Summary}} but also alleges interference in the judicial system by members of the government, such as the politically motivated appointment of judges, misuse of prosecutorial power, and pressure on judges to make particular decisions.{{sfn|Human Rights Watch|Wells|2008|loc=VIII. Independence of the Judiciary}} The constitution provides for two types of courts: ordinary and specialised.{{sfn|CJCR|2003|loc=article 143}} Ordinary courts are the [[Supreme Court of Rwanda|Supreme Court]], the [[High Court of Rwanda|High Court]], and regional courts, while specialised courts are military courts{{sfn|CJCR|2003|loc=article 143}} and a system of commercial courts created in 2011 to expedite commercial litigations.{{sfn|Kamere|2011}} Between 2004 and 2012, a system of [[Gacaca court|''Gacaca'' courts]] was in operation.{{sfn|BBC News (VIII)|2015}} {{lang|rw|Gacaca}}, a Rwandan traditional court operated by villages and communities, was revived to expedite the trials of genocide suspects.{{sfn|Walker|March 2004}} The court succeeded in clearing the backlog of genocide cases, but was criticised by human rights groups as not meeting legal fair standard.{{sfn|BBC News (IX)|2012}}

Rwanda has low corruption levels relative to most other African countries; in 2014, [[Transparency International]] ranked Rwanda as the fifth-cleanest out of 47 countries in [[Sub-Saharan Africa]] and 55th-cleanest out of 175 in the world.{{sfn|Transparency International|2014}}{{sfn|Agutamba|2014}} The constitution provides for an [[ombudsman]], whose duties include prevention and fighting of corruption.{{sfn|CJCR|2003|loc=article 182}}{{sfn|Office of the Ombudsman}} Public officials (including the president) are required by the constitution to declare their wealth to the ombudsman and to the public; those who do not comply are suspended from office.{{sfn|Asiimwe|2011}} Despite this, Human Rights Watch notes extensive political repression throughout the country, including illegal and arbitrary detention, threats or other forms of intimidation, disappearances, politically motivated trials, and the massacre of peacefully protesting civilians.<ref name=Roth>{{cite book |last1=Roth |first1=Kenneth |title=Rwanda Events of 2019 |url=https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2020/country-chapters/rwanda |publisher=Human Rights Watch |date=10 December 2019 |access-date=4 April 2022 |archive-date=14 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220414062456/https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2020/country-chapters/rwanda |url-status=live }}</ref>

Rwanda is a member of the [[United Nations]],{{sfn|United Nations (I)}} [[African Union]], [[La Francophonie|Francophonie]],{{sfn|Francophonie}} [[East African Community]],{{sfn|Grainger|2007}} and the [[Commonwealth of Nations]].{{sfn|Fletcher|2009}} For many years during the Habyarimana regime, the country maintained close ties with France, as well as Belgium, the former colonial power.{{sfn|Prunier|1995|p=89}} Under the RPF government, however, Rwanda has sought closer ties with neighbouring countries in the East African Community and with the English-speaking world. Diplomatic relations with France were suspended in 2006 following the indictment of Rwandan officials by a French judge,{{sfn|Porter|2008}} and despite their restoration in 2010, {{As of|2015|lc=y}} relations between the countries remain strained.{{sfn|Xinhua News Agency|2015}} Relations with the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] were tense following Rwanda's involvement in the [[First Congo War|First]] and [[Second Congo War]]s;{{sfn|BBC News (V)|2010}} the Congolese army alleged Rwandan attacks on their troops, while Rwanda blamed the Congolese government for failing to suppress Hutu rebels in [[North Kivu|North]] and [[South Kivu]] provinces.{{sfn|USA Today|2008}}{{sfn|Al Jazeera|2007}} In 2010, the United Nations released a report accusing the Rwandan army of committing wide scale human rights violations and crimes against humanity in the Democratic Republic of the Congo during the [[First Congo War|First]] and [[Second Congo War]]s, charges denied by the Rwandan government.{{sfn|McGreal|2010}} Relations soured further in 2012, as Kinshasa accused Rwanda of supporting the [[M23 rebellion (2012–2013)|M23 rebellion]], an insurgency in the eastern Congo.{{sfn|BBC News (X)|2012}} In 2015 peace had been restored and relations were improving,{{sfn|Agence Africaine de Presse|2015}} but by January 2025 renewed Rwandan support for the M23 rebellion caused DR Congo to sever diplomatic relations in the wake of the [[2025 Goma offensive]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=26 January 2025 |title=The Democratic Republic of the Congo cut off diplomatic ties with Rwanda on Sunday as the rebel group M23, believed to be backed by Kigali, closed in on the eastern city of Goma. |url=https://www.france24.com/en/africa/20250126-dr-congo-severs-ties-with-rwanda-as-m23-rebel-group-closes-in-on-goma |access-date=29 January 2025 |work=[[France24]]}}</ref>

Rwanda's relationship with [[Uganda]] was also tense for much of the 2000s following a 1999 clash between the two countries' armies as they backed opposing rebel groups in the Second Congo War,{{sfn|Heuler|2011}} but improved significantly in the early 2010s.{{sfn|BBC News (VI)|2011}}{{sfn|Maboja|2015}} In 2019, relations between the two countries deteriorated, with Rwanda closing its borders with Uganda.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-03-08/why-a-closed-border-has-uganda-rwanda-at-loggerheads-quicktake |title=Why a Closed Border Has Uganda, Rwanda at Loggerheads |first=David |last=Malingha |publisher=Bloomberg |date=8 March 2019 |access-date=9 March 2020 |archive-date=20 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190420234647/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-03-08/why-a-closed-border-has-uganda-rwanda-at-loggerheads-quicktake |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-02-21/uganda-rwanda-hold-talks-on-security-concerns-reopening-border |title=Uganda, Rwanda Hold Talks On Security Concerns, Reopening Border |first1=Saul |last1=Butera |first2=Fred |last2=Ojambo |publisher=Bloomberg |date=21 February 2020 |access-date=9 March 2020 |archive-date=6 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200306072656/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-02-21/uganda-rwanda-hold-talks-on-security-concerns-reopening-border |url-status=live}}</ref>

On 25 January 2025, the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] broke off diplomatic ties with Rwanda over its alleged support for the [[March 23 Movement|M23 rebel group]] operating in the country.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Asiimwe |first=George |date=2025-01-25 |title=DRC Recalls Diplomats from Rwanda, Orders Kigali Embassy Closure Amid M23 Conflict |url=https://chimpreports.com/drc-recalls-diplomats-from-rwanda-orders-kigali-embassy-closure-amid-m23-conflict/ |access-date=2025-12-09 |website=ChimpReports |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-01-26 |title=DR Congo severs ties with Rwanda as M23 rebel group closes in on Goma |url=https://www.france24.com/en/africa/20250126-dr-congo-severs-ties-with-rwanda-as-m23-rebel-group-closes-in-on-goma |access-date=2025-12-09 |website=France 24 |language=en}}</ref>

== Administrative divisions ==
{{Further|Decentralization in Rwanda|}}
{{main|Provinces of Rwanda}}

[[File:RwandaGeoProvinces.png|thumb|Provinces of Rwanda|alt=Map of Rwanda showing the five provinces in various colours, as well as major cities, lakes, rivers, and areas of neighbouring countries]]
Before western colonization, the Rwandan government system had a [[Quasi-state|quasi-system]] of [[Pluralism (political theory)|political pluralism]] and power sharing.{{sfn|OAU|2000|p=14}} Despite there being a strict hierarchy, the pre-colonial system achieved an established, combined system of "centralized power and decentralized autonomous units." Under the monarch, the elected Chief governed a province that was divided into multiple districts. Two other officials appointed by head Chief governed the districts; one official was allocated power over the land while the other oversaw cattle. The [[List of kings of Rwanda|king]] ({{lang|rw|mwami}}) exercised control through a system of provinces, districts, hills, and neighbourhoods.{{sfn|Melvern|2004|p=5}}
As of 2003, the constitution [[subdivisions of Rwanda|divided]] Rwanda into [[Provinces of Rwanda|provinces]] ({{lang|rw|intara}}), [[Districts of Rwanda|districts]] ({{lang|rw|uturere}}), cities, municipalities, towns, [[Sectors of Rwanda|sectors]] ({{lang|rw|imirenge}}), cells ({{lang|rw|utugari}}), and villages ({{lang|rw|imidugudu}}); the larger divisions, and their borders, are established by Parliament.{{sfn|CJCR|2003|loc=article 3}} In January 2006, Rwanda was reorganized such that twelve provinces were merged to create five, and 106 districts were merged into thirty.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gwillim Law |date=2010-04-27 |title=Rwanda Districts |url=http://www.statoids.com/yrw.html |access-date=2022-10-10 |website=www.statoids.com |archive-date=21 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200821085718/http://www.statoids.com/yrw.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The present borders drawn in 2006 aimed at decentralising power and removing associations with the old system and the genocide. The previous structure of twelve provinces associated with the largest cities was replaced with five provinces based primarily on geography.{{sfn|BBC News (I)|2006}} These are [[Northern Province, Rwanda|Northern Province]], [[Southern Province, Rwanda|Southern Province]], [[Eastern Province, Rwanda|Eastern Province]], [[Western Province, Rwanda|Western Province]], and the Municipality of Kigali in the centre.

The five provinces act as intermediaries between the national government and their constituent districts to ensure that national policies are implemented at the district level. The Rwanda Decentralisation Strategic Framework developed by the Ministry of Local Government assigns to provinces the responsibility for "coordinating governance issues in the Province, as well as monitoring and evaluation".{{sfn|MINALOC|2007|p=8}} Each province is headed by a governor, appointed by the president and approved by the Senate.{{sfn|Southern Province}} The districts are responsible for coordinating public service delivery and economic development. They are divided into sectors, which are responsible for the delivery of public services as mandated by the districts.{{sfn|MINALOC|2007|p=9}} Districts and sectors have directly elected councils, and are run by an executive committee selected by that council.{{sfn|MINALOC|2004}} The cells and villages are the smallest political units, providing a link between the people and the sectors.{{sfn|MINALOC|2007|p=9}} All adult resident citizens are members of their local cell council, from which an executive committee is elected.{{sfn|MINALOC|2004}} The city of [[Kigali]] is a provincial-level authority, which coordinates urban planning within the city.{{sfn|MINALOC|2007|p=8}}

== Geography ==
{{Main|Geography of Rwanda}}

[[File:Rwanda Topography.png|thumb|upright=1.3|Topography of Rwanda]]

Rwanda is located in [[East Africa]], in the eastern-central part of the [[Africa]]n continent, between 1° and 3° S latitude and between 29° and 31° E longitude. Its geography is characterized by rolling highlands, mountains, and numerous lakes. At {{convert|26338|km2|sqmi}}, Rwanda is the world's [[List of countries and dependencies by area|144th]]-largest country, and the fourth smallest on the African mainland after [[Gambia]], [[Eswatini]], and [[Djibouti]]. It is comparable in size to [[Burundi]], [[Haiti]] and [[Albania]].{{sfn|CIA (I)}}{{sfn|Richards|1994}} The entire country is at a high altitude: the [[List of countries by lowest point|lowest point]] is the [[Rusizi River]] at {{convert|950|m|ft|0}} above sea level.{{sfn|CIA (I)}}

The [[Congo-Nile Divide|watershed]] between the major [[Congo Basin|Congo]] and [[Nile Basin|Nile]] [[drainage basin]]s runs from north to south through Rwanda, with around 80% of the country's area draining into the Nile and 20% into the Congo via the [[Rusizi River]] and [[Lake Tanganyika]].{{sfn|Nile Basin Initiative|2010}} The country's longest river is the [[Nyabarongo River Wetlands|Nyabarongo]], which rises in the south-west, flows north, east, and southeast before merging with the [[Ruvubu River|Ruvubu]] to form the [[Kagera River|Kagera]]; the Kagera then flows due north along the eastern border with Tanzania. The Nyabarongo-Kagera eventually drains into [[Lake Victoria]], and its source in Nyungwe Forest is a contender for the as-yet undetermined overall [[Source (river or stream)|source]] of the [[Nile]].{{sfn|BBC News (II)|2006}} Rwanda has many lakes, the largest being [[Lake Kivu]]. This lake occupies the floor of the [[Albertine Rift]] along most of the length of Rwanda's western border, and with a maximum depth of {{convert|480|m|ft|0}},{{sfn|Jørgensen|2005|p=93}} it is one of the twenty [[List of lakes by depth|deepest lakes in the world]].{{sfn|Briggs|Booth|2006|p=153}} Other sizeable lakes include [[Lake Burera|Burera]], [[Lake Ruhondo|Ruhondo]], [[Lake Muhazi|Muhazi]], [[Lake Rweru|Rweru]], and [[Lake Ihema|Ihema]], the last being the largest of a string of lakes in the eastern plains of [[Akagera National Park]].{{sfn|Hodd|1994|p=522}}

Mountains dominate central and western Rwanda and the country is sometimes called "{{lang|fr|Pays des mille collines}}" in French ("Land of a thousand hills").<ref>Christophe Migeon. "[https://www.lepoint.fr/art-de-vivre/voyage-au-rwanda-le-pays-des-mille-collines-26-05-2018-2221523_4.php Voyage au Rwanda, le pays des Mille Collines] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190407095409/https://www.lepoint.fr/art-de-vivre/voyage-au-rwanda-le-pays-des-mille-collines-26-05-2018-2221523_4.php |date=7 April 2019 }}" (In French), ''[[Le Point]]'', 26 May 2018. Retrieved 31 July 2019.</ref> They are part of the Albertine Rift Mountains that flank the Albertine branch of the [[East African Rift]], which runs from north to south along Rwanda's western border.{{sfn|WWF|2001|loc=Location and General Description}} The highest peaks are found in the [[Virunga Mountains|Virunga]] volcano chain in the northwest; this includes [[Mount Karisimbi]], Rwanda's highest point, at {{convert|4507|m|ft|0}}.{{sfn|Mehta|Katee|2005|p=37}} This western section of the country lies within the [[Albertine Rift montane forests]] ecoregion.{{sfn|WWF|2001|loc=Location and General Description}} It has an elevation of {{convert|1500|to|2500|m|ft|0}}.{{sfn|Munyakazi|Ntagaramba|2005|p=7}} The centre of the country is predominantly rolling hills, while the eastern border region consists of [[savanna]], plains and swamps.{{sfn|Munyakazi|Ntagaramba|2005|p=18}}

=== Climate ===

[[File:RwandaVolcanoAndLake cropped2.jpg|thumb|Lake and volcano in the [[Virunga Mountains]]|alt=Photograph of a lake with one of the Virunga mountains behind, partially in cloud]]
Rwanda has a [[temperate]] [[Tropical climate|tropical highland]] climate, with lower temperatures than are typical for equatorial countries because of its high elevation.{{sfn|U.S. Department of State|2004}} Precipitation usually ranges from 1,000 to 1,400 millimetres per year, depending on the area. Kigali, in the centre of the country, has a typical daily temperature range between {{convert|15|and|28|°C|°F}}, with little variation through the year.{{sfn|World Meteorological Organization}} There are some temperature variations across the country; the mountainous west and north are generally cooler than the lower-lying east.{{sfn|Best Country Reports|2007}} There are two rainy seasons in the year; the first runs from February to June and the second from September to December. These are separated by two [[dry season]]s: the major one from June to September, during which there is often no rain at all, and a shorter and less severe one from December to February.{{sfn|King|2007|p=10}} Rainfall varies geographically, with the west and northwest of the country receiving more precipitation annually than the east and southeast.{{sfn|Adekunle|2007|p=1}} [[Global warming]] has caused a change in the pattern of the rainy seasons. According to a report by the Strategic Foresight Group, change in climate has reduced the number of rainy days experienced during a year, but has also caused an increase in frequency of torrential rains.{{sfn|Strategic Foresight Group|2013|p=29}} Both changes have caused difficulty for farmers, decreasing their productivity.{{sfn|Bucyensenge|2014}} Strategic Foresight also characterise Rwanda as a fast warming country, with an increase in average temperature of between 0.7&nbsp;°C to 0.9&nbsp;°C over fifty years.{{sfn|Strategic Foresight Group|2013|p=29}}

=== Biodiversity ===
{{Main|Wildlife of Rwanda}}

[[File:Mountain gorilla from Susa Group in Karisimbi thicket of Volcanoes National Park in Rwanda. Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|left|thumb|[[Volcanoes National Park]] is the home of the largest population of [[mountain gorillas]] in the world.]]

In prehistoric times{{Clarify|date=June 2025}}, [[montane forest]] occupied one-third of the territory of present-day Rwanda. Naturally occurring vegetation is now mostly restricted to the [[National parks of Rwanda|three national parks]], with [[Terrace (agriculture)|terraced agriculture]] dominating the rest of the country.{{sfn|Briggs|Booth|2006|pp=3–4}} [[Nyungwe Forest|Nyungwe]], the largest remaining tract of forest, contains 200 species of tree as well as [[orchid]]s and [[begonia]]s.{{sfn|King|2007|p=11}} Vegetation in the [[Volcanoes National Park]] is mostly [[bamboo]] and moorland, with small areas of forest.{{sfn|Briggs|Booth|2006|pp=3–4}} By contrast, Akagera has a [[savanna]] ecosystem in which [[acacia]] dominates the flora. There are several rare or endangered plant species in Akagera, including ''[[Markhamia lutea]]'' and ''[[Eulophia guineensis]]''.{{sfn|REMA (Chapter 5)|2009|p=3}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.climatelinks.org/sites/default/files/asset/document/rwanda_adaptation_fact_sheet_jan2012.pdf |title=Climate Change Adaption in Rwanda |publisher=USAID |access-date=14 March 2022 |archive-date=7 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220207011141/https://www.climatelinks.org/sites/default/files/asset/document/rwanda_adaptation_fact_sheet_jan2012.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

The greatest diversity of large mammals is found in the three national parks, which are designated conservation areas.{{sfn|Government of Rwanda (II)}} Akagera contains typical savanna animals such as giraffes and elephants,{{sfn|RDB (III)}} while Volcanoes is home to an estimated one-third of the worldwide [[mountain gorilla]] population.{{sfn|RDB (I)|2010}} Nyungwe Forest boasts thirteen primate species including [[common chimpanzee]]s and [[Black-and-white colobus|''Ruwenzori colobus'']] arboreal monkeys; th''e Ruwenzori colobus'' move in groups of up to 400 individuals, the largest troop size of any primate in Africa.{{sfn|Briggs|Booth|2006|p=140}}
[[File:Talk - Flickr - askmeaks.jpg|upright|thumb|Giraffe in Akagera National Park]]
Rwanda's population of [[lion]]s was destroyed in the aftermath of the genocide of 1994, as national parks were turned into camps for displaced people and the remaining animals were poisoned by cattle herders. In June 2015, two South African parks donated seven lions to [[Akagera National Park]], reestablishing a lion population in Rwanda.{{sfn|Smith|2015}} The lions were held initially in a fenced-off area of the park, and then collared and released into the wild a month later.{{sfn|The New Times|2015}}

Eighteen endangered black rhinos were brought to Rwanda in 2017 from South Africa.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/may/03/black-rhinos-return-to-rwanda-10-years-after-disappearance |title=Black rhinos return to Rwanda 10 years after disappearance |agency=Agence France-Presse |date=3 May 2017 |website=The Guardian |access-date=17 December 2022 |archive-date=29 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221129042039/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/may/03/black-rhinos-return-to-rwanda-10-years-after-disappearance |url-status=live }}</ref> After positive results, five more black rhinos were delivered to Akagera National Park from zoos all over Europe in 2019.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.cntraveler.com/story/rwanda-just-pulled-off-the-largest-transport-of-rhinos-from-europe-to-africa |title=Rwanda Just Pulled Off the Largest Transport of Rhinos From Europe to Africa |date=26 June 2019 |website=Condé Nast Traveler |access-date=17 December 2022 |archive-date=17 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221217212041/https://www.cntraveler.com/story/rwanda-just-pulled-off-the-largest-transport-of-rhinos-from-europe-to-africa |url-status=live }}</ref>

Similarly, the white rhino population is growing in Rwanda. In 2021, Rwanda received 30 white rhinos from South Africa with the goal of Akagera being a safe breeding ground for the near-threatened species.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/nov/29/white-rhinos-flown-from-south-africa-to-rwanda-in-largest-single-translocation |title=White rhinos flown from South Africa to Rwanda in largest single translocation |date=29 November 2021 |website=The Guardian |access-date=17 December 2022 |archive-date=17 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221217212033/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/nov/29/white-rhinos-flown-from-south-africa-to-rwanda-in-largest-single-translocation |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.npr.org/2021/11/30/1060057463/rhinos-translocation-move-white-rwanda-south-africa |title=Conservationists flew 30 white rhinos to Rwanda in a huge operation to protect them |first=Joe |last=Hernandez |work=NPR |date=30 November 2021 |access-date=17 December 2022 |archive-date=17 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221217212031/https://www.npr.org/2021/11/30/1060057463/rhinos-translocation-move-white-rwanda-south-africa |url-status=live}}</ref>

There are 670 [[List of birds of Rwanda|bird species in Rwanda]], with variation between the east and the west.{{sfn|King|2007|p=15}} Nyungwe Forest, in the west, has 280 recorded species, of which 26 are endemic to the Albertine Rift;{{sfn|King|2007|p=15}} endemic species include the ''[[Rwenzori turaco]]'' and [[handsome spurfowl]].{{sfn|WCS}} Eastern Rwanda, by contrast, features savanna birds such as the [[black-headed gonolek]] and those associated with swamps and lakes, including [[stork]]s and [[Crane (bird)|cranes]].{{sfn|King|2007|p=15}}

Recent entomological work in the country has revealed a rich diversity of [[praying mantises]],{{sfn|Tedrow|2015}} including a new species ''Dystacta tigrifrutex'', dubbed the "bush tiger mantis".{{sfn|Maynard|2014}}

Rwanda contains three terrestrial ecoregions: [[Albertine Rift montane forests]], [[Victoria Basin forest-savanna mosaic]], and [[Ruwenzori-Virunga montane moorlands]].<ref name="DinersteinOlson2017">{{cite journal |last1=Dinerstein |first1=Eric |last2=Olson |first2=David |last3=Joshi |first3=Anup |last4=Vynne |first4=Carly |last5=Burgess |first5=Neil D. |last6=Wikramanayake |first6=Eric |last7=Hahn |first7=Nathan |last8=Palminteri |first8=Suzanne |last9=Hedao |first9=Prashant |last10=Noss |first10=Reed |last11=Hansen |first11=Matt |last12=Locke |first12=Harvey |last13=Ellis |first13=Erle C |last14=Jones |first14=Benjamin |last15=Barber |first15=Charles Victor |last16=Hayes |first16=Randy |last17=Kormos |first17=Cyril |last18=Martin |first18=Vance |last19=Crist |first19=Eileen |last20=Sechrest|first20=Wes |last21=Price |first21=Lori |last22=Baillie |first22=Jonathan E.M. |last23=Weeden |first23=Don |last24=Suckling |first24=Kierán |last25=Davis |first25=Crystal |last26=Sizer |first26=Nigel |last27=Moore |first27=Rebecca |last28=Thau |first28=David |last29=Birch |first29=Tanya |last30=Potapov|first30=Peter |last31=Turubanova |first31=Svetlana |last32=Tyukavina |first32=Alexandra |last33=de Souza |first33=Nadia |last34=Pintea |first34=Lilian |last35=Brito |first35=José C. |last36=Llewellyn |first36=Othman A. |last37=Miller |first37=Anthony G. |last38=Patzelt |first38=Annette |last39=Ghazanfar |first39=Shahina A. |last40=Timberlake |first40=Jonathan |last41=Klöser |first41=Heinz |last42=Shennan-Farpón |first42=Yara |last43=Kindt |first43=Roeland |last44=Lillesø |first44=Jens-Peter Barnekow |last45=van Breugel |first45=Paulo |last46=Graudal |first46=Lars |last47=Voge |first47=Maianna |last48=Al-Shammari |first48=Khalaf F. |last49=Saleem |first49=Muhammad |display-authors=1 |title=An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm |journal=BioScience |volume=67 |issue=6 |year=2017 |pages=534–545 |issn=0006-3568 |doi=10.1093/biosci/bix014 |pmid=28608869 |pmc=5451287 |doi-access=free}}</ref> The country had a 2019 [[Forest Landscape Integrity Index]] mean score of 3.85/10, ranking it 139th globally out of 172 countries.<ref name="FLII-Supplementary">{{cite journal |last1=Grantham |first1=H.S. |last2=Duncan |first2=A. |last3=Evans |first3=T.D. |last4=Jones |first4=K.R. |last5=Beyer |first5=H.L. |last6=Schuster |first6=R. |last7=Walston |first7=J. |last8=Ray |first8=J.C. |last9=Robinson |first9=J.G. |last10=Callow |first10=M. |last11=Clements |first11=T. |last12=Costa |first12=H.M. |last13=DeGemmis |first13=A. |last14=Elsen |first14=P.R. |last15=Ervin |first15=J. |last16=Franco |first16=P. |last17=Goldman |first17=E. |last18=Goetz |first18=S. |last19=Hansen |first19=A. |last20=Hofsvang |first20=E. |last21=Jantz |first21=P. |last22=Jupiter |first22=S. |last23=Kang |first23=A. |last24=Langhammer |first24=P. |last25=Laurance |first25=W.F. |last26=Lieberman |first26=S. |last27=Linkie |first27=M. |last28=Malhi |first28=Y. |last29=Maxwell |first29=S. |last30=Mendez |first30=M. |last31=Mittermeier |first31=R. |last32=Murray |first32=N.J. |last33=Possingham |first33=H. |last34=Radachowsky |first34=J. |last35=Saatchi |first35=S. |last36=Samper |first36=C. |last37=Silverman |first37=J. |last38=Shapiro |first38=A. |last39=Strassburg |first39=B. |last40=Stevens |first40=T. |last41=Stokes |first41=E. |last42=Taylor |first42=R. |last43=Tear |first43=T. |last44=Tizard |first44=R. |last45=Venter |first45=O. |last46=Visconti |first46=P. |last47=Wang |first47=S. |last48=Watson |first48=J.E.M. |display-authors=1 |title=Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity – Supplementary Material |journal=Nature Communications |volume=11 |issue=1 |year=2020 |page=5978 |issn=2041-1723 |pmid=33293507 |pmc=7723057 |bibcode=2020NatCo..11.5978G |doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

== Economy ==
{{Main|Economy of Rwanda}}

{{Update|section=yes|reason=This section does not reflect recent developments in Rwanda's economy (Economy of Rwanda page covers it slightly better).|date=August 2025}}

The '''economy of Rwanda''' has expanded consistently since the [[Rwandan genocide|1994 genocide]], with real GDP growth of 8.2% in 2023 and 8.9% in 2024, according to the [[National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Rwanda's economy grew 8.9% in 2024, stats office says |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/rwandas-economy-grew-89-2024-stats-office-says-2025-03-19/ |website=Reuters |date=19 March 2025 |access-date=1 August 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250319120000/https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/rwandas-economy-grew-89-2024-stats-office-says-2025-03-19/ |archive-date=19 March 2025 |url-status=live}}</ref> Growth is projected at 7.1% in 2025 and 7.5% in 2026, and the government is actively pursuing policies to encourage industrial growth, such as the "Made In Rwanda".<ref>{{cite web |date=8 May 2025 |title=Rwanda finance minister says economy to grow 7.1% in 2025, 7.5% in 2026 |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/rwanda-finance-minister-economy-grow-71-2025-2025-05-08/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250508120000/https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/rwanda-finance-minister-economy-grow-71-2025-2025-05-08/ |archive-date=8 May 2025 |access-date=1 August 2025 |website=Reuters}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
 | title=Economy of Rwanda
 | url=https://www.globaltenders.com/economy-of-rwanda
 | website=Global Tenders
 | access-date=2025-07-29
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| last=Spray & Steenbergen
 | first=John & Victor
 | date=2017-09-13
 | title=Made in Rwanda: Establishing a publicly available supplier database for Rwanda
 | url=https://www.theigc.org/sites/default/files/2017/09/Company-database-brief.pdf
 | website=International Growth Centre
 | access-date=2025-07-29
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
 | last=
 | first=
 | date=2025-04-01
 | title=Rwanda Overview
 | url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/rwanda/overview
 | website=World Bank
 | access-date=2025-08-04
}}</ref>

As of the most recent survey in 2024, 30.5% of the population are affected by [[Multidimensional Poverty Index|multidimensional poverty]] with 27.4% of the population under the national poverty line (monetary poverty), a significant drop from the monetary poverty of 60.3% in 2000.<ref>{{cite web
 | last=National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda
 | date=2025-04-16
 | title=EICV7 – Thematic Report: Multidimensional Poverty
 | url=https://www.statistics.gov.rw/data-sources/surveys/EICV/integrated-household-living-conditions-survey-7-eicv-7/eicv7-thematic-report-multidimensional-poverty
 | website=National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda
 | access-date=2025-08-04
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
 | last=National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda
 | date=2025-04-16
 | title=EICV7 – Poverty Profile Report 2023/24
 | url=https://www.statistics.gov.rw/data-sources/surveys/EICV/integrated-household-living-conditions-survey-7-eicv-7/eicv7-poverty-profile-report-202324
 | website=National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda
 | access-date=2025-08-04
}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=One million more out of poverty in Rwanda |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/africacan/one-million-more-out-of-poverty-in-rwanda |access-date=2025-08-10 |website=World Bank Blogs |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Rwandan Embassy of Sweden |date=May 2024 |title=Multi-Dimensional Poverty Analysis |url=https://cdn.sida.se/app/uploads/2024/08/12150441/MDPA-Rwanda-2023_final-May2024.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250624081803/https://cdn.sida.se/app/uploads/2024/08/12150441/MDPA-Rwanda-2023_final-May2024.pdf |archive-date=June 24, 2025 |access-date=10 August 2025 |website=The Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency}}</ref> Rwanda was classified in 2024 on the list of [[Least developed countries]] by the [[United Nations]], despite its graduation in the human assets aspect, Rwanda's [[List of countries by GNI (nominal) per capita|GNI per capita]] (as an average over three years) and [[Economic Vulnerability Index]] ([[Agriculture|agricultural dependence]] and [[Landlocked country|landlocked status]]) are below the graduation threshold.<ref>{{Cite web |title=UN list of least developed countries |url=https://unctad.org/topic/least-developed-countries/list |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20250815170948/https://unctad.org/topic/least-developed-countries/list |archive-date=2025-08-15 |access-date=2025-09-02 |website=UN Trade and Development (UNCTAD) |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Rwanda GNI Per Capita {{!}} Historical Chart & Data |url=https://www.macrotrends.net/global-metrics/countries/rwa/rwanda/gni-per-capita |access-date=2025-09-02 |website=www.macrotrends.net}}</ref>

Rwanda's economy is mainly driven by services, agriculture and industry, although agriculture ([[Subsistence agriculture|subsistence]] and [[cash crop]]s) holds a larger share of employment than the other sectors (64.5%). The share of GDP from different sectors (2024) is as follows: Services constituted 44.3%, Industry constituted 21.5% and agriculture constituted 27.1%.{{sfn|FAO / WFP|1997}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Agriculture Investment Opportunities in Rwanda |url=https://rdb.rw/investment-opportunities/agriculture/ |access-date=2025-08-04 |website=Rwanda Development Board }}</ref>

In 2023 its major export partners include [[United Arab Emirates]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[China]], [[India]] and the [[United States]], with the major exports being precious stones/metals, coffee, ores, oil and manufactured goods ([[Food processing|agro-processing]], cement, furniture, textiles and plastic pipes).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rwanda (RWA) Exports, Imports, and Trade Partners |url=https://oec.world/en/profile/country/rwa |access-date=2025-08-24 |website=The Observatory of Economic Complexity |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=Rwanda Trade {{!}} WITS Data |url=https://wits.worldbank.org/CountrySnapshot/en/RWA |access-date=2025-08-24 |website=wits.worldbank.org}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Rwanda: Trade Statistics |url=https://globaledge.msu.edu/countries/rwanda/tradestats |access-date=2025-08-25 |website=globaledge.msu.edu |language=en-us}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Manufacturing sector {{!}} Official Rwanda Export Website |url=https://rdb.rw/export/export/products-directory/manufacturing-sector/ |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20240302191046/https://rdb.rw/export/export/products-directory/manufacturing-sector/ |archive-date=2024-03-02 |access-date=2025-08-25 |website=rdb.rw |language=en-US}}</ref> Its major import partners were [[China]], [[Tanzania]], [[Kenya]], [[India]] and the [[United Arab Emirates]], with its major imports being oil, electric machinery, metals and industrial machinery.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":0" /> Its monetary policy and financial management is controlled by the central [[National Bank of Rwanda]] and the currency is the [[Rwandan franc]]; in August 2025, the exchange rate was 1445 francs to one United States dollar, a currency which it created in 1964<ref>{{Cite web |title=1 thousand US dollars to Rwandan francs Exchange Rate. Convert USD/RWF |url=https://wise.com/gb/currency-converter/usd-to-rwf-rate?amount=1000 |access-date=2025-08-25 |website=Wise |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Src="https://Secure.gravatar.com/Avatar/F88398f21c807779c7368c8bcdfe5d1e?s=44 |first1=<img Alt="" |last2=d=wavatar |last3=Srcset="https://Secure.gravatar.com/Avatar/F88398f21c807779c7368c8bcdfe5d1e?s=88 |first3=R=g" |last4=d=wavatar |last5=Binance |first5=r=g 2x" height="44" width="44" loading="lazy">registro de |date=2021-11-06 |title=Rwanda: History of Their Franc Banknote |url=https://www.banknoteworld.com/blog/history-of-the-rwanda-franc-banknote/ |access-date=2025-08-25 |website=Banknote World |language=en}}</ref> Rwanda joined the [[East African Community]] in 2007, and has ratified a plan for [[monetary union]] amongst the seven member nations,{{sfn|Asiimwe|2014}} which could eventually lead to a common [[East African shilling#Second East African shilling|East African shilling]].{{sfn|Lavelle|2008}}

Rwanda's economy suffered heavily during the 1994 genocide, with widespread loss of life, failure to maintain infrastructure, looting, and neglect of important cash crops. This caused a large drop in GDP and heavily damaged the country's ability to attract private and external investment. However, in the 2000s Rwanda witnessed an economic boom which improved the standard of living for many Rwandans.{{sfn|CIA (I)}}<ref name="imf_data">{{cite web |title=World Economic Outlook database: April 2022 |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2022/April/weo-report?c=618,636,664,714,733,738,746,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,LP,&sy=2022&ey=2022&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531124232/https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2022/April/weo-report?c=618,636,664,714,733,738,746,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,LP,&sy=2022&ey=2022&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |archive-date=31 May 2022 |access-date=2 May 2022 |website=International Monetary Fund}}</ref>

===Agriculture===

Agriculture is prominent in Rwanda and approximately 59% of the land is used for agricultural processes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Seasonal Agricultural Survey - Season A, 2025 {{!}} National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda |url=https://www.statistics.gov.rw/data-sources/surveys/Seasonal-Agricultural-Survey/Seasonal-Agricultural-Survey/seasonal-agricultural-survey-season-2025 |access-date=2025-08-10 |website=www.statistics.gov.rw}}</ref> Farming techniques are basic, with small plots of land and steep slopes.{{sfn|Our Africa}} Despite at least five agriculture-related institutes, mechanisation levels are moderate to low.{{sfn|WRI|2006}}{{sfn|U.S. Department of State|2004}} Although Rwanda has experienced notable growth in agricultural output, rapid population growth has placed more pressure on food security and increased the population's reliance on food imports.{{sfn|CIA (I)}}<ref>{{cite web |title=From genocide to growth: Rwanda's remarkable economic turnaround – GE63 |date=24 March 2023 |url=https://ge63.com/rwanda-economic-growth |access-date=2023-03-31 |language=en-US |archive-date=31 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230331101318/https://ge63.com/rwanda-economic-growth |url-status=live}}</ref> Despite a fertile landscape, the country possesses limited natural resources.{{sfn|U.S. Department of State|2004}}
[[File:Coffee Drink.jpg|alt=Coffee in Kigali|thumb|Coffee is Rwanda's largest cash crop due to profitability, although far exceeded in banana production<ref name="Rwanda production in 2019, by FAO">{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC/ |title=Rwanda production in 2019, by FAO |publisher=The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |access-date=17 July 2022 |archive-date=11 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170511194947/http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC/ |url-status=live}}</ref>]]
Crops grown in the country include [[matoke]] (green bananas), which occupy more than a third of the country's farmland,{{sfn|Our Africa}} [[potato]]es, [[bean]]s, [[sweet potato]]es, [[cassava]], [[wheat]] and [[maize]].{{sfn|Our Africa}} Coffee and tea are the major cash crops for export, with the high altitudes, steep slopes and volcanic soils providing favourable conditions.{{sfn|Our Africa}} Reports have established that more than 400,000 Rwandans make their living from coffee plantation.{{sfn|Tumwebaze|2016}} Reliance on agricultural exports makes Rwanda vulnerable to shifts in their prices.{{sfn|WTO|2004}} Animals raised in Rwanda include cows, goats, sheep, pigs, chicken, and rabbits, with geographical variation in the numbers of each.{{sfn|MINAGRI|2006}} Production systems are mostly traditional, although there are a few intensive dairy farms around Kigali.{{sfn|MINAGRI|2006}} Shortages of land and water, insufficient and poor-quality feed, and regular disease epidemics with insufficient veterinary services are major constraints that restrict output. Fishing takes place on the country's lakes, but stocks are very depleted, and live fish are being imported in an attempt to revive the industry.{{sfn|Namata|2008}}

===Industry and manufacturing===

The industrial sector is currently experiencing growth, contributing 21.5% of GDP in 2014.{{sfn|FAO / WFP|1997}} Products manufactured include cement, agricultural products, small-scale beverages, soap, furniture, shoes, plastic goods, textiles and cigarettes.{{sfn|CIA (I)}} Rwanda's mining industry is an important contributor, generating US$93&nbsp;million in 2008.{{sfn|Mukaaya|2009}} Minerals mined include [[cassiterite]], [[wolframite]], gold, and [[coltan]], which is used in the manufacture of electronic and communication devices such as mobile phones.{{sfn|Mukaaya|2009}}{{sfn|Delawala|2001}}

Rwanda's [[service sector]] suffered during the [[late-2000s recession]] as bank lending, foreign aid projects and investment were reduced.{{sfn|Nantaba|2010}} The sector rebounded in 2010, becoming the country's largest sector by economic output and contributing 43.6% of the country's GDP.{{sfn|CIA (I)}} Key tertiary contributors include banking and finance, wholesale and retail trade, hotels and restaurants, transport, storage, communication, insurance, real estate, business services and public administration including education and health.{{sfn|Nantaba|2010}}

Rwanda was ranked 104th in the [[Global Innovation Index]] in 2025.<ref>{{Cite web |title=GII Innovation Ecosystems & Data Explorer 2025 |url=https://www.wipo.int/gii-ranking/en/rwanda |access-date=2025-10-16 |website=WIPO}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Dutta |first1=Soumitra |url=https://www.wipo.int/web-publications/global-innovation-index-2025/en/index.html |title=Global Innovation Index 2025: Innovation at a Crossroads |last2=Lanvin |first2=Bruno |publisher=[[World Intellectual Property Organization]] |year=2025 |isbn=978-92-805-3797-0 |page=19 |language=en |doi=10.34667/tind.58864 |access-date=2025-10-17}}</ref>

=== Tourism ===
{{main|Tourism in Rwanda}}

Tourism is one of Rwanda’s fastest-growing economic sectors and remains the country’s leading foreign exchange earner. In 2023, Rwanda recorded over 1.4 million international visitors, generating about US$620 million in revenue, according to the Rwanda Development Board.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tourism Investment Opportunities |url=https://visitrwanda.com/investment-opportunities/tourism/ |website=Visit Rwanda |date=2024}}</ref> The World Travel & Tourism Council reported that in 2024, the sector supported nearly 386,000 jobs in Rwanda and contributed over 10% of GDP.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rwanda’s Travel & Tourism sector broke all records in 2024 |url=https://wttc.org/news/rwandas-travel-tourism-sector-broke-all-records-in-2024 |website=World Travel & Tourism Council |date=27 March 2025}}</ref>  

A major draw for visitors is [[mountain gorilla]] tracking in [[Volcanoes National Park]], one of only three places worldwide where mountain gorillas can be seen in the wild.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Gorilla tourism in Rwanda |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/article/tracking-gorillas-in-rwanda |work=National Geographic |date=20 June 2017}}</ref> Other attractions include [[Nyungwe Forest National Park]], known for its chimpanzees and canopy walkway,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nyungwe National Park |url=https://www.visitrwanda.com/destinations/nyungwe-national-park/ |website=Visit Rwanda}}</ref> the resorts of [[Lake Kivu]], and [[Akagera National Park]], a savanna reserve in the east home to elephants, lions, and giraffes.

The government, through the Rwanda Development Board, has promoted tourism as a pillar of economic growth.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tourism |url=https://rdb.rw/tourism-conservation/ |website=Rwanda Development Board}}</ref> Visitor numbers have increased steadily since the early 2000s, with international arrivals often linked to conferences in Kigali as well as ecotourism.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Kigali steadily grows as a hub for meetings, conferences and exhibitions |url=https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/tea/magazine/kigali-steadily-grows-as-a-hub-for-meetings-conferences-and-exhibitions--1338348.com#google_vignette |work=The EastAfrican |date=17 July 2015}}</ref> In 2018, Rwanda launched the ''Visit Rwanda'' campaign, including sponsorship deals with European football clubs such as [[Arsenal F.C.]], [[Paris Saint-Germain F.C.]], and [[Atlético Madrid]], to raise the country’s profile as a travel destination.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Club welcomes Visit Rwanda as new partner |url=https://www.arsenal.com/news/club-welcomes-visit-rwanda-new-partner |website=Arsenal}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Paris Saint-Germain and Visit Rwanda renew groundbreaking partnership through 2028 |url=https://www.psg.fr/en/archive/en/2025/4/paris-saint-germain-and-visit-rwanda-renew-groundbreaking-partnership-through-2028 |website=PSG |date=16 April 2025}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Visit Rwanda becomes new official Atleti sponsor |url=https://en.atleticodemadrid.com/noticias/visit-rwanda-becomes-new-official-atleti-sponsor |website=Atlético de Madrid}}</ref>

In 2025, Visit Rwanda expanded its sports marketing into the United States, entering multi-year agreements with the [[Los Angeles Clippers]] (NBA) and the [[Los Angeles Rams]] (NFL). As part of the Clippers partnership, Visit Rwanda became the exclusive jersey patch sponsor and the official coffee sponsor of the team’s Intuit Dome arena.<ref>{{Cite news |title=‘Visit Rwanda’ Heads to American Basketball and Football |url=https://www.ktpress.rw/2025/09/visit-rwanda-heads-to-american-basketball-and-football/ |work=KT Press |date=29 September 2025}}</ref> In the Rams deal, Visit Rwanda is an official international tourism sponsor of the team, SoFi Stadium, and Hollywood Park, and will secure prominent advertising and entitlement placements within the stadium complex.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Visit Rwanda Lands in Los Angeles |url=https://www.sofistadium.com/news/detail/visit-rwanda-lands-in-los-angeles |website=SoFi Stadium |date=29 September 2025}}</ref>

Tourism in Rwanda has been praised for its emphasis on sustainability and conservation.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Rwanda reaps benefits of conservation tourism |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2014/jul/28/rwanda-gorillas-community-tourism |work=The Guardian |date=25 August 2019}}</ref>

=== Media and communications ===
{{main|Telecommunications in Rwanda|Media of Rwanda|Censorship in Rwanda}}

The largest radio and television stations are state-run, and the majority of newspapers are owned by the government.{{sfn|BBC News (VII)|2015}} Most Rwandans have access to radio; during the 1994 genocide, the radio station [[Radio Télévision Libre des Mille Collines]] broadcast across the country, and helped to fuel the killings through anti-Tutsi propaganda.{{sfn|BBC News (VII)|2015}} {{As of|2015}}, the state-run [[Radio Rwanda]] was the largest station and the main source of news throughout the country.{{sfn|BBC News (VII)|2015}} Television access was limited, with most homes not having their own set.{{sfn|Gasore|2014}} The government rolled out [[digital television]] in 2014, and a year later there were seven national stations operating, up from just one in the pre-2014 analogue era.{{sfn|Opobo|2015}} The press is tightly restricted, and newspapers routinely self-censor to avoid government reprisals.{{sfn|BBC News (VII)|2015}} Nonetheless, publications in Kinyarwanda, English, and French critical of the government are widely available in Kigali. Restrictions were increased in the run-up to the Rwandan presidential election of 2010, with two independent newspapers, ''Umuseso'' and ''Umuvugizi'', being suspended for six months by the [[High Media Council (Rwanda)|High Media Council]].{{sfn|Reporters Without Borders|2010}}

The country's oldest telecommunications group, [[Rwandatel]], went into liquidation in 2011, having been 80% owned by Libyan company [[LAP Green]].{{sfn|Mugisha|2013}} The company was acquired in 2013 by [[Liquid Telecom]],{{sfn|Southwood|2013}} a company providing telecommunications and [[fibre optic]] networks across eastern and southern Africa.{{sfn|Mugwe|2013}} In 2015, Liquid Telecom provided [[landline]] service to 30,968 subscribers, with mobile operator [[MTN Rwanda]] serving an additional 15,497 fixed line subscribers.{{sfn|RURA|2015|p=6}} Landlines are mostly used by government institutions, banks, [[Non-Government Organisation|NGO]]s and embassies, with private subscription levels low.{{sfn|Majyambere|2010}} In 2015, [[mobile phone]] penetration in the country was 72.6%,{{sfn|RURA|2015|p=5}} up from 41.6% in 2011.{{sfn|RURA|2011|p=3}} MTN Rwanda is the leading provider, with 3,957,986 subscribers, followed by [[Tigo]] with 2,887,328, and [[Bharti Airtel]] with 1,336,679.{{sfn|RURA|2015|p=6}} Rwandatel has also previously operated a mobile phone network, but the industry regulator revoked its licence in April 2011, following the company's failure to meet agreed investment commitments.{{sfn|Butera|2011}} Internet penetration is low but rising rapidly; in 2015 there were 12.8 internet users per 100 people,{{sfn|RURA|2015|p=5}} up from 2.1 in 2007.{{sfn|World Bank (II)}} In 2011, a {{convert|2300|km|mi|adj=on}} fibre-optic telecommunications network was completed, intended to provide broadband services and facilitate electronic commerce.{{sfn|Reuters|2011}} This network is connected to [[SEACOM (African cable system)|SEACOM]], a [[Submarine communications cable|submarine]] fibre-optic cable connecting communication carriers in southern and eastern Africa. Within Rwanda the cables run along major roads, linking towns around the country.{{sfn|Reuters|2011}} Mobile provider MTN also runs a [[wireless internet]] service accessible in most areas of Kigali via pre-paid subscription.{{sfn|Butera|2010}} As of 2024, the largest [[internet]] providers are MTN and Airtel. MTN Rwanda has shown impressive growth in its subscriber base. As of the first quarter of 2024, MTN Rwanda had approximately 7.4 million mobile subscribers. (Additionally, their Mobile Money platform, MoMo, had around 5.1 million users), compared to Airtel Rwanda's 5,792,046 active mobile-cellular telephone subscriptions.
In October 2019, [[Mara Corporation]] launched the first African-made smartphone in Rwanda.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-rwanda-telecoms-idUSKBN1WM1TN |title=Rwanda launches first 'Made in Africa' smartphones |date=10 October 2019 |work=Reuters |access-date=10 October 2019 |language=en |archive-date=9 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191009161807/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-rwanda-telecoms-idUSKBN1WM1TN |url-status=live}}</ref> Following its launch in 2024, Airtel Rwanda, in cooperation with the Rwandan government, released the most affordable smartphone in the world, the Airtel Imagine 4G. The phone was introduced as part of the ConnectRwanda 2.0 initiative. It costs only 20,000 RWF (approximately US$14.49).

=== Infrastructure ===
{{main|Transport in Rwanda|Energy in Rwanda|Water supply and sanitation in Rwanda}}

{{Update|part=section|date=March 2023|reason=Sanitation access statistics are from 2006}}[[File:WaterPumpRwanda.jpg|thumb|right|Rural water pump|alt=Photograph depicting one adult and five children filling jerrycans at a rural metal water pump with concrete base, at the bottom of a steep rocky hillside]]
The Rwandan government prioritised funding of water supply development during the 2000s, significantly increasing its share of the national budget.{{sfn|IDA|2009}} This funding, along with donor support, caused a rapid increase in access to safe water; in 2015, 74% of the population had access to safe water,{{sfn|Umutesi|2015}} up from about 55% in 2005;{{sfn|IDA|2009}} the government has committed to increasing this to 100% by 2017.{{sfn|Umutesi|2015}} The country's water infrastructure consists of urban and rural systems that deliver water to the public, mainly through standpipes in rural areas and private connections in urban areas. In areas not served by these systems, hand pumps and managed springs are used.{{sfn|MINECOFIN|2002|pp=25–26}} Despite rainfall exceeding {{convert|750|mm|in}} annually in most of the country,{{sfn|Berry|Lewis|Williams|1990|p=533}} little use is made of [[rainwater harvesting]], and residents are forced to use water very sparingly, relative to usage in other African countries.{{sfn|Umutesi|2015}} Access to [[Water supply and sanitation in Rwanda|sanitation]] remains low; the United Nations estimates that in 2006, 34% of urban and 20% of rural dwellers had access to [[improved sanitation]],{{sfn|USAID (I)|2008|p=3}} with this statistic increasing to 92% for the total population (95% urban and 91% rural) in 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rwanda |first=UNICEF |author-link=UNICEF |date=Apr 2024 |title=Water, Sanitation and Hygiene(WASH) Budget Brief |url=https://www.unicef.org/rwanda/media/5721/file/UNICEF_2023-24%20WASH%20Budget%20Brief_layout_corrections_25-3-24.pdf.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240507153452/https://www.unicef.org/rwanda/media/5721/file/UNICEF_2023-24%20WASH%20Budget%20Brief_layout_corrections_25-3-24.pdf.pdf |archive-date=7 May 2024 |access-date=7 May 2024 |website=unicef.org}}</ref> Kigali is one of the cleanest cities in Africa.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 April 2019 |title=Should You Visit Kigali? A look at the cleanest city in Africa |url=https://burdie.co/cleanest-city-in-africa |access-date=23 January 2021 |website=Burdie.co |language=en-US |archive-date=15 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210115173142/https://burdie.co/cleanest-city-in-africa |url-status=live}}</ref> Government policy measures to improve sanitation are limited, focusing only on urban areas.{{sfn|USAID (I)|2008|p=3}} The majority of the population, both urban and rural, use public shared [[pit latrine]]s.{{sfn|USAID (I)|2008|p=3}}

Rwanda's electricity supply was, until the early 2000s, generated almost entirely from [[hydroelectric]] sources; power stations on Lakes [[Lake Burera|Burera]] and [[Lake Ruhondo|Ruhondo]] provided 90% of the country's electricity.{{sfn|World Resources Report|2011|p=3}} A combination of below average rainfall and human activity, including the draining of the [[Rugezi wetlands]] for cultivation and grazing, caused the two lakes' water levels to fall from 1990 onwards; by 2004 levels were reduced by 50%, leading to a sharp drop in output from the power stations.{{sfn|World Resources Report|2011|p=5}} This, coupled with increased demand as the economy grew, precipitated a shortfall in 2004 and widespread [[loadshedding]].{{sfn|World Resources Report|2011|p=5}} As an emergency measure, the government installed [[diesel generator]]s north of Kigali; by 2006 these were providing 56% of the country's electricity, but were very costly.{{sfn|World Resources Report|2011|p=5}} The government enacted a number of measures to alleviate this problem, including rehabilitating the Rugezi wetlands, which supply water to Burera and Ruhondo and investing in a scheme to extract methane gas from Lake Kivu, expected in its first phase to increase the country's power generation by 40%.{{sfn|AfDB|2011}} Only 18% of the population had access to electricity in 2012, though this had risen from 10.8% in 2009.{{sfn|World Bank (XIII)}} The government's Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy for 2013–18 aims to increase access to electricity to 70% of households by 2017.{{sfn|Baringanire|Malik|Banerjee|2014|p=1}}

[[File:Rwanda electricity production.svg|thumb|Rwanda electricity production by source|upright=1.3]]

The government has increased investment in the [[Transport in Rwanda|transport infrastructure of Rwanda]] since the 1994 genocide, with aid from the United States, [[European Union]], Japan, and others. The transport system consists primarily of the road network, with paved roads between Kigali and most other major cities and towns in the country.{{sfn|AfDB|OECD Development Centre|2006|p=439}} Rwanda is linked by road to other countries in the East African Community, namely Uganda, Tanzania, Burundi and [[Kenya]], as well as to the eastern Congolese cities of [[Goma]] and [[Bukavu]]; the country's most important trade route is the road to the port of [[Mombasa]] via [[Kampala]] and [[Nairobi]], which is known as the [[Northern Corridor]].{{sfn|Tancott|2014}} The principal form of public transport in the country is the [[minibus]], accounting for more than half of all passenger carrying capacity.{{sfn|MININFRA|2013|p=34}} Some minibuses, particularly in Kigali,{{sfn|MININFRA|2013|p=67}} operate an unscheduled service, under a [[shared taxi]] system,{{sfn|MININFRA|2013|p=32}} while others run to a schedule, offering express routes between the major cities. There are a smaller number of large buses,{{sfn|MININFRA|2013|p=34}} which operate a scheduled service around the country. The principal private hire vehicle is the [[motorcycle taxi]]; in 2013 there were 9,609 registered motorcycle taxis in Rwanda, compared with just 579 [[taxicab]]s.{{sfn|MININFRA|2013|p=34}} [[Coach (vehicle)|Coach]] services are available to various destinations in neighbouring countries. The country has an [[Kigali International Airport|international airport]] at Kigali that serves several international destinations, the busiest routes being those to [[JKIA|Nairobi]] and [[Entebbe International Airport|Entebbe]];{{sfn|Centre For Aviation|2014}} there is one domestic route, between Kigali and [[Kamembe Airport]] near [[Cyangugu]].{{sfn|Tumwebaze|2015}} In 2017, construction began on the [[Bugesera International Airport]], to the south of Kigali, which will become the country's largest when it opens, complementing the existing Kigali airport.{{sfn|MININFRA|2017}} The national carrier is [[RwandAir]], and the country is served by seven foreign airlines.{{sfn|Centre For Aviation|2014}} {{As of|2015}} the country had no railways, but there is a project underway, in conjunction with Burundi and Tanzania, to extend the Tanzanian [[Central Line (Tanzania)|Central Line]] into Rwanda; the three countries have invited expressions of interest from private firms to form a [[public private partnership]] for the scheme.{{sfn|Senelwa|2015}} There is no public water transport between the port cities on Lake Kivu, although a limited private service exists and the government has initiated a programme to develop a full service.{{sfn|MININFRA|2013|p=43}} The [[Ministry of Infrastructure (Rwanda)|Ministry of Infrastructure]] is also investigating the feasibility of linking Rwanda to [[Lake Victoria]] via shipping on the [[Akagera River]].{{sfn|MININFRA|2013|p=43}}

=== Financial services ===
{{See also|National Bank of Rwanda|Economy of Rwanda}}

The financial sector in Rwanda is the third-largest contributor to the service sector and is supervised by the [[National Bank of Rwanda]] (BNR). As of March 2025, the sector's total assets stood at '''FRW 13.6 trillion''' (approx. US$9.4 billion), representing a year-on-year growth of 23.2%.<ref name="BNR-FSC-May2025">{{Cite web|title=Financial Stability Committee Press Release May 2025|url=https://www.bnr.rw/documents/FSC_Press_Release__May_2025_English.pdf|publisher=National Bank of Rwanda|date=2025-05-13|access-date=2025-12-24}}</ref>

Rwanda has achieved near-universal financial inclusion, largely driven by mobile technology. According to the 2024 FinScope survey, '''96% of the adult population''' is financially included, with the majority relying on non-bank mobile financial services.<ref name="FinScope2024">{{Cite web|title=96% of Rwandans are Financially Included – FinScope Survey 2024|url=https://www.minecofin.gov.rw/news-detail/96-of-rwandans-are-financially-included-finscope-survey-2024|publisher=Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning|date=2024-06-20|access-date=2025-12-24}}</ref>

Mobile money platforms, operated primarily by [[MTN Rwanda]] and [[Airtel Africa|Airtel Rwanda]], have effectively replaced cash for daily economic activity. In 2024, the total value of mobile money transactions reached '''Rwf 21.0 trillion''', exceeding the country's nominal GDP (Rwf 18.8 trillion).<ref name="MTN-FY2024">{{Cite web|title=MTN Rwanda FY 2024 Results|url=https://www.mtn.co.rw/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/results-release_mtn-rwanda-fy-2024-results_13-march-2025-2.pdf|publisher=MTN Rwanda Investor Relations|date=2025-03-13}}</ref> This high monetary velocity is supported by the government's "Cashless Rwanda" policy and the "eKash" interoperability system, which allows seamless transfers between rival telecom operators and commercial banks.<ref name="NewTimesEKash">{{cite web
 |title=Rwanda rolls out system ending fragmented digital payments
 |url=https://www.newtimes.co.rw/article/31761/news/technology/rwanda-rolls-out-system-ending-fragmented-digital-payments
 |website=The New Times (Rwanda)
 |author=Shallon Mwiza
 |date=5 December 2025
 |access-date=24 December 2025
}}</ref>

=== Capital markets ===
The [[Rwanda Stock Exchange]] (RSE) is the principal stock exchange with a market capitalization of approximately '''FRW 4.6 trillion''' (US$3.1 billion) as of December 2025.<ref>{{Cite web|title=RSE Daily Market Report - December 2025|url=https://rse.rw/market-statistics/daily-market-prices/|publisher=Rwanda Stock Exchange|access-date=2025-12-24}}</ref> In 2024, the market expanded into sustainable finance with the listing of its first "Green Bonds" and "Sustainability-Linked Bonds."

Parallel to equities, the [[East Africa Exchange]] (EAX) is a regional agricultural commodities exchange based in Kigali, which operates a warehouse receipt system for stored agricultural commodities, including the use of electronic warehouse receipts in commodity trading.<ref>{{cite web |title=About Us |url=https://www.ea-africaexchange.com/about/ |website=East Africa Exchange |access-date=24 December 2025}}</ref>

The sector is anchored by the [[Kigali International Financial Center]] (KIFC), a government initiative launched in 2020 to position Rwanda as a pan-African financial hub. Managed by Rwanda Finance Limited, KIFC provides a legal and tax framework designed to attract investment funds, family offices, and fintech ventures.<ref name="KIFCAbout">{{cite web |title=About Us – Financial Center |url=https://kifc.rw/about-us-financial-center/ |website=Kigali International Financial Centre |access-date=24 December 2025}}</ref>

== Demographics ==
{{main|Demographics of Rwanda|Youth in Rwanda}}

{{Update|section=yes|reason=This section reflects more 1990s-2000s Rwanda rather than 30 years later developments|date=August 2025}}

{{As of|2025}}, Rwanda's estimated population is around 14.6 million, although estimates vary.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rwanda Population (2025) |url=https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/rwanda-population/ |access-date=2025-09-03 |website=Worldometer |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=World Population Dashboard -Rwanda {{!}} The United Nations sexual and reproductive health agency |url=https://www.unfpa.org/data/world-population/RW |access-date=2025-09-03 |website=www.unfpa.org |language=en}}</ref> A decade earlier, in 2015, the estimated population was 11,262,564 (according to the [[National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda]]), and the 2012 census recorded a population of 10,515,973.{{sfn|National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda|2015}}{{sfn|National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda|2014|p=3}} The population is young: as of 2024–2025, estimates of the median age ranged from 19.9 to 20.8, with 42.9% of the population under the age of 15, and 54.7% between 15 and 64.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rwanda Demographics 2025 (Population, Age, Sex, Trends) |url=https://www.worldometers.info/demographics/rwanda-demographics/ |access-date=2025-09-03 |website=Worldometer |language=en}}</ref>{{sfn|National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda|2014|p=8}}{{sfn|CIA (I)}} In 2015, according to the CIA ''[[World Factbook]]'', the annual birth rate was estimated at 40.2 births per 1,000 inhabitants, and the death rate at 14.9.{{sfn|CIA (I)}} The current life expectancy is between 68.2 and 70.54 years (71 years for females and 66 years for males), placing it 156th out of 224 countries and territories.{{sfn|CIA (I)}}{{sfn|CIA (III)|2011}} The overall sex ratio of the country is 95.9 males per 100 females.{{sfn|CIA (I)}}
[[File:Rwandan children at Volcans National Park.jpg|thumb|left|Rural children|alt=Photograph depicting seven rural children, with a straw house and farmland in the background, taken in the Volcanoes National Park in 2005]]
At {{convert|445|PD/km2}},{{sfn|National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda|2015}} Rwanda's population density is amongst the highest in Africa.{{sfn|Banda|2015}} Historians such as [[Gérard Prunier]] believe that the 1994 genocide can be partly attributed to the population density.{{sfn|Prunier|1995|p=4}} The population is predominantly rural, with a few large towns; dwellings are evenly spread throughout the country.{{sfn|Straus|2013|p=215}} The only sparsely populated area of the country is the savanna land in the former province of [[Umutara Province|Umutara]] and Akagera National Park in the east.{{sfn|Streissguth|2007|p=11}} Kigali is the largest city, with a population of around one million.{{sfn|Kigali City}} Its rapidly increasing population challenges its infrastructural development.{{sfn|CIA (I)}}{{sfn|Percival|Homer-Dixon|1995}}{{sfn|REMA (Chapter 2)|2009}} According to the 2012 census, the second largest city is [[Gisenyi]], which lies adjacent to [[Lake Kivu]] and the Congolese city of [[Goma]], and has a population of 126,000.{{sfn|City Population|2012}} Other major towns include [[Ruhengeri]], [[Butare]], and [[Muhanga]], all with populations below 100,000.{{sfn|City Population|2012}} The urban population rose from 6% of the population in 1990,{{sfn|Percival|Homer-Dixon|1995}} to 16.6% in 2006;{{sfn|National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda|2012|p=29}} by 2011, however, the proportion had dropped slightly, to 14.8%.{{sfn|National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda|2012|p=29}}

Rwanda has been a unified state since pre-colonial times,{{sfn|Appiah|Gates|2010|p=450}} and the population is drawn from just one cultural and linguistic group, the [[Banyarwanda]];{{sfn|Mamdani|2002|p=52}} this contrasts with most modern African states, whose borders were drawn by [[Colonisation of Africa|colonial powers]] and did not correspond to ethnic boundaries or pre-colonial kingdoms.{{sfn|Boyd|1979|p=1}} Within the Banyarwanda people, there are three separate groups, the Hutu, Tutsi and Twa.{{sfn|Prunier|1995|p=5}} The CIA ''World Factbook'' gives estimates that the Hutu made up 84% of the population in 2009, the Tutsi 15% and Twa 1%.{{sfn|CIA (I)}} The Twa are a pygmy people who descend from Rwanda's earliest inhabitants, but scholars do not agree on the origins of and differences between the Hutu and Tutsi.{{sfn|Mamdani|2002|pp=46–47}} Anthropologist Jean Hiernaux contends that the Tutsi are a separate race, with a tendency towards "long and narrow heads, faces and noses";{{sfn|Mamdani|2002|p=47}} others, such as Villia Jefremovas, believe there is no discernible physical difference and the categories were not historically rigid.{{sfn|Jefremovas|1995}} In precolonial Rwanda the Tutsi were the ruling class, from whom the kings and the majority of chiefs were derived, while the Hutu were agriculturalists.{{sfn|Prunier|1995|pp=11–12}} The current [[Government of Rwanda|government]] discourages the Hutu/Tutsi/Twa distinction, and has removed such classification from identity cards.{{sfn|Coleman|2010}} The 2002 census was the first since 1933{{sfn|Kiwuwa|2012|p=71}} which did not categorise Rwandan population into the three groups.{{sfn|Agence France-Presse|2002}}

=== Education ===
{{Main|Education in Rwanda}}

[[File:OLPC classroom teaching.JPG|thumb|right|Children in a Rwandan primary school, using laptops supplied by the [[One Laptop Per Child]] programme]]

Prior to 2012, the Rwandan government provided nine years of free basic education in state-run schools, consisting of six years of primary and three years of lower secondary education (known as the ''Tronc Commun'').{{sfn|MINEDUC|2010|p=2}} In 2012, this policy was expanded to cover twelve years of free basic education, including upper secondary.{{sfn|Williams|Abbott|Mupenzi|2015|p=935}} 

A 2015 study noted that while primary school enrollment was nearly universal, completion rates remained low and repetition rates high.{{sfn|Williams|Abbott|Mupenzi|2015|p=931}} Although schooling is officially fee free, parents are expected to contribute to certain costs such as school materials, teacher support, and infrastructure maintenance. The government maintains that these contributions should not prevent any child from attending school.{{sfn|Williams|Abbott|Mupenzi|2015|p=935}} 

There are also many private and church affiliated schools that follow the national curriculum but charge tuition fees.{{sfn|Briggs|Booth|2006|p=27}} From 1994 until 2009, secondary education was offered in either French or English. Following Rwanda’s accession to the [[East African Community]] and the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]], English became the main medium of instruction from 2009 onward.{{sfn|McGreal|2009}} 

The country has several institutions of higher learning. In 2013, the government established the [[University of Rwanda]] (UR) through the merger of the [[National University of Rwanda]] and other public higher education institutions.{{sfn|Koenig|2014}}{{sfn|MacGregor|2014}}{{sfn|Rutayisire|2013}} In 2023, the [[gross enrollment ratio]] for tertiary education was 8.89%, up from 3.6% in 2006.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theglobaleconomy.com/Rwanda/Tertiary_school_enrollment/ |title=Tertiary school enrollment – Rwanda |publisher=TheGlobalEconomy.com |access-date=6 November 2025}}</ref> Rwanda’s adult literacy rate, defined as the share of those aged 15 and above who can read and write, rose from 38% in 1978 to 58% in 1991, 71% in 2009, and 78.8% in 2022.{{sfn|World Bank (I)}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://knoema.com/atlas/Rwanda/topics/Education/Literacy/Adult-literacy-rate |title=Rwanda adult literacy rate, 1960–2023 |publisher=Knoema |access-date=5 August 2024}}</ref>

=== Health ===
{{update section|date=October 2024}}
{{main|Healthcare in Rwanda|Health in Rwanda}}

[[File:Butaro Hospital.jpg|thumb|left|[[Butaro Hospital]] at [[Burera]], Northern Province |alt=Photograph depicting a hospital building, with Rwandan flag, viewed from the entrance pathway]]
The quality of healthcare in Rwanda has historically been very low, both before and immediately after the 1994 genocide.{{sfn|Drobac|Naughton|2014}} In 1998, more than one in five children died before their fifth birthday,{{sfn|World Bank (IV)}} often from [[malaria]].{{sfn|Bowdler|2010}}

President Kagame has made healthcare one of the priorities for the [[Vision 2020 (Rwanda)|Vision 2020]] development programme,{{sfn|Evans|2014}} boosting spending on health care to 6.5% of the country's [[gross domestic product]] in 2013,{{sfn|World Bank (V)}} compared with 1.9% in 1996.{{sfn|World Bank (VI)}} The government has devolved the financing and management of healthcare to local communities, through a system of health insurance providers called ''mutuelles de santé''.{{sfn|WHO|2008}} The ''mutuelles'' were piloted in 1999, and were made available nationwide by the mid-2000s, with the assistance of international development partners.{{sfn|WHO|2008}} Premiums under the scheme were initially US$2 per annum; since 2011 the rate has varied on a sliding scale, with the poorest paying nothing, and maximum premiums rising to US$8 per adult.{{sfn|Rosenberg|2012}} {{As of|2014}}, more than 90% of the population was covered by the scheme.{{sfn|USAID (II)|2014}} The government has also set up training institutes including the Kigali Health Institute (KHI), which was established in 1997{{sfn|IMF|2000|p=34}} and is now part of the [[University of Rwanda]]. In 2005, President Kagame also launched a program known as ''The Presidents' Malaria Initiative''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rw.one.un.org/mdg/mdg6 |title=HIV/AIDS, Malaria and other diseases |publisher=United Nations in Rwanda |access-date=20 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160515111753/http://www.rw.one.un.org/mdg/mdg6 |archive-date=15 May 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> This initiative aimed to help get the most necessary materials for prevention of malaria to the most rural areas of Rwanda, such as mosquito nets and medication.
[[File:Life expectancy development in Rwanda.svg|thumb|Historical development of life expectancy in Rwanda]]
In recent years Rwanda has seen improvement on a number of key health indicators. Between 2005 and 2013, life expectancy increased from 55.2 to 64.0,{{sfn|World Bank (VII)}} under-5 mortality decreased from 106.4 to 52.0 per 1,000 live births,{{sfn|World Bank (VIII)}} and incidence of [[tuberculosis]] has dropped from 101 to 69 per 100,000 people.{{sfn|World Bank (IX)}} The country's progress in healthcare has been cited by the international media and charities. ''[[The Atlantic]]'' devoted an article to "Rwanda's Historic Health Recovery".{{sfn|Emery|2013}} [[Partners In Health]] described the health gains "among the most dramatic the world has seen in the last 50 years".{{sfn|Rosenberg|2012}}

Despite these improvements, however, the country's health profile remains dominated by communicable diseases,{{sfn|WHO|2015}} and the [[United States Agency for International Development]] has described "significant health challenges",{{sfn|USAID (III)|2015}} including the rate of maternal mortality, which it describes as "unacceptably high",{{sfn|USAID (III)|2015}} as well as the ongoing [[HIV/AIDS]] epidemic.{{sfn|USAID (III)|2015}} According to the American [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]], travellers to Rwanda are highly recommended to take preventive malaria medication as well as make sure they are up to date with vaccines such as yellow fever.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/destinations/traveler/none/rwanda |title=Health Information for Travelers to Rwanda |publisher=[[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] |access-date=8 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160609011245/http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/destinations/traveler/none/rwanda |archive-date=9 June 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Rwanda also has a shortage of medical professionals, with only 0.84 physicians, nurses, and midwives per 1,000 residents.{{sfn|Partners In Health|2013}} The [[United Nations Development Programme]] (UNDP) is monitoring the country's health progress towards [[Millennium Development Goals]] 4–6, which relate to healthcare. A mid-2015 UNDP report noted that the country was not on target to meet goal 4 on infant mortality, despite it having "fallen dramatically";{{sfn|UNDP (II)|2015}} the country is "making good progress" towards goal 5, which is to reduce by three quarters the maternal mortality ratio,{{sfn|UNDP (III)|2015}} while goal 6 is not yet met as [[HIV/AIDS in Rwanda|HIV prevalence]] has not started falling.{{sfn|UNDP (IV)|2015}}

===Religion===
{{main|Religion in Rwanda}}

[[File:RwamaganaChurch.jpg|thumb|Catholic church in [[Rwamagana]]|alt=Photograph depicting the Catholic parish church in Rwamagana, Eastern Province, including the main entrance, façade, the separate bell tower, and dirt forecourt]]
The largest faith in Rwanda is [[Catholicism]], but there have been significant changes in the nation's religious demographics since the genocide, with many conversions to [[evangelical]] Christianity, and, to a lesser degree, [[Islam in Rwanda|Islam]].{{sfn|Walker|April 2004}} According to the 2012 census, Catholic Christians represented 43.7% of the population, Protestants (excluding [[Seventh-day Adventists]]) 37.7%, Seventh-day Adventists 11.8%, and Muslims 2.0%; 0.2% claimed no religious beliefs and 1.3% did not state a religion.{{sfn|National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda|2014|p=17}} Traditional religion, despite officially being followed by only 0.1% of the population, retains an influence. Many Rwandans view the [[God in Christianity|Christian God]] as synonymous with the traditional Rwandan God ''[[Imana]]''.{{sfn|Wiredu|Abraham|Irele|Menkiti|2006|pp=236–237}}

=== Languages ===
{{main|Languages of Rwanda}}

The country's principal and national language is [[Kinyarwanda]], which is spoken by almost the entire population (about 98%).<ref>{{cite web |title=Introduction and Background of Kinyarwanda |url=https://wisc.pb.unizin.org/lctlresources/chapter/introduction-and-background-of-kinyarwanda/?utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=7 November 2025 |publisher=Wisc PB Unizin}}</ref> Inhabitants of Rwanda's Nkombo Island speak [[Shi language|Mashi]], a language closely related to Kinyarwanda.{{sfn|Nakayima|2010}} 

During the colonial era, [[German language|German]] was the first European language introduced to Rwanda, though it was never widely used or taught. After 1916, [[French language|French]] became dominant under Belgian administration and was used in government and education. The 1962 Constitution made French an official language alongside Kinyarwanda.{{sfn|Université Laval|2010}}<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Spowage |first=Kate |title=Language as Statecraft: 'Global English' and the Politics of Language in Rwanda |publisher=Routledge |year=2024 |isbn=9781032261508 |pages=46–77}}</ref> [[Dutch language|Dutch]] was also used in limited administrative contexts during the Belgian period.

The return of English-speaking Rwandan refugees from [[Uganda]], [[Kenya]], and [[Tanzania]] in the 1990s{{sfn|Université Laval|2010}} reshaped the country's linguistic landscape and accelerated the shift toward English.{{sfn|Samuelson|Freedman|2010}} As Rwanda deepened its ties with the [[East African Community]] and joined the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]], English became increasingly important in education, business, and administration. In 2008, the government changed the medium of instruction in schools from French to English to strengthen regional integration.<ref>{{cite web |last=Williams |first=Timothy |date=2020-01-24 |title=What changed in Rwanda's education system? |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2020/01/24/third-time-11-years-rwanda-changed-language-used-primary-schools/ |access-date=7 November 2025 |work=The Washington Post}}</ref> Since then, the starting point of English instruction in schools has been adjusted several times.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Williams |first=Timothy |date=Feb 22, 2021 |title=Why Did Rwanda Abruptly Change the Language in Schools—Again? |url=https://www.worldpoliticsreview.com/in-rwanda-language-change-in-schools-leaves-students-and-teachers-struggling/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240808131241/https://www.worldpoliticsreview.com/in-rwanda-language-change-in-schools-leaves-students-and-teachers-struggling/ |archive-date=Aug 8, 2024 |work=World Politics Review}}</ref> Private schools may still choose to teach in either English or French.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last1=Assan |first1=Joseph |title=Rwanda Fast Forward: Social, Economic, Military, and Reconciliation Prospects |last2=Walker |first2=Lawrence |publisher=Palgrave MacMillan |year=2012 |chapter=The Political Economy of Contemporary Education and the Challenges of Switching Formal Language to English in Rwanda}}</ref>

Today, [[Kinyarwanda]], [[English language|English]], [[French language|French]], and [[Swahili language|Swahili]] are all official languages.<ref>{{cite web |date=2019-05-28 |title=No, Rwanda hasn't dropped French as an official language |url=https://factcheck.afp.com/no-rwanda-hasnt-dropped-french-official-language |access-date=2021-03-08 |website=Fact Check |archive-date=18 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201018045251/https://factcheck.afp.com/no-rwanda-hasnt-dropped-french-official-language |url-status=live}}</ref> Kinyarwanda serves as the national and unifying language, while English is now the primary language of government, education, and business. French remains in limited use in diplomacy and cultural contexts, and [[Swahili language|Swahili]], the [[lingua franca]] of the [[East African Community]],{{sfn|Tabaro|2015}} is taught in schools and used in regional trade. Swahili was introduced as a compulsory subject in secondary schools in 2015.{{sfn|Tabaro|2015}}

According to the 2012 Census of Rwanda, literacy among residents aged 15 and above was 67.7% in Kinyarwanda, 14.7% in English, and 11.4% in French.<ref name="STATS2012">{{cite web |title=RPHC4 Thematic Report: Educational Characteristics of the Population |url=https://www.statistics.gov.rw/data-sources/censuses/Population-and-Housing-Census/fourth-population-and-housing-census-2012/rphc4-thematic-report-educational-characteristics-population |publisher=National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda (NISR) |date=August 2014 |access-date=27 September 2025}}</ref> A decade later, the 2022 Census showed notable shifts: literacy in Kinyarwanda had risen to 78.3%, English to 21.2%, French had decreased to 8.2%, and Swahili reached 4.0%.<ref name="UN2022">{{cite web |title=Record view – Population by language, sex and urban/rural residence |url=http://data.un.org/Data.aspx?q=languages&d=POP&f=tableCode%3a27 |website=UN Data |publisher=United Nations |access-date=2025-09-28}}</ref> These results reflect the steady growth of English and Swahili literacy and a continuing decline in the proportion of French-literate speakers.{{sfn|Samuelson|Freedman|2010}} Kinyarwanda remains the mother tongue of nearly all Rwandans, while English and Swahili use continue to expand, particularly in urban areas and schools.{{sfn|Rosendal|Ngabonziza|2022|p=73}} As in many postcolonial societies, proficiency in European languages is closely linked to education, migration background, and social class.<ref name=":1" />{{sfn|Samuelson|Freedman|2010}}

===Human rights===
{{unbalanced section|date=March 2025}}
{{see also|Human rights in Rwanda|LGBT rights in Rwanda}}
Homosexuality is generally considered a [[taboo]] topic, and there is no significant public discussion of this issue in any region of the country. Some lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) Rwandans have reported being harassed and blackmailed.{{sfn|Gmünder|2007|page=1216}}<ref name="Spartacus International Gay Guide 2007">Spartacus International Gay Guide, p. 1216. Bruno Gmunder Verlag, 2007.</ref><ref name="globalgayz">{{cite web |url=http://www.globalgayz.com/country/Rwanda/view/RWA/gay-rwanda-2008 |title=Gay Rwanda 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120717064516/http://www.globalgayz.com/africa/rwanda/gay-rwanda-2008 |archive-date=2012-07-17 |date=2009-01-01}}</ref> Same-sex sexual activity is not specifically illegal in Rwanda. Some cabinet-level government officials have expressed support for the rights of LGBT people;{{sfn|U.S. Department of State|2016}} however, no special legislative protections are afforded to LGBT people,<ref name="Spartacus International Gay Guide 2007"/> who may be arrested by the police under various laws dealing with public order and morality.<ref name="globalgayz"/> [[Same-sex marriage]]s are not recognized by the state, as the [[Constitution of Rwanda|constitution]] provides that "[o]nly civil monogamous marriage between a man and a woman is recognized".{{sfn|CJCR|2003|loc=article 26}}

Since 2006, Human Rights Watch has documented that Rwandan authorities round up and detain [[street children]], street vendors, sex workers, homeless people, and beggars. They have also documented the use of torture in safe houses and other facilities, such as Kami military camp, Kwa Gacinya and [[Gikondo Transit Center|Gikondo prison]].<ref name="hrw">{{cite journal |date=2020-01-27 |title="As Long as We Live on the Streets, They Will Beat Us": Rwanda's Abusive Detention of Children |journal=Human Rights Watch |url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2020/01/27/long-we-live-streets-they-will-beat-us/rwandas-abusive-detention-children |access-date=2022-10-10 |archive-date=10 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221010111400/https://www.hrw.org/report/2020/01/27/long-we-live-streets-they-will-beat-us/rwandas-abusive-detention-children |url-status=live}}</ref>

== Culture ==
{{main|Culture of Rwanda}}

The '''culture of Rwanda''' is varied. Unlike many other countries in Africa, Rwanda has been a unified state since precolonial times, populated by the [[Banyarwanda]] people who share a [[Kinyarwanda|single language]] and cultural heritage.

=== Arts ===
{{See also|Art of Rwanda|Architecture of Rwanda|Music of Rwanda}}
[[File:Gucunda no kubuganizza3.jpg|thumb|364x364px|Visual art depicting traditional milk churning]]
[[Music of Rwanda|Music]] and dance are an integral part of Rwandan ceremonies, festivals, social gatherings and storytelling. The most famous traditional dance is a highly choreographed routine consisting of three components: the ''[[umushagiriro]]'', or cow dance, performed by women;{{sfn|Rwanda Development Gateway}} the ''[[intore]]'', or dance of heroes, performed by men;{{sfn|Rwanda Development Gateway}} and the drumming, also traditionally performed by men, on drums known as ''ingoma''.{{sfn|RMCA}} The best-known dance group is the [[National Ballet of Rwanda|National Ballet]]. It was established by President Habyarimana in 1974, and performs nationally and internationally.{{sfn|Briggs|2004}} Traditionally, music is transmitted orally, with styles varying between the social groups. Drums are of great importance; the royal drummers enjoyed high status within the court of the King (''Mwami'').{{sfn|Adekunle|2007|pp=135–136}} Drummers play together in groups of varying sizes, usually between seven and nine in number.{{sfn|Adekunle|2007|p=139}} The country has a growing popular music industry, influenced by East African, Congolese, and American music. The most popular genre is [[hip hop]], with a blend of [[dancehall]], [[rap]], [[ragga]], [[Contemporary R&B|R&B]] and [[dance-pop]].{{sfn|Mbabazi|2008}}
[[File:Rwanda-culture.jpg|thumb|388x388px|Dance is an integral aspect of the Rwandan culture]]
Traditional arts and crafts are produced throughout the country, although most originated as functional items rather than purely for decoration. Woven baskets and bowls are especially common, notably the basket style of the [[agaseke]].{{sfn|Adekunle|2007|pp=68–70}} ''[[Imigongo]]'', a unique cow dung art, is produced in the southeast of Rwanda, with a history dating back to when the region was part of the independent [[Gisaka]] kingdom. The dung is mixed with natural soils of various colours and painted into patterned ridges to form geometric shapes.{{sfn|Briggs|Booth|2006|p=243–244}} Other crafts include pottery and wood carving.{{sfn|Briggs|Booth|2006|p=31}} Traditional housing styles make use of locally available materials; circular or rectangular mud homes with grass-thatched roofs (known as ''nyakatsi'') are the most common. The government has initiated a programme to replace these with more modern materials such as corrugated iron.{{sfn|Ntambara|2009}}{{sfn|Adekunle|2007|p=75}}
[[File:Woven baskets2.jpg|alt=Photograph depicting baskets hung up for sale|thumb|351x351px|Collection of different types of woven baskets]]
Rwanda does not have a long history of written literature, but there is a strong oral tradition ranging from poetry to [[folk stories]]. Many of the country's moral values and details of history have been passed down through the generations.{{sfn|King|2007|p=105}} The most famous Rwandan literary figure was [[Alexis Kagame]] (1912–1981), who carried out and published research into oral traditions as well as writing his own poetry.{{sfn|Briggs|Booth|2006|p=29}} The Rwandan Genocide resulted in the emergence of a literature of witness accounts, essays and fiction by a new generation of writers such as [[Benjamin Sehene]] and [[Fred Mfuranzima|Mfuranzima Fred]]. A number of films have been produced about the Rwandan Genocide, including the [[Golden Globe]]-nominated ''[[Hotel Rwanda]]'', ''[[100 Days (2001 film)|100 Days]]'', ''[[Shake Hands with the Devil (2007 film)|Shake Hands with the Devil]]'', ''[[Sometimes in April]]'', and ''[[Shooting Dogs]]'', the last four having been filmed in Rwanda and having featured survivors as cast members.{{sfn|Milmo|2006}}{{sfn|Fegley|2016|pp=55–56}}

Fourteen regular [[public holidays in Rwanda|national holidays]] are observed throughout the year,{{sfn|Government of Rwanda (I)}} with others occasionally inserted by the government. The week following Genocide Memorial Day on 7 April is designated an official week of mourning.{{sfn|Watson|Renzi|Viggiani|2010|p=25}} The victory for the RPF over the Hutu extremists is celebrated as [[Liberation Day]] on 4 July. The last Saturday of each month is ''[[umuganda]]'', a national morning of mandatory [[community service]] lasting from 8{{nbsp}}am to 11{{nbsp}}am, during which all able bodied people between 18 and 65 are expected to carry out community tasks such as cleaning streets or building homes for vulnerable people.{{sfn|Rwanda Governance Board}} Most normal services close down during ''umuganda'', and public transportation is limited.{{sfn|Rwanda Governance Board}}

=== Cuisine ===
{{Main|Cuisine of Rwanda}}

[[File:Rwanda Brochettes.jpg|thumb|Brochettes, meat on a stick]]
Rwanda's cuisine consists of [[staple food]]s produced by subsistence agriculture ([[Ibitoke|plantains]], [[Legume|pulses]], sweet potatoes, beans, cassava) and reflects other [[East African Community|East African]] foods (mandazi, chapati).{{sfn|Adekunle|2007|p=81}} For those who live near lakes and have access to fish, [[tilapia]] is popular.{{sfn|Adekunle|2007|p=81}} The potato, thought to have been introduced to Rwanda by German and Belgian [[Second European colonization wave (19th century–20th century)|colonialists]], is very popular.{{sfn|Adekunle|2007|p=13}} [[Ugali]], locally known as ''[[Ubugari]]'' (or ''umutsima'') is common, a paste made from cassava or maize and water to form a [[porridge]]-like consistency that is eaten throughout East Africa and across sub-Saharan Africa.{{sfn|Auzias|2007|p=74}} ''[[Isombe]]'' is made from mashed cassava leaves and can be served with dried fish, rice, ugali, potatoes etc.{{sfn|Adekunle|2007|p=13}} Lunch is usually a buffet known as ''mélange'', consisting of the above staples and sometimes meat.{{sfn|Briggs|Booth|2006|pp=54–55}} [[Brochette]]s are the most popular food when eating out in the evening, usually made from goat but sometimes [[tripe]], beef, or fish.{{sfn|Briggs|Booth|2006|pp=54–55}} It's important to note however that many children in Rwanda are malnourished (1/3rd for children under five).<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-03-27 |title=Rwanda {{!}} World Food Programme |url=https://www.wfp.org/countries/rwanda |access-date=2025-10-04 |website=www.wfp.org |language=en}}</ref>
[[File:Rwanda Mandazi.jpg|thumb|230x230px|Shortcake Mandazi (originated in neighboring [[Tanzania]])]]
In rural areas, many bars have a brochette seller responsible for tending and slaughtering the goats, skewering and [[barbecue|barbecuing]] the meat, and serving it with grilled bananas.{{sfn|Anyango|2010}} Milk, particularly in a fermented yoghurt form called ''[[ikivuguto]]'', is a common drink throughout the country.{{sfn|Nzabuheraheza|2005}} Other drinks include a traditional beer called Ikigage made from sorghum and ''[[urwagwa]]'', made from bananas, and a soft drink called Umutobe which is banana juice; these popular drinks feature in traditional rituals and ceremonies.{{sfn|Adekunle|2007|p=13}} The major drinks manufacturer in Rwanda is [[Bralirwa]], which was established in the 1950s, a Heineken partner, and is now listed on the [[Rwandan Stock Exchange]].{{sfn|Bralirwa (I)}} Bralirwa manufactures [[soft drink]] products from [[The Coca-Cola Company]], under licence, including [[Coca-Cola]], [[Fanta]], and [[Sprite (soft drink)|Sprite]],{{sfn|Bralirwa (II)}} and a range of beers including [[Primus beer|Primus]], [[Mützig beer|Mützig]], [[Amstel Brewery|Amstel]], and [[Turbo King]].{{sfn|Bralirwa (III)}} In 2009 a new brewery, [[Brasseries des Mille Collines]] (BMC) opened, manufacturing [[Skol]] beer and a local version known as [[Skol Gatanu]];{{sfn|Ngarambe|2012}} BMC is now owned by Belgian company [[Unibra]].{{sfn|Craig|2012}} [[East African Breweries]] also operate in the country, importing [[Guinness]], [[Tusker (African beer)|Tusker]], and [[Bell (beer)|Bell]], as well as [[whisky]] and [[Distilled beverage|spirit]]s.{{sfn|Kezio-Musoke|2014}}

=== Sport ===
{{main|Sport in Rwanda}}

[[File:MTB cycling 2012 Olympics M cross-country RWA Adrien Niyonshuti.jpg|thumb|left|[[Adrien Niyonshuti]], "one of the most famous people in Rwanda",{{sfn|CyclingNews.com|2012}} competing in the [[cross-country mountain biking]] event at the 2012 Summer Olympics]]
The Rwandan government, through its Sports Development Policy, promotes sport as a strong avenue for "development and peace building",{{sfn|MINISPOC|2012|p=18}} and the government has made commitments to advancing the use of sport for a variety of development objectives, including education.{{sfn|McCracken|Colucci|2014|pp=86–90}} The most popular sports in Rwanda are [[association football]], [[volleyball]], [[basketball]], [[Athletics (sport)|athletics]] and [[Paralympic sports]].{{sfn|Ndengeye|2014|pp=125–128}} [[Cricket]] has been growing in popularity,{{sfn|Aglietti|2014}} as a result of refugees returned from Kenya, where they had learned to play the game.{{sfn|BBC News (XI)|2014}} 

[[Cycling]], traditionally seen largely as a mode of transport in Rwanda, is also growing in popularity [[cycle sport|as a sport]];{{sfn|Hoye|Smith|Nicholson|Stewart|2015|p=206}} and Team Rwanda have been the subject of a book, ''Land of Second Chances: The Impossible Rise of Rwanda's Cycling Team'' and a film, ''[[Rising from Ashes (film)|Rising from Ashes]]''.{{sfn|Robbins|2013}}{{sfn|Willgoss|2014}}  The [[2025 UCI Road World Championships|UCI Road World Championships]] took place in Kigali in September 2025.
[[File:Gahanga Cricket Oval in Kicukiro.jpg|thumb|268x268px|[[Rwanda Cricket Stadium|The Gahanga Cricket Stadium]]]]
Rwandans have been competing at the [[Olympic Games]] since 1984,{{sfn|BBC Sport (I)|2012}} and the [[Paralympic Games]] since 2004.{{sfn|International Paralympic Committee|2015}} The country sent seven competitors to the [[2012 Summer Olympics]] in London, representing it in athletics, [[Swimming (sport)|swimming]], [[mountain biking]] and [[judo]],{{sfn|BBC Sport (I)|2012}} and 15 competitors to the [[2012 Summer Paralympics|London Summer Paralympics]] to compete in athletics, [[Paralympic powerlifting|powerlifting]] and [[sitting volleyball]].{{sfn|International Paralympic Committee|2015}} The country has also participated in the [[Commonwealth Games]] since joining the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] in 2009.{{sfn|BBC Sport (II)|2010}}{{sfn|Office of the Prime Minister|2014}} The country's [[Rwanda national basketball team|national basketball team]] has been growing in prominence since the mid-2000s, with the men's team qualifying for the final stages of the [[African Basketball Championship]] four times in a row since 2007.{{sfn|Bishumba|2015}} The country bid unsuccessfully to host the [[2013 African Basketball Championship|2013 tournament]].{{sfn|Mackay|2009}}{{sfn|International Basketball Federation|2011}} Rwanda's [[Rwanda national football team|national football team]] has appeared in the [[African Cup of Nations]] once, in the [[2004 African Cup of Nations|2004 edition]] of the tournament,{{sfn|Carlin|2003}} but narrowly failed to advance beyond the group stages.{{sfn|Copnall|2004}} The team have failed to qualify for the competition since, and have never qualified for the [[FIFA World Cup|World Cup]].{{sfn|Montague|2014|p=67}} Rwanda's highest domestic football competition is the [[Rwanda National Football League]];{{sfn|Mugabe|Kamasa|2014}} {{As of|2015|lc=y}}, the dominant team is [[APR FC]] of Kigali, having won 13 of the last 17 championships.{{sfn|Schöggl|2015}} Rwandan clubs participate in the [[Kagame Interclub Cup]] for Central and East African teams, sponsored since 2002 by President Kagame.{{sfn|CECAFA}}

== See also ==
{{Portal|Africa}}
*[[Outline of Rwanda]]{{clear}}

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

== Citations ==
{{reflist|20em}}

== General and cited references ==
{{refbegin|30em}}
*{{cite book |last=Adekunle |first=Julius |year=2007 |title=Culture and customs of Rwanda |location=Westport, Conn. |publisher=[[Greenwood Press]] |isbn=978-0-313-33177-0 |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=g0FC40EQujwC}} }}
*{{cite web |author=African Development Bank (AfDB) |date=26 August 2011 |title=Boosting Rwanda's Energy Sector: AfDB, other Lenders Commit USD 91.25 million to Kivuwatt Project |author-link=African Development Bank |url=http://www.afdb.org/en/news-and-events/article/boosting-rwandas-energy-sector-afdb-other-lenders-commit-usd-91-25-million-to-kivuwatt-project-8338/ |access-date=10 November 2015 |ref={{sfnRef|AfDB|2011}} |archive-date=5 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130105120930/http://www.afdb.org/en/news-and-events/article/boosting-rwandas-energy-sector-afdb-other-lenders-commit-usd-91-25-million-to-kivuwatt-project-8338/ |url-status=live }}
*{{cite book |author1=African Development Bank (AfDB) |author2=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Development Centre |year=2006 |title=African Economic Outlook |edition=5 |location=Paris |publisher=OECD Publishing |isbn=978-92-64-02243-0 |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=fpEFOR6WmfYC}} |ref={{sfnRef|AfDB|OECD Development Centre|2006}} }}
*{{cite news |author=Agence Africaine de Presse |date=24 July 2015 |title=Rwanda, DR Congo open trade talks |location=Dakar |url=http://www.apanews.net/abonnes/connection.php?id=829578&lg=fr |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151003092331/http://apanews.net/abonnes/connection.php?id=829578&lg=fr |archive-date=3 October 2015 |access-date=30 October 2015 |url-status=dead }}
*{{cite news |author=Agence France-Presse |date=16 August 2002 |title=Ethnic origins ignored in Rwanda's first census since genocide |author-link=Agence France-Presse |location=Paris |url=http://reliefweb.int/report/rwanda/ethnic-origins-ignored-rwandas-first-census-genocide |access-date=30 October 2015 |archive-date=3 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160203195050/http://reliefweb.int/report/rwanda/ethnic-origins-ignored-rwandas-first-census-genocide |url-status=live }}
*{{cite news |last=Aglietti |first=Stephanie |date=11 September 2014 |title=Rwanda cricket, growing a game of hope |agency=Agence France-Presse |location=Paris |work=[[Yahoo Sports]] |url=https://sports.yahoo.com/news/rwanda-cricket-growing-game-hope-064714133--spt.html |access-date=10 November 2015 |archive-date=17 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191017171700/https://sports.yahoo.com/news/rwanda-cricket-growing-game-hope-064714133--spt.html |url-status=live }}
*{{cite news |last=Agutamba |first=Kenneth |date=4 December 2014 |title=Rwanda graft index falters but ranking unaffected |work=The New Times |location=Kigali |url=http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2014-12-04/183704/ |access-date=30 August 2015 |archive-date=10 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010195947/http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2014-12-04/183704/ |url-status=live }}{{better source needed|date=September 2023}}
*{{cite news |author=Al Jazeera |date=20 September 2007 |title=Rwanda blames DR Congo for violence |author-link=Al Jazeera English|location=Doha |url=http://english.aljazeera.net/news/africa/2007/09/2008525143037439552.html |access-date=10 November 2015 |archive-date=13 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513110341/http://english.aljazeera.net/news/africa/2007/09/2008525143037439552.html |url-status=live }}
*{{cite news |last=Anyango |first=Gloria I. |date=4 February 2010 |title=The Barbecue Chef who masters his roast |url=http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2010-02-04/93743/ |work=The New Times |location=Kigali |access-date=10 November 2015 |archive-date=10 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010200023/http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2010-02-04/93743/ |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |last1=Appiah |first1=Anthony |last2=Gates |first2=Henry Louis |year=2010 |title=Encyclopedia of Africa, Volume 1 |edition=illustrated |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A0XNvklcqbwC |isbn=978-0-19-533770-9 |access-date=23 August 2019 |archive-date=11 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230111210158/https://books.google.com/books?id=A0XNvklcqbwC |url-status=live}}
*{{cite news |last=Asiimwe |first=Bosco R |date=28 September 2011 |title=Gov't to sanction officials who failed to declare wealth |work=The New Times |location=Kigali |url=http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2011-09-27/35369/ |access-date=10 November 2015 |archive-date=10 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010200053/http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2011-09-27/35369/ |url-status=live}}
*{{cite news |last=Asiimwe |first=Dicta |date=20 December 2014 |title=Uganda races to meet Monetary Union date |work=[[The EastAfrican]] |location=Nairobi |url=https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/Uganda-races-to-meet-Monetary-Union-date/-/2558/2563504/-/13p67lh/-/index.html |access-date=31 August 2015 |archive-date=8 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208071646/http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/Uganda-races-to-meet-Monetary-Union-date/-/2558/2563504/-/13p67lh/-/index.html |url-status=dead}}
*{{cite book |last=Auzias |first=Dominique |year=2007 |title=Rwanda |location=Paris |publisher=Petit Futé |language=fr |isbn=978-2-7469-2037-8 |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=TyMs5XGSIzQC}}}}
*{{cite news |last=Banda |first=Honoré |date=12 February 2015 |title=Rwanda's job crunch |publisher=[[The Africa Report]] |location=Paris |url=http://www.theafricareport.com/East-Horn-Africa/rwandas-job-crunch.html |access-date=7 September 2015 |archive-date=19 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190119105348/http://www.theafricareport.com/East-Horn-Africa/rwandas-job-crunch.html |url-status=live}}
*{{cite web |url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2015/02/27/090224b082b6d3c9/2_0/Rendered/PDF/Scaling0up0acc000the0case0of0Rwanda.pdf |title=Scaling Up Access to Electricity: The Case of Rwanda |publisher=World Bank Group |first1=Paul |last1=Baringanire |first2=Kabir |last2=Malik |first3=Sudeshna Ghosh |last3=Banerjee |year=2014 |access-date=10 October 2015 |archive-date=21 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160321201003/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2015/02/27/090224b082b6d3c9/2_0/Rendered/PDF/Scaling0up0acc000the0case0of0Rwanda.pdf |url-status=live}}
*{{cite news |author=BBC News (I) |date=3 January 2006 |title=Rwanda redrawn to reflect compass |author-link=BBC News |location=London |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4577790.stm |access-date=10 November 2015 |archive-date=1 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130601115308/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/4577790.stm |url-status=live}}
*{{cite news |author=BBC News (II) |date=31 March 2006 |title=Team reaches Nile's 'true source' |location=London |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/hampshire/4864782.stm |access-date=10 November 2015 |archive-date=1 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130601132100/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/hampshire/4864782.stm |url-status=live}}
*{{cite news |author=BBC News (III) |date=12 January 2010 |title=Hutus 'killed Rwanda President Juvenal Habyarimana' |location=London |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8453832.stm |access-date=10 November 2015 |archive-date=1 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130601115647/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/8453832.stm |url-status=live }}
*{{cite news |author=BBC News (V) |date=27 August 2010 |title=Q&A: DR Congo conflict |location=London |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-11108589 |access-date=10 November 2015 |archive-date=18 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200318190958/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-11108589 |url-status=live }}
*{{cite news |author=BBC News (VI) |date=3 November 2011 |title=Rwanda gives DR Congo back tonnes of smuggled minerals |location=London |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-15570648 |access-date=10 November 2015 |archive-date=23 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200223050527/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-15570648 |url-status=live }}
*{{cite news |author=BBC News (VII) |date=23 June 2015 |title=Rwanda profile – Media |location=London |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14093244 |access-date=1 October 2015 |archive-date=7 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190507041838/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14093244 |url-status=live }}
*{{cite news |author=BBC News (VIII) |date=4 June 2015 |title=Rwanda country profile – Overview |location=London |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14093238 |access-date=30 October 2015 |archive-date=23 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200223051623/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14093238 |url-status=live }}
*{{cite news |author=BBC News (IX) |date=18 June 2012 |title=Rwanda 'gacaca' genocide courts finish work |location=London |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-18490348 |access-date=30 October 2015 |archive-date=8 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150308072112/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-18490348 |url-status=live }}
*{{cite news |author=BBC News (X) |date=20 November 2012 |title=Goma: M23 rebels capture DR Congo city |location=London |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-20405739 |access-date=30 October 2015 |archive-date=5 December 2012 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121205032005/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-20405739 |url-status=live }}
*{{cite news |author=BBC News (XI) |date=24 December 2014 |title=Why cricket is gaining in popularity in Rwanda |location=London |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/av/world-africa-20798480 |access-date=10 November 2015 |archive-date=30 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150330191800/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-20798480 |url-status=live }}
*{{cite news |author=BBC Sport (I) |author-link=BBC Sport |date=13 August 2012 |title=Rwanda |publisher=BBC Sport |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/olympics |access-date=10 November 2015 |archive-date=30 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120730052803/http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/olympics/2012/countries/rwanda |url-status=live }}
*{{cite news |author=BBC Sport (II) |author-link=BBC Sport |date=27 September 2010 |title=Commonwealth Games 2010: Participating nations in Africa |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/commonwealth_games/delhi_2010/9037806.stm |publisher=BBC Sport |access-date=10 November 2015 |archive-date=17 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181217162200/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/commonwealth_games/delhi_2010/9037806.stm |url-status=live }}
*{{cite book |last1=Berry |first1=Philip |last2=Lewis |first2=Janice |last3=Williams |first3=Cara |editor-last=Turner |editor-first=B.L. |year=1990 |title=The Earth as Transformed by Human Action: Global and Regional Changes in the Biosphere Over the Past 300 Years |chapter=32: East African Highlands |edition=Illustrated, Reprint |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-36357-0 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7GI0AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA533 |access-date=1 July 2023 |archive-date=1 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230701074114/https://books.google.com/books?id=7GI0AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA533 |url-status=live }}
*{{cite web |author=Best Country Reports |year=2007 |title=Temperature Map of Rwanda |publisher=World Trade Press |url=http://www.bestcountryreports.com/Temperature_Map_Rwanda.php |access-date=12 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121117203642/http://www.bestcountryreports.com/Temperature_Map_Rwanda.php |archive-date=17 November 2012 |url-status=dead }}
*{{cite news |last=Bishumba |first=Richard |date=7 February 2015 |title=Meet Mutokambali, the national hoops team coach |work=The New Times |location=Kigali |url=http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2015-02-07/185708/ |access-date=9 April 2015 |archive-date=10 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010200135/http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2015-02-07/185708/ |url-status=live }}
*{{cite news |last=Bowdler |first=Neil |date=14 May 2010 |title=Apprentice adviser Nick Hewer's Rwanda mission |publisher=[[BBC News]] |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/8672889.stm |access-date=12 November 2015 |archive-date=1 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130601123055/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/8672889.stm |url-status=live }}
*{{cite news |last=Bowcott |first=Owen |date=2 April 2014 |title=Rwanda genocide: the fight to bring the perpetrators to justice |work=[[The Guardian]] |location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/apr/02/rwanda-genocide-fight-justice |access-date=12 April 2017 |archive-date=20 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200220125741/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/apr/02/rwanda-genocide-fight-justice |url-status=live }}
*{{cite journal |last=Boyd |first=J. Barron |date=December 1979 |title=African Boundary Conflict: An Empirical Study |journal=African Studies Review |volume=22 |issue=3 |jstor=523892 |pages=1–14 |doi=10.2307/523892 |s2cid=145722128}}
*{{cite web |author=Bralirwa (I) |title=History and Background Information |author-link=Bralirwa |url=http://www.bralirwa.com/cms/index.php/about-bralirwa/bralirwa-history |access-date=13 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150703173033/http://www.bralirwa.com/cms/index.php/about-bralirwa/bralirwa-history |archive-date=3 July 2015 |url-status=dead }}
*{{cite web |author=Bralirwa (II) |title=Sparkling beverages |author-link=Bralirwa |url=http://www.bralirwa.com/cms/index.php/brand-portfolio/sparkling-beverages |access-date=13 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150704034003/http://www.bralirwa.com/cms/index.php/brand-portfolio/sparkling-beverages |archive-date=4 July 2015 |url-status=dead }}
*{{cite web |author=Bralirwa (III) |title=Beer |author-link=Bralirwa |url=http://www.bralirwa.com/cms/index.php/brand-portfolio/beer |access-date=13 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151106143421/http://www.bralirwa.com/cms/index.php/brand-portfolio/beer |archive-date=6 November 2015 |url-status=dead }}
*{{cite news |last=Briggs |first=Jimmy |date=August 2004 |title=A dance of hope in Rwanda |work=[[Dance Magazine]] |location=New York, N.Y.}}
*{{cite book |last1=Briggs |first1=Philip |last2=Booth |first2=Janice |year=2006 |title=Rwanda&nbsp;– The Bradt Travel Guide |edition=3rd |location=London |publisher=Bradt Travel Guides |isbn=978-1-84162-180-7 |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=L2Sq4S3P5fQC}} }}
*{{cite news |last=Bucyensenge |first=Jean-Pierre |date=17 September 2014 |title=Farmers wary as new weather patterns threaten production |work=The New Times |location=Kigali |url=http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2014-09-17/181003/ |access-date=4 November 2015 |archive-date=14 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180314120616/http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2014-09-17/181003/ |url-status=live }}
*{{cite news |last=Butera |first=Saul |date=9 January 2010 |title=MTN Rwanda deploys new Internet technology |work=The New Times |location=Kigali |url=http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2010-01-08/15462/ |access-date=12 November 2015 |archive-date=10 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010200153/http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2010-01-08/15462/ |url-status=live }}
*{{cite news |last=Butera |first=Saul |date=6 April 2011 |title=MTN, Tigo Reaping From Rwandatel Misery |work=The New Times |location=Kigali |url=http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2011-04-06/29981/ |access-date=12 November 2015 |archive-date=10 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010200243/http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2011-04-06/29981/ |url-status=live }}
*{{cite news |last=Carlin |first=John |date=13 July 2003 |title=Rwanda's magic moment |work=[[The Guardian]] |location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/football/2003/jul/13/sport.comment3 |access-date=9 April 2015 |archive-date=3 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403175027/https://www.theguardian.com/football/2003/jul/13/sport.comment3 |url-status=live }}
*{{cite web |author=CECAFA |title=Kagame Cup Championships |work=CECAFA Website |url=http://cecafafootball.org/kagame-cup-championships/ |access-date=29 October 2015 |archive-date=24 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190924053735/http://www.cecafafootball.org/kagame-cup-championships/ |url-status=live }}
*{{cite web |author=Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) (I) |work=[[The World Factbook]] |title=Rwanda |author-link=CIA |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/rwanda/ |access-date=12 November 2015 |ref={{sfnRef|CIA (I)}} |archive-date=9 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109091722/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/rwanda |url-status=live }}
*{{cite web |author=Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) (III) |year=2011 |work=The World Factbook |title=Rank Order&nbsp;– Life expectancy at birth |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2102rank.html |access-date=12 November 2015 |ref={{sfnRef|CIA (III)|2011}} |archive-date=2 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180102233121/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2102rank.html |url-status=dead }}
*{{cite web |author=Centre For Aviation |date=22 December 2014 |title=RwandAir plans further regional expansion in 2015 and launch of long-haul services in 2017 |url=http://centreforaviation.com/analysis/rwandair-plans-further-regional-expansion-in-2015-and-launch-of-long-haul-services-in-2017-202148 |access-date=26 October 2015 |archive-date=7 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151107035237/http://centreforaviation.com/analysis/rwandair-plans-further-regional-expansion-in-2015-and-launch-of-long-haul-services-in-2017-202148 |url-status=live }}
*{{cite book |last=Chrétien |first=Jean-Pierre |year=2003 |title=The Great Lakes of Africa: Two Thousand Years of History |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-1-890951-34-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ezo5PQAACAAJ |access-date=25 June 2019 |archive-date=11 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230111210159/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ezo5PQAACAAJ |url-status=live }}
*{{cite web |author=City Population |year=2012 |title=Rwanda: Cities |url=http://www.citypopulation.de/Rwanda-Cities.html |access-date=7 September 2015 |archive-date=30 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190830215135/http://www.citypopulation.de/Rwanda-Cities.html |url-status=live }}
*{{cite news |last=Clark |first=Phil |date=5 August 2010 |title=Rwanda: Kagame's power struggle |work=The Guardian |location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/libertycentral/2010/aug/05/rwanda-kagames-power-struggle |access-date=12 November 2015 |archive-date=23 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200223050429/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/libertycentral/2010/aug/05/rwanda-kagames-power-struggle |url-status=live }}
*{{cite news |last=Coleman |first=Isobel |date=7 April 2010 |title=Rwanda: Road to Recovery |work=[[The Huffington Post]] |location=New York, N.Y. |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/isobel-coleman/rwanda-road-to-recovery_b_529366.html |access-date=12 November 2015 |archive-date=2 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102190846/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/isobel-coleman/rwanda-road-to-recovery_b_529366.html |url-status=live }}
*{{cite web |author=Commission Juridique Et Constitutionnelle Du Rwanda (CJCR) |date=26 May 2003 |title=Constitution of the Republic of Rwanda |url=http://www.cjcr.gov.rw/eng/constitution_eng.doc |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090325021301/http://www.cjcr.gov.rw/eng/constitution_eng.doc |archive-date=25 March 2009 |access-date=12 November 2015 |ref={{sfnRef|CJCR|2003}} }}
*{{cite news |last=Copnall |first=James |date=2 February 2004 |title=Camara breaks Rwanda hearts |work=The Guardian |location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/football/2004/feb/02/africannationscup2004.africannationscup |access-date=7 November 2015 |archive-date=18 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180618183318/https://www.theguardian.com/football/2004/feb/02/africannationscup2004.africannationscup |url-status=live }}
*{{cite news |last=Craig |first=Tara |date=23 October 2012 |title=Unibra ramps up in Rwanda |work=[[Brewer's Guardian]] |location=Reigate |url=http://www.brewersguardian.com/brewing-features/breweries/1454.html |access-date=5 November 2015 |archive-date=5 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190805161051/http://www.brewersguardian.com/brewing-features/breweries/1454.html |url-status=dead }}
*{{cite news |author=CyclingNews.com |date=27 July 2012 |title=Niyonshuti to carry Rwandan flag in Olympic Games opening ceremony |author-link=CyclingNews.com |location=London |url=http://www.cyclingnews.com/news/niyonshuti-to-carry-rwandan-flag-in-olympic-games-opening-ceremony/ |access-date=6 November 2015 |archive-date=6 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190806153141/http://www.cyclingnews.com/news/niyonshuti-to-carry-rwandan-flag-in-olympic-games-opening-ceremony/ |url-status=live }}
*{{cite book |last=Dallaire |first=Roméo |year=2005 |title=Shake Hands with the Devil: The Failure of Humanity in Rwanda |location=London |publisher=Arrow |isbn=978-0-09-947893-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ja2hQgAACAAJ |access-date=25 June 2019 |archive-date=1 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230701074114/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ja2hQgAACAAJ |url-status=live }}
*{{cite news |last=Delawala |first=Imtiyaz |date=7 September 2001 |title=What Is Coltan? |work=[[ABC News (United States)|ABC News]] |location=New York, N.Y. |url=https://abcnews.go.com/Nightline/story?id=128631&page=1 |access-date=12 November 2015 |archive-date=8 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208153446/http://abcnews.go.com/Nightline/story?id=128631&page=1 |url-status=live }}
*{{cite web |author=Office of the Prime Minister, Republic of Rwanda |title=Statement on Cabinet Decisions of 29.07.2014 |url=http://www.primature.gov.rw/top/news/news-details.html?tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=1216&cHash=588e976e71301e1aec9ff383d8378234 |access-date=9 April 2015 |ref={{sfnRef|Office of the Prime Minister|2014}} |archive-date=14 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150414093933/https://www.primature.gov.rw/top/news/news%2Ddetails.html?tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D%3D1216%26cHash%3D588e976e71301e1aec9ff383d8378234#91;tt_news&#93;=1216&cHash=588e976e71301e1aec9ff383d8378234 |url-status=dead }}
*{{cite book |last=Dorsey |first=Learthen |year=1994 |title=Historical Dictionary of Rwanda |location=Metuchen, N.J. |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0-8108-2820-9}}
*{{cite news |last1=Drobac |first1=Peter |last2=Naughton |first2=Brienna |date=15 June 2014 |title=Health Equity in Rwanda: The New Rwanda, Twenty Years Later |work=[[Harvard International Review]] |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |url=http://hir.harvard.edu/health-equity-in-rwanda/ |access-date=19 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208111222/http://hir.harvard.edu/health-equity-in-rwanda/ |archive-date=8 December 2015 |url-status=dead }}
*{{cite news |last=Emery |first=Neal |date=20 February 2013 |title=Rwanda's Historic Health Recovery: What the U.S. Might Learn |work=[[The Atlantic]] |location=Washington, D.C. |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2013/02/rwandas-historic-health-recovery-what-the-us-might-learn/273226/ |access-date=20 August 2015 |archive-date=17 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190917065416/https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2013/02/rwandas-historic-health-recovery-what-the-us-might-learn/273226/ |url-status=live }}
*{{cite web |author=Encyclopædia Britannica |year=2010 |title=Rwanda |author-link=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/514402/Rwanda |access-date=19 November 2015 |archive-date=30 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150430202739/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/514402/Rwanda |url-status=live }}
*{{cite news |last=Evans |first=Ruth |date=20 January 2014 |title=Rwanda's health service evolution – podcast |work=The Guardian |location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/audio/2014/jan/20/rwanda-health-global-development-podcast |access-date=27 July 2015 |archive-date=3 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190103230222/https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/audio/2014/jan/20/rwanda-health-global-development-podcast |url-status=live }}
*{{cite book |isbn=978-1-49851944-1 |title=A History of Rwandan Identity and Trauma: The Mythmakers' Victims |first=Randall |last=Fegley |location=Langham, Maryland |publisher=Lexington Books |year=2016}}
*{{cite news |last=Fletcher |first=Pascal |date=30 November 2009 |title=Rwanda accepted into Commonwealth only 15 years after genocide |work=[[The Scotsman]] |url=http://news.scotsman.com/latestnews/Rwanda-accepted-into-Commonwealth-only.5868214.jp |access-date=13 November 2015 |location=Edinburgh |archive-date=11 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511104534/http://news.scotsman.com/latestnews/Rwanda-accepted-into-Commonwealth-only.5868214.jp |url-status=live }}
*{{cite web |author=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] / [[World Food Programme]] (FAO / WFP) |date=1 July 1997 |title=Special Report: FAO/WFP Crop and Food Supply Assessment Mission to Rwanda |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/004/w5836e/w5836e00.htm |access-date=13 November 2015 |ref={{sfnRef|FAO / WFP|1997}} |archive-date=2 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002010045/http://www.fao.org/docrep/004/w5836e/w5836e00.htm |url-status=live }}
*{{cite web |author=Francophonie |title=Welcome to the International Organisation of La Francophonie's official website |author-link=La Francophonie |url=http://www.francophonie.org/Welcome-to-the-International.html |access-date=13 November 2015 |archive-date=1 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140401162352/http://www.francophonie.org/Welcome-to-the-International.html |url-status=dead }}
*{{cite news |last=Gasore |first=Ben |date=31 December 2014 |title=Digital broadcasting stirs up local TV industry, but&nbsp;... |work=The New Times |location=Kigali |url=http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2014-12-31/184538/ |access-date=1 October 2015 |archive-date=10 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010200320/http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2014-12-31/184538/ |url-status=live }}
*{{cite book |last=Gourevitch |first=Philip |year=2000 |title=We Wish To Inform You That Tomorrow We Will Be Killed With Our Families |edition=Reprint |location=London; New York, N.Y. |publisher=Picador |isbn=978-0-330-37120-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8OiMfpTiApQC |access-date=25 June 2019 |archive-date=11 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230111210200/https://books.google.com/books?id=8OiMfpTiApQC |url-status=live }}
*{{cite web |author=Government of Rwanda (I) |title=Official Holidays |author-link=Government of Rwanda |url=http://www.gov.rw/home/official_holidays/ |access-date=8 September 2015 |archive-date=16 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190916082254/http://www.gov.rw/home/official_holidays/ |url-status=dead }}
*{{cite web |author=Government of Rwanda (II) |title=Animals |author-link=Government of Rwanda |url=http://www.gov.rw/home/animals/ |access-date=13 November 2015 |archive-date=18 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190918132353/http://gov.rw/home/animals/ |url-status=dead }}
*{{cite news |last=Grainger |first=Sarah |date=18 June 2007 |title=East Africa trade bloc expanded |publisher=[[BBC News]] |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6762615.stm |access-date=13 November 2015 |archive-date=1 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130601130230/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6762615.stm |url-status=live}}
*{{cite news |last=Henley |first=Jon |date=31 October 2007 |title=Scar tissue |work=The Guardian |location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/oct/31/rwanda.theatre |access-date=13 November 2015 |archive-date=1 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130901014733/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/oct/31/rwanda.theatre |url-status=live}}
*{{cite news |last=Heuler |first=Hilary |date=12 December 2011 |title=Uganda, Rwanda Move to Mend Troubled Relations |publisher=[[Voice of America News]] |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/uganda-and-rwanda-move-to-mend-troubled-relations-135437603/149440.html |access-date=13 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120211031714/http://www.voanews.com/english/news/africa/Uganda-and-Rwanda-Move-to-Mend-Troubled-Relations-135437603.html |archive-date=11 February 2012 |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |last=Hodd |first=Michael |year=1994 |title=East African Handbook |publisher=Trade & Travel Publications |isbn=978-0-8442-8983-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bL8tAQAAIAAJ |access-date=25 June 2019 |archive-date=1 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230701074114/https://books.google.com/books?id=bL8tAQAAIAAJ |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |last1=Hoye |first1=Russell |last2=Smith |first2=Aaron C.T |last3=Nicholson |first3=Matthew |last4=Stewart |first4=Bob |year=2015 |title=Sport Management: Principles and Applications |location=Abingdon |publisher=Routledge |edition=4th |isbn=978-1-138-83960-1 |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=KL8cBgAAQBAJ}}}}
*{{cite book |author1=[[Human Rights Watch]] |author2=Wells, Sarah |year=2008 |title=Law and reality: progress in judicial reform in Rwanda |publisher=Human Rights Watch |isbn=978-1-56432-366-8 |url=https://www.hrw.org/node/62098 |access-date=13 November 2015 |ref={{sfnRef|Human Rights Watch|Wells|2008}} |archive-date=24 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140724084136/http://www.hrw.org/node/62098 |url-status=live}}
*{{cite news |author=International Basketball Federation |date=21 November 2011 |title=CIV – Ivory Coast to host AfroBasket 2013 |author-link=FIBA |location=Mies |url=https://www.fiba.basketball/news/CIV-Ivory-Coast-to-host-AfroBasket-2013 |access-date=9 April 2015 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304212222/http://www.fiba.com/news/CIV-Ivory-Coast-to-host-AfroBasket-2013 |url-status=live}}
*{{cite web |author=International Development Association (IDA) |title=Rwanda: Bringing Clean Water to Rural Communities |author-link=International Development Association |url=http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTABOUTUS/IDA/0,,contentMDK:21256336~menuPK:3266877~pagePK:51236175~piPK:437394~theSitePK:73154,00.html |access-date=13 November 2015 |ref={{sfnRef|IDA|2009}} |archive-date=11 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100711002322/http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTABOUTUS/IDA/0,,contentMDK:21256336~menuPK:3266877~pagePK:51236175~piPK:437394~theSitePK:73154,00.html |url-status=live }}
*{{cite web |author=International Monetary Fund (IMF) |title=An approach to the Poverty Reduction Action Plan for Rwanda: The Interim PRSP |date=November 2000 |url=https://www.imf.org/external/np/prsp/2000/rwa/01/110100.pdf |access-date=10 November 2015 |ref={{sfnRef|IMF|2000}} |archive-date=10 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010192353/https://www.imf.org/external/np/prsp/2000/rwa/01/110100.pdf |url-status=live }}
*{{cite web |author=International Monetary Fund (IMF) (I) |year=2012 |title=Gross domestic product based on purchasing-power-parity (PPP) per capita GDP, Rwanda, 1994 |work=World Economic Outlook Database |author-link=IMF |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2012/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=1994&ey=1994&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&pr1.x=59&pr1.y=8&c=714&s=PPPPC&grp=0&a= |access-date=23 November 2015 |ref={{sfnRef|IMF (I)}} |archive-date=28 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200328004844/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2012/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=1994&ey=1994&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&pr1.x=59&pr1.y=8&c=714&s=PPPPC&grp=0&a= |url-status=live }}
*{{cite news |author=International Paralympic Committee |date=4 March 2015 |title=Rwandan para-sport develops at pace |author-link=International Paralympic Committee |location=Bonn |url=http://www.paralympic.org/news/rwandan-para-sport-develops-pace |access-date=27 April 2015 |archive-date=4 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190404003857/https://www.paralympic.org/news/rwandan-para-sport-develops-pace |url-status=live }}
*{{cite journal |last=Jefremovas |first=Villia |year=1995 |title=Acts of Human Kindness: Tutsi, Hutu and the Genocide |journal=Issue: A Journal of Opinion |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=28–31 |jstor=1166503 |doi=10.2307/1166503}}
*{{cite book |last=Jørgensen |first=Sven Erik |year=2005 |title=Lake and reservoir management |location=Amsterdam |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-444-51678-7 |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=pcJoaA85A48C}} }}
*{{cite web |last=Kamere |first=Emmanuel |date=17 March 2011 |title=Enforcing Contracts: The Experience of Rwanda |url=https://www.wbginvestmentclimate.org/advisory-services/regulatory-simplification/doing-business-reform-advisory/upload/2-Site-Visit-2-Justice-Emmanuel-Kamere-Enforcing-Contracts-in-Rwanda-2.pdf |access-date=30 October 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304051606/https://www.wbginvestmentclimate.org/advisory-services/regulatory-simplification/doing-business-reform-advisory/upload/2-Site-Visit-2-Justice-Emmanuel-Kamere-Enforcing-Contracts-in-Rwanda-2.pdf |archive-date=4 March 2016 }}
*{{cite news |last=Kezio-Musoke |first=David |date=16 September 2014 |title=A Beautiful Rwandan Economy&nbsp;... Made in Kenya |work=Inspire Rwanda |location=Kigali |url=http://www.inspirerwanda.com/beautiful-rwandan-economy-made-kenya |access-date=5 November 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151119084418/http://www.inspirerwanda.com/beautiful-rwandan-economy-made-kenya |archive-date=19 November 2015 }}
*{{cite web |author=Kigali City |title=Kigali at a glance |author-link=Kigali |url=http://www.kigalicity.gov.rw/spip.php?article2 |access-date=13 November 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140228100441/http://www.kigalicity.gov.rw/spip.php?article2 |archive-date=28 February 2014 }}
*{{cite book |last=King |first=David C. |year=2007 |title=Rwanda (Cultures of the World) |location=New York, N.Y. |publisher=Benchmark Books |isbn=978-0-7614-2333-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1yLx1zSuh_QC |access-date=25 June 2019 |archive-date=11 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230111210200/https://books.google.com/books?id=1yLx1zSuh_QC |url-status=live }}
*{{cite book |last=Kiwuwa |first=David E. |year=2012 |title=Ethnic Politics and Democratic Transition in Rwanda |location=Abingdon |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-61608-9 |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=uGclH0p46ogC}}}}
*{{cite news |last=Koenig |first=Ann M. |date=9 September 2014 |title=Rwanda: Reorganization of public higher education underway |work=[[American Association of Collegiate Registrars and Admissions Officers]] |location=Washington, D.C. |url=http://www.aacrao.org/resources/resources-detail-view/rwanda--reorganization-of-public-higher-education-underway |access-date=7 April 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150430092320/http://aacrao.org/resources/resources-detail-view/rwanda--reorganization-of-public-higher-education-underway |archive-date=30 April 2015}}
*{{cite news |author=KT Press |date=11 February 2015 |title=Over a Million Tourists Help Rwanda's Tourism Revenue Cross US$ 300m |location=London |publisher=[[PR Newswire]] |url=http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/over-a-million-tourists-help-rwandas-tourism-revenue-cross-us-300m-reports-kt-press-300033956.html |access-date=1 October 2015 |archive-date=10 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010190554/http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/over-a-million-tourists-help-rwandas-tourism-revenue-cross-us-300m-reports-kt-press-300033956.html |url-status=live }}{{better source needed|date=September 2023}}
*{{cite news |last=Lavelle |first=John |date=5 July 2008 |title=Resurrecting the East African Shilling |work=[[East African Business Week]] |location=Kampala |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/200807071183.html |access-date=13 November 2015 |archive-date=7 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007163057/http://allafrica.com/stories/200807071183.html |url-status=live }}
*{{cite book |last1=Linden |first1=Ian |last2=Linden |first2=Jane |year=1977 |title=Church and Revolution in Rwanda |edition=illustrated |location=Manchester |publisher=Manchester University Press |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=DgXoAAAAIAAJ}} |isbn=978-0719-00-671-5 }}
*{{cite book |last=Longman |first=Timothy |year=2010 |title=Christianity and Genocide in Rwanda |title-link=Christianity and Genocide in Rwanda |location=Cambridge, UK; New York, N.Y. |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521269537}}
*{{cite book |last=Longman |first=Timothy |year=2017 |title=Memory and Justice in Post-Genocide Rwanda |location=Cambridge, UK; New York, N.Y. |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781107678095}}
*{{cite news |last=Maboja |first=Wilhelmina |date=12 February 2015 |title=Rwanda and Uganda Move to Strengthen Relations |publisher=[[CNBC Africa]] |location=Johannesburg |url=http://www.cnbcafrica.com/news/east-africa/2013/10/14/rwanda-and-uganda-relations-to-be-strengthened/ |access-date=29 October 2015 |archive-date=23 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923205011/http://www.cnbcafrica.com/news/east-africa/2013/10/14/rwanda-and-uganda-relations-to-be-strengthened/ |url-status=dead}}
*{{cite news |last=MacGregor |first=Karen |date=21 June 2014 |title=A new university, new international leader, new future |work=[[University World News]] |location=London |issue=325 |url=http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20140620093600774 |access-date=7 April 2015 |archive-date=10 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010190554/http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20140620093600774 |url-status=live }}
*{{cite news |last=Mackay |first=Duncan |date=24 December 2009 |title=Rwanda launch bid for 2013 African Championships |work=insidethegames.biz |location=Milton Keynes |url=http://www.insidethegames.biz/articles/8551/rwanda-launch-plan-for-2013-african-championships |access-date=9 April 2015 |archive-date=3 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403215707/https://www.insidethegames.biz/articles/8551/rwanda-launch-plan-for-2013-african-championships |url-status=live}}
*{{cite news |last=Majyambere |first=Gertrude |date=14 May 2010 |title=Rwandatel's Landline Telephony Increases By 7 Percent |work=The New Times |location=Kigali |url=http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2010-05-13/19749/ |access-date=13 November 2015 |archive-date=10 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010200403/http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2010-05-13/19749/ |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |last=Mamdani |first=Mahmood |author-link=Mahmood Mamdani |year=2002 |title=When Victims Become Killers: Colonialism, Nativism, and the Genocide in Rwanda |location=Princeton, N.J. |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-10280-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QUEamxb89JcC |access-date=25 June 2019 |archive-date=11 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230111210201/https://books.google.com/books?id=QUEamxb89JcC |url-status=live}}
*{{cite news |last=Maynard |first=James |date=22 May 2014 |title=Newly discovered bush tiger praying mantis in Rwanda is a vicious hunter |work=Tech Times |url=https://www.techtimes.com/articles/7365/20140522/newly-discovered-bush-tiger-praying-mantis-in-rwanda-is-a-vicious-hunter.htm |access-date=27 September 2018 |archive-date=27 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180927124943/https://www.techtimes.com/articles/7365/20140522/newly-discovered-bush-tiger-praying-mantis-in-rwanda-is-a-vicious-hunter.htm |url-status=live}}{{better source needed|date=September 2023}}
*{{cite news |last=Mbabazi |first=Linda |date=11 May 2008 |title=Hip Hop Dominating Music Industry |work=The New Times |location=Kigali |url=http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2008-05-11/3642/ |access-date=13 November 2015 |archive-date=10 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010200515/http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2008-05-11/3642/ |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |last1=McCracken |first1=Kathryn |last2=Colucci |first2=Emma |year=2014 |title=Strengthening Sport for Development and Peace: National Policies and Strategies |location=London |publisher=Commonwealth Secretariat |editor-last=Dudfield |editor-first=Oliver |chapter=Using sport and play to achieve educational objectives |chapter-url=http://www.cedol.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/7-Using-sport-and-play-to-achieve.pdf |isbn=978-1-84859-912-3 |access-date=8 April 2015 |archive-date=18 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150418093754/http://www.cedol.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/7-Using-sport-and-play-to-achieve.pdf |url-status=live}}
*{{cite news |last=McGreal |first=Chris |date=16 January 2009 |title=Why Rwanda said adieu to French |work=The Guardian |location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/education/2009/jan/16/rwanda-english-genocide |access-date=13 November 2015 |archive-date=18 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518084907/http://www.theguardian.com/education/2009/jan/16/rwanda-english-genocide |url-status=live}}
*{{cite news |last=McGreal |first=Chris |date=1 October 2010 |title=Delayed UN report links Rwanda to Congo genocide |work=The Guardian |location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/oct/01/un-report-rwanda-congo-genocide |access-date=10 November 2015 |archive-date=21 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160821165059/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/oct/01/un-report-rwanda-congo-genocide |url-status=live}}
*{{cite web |last1=Mehta |first1=Hitesh |last2=Katee |first2=Christine |year=2005 |title=Virunga Massif Sustainable Tourism Development Plan |publisher=[[International Gorilla Conservation Programme]] (IGCP) |url=http://www.igcp.org/wp-content/themes/igcp/docs/pdf/VirungaTourismMasterPlan_%20Final%20Report.pdf |access-date=13 November 2015 |archive-date=4 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140304055030/http://www.igcp.org/wp-content/themes/igcp/docs/pdf/VirungaTourismMasterPlan_%20Final%20Report.pdf |url-status=dead}}
*{{cite book |last=Melvern |first=Linda |year=2004 |title=Conspiracy to Murder: The Rwandan Genocide |version=Revised |location=London; New York, N.Y. |publisher=Verso Books |isbn=978-1-85984-588-2 |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=3NXIHf0t3aMC}}}}
*{{cite news |last=Milmo |first=Cahal |date=29 March 2006 |title=Flashback to terror: Survivors of Rwandan genocide watch screening of Shooting Dogs |work=[[The Independent]] |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/flashback-to-terror-survivors-of-rwandan-genocide-watch-screening-of-shooting-dogs-6105247.html |access-date=13 November 2015 |location=London |archive-date=10 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010190852/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/flashback-to-terror-survivors-of-rwandan-genocide-watch-screening-of-shooting-dogs-6105247.html |url-status=live}}
*{{cite web |author=Ministry of Agriculture (MINAGRI), Republic of Rwanda |date=10 June 2006 |title=Livestock production |url=http://www.minagri.gov.rw/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=156%3Alivestock&Itemid=48&lang=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120323131055/http://www.minagri.gov.rw/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=156%3Alivestock&Itemid=48&lang=en |archive-date=23 March 2012 |access-date=13 November 2015 |ref={{sfnRef|MINAGRI2006}} |url-status=dead}}
*{{cite web |author=Ministry of Education (MINEDUC), Republic of Rwanda |date=13 July 2010 |title=Achievements (2003–2010) |author-link=Ministry of Education (Rwanda) |url=http://www.mineduc.gov.rw/IMG/article_PDF/article_a27.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120311165948/http://www.mineduc.gov.rw/IMG/article_PDF/article_a27.pdf |archive-date=11 March 2012 |access-date=13 November 2015 |ref={{sfnRef|MINEDUC|2010}}}}
*{{cite web |author=Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning (MINECOFIN), Republic of Rwanda |date=June 2002 |title=Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper |url=http://www.imf.org/external/np/prsp/2002/rwa/01/063102.pdf |access-date=31 October 2015 |ref={{sfnRef|MINECOFIN|2002}} |archive-date=23 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023191649/http://www.imf.org/external/np/prsp/2002/rwa/01/063102.pdf |url-status=live}}
*{{cite web |author=Ministry of Infrastructure (MININFRA), Republic of Rwanda |date=June 2013 |title=Ministry of Infrastructure Final Report on Transport Sector Strategic Plan for EDPRS2 |author-link=Ministry of Infrastructure (Rwanda) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304222432/http://www.minecofin.gov.rw/fileadmin/templates/documents/sector_strategic_plan/Transport__SSP_June_2013.pdf |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url=http://www.minecofin.gov.rw/fileadmin/templates/documents/sector_strategic_plan/Transport__SSP_June_2013.pdf |access-date=9 May 2020 |ref={{sfnRef|MININFRA|2013}}}}
*{{cite web |author=Ministry of Infrastructure (MININFRA), Republic of Rwanda |date=9 August 2017 |title=New Bugesera International Airport construction works kick-off |url=http://mininfra.gov.rw/index.php?id=19&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=248&cHash=77c29a7b4d7453a6824a6e98bf01b943 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180221155229/http://mininfra.gov.rw/index.php?id=19&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=248&cHash=77c29a7b4d7453a6824a6e98bf01b943 |archive-date=21 February 2018 |access-date=21 February 2018 |ref={{sfnRef|MININFRA|2017}} |url-status=dead}}
*{{cite web |author=Ministry of Local Government (MINALOC), Republic of Rwanda |year=2004 |title=Administrative Units |url=http://www.minaloc.gov.rw/index.php?id=450 |access-date=16 November 2015 |ref={{sfnRef|MINALOC|2004}} |archive-date=22 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131022061048/http://www.minaloc.gov.rw/index.php?id=450 |url-status=dead}}
*{{cite web |author=Ministry of Local Government (MINALOC), Republic of Rwanda |date=August 2007 |title=Rwanda Decentralization Strategic Framework |url=http://www.minecofin.gov.rw/webfm_send/2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130329024025/http://www.minecofin.gov.rw/webfm_send/2014 |archive-date=29 March 2013 |access-date=19 November 2015 |ref={{sfnRef|MINALOC|2007}}}}
*{{cite web |author=((Ministry of Sports and Culture, Republic of Rwanda (MINISPOC))) |date=October 2012 |title=Rwanda Sports Development Policy |url=http://minispoc.gov.rw/fileadmin/templates/Documents/rwanda_sports_development_policy.doc |access-date=8 April 2015 |ref={{sfnRef|MINISPOC|2012}} |archive-date=18 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150418142520/http://minispoc.gov.rw/fileadmin/templates/Documents/rwanda_sports_development_policy.doc |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |first=James |last=Montague |title=Thirty-One Nil: On the Road With Football's Outsiders, A World Cup Odyssey |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |location=London |year=2014 |page=67 |isbn=978-1-4081-5884-5}}
*{{cite web |last1=Mugabe |first1=Bonnie |last2=Kamasa |first2=Peter |date=18 October 2014 |title=Who will win the 2014/15 national football league? |work=The New Times |location=Kigali |url=http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2014-10-18/182075/ |access-date=9 April 2015 |archive-date=10 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010200547/http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2014-10-18/182075/ |url-status=live}}
*{{cite news |last=Mugisha |first=Ivan R |date=3 June 2013 |title=Liquid Telecom acquires Rwandatel assets |work=The New Times |location=Kigali |url=http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2013-06-03/66372/ |access-date=5 October 2015 |archive-date=10 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010200621/http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2013-06-03/66372/ |url-status=live}}
*{{cite news |last=Mugwe |first=David |date=3 June 2013 |title=Liquid Telecom acquires RwandaTel, eyes broadband market |work=The East African |location=Nairobi |url=https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/business/-/2560/1871140/-/7yluo4z/-/index.html |access-date=5 October 2015 |archive-date=5 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151005235301/http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/business/-/2560/1871140/-/7yluo4z/-/index.html |url-status=dead}}
*{{cite news |last=Mukaaya |first=Eddie |date=28 January 2008 |title=Tourism is Rwanda's biggest foreign exchange earner |work=The New Times |location=Kigali |url=http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2008-01-28/99510/ |access-date=12 November 2015 |archive-date=28 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180228001717/http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2008-01-28/99510/ |url-status=live}}
*{{cite news |last=Mukaaya |first=Eddie |date=15 January 2009 |title=Mining industry generated $93&nbsp;million in 2008 |work=The New Times |location=Kigali |url=http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2009-01-14/6692/ |access-date=12 November 2015 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304052150/http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2009-01-14/6692/ |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |last1=Munyakazi |first1=Augustine |last2=Ntagaramba |first2=Johnson Funga |year=2005 |title=Atlas of Rwanda |language=fr |location=Oxford |publisher=Macmillan Education |isbn=0-333-95451-3}}
*{{cite news |last=Nakayima |first=Lillian |date=23 June 2010 |title=Nkombo Island's Hope for the Future |work=The New Times |location=Kigali |url=http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2010-06-11/20795/ |access-date=16 November 2015 |archive-date=10 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010200718/http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2010-06-11/20795/ |url-status=live}}
*{{cite news |last=Namata |first=Berna |date=28 December 2008 |title=Rwanda to restock water bodies with fisheries |work=The New Times |location=Kigali |url=http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2008-11-02/100564/ |access-date=16 November 2015 |archive-date=10 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010200733/http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2008-11-02/100564/ |url-status=live}}
*{{cite news |last=Nantaba |first=Eriosi |date=18 October 2010 |title=Rwanda services sector boosts GDP |work=East African Business Week |location=Kampala |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201010181360.html |access-date=16 November 2015 |archive-date=19 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121019130336/http://allafrica.com/stories/201010181360.html |url-status=live}}
*{{cite web |author=National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda |date=February 2012 |title=The third Integrated Household Living Conditions Survey (EICV 3)&nbsp;– Main indicators Report |url=http://www.statistics.gov.rw/system/files/user_uploads/files/books/Main%20EICV3%20report.pdf |access-date=19 November 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151120014210/http://www.statistics.gov.rw/system/files/user_uploads/files/books/Main%20EICV3%20report.pdf |archive-date=20 November 2015}}
*{{cite web |author=National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda |date=January 2014 |title=Fourth Population and Housing Census, Rwanda, 2012—Final Results: Main indicators report |url=http://www.statistics.gov.rw/sites/default/files/user_uploads/files/books/Main%20Indicators%20Report.pdf |access-date=13 August 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924105913/http://www.statistics.gov.rw/sites/default/files/user_uploads/files/books/Main%20Indicators%20Report.pdf |archive-date=24 September 2015}}
*{{cite web |author=National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda |year=2015 |title=Featured indicators |url=http://www.statistics.gov.rw/ |access-date=7 September 2015 |archive-date=8 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180408170105/http://www.statistics.gov.rw/ |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |last=Ndengeye |first=Joseph |year=2014 |title=Sport and Development Policy in Africa: Results of a Collaborative Study of Selected Country Cases |location=Stellenbosch |publisher=SUN Press |editor-last1=Keim |editor-first1=Marion |editor-last2=de Coning |editor-first2=Christo |chapter=Country Report: Rwanda |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=8jsrAwAAQBAJ}} |isbn=978-1-920689-40-7}}
*{{cite news |last=Ngarambe |first=Alex |date=21 September 2012 |title=Competition heats up for beer market |work=The EastAfrican |location=Nairobi |url=https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/Rwanda/Business/Competition-heats-up-for-beer-market/-/1433224/1513686/-/cfohfr/-/index.html |access-date=5 November 2015 |archive-date=8 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208080928/http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/Rwanda/Business/Competition-heats-up-for-beer-market/-/1433224/1513686/-/cfohfr/-/index.html |url-status=dead}}
*{{cite web |last1=Nielsen |first1=Hannah |last2=Spenceley |first2=Anna |date=April 2010 |title=The success of tourism in Rwanda&nbsp;– Gorillas and more |work=African Success Stories Study |publisher=[[World Bank]] & [[SNV Netherlands Development Organisation]] |url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/AFRICAEXT/Resources/258643-1271798012256/Tourism_Rwanda.pdf |access-date=16 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140320185656/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/AFRICAEXT/Resources/258643-1271798012256/Tourism_Rwanda.pdf |archive-date=20 March 2014 |url-status=dead}}
*{{cite web |author=Nile Basin Initiative |year=2010 |title=Nile Basin Countries |author-link=Nile Basin Initiative |url=http://www.nilebasin.org/newsite/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=48%3Anbi-country-profiles&catid=35%3Anbi-country-profiles&Itemid=67&lang=en |access-date=16 November 2015 |archive-date=14 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314045831/http://www.nilebasin.org/newsite/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=48%3Anbi-country-profiles&catid=35%3Anbi-country-profiles&Itemid=67&lang=en |url-status=live}}
*{{cite news |last=Ntambara |first=Paul |date=9 December 2009 |title=Minister Irked By Big Number of Grass-Thatched Houses |work=The New Times |location=Kigali |url=http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2009-12-09/14378/ |access-date=16 November 2015 |archive-date=10 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010200813/http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2009-12-09/14378/ |url-status=live}}
*{{cite journal |last=Nzabuheraheza |first=François Dominicus |year=2005 |title=Milk Production and Hygiene in Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |issn=1684-5374 |volume=5 |issue=2 |url=http://www.ajfand.net/Volume5/No2/commentaryDominicus.html |access-date=19 November 2015 |archive-date=3 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140303175423/http://www.ajfand.net/Volume5/No2/commentaryDominicus.html |url-status=live}}
*{{cite web |author=Office of the Ombudsman, Republic of Rwanda |title=Office of the Ombudsman: Mandate |url=http://www.ombudsman.gov.rw/?Mandate |access-date=19 November 2015 |ref={{sfnRef|Office of the Ombudsman}} |archive-date=6 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190806083607/http://ombudsman.gov.rw/?Mandate |url-status=live}}
*{{cite news |last=Opobo |first=Moses |date=24 May 2015 |title=Digital TV is opening the floodgates of opportunities for local content producers – Watta |work=The New Times |location=Kigali |url=http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2015-05-24/189067/ |access-date=1 October 2015 |archive-date=10 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010201241/http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2015-05-24/189067/ |url-status=live}}
*{{cite web |author=Organization of African Unity (OAU) |year=2000 |title=Rwanda&nbsp;– The preventable genocide |author-link=Organization of African Unity |work=The Report of International Panel of Eminent Personalities to Investigate the 1994 Genocide in Rwanda and Surrounding Events |url=http://www.aegistrust.org/images/stories/oaureport.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150908042110/http://www.aegistrust.org/images/stories/oaureport.pdf |archive-date=8 September 2015 |access-date=16 November 2015 |ref={{sfnRef|OAU|2000}}}}
*{{cite web |author=Our Africa |title=Rwanda: Climate & Agriculture |url=http://www.our-africa.org/rwanda/climate-agriculture |access-date=5 October 2015 |archive-date=19 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180419082943/http://www.our-africa.org/rwanda/climate-agriculture |url-status=live}}
*{{cite news |author=Panapress |date=4 June 2003 |title=Rwandan Presidents promulgates new constitution |author-link=Panapress |location=Dakar |url=http://www.panapress.com/Rwandan-Presidents-promulgates-new-constitution--13-483712-17-lang1-index.html |access-date=13 November 2015 |archive-date=10 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010190557/http://www.panapress.com/Rwandan-Presidents-promulgates-new-constitution--13-483712-17-lang1-index.html |url-status=live}}
*{{cite news |author=Partners In Health |date=20 November 2013 |title=Rwanda Launches Bold Medical Education Partnership |author-link=Partners In Health |location=Boston, Mass. |url=http://www.pih.org/blog/how-rwanda-is-changing-medical-education |access-date=20 August 2015 |archive-date=13 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170613005825/http://www.pih.org/blog/how-rwanda-is-changing-medical-education |url-status=dead}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Percival |first1=Valerie |last2=Homer-Dixon |first2=Thomas |year=1995 |title=Environmental Scarcity and Violent Conflict, The Case of Rwanda |journal=Occasional Paper: Project on Environment, Population and Security |publisher=[[University of Toronto]] |url=http://www.library.utoronto.ca/pcs/eps/rwanda/rwanda1.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120222154937/http://www.library.utoronto.ca/pcs/eps/rwanda/rwanda1.htm |archive-date=22 February 2012 |access-date=19 November 2015}}
*{{cite news |last=Porter |first=Andrew |date=7 August 2008 |title=Europe 'ignoring French role in genocide' |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |location=London |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/rwanda/2512776/Europe-ignoring-French-role-in-genocide.html |access-date=12 November 2015 |archive-date=1 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190501011325/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/rwanda/2512776/Europe-ignoring-French-role-in-genocide.html |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |last=Prunier |first=Gérard |year=1995 |title=The Rwanda Crisis, 1959–1994: History of a Genocide |edition=second |location=London |publisher=C. Hurst & Co. Publishers |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=XYIJcrgzgQ0C}} |isbn=978-1-85065-243-4}}
*{{cite web |author=Reporters Without Borders |date=14 April 2010 |title=Two leading independent weeklies suspended for six months |author-link=Reporters Without Borders |url=http://en.rsf.org/rwanda-two-leading-independent-weeklies-14-04-2010,37015.html |access-date=16 November 2015 |archive-date=24 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130624234654/http://en.rsf.org/rwanda-two-leading-independent-weeklies-14-04-2010%2C37015.html |url-status=dead}}
*{{cite news |work=Reuters |date=16 March 2011 |title=Rwanda completes $95 mln fibre optic network |location=London |url=http://af.reuters.com/article/investingNews/idAFJOE72F07D20110316 |access-date=19 November 2015 |ref={{SfnRef|Reuters|2011}} |archive-date=18 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120918134732/http://af.reuters.com/article/investingNews/idAFJOE72F07D20110316 |url-status=dead}}
*{{cite news |last=Richards |first=Charles |date=24 July 1994 |title=Rwanda: Question Time: How could it happen?: Rebellion, slaughter, exodus, cholera: the catastrophe in Rwanda is beyond our worst imaginings. Who is to blame? Who are the Hutus and Tutsis? Can peace ever be restored? Some answers&nbsp;... |work=The Independent |location=London |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/rwanda-question-time-how-could-it-happen-rebellion-slaughter-exodus-cholera-the-catastrophe-in-rwanda-is-beyond-our-worst-imaginings-who-is-to-blame-who-are-the-hutus-and-tutsis-can-peace-ever-be-restored-some-answers-1415794.html |access-date=19 November 2015 |archive-date=25 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925195032/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/rwanda-question-time-how-could-it-happen-rebellion-slaughter-exodus-cholera-the-catastrophe-in-rwanda-is-beyond-our-worst-imaginings-who-is-to-blame-who-are-the-hutus-and-tutsis-can-peace-ever-be-restored-some-answers-1415794.html |url-status=live}}
*{{cite news |last=Robbins |first=Tom |date=9 August 2013 |title=Bumpy ride |work=[[Financial Times]] |location=London |url=https://www.ft.com/content/6478998a-fe85-11e2-b9b0-00144feabdc0 |access-date=8 April 2015 |archive-date=9 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160309122147/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/2/6478998a-fe85-11e2-b9b0-00144feabdc0.html#axzz3WiiJ9yMf |url-status=live}}
*{{cite news |last=Rosenberg |first=Tina |date=3 July 2012 |title=In Rwanda, Health Care Coverage That Eludes the U.S. |work=The New York Times |location=New York, N.Y. |url=http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/07/03/rwandas-health-care-miracle/?_r=0 |access-date=19 August 2015 |archive-date=3 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203090417/http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/07/03/rwandas-health-care-miracle/?_r=0 |url-status=live}}
*{{cite web |author=Royal Museum for Central Africa (RMCA) |title=Ingoma |author-link=Royal Museum for Central Africa |url=http://music.africamuseum.be/instruments/english/rwanda/ingoma.html |access-date=16 November 2015 |ref={{sfnRef|RMCA}} |archive-date=12 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512191221/http://music.africamuseum.be/instruments/english/rwanda/ingoma.html |url-status=live}}
*{{cite news |last=Rutayisire |first=Emmanuel |date=16 August 2013 |title=Institutes of higher learning to merge with University of Rwanda |work=The EastAfrican |location=Nairobi |url=https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/Rwanda/News/Institutes-of-higher-learning-to-merge-with-University-of-Rwanda/-/1433218/1956454/-/vclsloz/-/index.html |access-date=7 April 2015 |archive-date=14 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150414035406/http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/Rwanda/News/Institutes-of-higher-learning-to-merge-with-University-of-Rwanda/-/1433218/1956454/-/vclsloz/-/index.html |url-status=dead}}
*{{cite web |author=Rwanda Development Board (RDB) (I) |date=7 May 2010 |title=World Environment Day & Kwita Izina |url=http://www.rwandatourism.com/test/contentdetail.php?tbl=press&serial=6&PHPSESSID=f991fb81d778f37460c75c17dcf18eb7 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120511231521/http://www.rwandatourism.com/test/contentdetail.php?tbl=press&serial=6&PHPSESSID=f991fb81d778f37460c75c17dcf18eb7 |archive-date=11 May 2012 |access-date=19 November 2015 |ref={{sfnRef|RDB (I)|2010}}}}
*{{cite web |author=Rwanda Development Board (RDB) (II) |title=National Parks |url=http://www.rwandatourism.com/parks.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120413220336/http://www.rwandatourism.com/parks.htm |archive-date=13 April 2012 |access-date=23 November 2015 |ref={{sfnRef|RDB (II)}}}}
*{{cite web |author=Rwanda Development Board (RDB) (III) |title=Akagera National Park |url=http://www.rdb.rw/tourism-and-conservation/where-to-go/akagera-national-park.html |access-date=12 November 2015 |ref={{sfnRef|RDB (III)}} |archive-date=12 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180212210927/http://www.rdb.rw/tourism-and-conservation/where-to-go/akagera-national-park.html |url-status=live}}
*{{cite web |author=[[Rwanda Development Gateway]] |title=National Ballet&nbsp;– Urukerereza |url=http://www.rwandagateway.org/spip.php?article211 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314152054/http://www.rwandagateway.org/spip.php?article211 |archive-date=14 March 2012 |access-date=16 November 2015}}
*{{cite web |author=((Rwanda Environment Management Authority (REMA) (Chapter 2))) |year=2009 |title=Chap II. Population, Health and human settlements |work=Rwanda State of Environment and Outlook Report |url=http://www.rema.gov.rw/soe/chap2.php |access-date=19 November 2015 |ref={{sfnRef|REMA (Chapter 2)|2009}} |archive-date=11 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130911104316/http://www.rema.gov.rw/soe/chap2.php |url-status=live}}
*{{cite web |author=((Rwanda Environment Management Authority (REMA) (Chapter 5))) |year=2009 |title=Chap V. Biodiversity and Genetic Resources |work=Rwanda State of Environment and Outlook Report |url=http://www.rema.gov.rw/soe/chap5.php |access-date=19 November 2015 |ref={{sfnRef|REMA (Chapter 5)|2009}} |archive-date=11 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130911104855/http://www.rema.gov.rw/soe/chap5.php |url-status=live}}
*{{cite web |author=Rwanda Governance Board |title=Umuganda |url=http://www.rgb.rw/governance-innovations/umuganda/ |access-date=8 September 2015 |archive-date=20 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191020232922/http://www.rgb.rw/governance-innovations/umuganda/ |url-status=live}}
*{{cite web |author=Rwanda Utilities Regulatory Authority (RURA) |date=December 2011 |title=Statistics and tariff information in telecom sector as of December 2011 |url=http://www.rura.rw/fileadmin/docs/statistics/STATISTICS_IN_TELECOM_DECEMBER_2011.pdf |access-date=5 October 2015 |ref={{sfnRef|RURA|2011}} |archive-date=10 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010191307/http://www.rura.rw/fileadmin/docs/statistics/STATISTICS_IN_TELECOM_DECEMBER_2011.pdf |url-status=live}}
*{{cite web |author=Rwanda Utilities Regulatory Authority (RURA) |date=June 2015 |title=Statistics and tariff information in telecom sector as of June 2015 |url=http://www.rura.rw/fileadmin/docs/Statistics_report_2nd_quarter___2015_to_publish.pdf |access-date=5 October 2015 |ref={{sfnRef|RURA|2015}} |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304054712/http://www.rura.rw/fileadmin/docs/Statistics_report_2nd_quarter___2015_to_publish.pdf |url-status=live}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Samuelson |first1=Beth Lewis |last2=Freedman |first2=Sarah Warshauer |year=2010 |title=Language policy, multilingual education, and power in Rwanda |journal=Language Policy |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=191–215 |doi=10.1007/s10993-010-9170-7 |url=http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/64s4k0nx |doi-access=free |access-date=20 April 2018 |archive-date=21 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180421232804/https://escholarship.org/uc/item/64s4k0nx |url-status=live}}
*{{cite web |url=https://www.rsssf.org/tablesr/rwanchamp.html |title=Rwanda – List of Champions |publisher=Rec.Sport.Soccer Statistics Foundation |first=Hans |last=Schöggl |date=1 October 2015 |access-date=10 October 2015 |archive-date=1 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120801232014/http://www.rsssf.com/tablesr/rwanchamp.html |url-status=live}}
*{{cite news |last=Senelwa |first=Kennedy |date=25 July 2015 |title=Rwanda, Burundi, Tanzania plan joint railway project |work=The East African |location=Nairobi |url=https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/business/Rwanda--Burundi--Tanzania-plan-joint-railway-project-/-/2560/2808498/-/126heks/-/index.html |access-date=29 October 2015 |archive-date=8 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208044304/http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/business/Rwanda--Burundi--Tanzania-plan-joint-railway-project-/-/2560/2808498/-/126heks/-/index.html |url-status=dead}}
*{{cite web |last=Shyaka |first=Anastase |title=The Rwandan Conflict: Origin, Development, Exit Strategies |publisher=National Unity and Reconciliation Commission, Republic of Rwanda |url=http://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/bitstream/handle/2152/4746/3833.pdf?sequence=1 |access-date=19 November 2015 |archive-date=29 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131229111858/http://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/bitstream/handle/2152/4746/3833.pdf?sequence=1 |url-status=live}}
*{{cite news |last=Smith |first=David |date=28 June 2015 |title=Lions to be reintroduced to Rwanda after 15-year absence following genocide |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jun/28/rwanda-lions-reintroduced-south-africa-akagera-national-park |access-date=4 November 2015 |location=London |archive-date=15 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200215022746/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jun/28/rwanda-lions-reintroduced-south-africa-akagera-national-park |url-status=live}}
*{{cite web |author=Southern Province |title=Governor |author-link=Southern Province, Rwanda |url=http://www.southernprovince.gov.rw/spip.php?article88 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120304022050/http://www.southernprovince.gov.rw/spip.php?article88 |archive-date=4 March 2012 |access-date=16 November 2015}}
*{{cite book |last=Gmünder |first=Bruno |title=Spartacus International Gay Guide 2007 |year=2007 |publisher=[[Bruno Gmunder Verlag]] |location=Berlin}}
*{{cite web |author=Strategic Foresight Group |year=2013 |title=Blue Peace for the Nile |author-link=Strategic Foresight Group |url=http://www.strategicforesight.com/publication_pdf/84153Blue%20Peace%20for%20the%20Nile.pdf |access-date=4 November 2015 |archive-date=26 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140226155440/http://www.strategicforesight.com/publication_pdf/84153Blue%20Peace%20for%20the%20Nile.pdf |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |last=Straus |first=Scott |year=2013 |title=The Order of Genocide: race, power, and war in Rwanda |location=Ithaca, NY |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-0-8014-6714-1 |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=WyIdXtnTe7EC}}}}
*{{cite book |last=Streissguth |first=Thomas |year=2007 |title=Rwanda in Pictures |location=Minneapolis, Minn. |publisher=Twenty-First Century Books |isbn=978-0-8225-8570-1 |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=Rfjw_5JL0DsC}}}}
*{{cite news |last=Southwood |first=Russell |date=19 October 2013 |title=What is Liquid Telecom upto after buying Rwandatel? |work=The East African |location=Nairobi |url=https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/What-is-Liquid-Telecom-upto-after-buying-Rwandatel/-/2558/2039320/-/7ret1/-/index.html |access-date=5 October 2015 |archive-date=5 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151005213948/http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/What-is-Liquid-Telecom-upto-after-buying-Rwandatel/-/2558/2039320/-/7ret1/-/index.html |url-status=dead}}
*{{cite web |author=Stanford University Swahili Department |title=Where Swahili is Spoken |author-link=Stanford University |url=http://swahililanguage.stanford.edu/where%20swahili%20is%20spoken.html |access-date=29 October 2015 |archive-date=23 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161123151447/http://swahililanguage.stanford.edu/where%20swahili%20is%20spoken.html |url-status=live}}
*{{cite news |last=Tabaro |first=Jean de la Croix |date=21 January 2015 |title=Rwanda Introduces Kiswahili in Curriculum |work=KT Press |location=London |url=http://ktpress.rw/rwanda-introduces-kiswahili-in-curriculum-755/ |access-date=29 October 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208161509/http://ktpress.rw/rwanda-introduces-kiswahili-in-curriculum-755/ |archive-date=8 December 2015}}
*{{cite news |last=Tancott |first=Glen |date=30 June 2014 |title=Northern corridor |work=Transport World Africa |location=Johannesburg |url=http://www.transportworldafrica.co.za/2014/06/30/northern-corridor/ |access-date=26 October 2015 |archive-date=13 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180813111853/http://www.transportworldafrica.co.za/2014/06/30/northern-corridor/ |url-status=live}}
*{{cite journal |last=Tedrow |first=Riley |date=2015 |title=A survey of the praying mantises of Rwanda, including new records (Insecta, Mantodea) |journal=Zootaxa |volume=4027 |issue=1 |pages=67–100 |doi=10.11646/zootaxa.4027.1.3 |pmid=26624167 |url=http://zoobank.org/urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:A106E756-1D48-4034-9A40-9C1818A9DE54 |access-date=25 August 2017 |archive-date=28 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200328004757/http://zoobank.org/urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:A106E756-1D48-4034-9A40-9C1818A9DE54 |url-status=live|url-access=subscription }}
*{{cite news |author=The New Times |date=13 June 2015 |title=VIDEO: The lions are now free to stroll Akagera Park |location=Kigali |url=http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2015-07-28/191018/ |access-date=4 November 2015 |archive-date=11 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160711200428/http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2015-07-28/191018 |url-status=live}}
*{{cite web |author=Transparency International |year=2014 |title=Corruption Perceptions Index 2014 Results |author-link=Transparency International |url=http://www.transparency.org/cpi2014/results |access-date=30 August 2015 |archive-date=3 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141203043047/http://www.transparency.org/cpi2014/results |url-status=live}}
*{{cite news |last=Tumwebaze |first=Peterson |title=Coffee export revenue drops by 5% during 2015/16 FY |date=21 July 2016 |newspaper=The New Times Rwanda |url=http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2016-07-21/201892/ |access-date=23 December 2016 |archive-date=10 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010190443/http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2016-07-21/201892/ |url-status=live}}
*{{cite news |last=Tumwebaze |first=Peterson |date=13 June 2015 |title=Kamembe airport reopens to flights |work=The New Times |location=Kigali |url=http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2015-06-13/189683/ |access-date=26 October 2015 |archive-date=10 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010201321/http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2015-06-13/189683/ |url-status=live}}
*{{cite news |last=Umutesi |first=Doreen |date=18 March 2015 |title=Rwandans urged to embrace rain water harvesting |work=The New Times |location=Kigali |url=http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2015-03-18/187003/ |access-date=10 October 2015 |archive-date=10 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010201654/http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2015-03-18/187003/ |url-status=live}}
*{{cite web |author=United Nations (I) |author-link=United Nations |title=United Nations Member States |url=http://www.un.org/en/members/index.shtml |access-date=19 November 2015 |archive-date=12 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140412154940/http://www.un.org/en/members/index.shtml |url-status=live}}
*{{cite web |author=United Nations (II) |author-link=United Nations |title=International Trusteeship System |url=http://www.un.org/en/decolonization/its.shtml |access-date=19 November 2015 |archive-date=12 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140412173643/http://www.un.org/en/decolonization/its.shtml |url-status=live}}
*{{cite web |author=United Nations (III) |author-link=United Nations |title=Trust and Non-Self-Governing Territories (1945–1999) |url=http://www.un.org/en/decolonization/nonselfgov.shtml |access-date=19 November 2015 |archive-date=26 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190326220728/https://www.un.org/en/decolonization/nonselfgov.shtml |url-status=live}}
*{{cite web |author=United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) (I) |year=2010 |title=Human Development Index Trends, 1980–2010 |url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Table2.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120401190207/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Table2.pdf |archive-date=1 April 2012 |access-date=19 November 2015 |ref={{sfnRef|UNDP (I)|2010}}}}
*{{cite web |author=United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) (II) |year=2015 |title=Millennium Development Goal 4: Reduce child mortality |url=http://www.rw.undp.org/content/rwanda/en/home/mdgoverview/overview/mdg4/ |access-date=20 August 2015 |ref={{sfnRef|UNDP (II)|2015}} |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150915063425/http://www.rw.undp.org/content/rwanda/en/home/mdgoverview/overview/mdg4/ |archive-date=15 September 2015}}
*{{cite web |author=United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) (III) |year=2015 |title=Millennium Development Goal 5: Improve maternal health |url=http://www.rw.undp.org/content/rwanda/en/home/mdgoverview/overview/mdg5/ |access-date=20 August 2015 |ref={{sfnRef|UNDP (III)|2015}} |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150915024952/http://www.rw.undp.org/content/rwanda/en/home/mdgoverview/overview/mdg5/ |archive-date=15 September 2015}}
*{{cite web |author=United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) (IV) |year=2015 |title=Millennium Development Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases |url=http://www.rw.undp.org/content/rwanda/en/home/mdgoverview/overview/mdg6/ |access-date=20 August 2015 |ref={{sfnRef|UNDP (IV)|2015}} |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150915021048/http://www.rw.undp.org/content/rwanda/en/home/mdgoverview/overview/mdg6/ |archive-date=15 September 2015}}
*{{cite web |author=United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) (V) |year=2013 |title=Human Development Report 2013: Rwanda |url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/Country-Profiles/RWA.pdf |access-date=31 August 2015 |ref={{sfnRef|UNDP (V)|2013}} |archive-date=18 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181018043727/http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/Country-Profiles/RWA.pdf |url-status=live}}
*{{cite web |author=United States Agency for International Development (USAID) (I) |year=2008 |title=Rwanda: Water and Sanitation Profile |author-link=USAID |url=http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNADO938.pdf |access-date=19 November 2015 |ref={{sfnRef|USAID (I)|2008}} |archive-date=29 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029123859/http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNADO938.pdf |url-status=dead}}
*{{cite web |author=United States Agency for International Development (USAID) (II) |date=8 December 2014 |title=Health Insurance Expands Care For Rwanda's Poorest |author-link=USAID |url=https://www.usaid.gov/results-data/success-stories/community-based-health-insurance-expanding-care-rwanda%E2%80%99s-poorest |access-date=10 October 2015 |ref={{sfnRef|USAID (II)|2014}} |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304112040/https://www.usaid.gov/results-data/success-stories/community-based-health-insurance-expanding-care-rwanda%E2%80%99s-poorest |archive-date=4 March 2016}}
*{{cite web |author=United States Agency for International Development (USAID) (III) |year=2015 |title=Rwanda: Global Health |author-link=USAID |url=https://www.usaid.gov/rwanda/global-health |access-date=19 August 2015 |ref={{sfnRef|USAID (III)|2015}} |archive-date=14 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190814015120/https://www.usaid.gov/rwanda/global-health |url-status=dead}}
*{{cite web |author=United States Department of State |year=2004 |title=Background Note: Rwanda |work=Background Notes |author-link=United States Department of State |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/outofdate/bgn/rwanda/40249.htm |access-date=12 November 2015 |ref={{sfnRef|U.S. Department of State|2004}} |archive-date=28 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200328004856/https://2009-2017.state.gov/outofdate/bgn/rwanda/40249.htm |url-status=live}}
*{{cite web |title=Rwands 2016 Human Rights Report |year=2016 |publisher=U.S. Department of State's Country Reports on Human Rights Practices |url=https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/265502.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170307090346/https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/265502.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=7 March 2017 |access-date=29 May 2018 |ref={{sfnRef|U.S. Department of State|2016}}}}
*{{cite web |author=Université Laval |year=2010 |title=Rwanda: Aménagement linguistique dans le monde |language=fr |url=http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/AXL/afrique/rwanda.htm |access-date=19 November 2015 |archive-date=29 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130329111806/http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/axl/afrique/rwanda.htm |url-status=live}}
*{{cite web |author=Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization (UNPO) |date=25 March 2008 |title=Batwa |author-link=UNPO |url=http://www.unpo.org/members/7861 |access-date=19 November 2015 |ref={{sfnRef|UNPO|2008}} |archive-date=2 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140402134444/http://unpo.org/members/7861 |url-status=dead}}
*{{cite news |author=USA Today |date=29 October 2008 |title=Congolese army claims attack by Rwandan troops |author-link=USA Today |location=Tysons Corner, VA |url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/world/2008-10-29-congo-fighting_N.htm |access-date=19 November 2015 |archive-date=4 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104070524/http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/world/2008-10-29-congo-fighting_N.htm |url-status=live}}
*{{cite news |last=Walker |first=Robert |date=30 March 2004 |title=Rwanda still searching for justice |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3557753.stm |publisher=[[BBC News]] |access-date=16 November 2015 |ref={{sfnRef|Walker|March 2004}} |archive-date=26 August 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070826050047/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3557753.stm |url-status=live}}
*{{cite news |last=Walker |first=Robert |date=1 April 2004 |title=Rwanda's religious reflections |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3561365.stm |publisher=[[BBC News]] |access-date=16 November 2015 |ref={{sfnRef|Walker|April 2004}} |archive-date=1 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130601123402/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3561365.stm |url-status=live}}
*{{cite web |author=Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) |title=Birds endemic to the Albertine Rift |work=Albertine Rift Programme |author-link=Wildlife Conservation Society |url=http://www.albertinerift.org/portals/49/media/file/endemicbirds.PDF |access-date=16 November 2015 |ref={{sfnRef|WCS}} |archive-date=24 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130624212609/http://www.albertinerift.org/portals/49/media/file/endemicbirds.PDF |url-status=live}}
*{{cite web |last=Willgoss |first=Graham |date=30 October 2014 |title=Tour de Second Chance |work=Sport Magazine |issue=378 |url=http://www.sport-magazine.co.uk/features/tour-de-second-chance |access-date=8 April 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20150408122959/http://www.sport-magazine.co.uk/features/tour-de-second-chance |archive-date=8 April 2015}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Timothy P. |last2=Abbott |first2=Pamela |last3=Mupenzi |first3=Alfred |title='Education at our school is not free': the hidden costs of fee-free schooling in Rwanda |journal=Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education |volume=45 |issue=6 |year=2015 |pages=931–952 |s2cid=153661006 |doi=10.1080/03057925.2014.938611}}
*{{cite book |last1=Watson |first1=Graeme |last2=Renzi |first2=Barbara Gabriella |last3=Viggiani |first3=Elisabetta |year=2010 |title=Friends and Foes Volume II: Friendship and Conflict from Social and Political Perspectives |location=Newcastle upon Tyne |publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing |isbn=978-1-4438-1993-0 |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=L0MaBwAAQBAJ}}}}
*{{cite book |last1=Wiredu |first1=Kwasi |last2=Abraham |first2=William E. |last3=Irele |first3=Abiola |last4=Menkiti |first4=Ifeanyi |year=2006 |title=A companion to African philosophy |location=Malden, MA |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |isbn=978-1-4051-4567-1 |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=0HIbKtzjcQYC}}}}
*{{cite web |author=World Bank (I) |title=Rwanda |author-link=World Bank |url=http://data.worldbank.org/country/rwanda |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120403142412/http://data.worldbank.org/country/rwanda |archive-date=3 April 2012 |access-date=23 November 2015}}
*{{cite web |author=World Bank (II) |title=Internet users (per 100 people), graph |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/IT.NET.USER.P2/countries/RW?display=graph |access-date=19 November 2015 |archive-date=8 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160408164537/http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/IT.NET.USER.P2/countries/RW?display=graph |url-status=live}}
*{{cite web |author=World Bank (III) |title=School enrollment, tertiary (% gross), graph |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.TER.ENRR/countries/RW?display=graph |access-date=19 November 2015 |archive-date=8 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160408203944/http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.TER.ENRR/countries/RW?display=graph |url-status=live}}
*{{cite web |author=World Bank (IV) |title=Mortality rate, under-5 (per 1,000 live births) |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.DYN.MORT?page=3 |access-date=27 July 2015 |archive-date=14 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181114224346/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.DYN.MORT?page=3 |url-status=live}}
*{{cite web |author=World Bank (V) |title=Health expenditure, public (% of GDP), 2010–2014 |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.XPD.PUBL.ZS |access-date=19 August 2015 |archive-date=27 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200227163701/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.XPD.PUBL.ZS |url-status=live}}
*{{cite web |author=World Bank (VI) |title=Health expenditure, public (% of GDP), 1995–1999 |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.XPD.PUBL.ZS |access-date=19 August 2015 |archive-date=27 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200227163701/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.XPD.PUBL.ZS |url-status=live}}
*{{cite web |author=World Bank (VII) |title=Life expectancy at birth, total (years), graph |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.LE00.IN/countries/RW?display=graph |access-date=19 August 2015 |archive-date=8 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160408225203/http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.LE00.IN/countries/RW?display=graph |url-status=live}}
*{{cite web |author=World Bank (VIII) |title=Mortality rate, under-5 (per 1,000 live births), graph |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.DYN.MORT/countries/RW?display=graph |access-date=19 August 2015 |archive-date=8 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160408181803/http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.DYN.MORT/countries/RW?display=graph |url-status=live}}
*{{cite web |author=World Bank (IX) |title=Incidence of tuberculosis (per 100,000 people), graph |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.TBS.INCD/countries/RW?display=graph |access-date=19 August 2015 |archive-date=9 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160409005437/http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.TBS.INCD/countries/RW?display=graph |url-status=live}}
*{{cite web |author=World Bank (X) |title=GDP (current US$), graph |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD/countries/RW?display=graph |access-date=19 August 2015 |archive-date=28 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160628122353/http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD/countries/RW?display=graph |url-status=live}}
*{{cite web |author=World Bank (XI) |title=International tourism, number of arrivals, graph |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/ST.INT.ARVL/countries/RW?display=graph |access-date=19 August 2015 |archive-date=8 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160408171020/http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/ST.INT.ARVL/countries/RW?display=graph |url-status=live}}
*{{cite web |author=World Bank (XII) |title=GINI index (World Bank estimate) – Rwanda
 |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?year=2024&locations=RW
 |website=World Bank Open Data
 |access-date=30 January 2025
}}
*{{cite web |author=World Bank (XIII) |title=Access to electricity (% of population) |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EG.ELC.ACCS.ZS/countries/RW?display=graph |access-date=13 November 2015 |archive-date=8 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160408203836/http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EG.ELC.ACCS.ZS/countries/RW?display=graph |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |author=World Health Organization (WHO) |year=2015 |title=WHO Country Cooperation Strategy at a glance: Rwanda |author-link=World Health Organization |url=https://www.who.int/countryfocus/cooperation_strategy/ccsbrief_rwa_en.pdf |ref={{sfnRef|WHO|2015}} |access-date=5 October 2020 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304130755/http://www.who.int/countryfocus/cooperation_strategy/ccsbrief_rwa_en.pdf |url-status=dead}}
*{{cite journal |author=World Health Organization (WHO) |year=2008 |title=Sharing the burden of sickness: mutual health insurance in Rwanda |journal=Bulletin of the World Health Organization |issn=0042-9686 |volume=86 |issue=11 |pages=817–908 |url=https://www.who.int/bulletin/volumes/86/11/08-021108/en/index.html |ref={{sfnRef|WHO|2008}} |access-date=5 October 2020 |archive-date=25 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131025225716/http://www.who.int/bulletin/volumes/86/11/08-021108/en/index.html |url-status=dead}}
*{{cite web |author=World Meteorological Organization |title=World Weather Information Service – Kigali |author-link=World Meteorological Organization |url=http://worldweather.wmo.int/127/c00254.htm |access-date=12 November 2015 |archive-date=20 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120002348/http://worldweather.wmo.int/127/c00254.htm |url-status=live}}
*{{cite web |author=World Resources Institute (WRI) |year=2006 |title=Agriculture and Food: Country profile&nbsp;– Rwanda |work=EarthTrends: The Environmental Information Portal |author-link=World Resources Institute |url=http://earthtrends.wri.org/text/agriculture-food/country-profile-153.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402134313/http://earthtrends.wri.org/text/agriculture-food/country-profile-153.html |archive-date=2 April 2012 |access-date=16 November 2015 |ref={{sfnRef|WRI|2006}}}}
*{{cite web |author=World Resources Report |year=2011 |title=Maintenance of Hydropower Potential in Rwanda Through Ecosystem Restoration |url=http://www.worldresourcesreport.org/files/wrr/WRR%20Case%20Study_Ecosystem%20Restoration%20and%20Hydropower%20in%20Rwanda_0.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120324153346/http://www.worldresourcesreport.org/files/wrr/WRR%20Case%20Study_Ecosystem%20Restoration%20and%20Hydropower%20in%20Rwanda_0.pdf |archive-date=24 March 2012 |access-date=16 November 2015}}
*{{cite web |author=World Trade Organization (WTO) |date=30 September 2004 |title=Continued reforms and technical assistance should help Rwanda in its efforts to achieve a dynamic economy |work=Trade policy review: Rwanda |author-link=World Trade Organization |url=http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/tpr_e/tp236_e.htm |access-date=16 November 2015 |ref={{sfnRef|WTO|2004}} |archive-date=2 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002011128/http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/tpr_e/tp236_e.htm |url-status=live}}
*{{cite web |author=World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) |year=2001 |title=Terrestrial Ecoregions: Albertine Rift montane forests (AT0101) |author-link=World Wide Fund for Nature |url=https://secure.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/at/at0101_full.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041222014550/https://secure.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/at/at0101_full.html |archive-date=22 December 2004 |access-date=16 November 2015 |ref={{sfnRef|WWF|2001}}}}
*{{cite news |author=Xinhua News Agency |date=26 August 2015 |title=Rwanda deplores French decision on case of genocide suspect |author-link=Xinhua News Agency |location=Beijing |url=http://www.globalpost.com/article/6636570/2015/08/26/rwanda-deplores-french-decision-case-genocide-suspect |access-date=30 October 2015 |archive-date=2 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160302133257/http://www.globalpost.com/article/6636570/2015/08/26/rwanda-deplores-french-decision-case-genocide-suspect |url-status=live}}{{better source needed|date=September 2023}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links|voy=Rwanda|Rwanda}}
'''Government'''
*[http://www.gov.rw/ The Republic of Rwanda] (official government site)

'''General'''
*[https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/rwanda/ Rwanda]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]].
*[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14093238 Rwanda profile] from the [[BBC News]]
*{{cite web |title=Rwanda Convention Bureau |date=18 October 2019 |url=https://www.micemag.com/rwanda-convention-bureau/}}
*{{GovPubs|Rwanda}}
*{{OSM relation|171496}}

'''Tourism'''
*[http://www.visitrwanda.com/ Visit Rwanda] (official Rwanda Tourism Board site)

{{Rwanda topics}}
{{Countries of Africa}}
{{Navboxes
 |title = Articles related to Rwanda
 |list  =
{{Former German colonies}}
{{Commonwealth of Nations}}
{{African Union}}
{{La Francophonie}}
{{Navboxes
|title = [[File:Gnome-globe.svg|25px]]{{nbsp}}Geographic locale
|list1 =
'''[[Geographic coordinate system|Lat. <small>and</small> Long.]] {{Coord|1|57|9|S|30|6|54|E|display=inline}} <span style="color:darkblue;">(Kigali)</span>'''
}}
{{Navboxes
|title = Languages
|list =
{{English official language clickable map}}
}}
}}
{{Portal bar|Rwanda|Geography|Africa}}
{{Authority control}}
{{coord|2|S|30|E|type:country_region:RW|display=title}}

[[Category:Rwanda| ]]
[[Category:Republics in the Commonwealth of Nations]]
[[Category:Countries and territories where English is an official language]]
[[Category:Countries in East Africa]]
[[Category:Member states of the African Union]]
[[Category:Member states of the Commonwealth of Nations]]
[[Category:Member states of the United Nations]]
[[Category:Landlocked countries]]
[[Category:Countries in Africa]]
[[Category:1962 establishments in Africa]]
[[Category:Countries and territories where French is an official language]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1962]]
[[Category:Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie]]
[[Category:Least developed countries]]
[[Category:Countries and territories where Swahili is an official language]]