View source for Rusyns

{{Short description|East Slavic ethnic group}}
{{hatnote group|
{{Other uses| Rusyn (disambiguation)}}
{{Distinguish|Russians}}
}}
{{hatnote group|
{{Redirect|Rusnak|people with the name|Rusnak (surname)}}
{{redirect|Rusins|the Latgalian duke|Rūsiņš}}
{{redirect|Russini|people with the name|Russini (surname)}}
{{redirect|Russins|the municipality in Switzerland|Russin}}
}}
{{MOS|date=August 2021}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group            = Carpatho-Rusyns
| image            = 
| pop              = 110,000–1,762,500{{efn|Magocsi estimated that as of 2012 there were 853,000 Rusyns in Ukraine (773,000 in Transcarpathia; 80,000 resettled Lemkos), 620,000 in the United States, 131,000 in Slovakia, 35,000 in Romania, 30,000 in Poland, 20,000 in Canada and Serbia respectively, 10,000 in Czechia, 6,000 in Hungary, 5,000 in Croatia, and 2,500 in Australia.}}{{sfn|Magocsi|2015|p=1}}
| region1          = {{flagcountry|Slovakia}}
| pop1             = 63,556–250,000 <small>(2021, 2012)</small>{{efn|63,556 people identified as Rusyn in the 2021 Slovak census. This includes 23,746 as primary ethnicity and 39,810 as secondary ethnicity.}}
| ref1             = {{sfn|Magocsi|2015|p=1}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Number of population by ethnicity in the Slovak Republic at 1 January 2021 |url=https://www.scitanie.sk/en/population/basic-results/ |publisher=Statistical Office of the Slovak Republic |access-date=21 January 2022 |archive-date=21 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121225840/https://www.scitanie.sk/en/population/basic-results/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
| region2          = {{flagcountry |Poland}}
| pop2             = 10,531–30,000 <small>(2011, 2012)</small>{{efn|According to the 2011 Polish census, 10,531 respondents identified as [[Lemkos]], separately from Rusyns.}}
| ref2             = {{sfn|Magocsi|2015|p=1}}<ref name="stat">{{cite web|url=https://www.stat.gov.pl/cps/rde/xbcr/gus/LUD_ludnosc_stan_str_dem_spo_NSP2011.pdf|title=Ludność. Stan i struktura demograficzno społeczna|trans-title=State and structure of the social demographics of the population|language=pl|publisher=Central Statistical Office of Poland|date=2013|access-date=14 April 2013|page=91|archive-date=17 April 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130417192753/http://www.stat.gov.pl/cps/rde/xbcr/gus/LUD_ludnosc_stan_str_dem_spo_NSP2011.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
| region3          = {{flagcountry|Serbia}}
| pop3             = 11,483 <small>(2022)</small>
| ref3             = <ref>{{cite web|url=https://popis2022.stat.gov.rs/popisni-podaci-eksel-tabele/|title=ПОПИС 2022 - еxcел табеле &#124; О ПОПИСУ СТАНОВНИШТВА|access-date=2024-09-23}}</ref>
| region4          = {{flagcountry|Ukraine}}
| pop4             = 10,183<br><small>853,000 (2012 ancestry estimate)</small>{{efn|Of the 853,000 Rusyns Magocsi estimated to be in Ukraine as of 2012, 773,000 were in Transcarpathia and 80,000 were resettled Lemkos.}}
| ref4             = {{sfn|Magocsi|2015|p=1}}<ref name="Ukraine">{{cite web|url=https://2001.ukrcensus.gov.ua/results/nationality_population/nationality_popul2/select_5/?botton=cens_db&box=5.5W&k_t=00&p=0&rz=1_1&rz_b=2_1|script-title=uk:Чисельність осіб окремих етнографічних груп украінського етносу та їх рідна мова|trans-title=Number of persons individual ethnographic groups of the Ukrainian ethnicity and their native language|language=uk|work=ukrcensus.gov.ua|date=2001|access-date=4 March 2016|archive-date=4 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304191023/http://2001.ukrcensus.gov.ua/results/nationality_population/nationality_popul2/select_5/?botton=cens_db&box=5.5W&k_t=00&p=0&rz=1_1&rz_b=2_1|url-status=live}} [https://haidamaka.org.ua/obr/maps/mapa2.jpg Карта говорiв української мови] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225092118/http://haidamaka.org.ua/obr/maps/mapa2.jpg |date=2021-02-25}}, 10 October 2008; [https://www.booksite.ru/fulltext/1/001/007/088/88994.htm Энциклопедический словарь: В 86 томах с иллюстрациями и дополнительными материалами. Edited by Андреевский, И.Е. – Арсеньев, К.К. – Петрушевский, Ф.Ф. – Шевяков, В.Т., s.v. ''Русины''. Online version. Вологда, Russia: Вологодская областная универсальная научная библиотека, 2001 (1890–1907)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210819222907/https://www.booksite.ru/fulltext/1/001/007/088/88994.htm |date=2021-08-19}}, 10 October 2008; [https://www.ethnologue.com/language/rue Ethnologue: Languages of the World. Edited by Gordon, Raymond G. Jr., s.v. ''Rusyn''. Fifteenth edition. Online version. Dallas, Texas, U.S.A.: SIL International, 2008 (2005)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220111153716/https://www.ethnologue.com/language/rue |date=2022-01-11}}, 10 October 2008; [https://web.archive.org/web/20110720162001/https://www.eurominority.eu/version/eng/minority-detail.asp?id_minorities=208 Eurominority: Peoples in search of freedom. Edited by Bodlore-Penlaez, Mikael, s.v. ''Ruthenians''. Quimper, France: Organization for the European Minorities, 1999–2008], 10 October 2008.</ref>
| region7          = {{flagcountry |Croatia}}
| pop7             = 1,343 <small>(2021)</small>
| ref7             = <ref>{{Croatian Census 2021 | E |title=Population by ethnicity – Detailed classification | access-date = 2023-12-15}}</ref> <!-- https://podaci.dzs.hr/en/statistics/population/census/ -->
| region8          = {{flagcountry |Hungary}}
| pop8             = 2,342–6,000 <small>(2016, 2012)</small>
| ref8             = {{sfn|Magocsi|2015|p=1}}<ref name="KSH">{{cite report |last=Vukovich|first=Gabriella|url=https://www.ksh.hu/docs/hun/xftp/idoszaki/mikrocenzus2016/mikrocenzus_2016_12.pdf|title=Mikrocenzus 2016 – 12. Nemzetiségi adatok|trans-title=2016 microcensus – 12. Ethnic data|language=hu|work=Hungarian Central Statistical Office|location=Budapest|year=2018|access-date=9 January 2019|isbn=978-963-235-542-9|archive-date=9 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190109011815/http://www.ksh.hu/docs/hun/xftp/idoszaki/mikrocenzus2016/mikrocenzus_2016_12.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
| region9          = {{nowrap|{{flagcountry |Czech Republic}}}}
| pop9             = 608–10,000 <small>(2021, 2012)</small>
| ref9             = {{sfn|Magocsi|2015|p=1}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Národnost – Sčítání 2021 |url=https://www.czso.cz/csu/scitani2021/narodnost |publisher=Czech Statistical Office |access-date=7 February 2022 |archive-date=15 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220115083026/https://www.czso.cz/csu/scitani2021/narodnost |url-status=live}}</ref>
| region5          = {{nowrap|{{flag|United States}}}}
| pop5             = 7,583<br><small>620,000 (2012 ancestry estimate)</small>
| ref5             = {{sfn|Magocsi|2015|p=1}}<ref>{{cite web|title=B04006: PEOPLE REPORTING ANCESTRY, 2019 American Community Survey, 1-Year Estimates|url=https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?q=ancestry&tid=ACSDT1Y2019.B04006|publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]]|access-date=31 August 2022}}</ref>
| region6          = {{flagcountry |Romania}}
| pop6             = 834 (2022)<ref>"Comunicat de presă
Primele date provizorii pentru Recensământul Populației și
Locuințelor, runda 2021", at https://web.archive.org/web/20221230125029/https://insse.ro/cms/sites/default/files/com_presa/com_pdf/cp-date-provizorii-rpl_2.pdf
 , p. 11.</ref> 4,090-14,000 (estimates)
| ref6             = {{sfn|Magocsi|2015|p=1}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Moser |first=Michael |chapter=Rusyn |editor1=Tomasz Kamusella |editor2=Motoki Nomachi |editor3=Catherine Gibson |title=The Palgrave Handbook of Slavic Languages, Identities and Borders |year=2016 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |location=Basingstoke UK |language=en |page=132}}</ref><ref name="insse2">{{cite web |url=https://www.insse.ro/cms/files/rpl2002rezgen1/14.pdf |title=Populaţia după etnie |publisher=Institutul Naţional de Statistică |access-date=2011-10-28 |language=ro |archive-date=2012-01-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111091907/http://www.insse.ro/cms/files/rpl2002rezgen1/14.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="EMA ref">{{cite web |url=https://recensamant.referinte.transindex.ro/?pg=3&id=771 |title=Date naţionale |publisher=Erdélyi Magyar Adatbank |access-date=2011-10-28 |language=ro |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110929201654/https://recensamant.referinte.transindex.ro/?pg=3&id=771 |archive-date=2011-09-29}}</ref>
| region10         = {{flagcountry |Russia}}
| pop10            = 225
| ref10            = <ref>{{cite web |title=НАСЕЛЕНИЕ ПО НАЦИОНАЛЬНОСТИ И ВЛАДЕНИЮ РУССКИМ ЯЗЫКОМ |url=http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/new_site/perepis2010/croc/Documents/Vol4/pub-04-03.pdf |publisher=Federal State Statistics Service of Russia |access-date=30 August 2022 |language=ru|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150403003259/http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/new_site/perepis2010/croc/Documents/Vol4/pub-04-03.pdf |archive-date=2015-04-03}}</ref> <small>(2010)</small>
| region11         = {{flagcountry |Canada}}
| pop11            = {{estimation}} 20,000 <small>(2012)</small>
| ref11            = {{sfn|Magocsi|2015|p=1}}
| region12         = {{flagcountry |Australia}}
| pop12            = {{estimation}} 2,500 <small>(2012)</small>
| ref12            = {{sfn|Magocsi|2015|p=1}}
| langs            = [[Rusyn language|Rusyn]]{{·}}[[Pannonian Rusyn]]{{·}}[[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]{{·}}[[Slovak language|Slovak]]<br />[[Polish language|Polish]]{{·}}[[Serbian language|Serbian]]{{·}}[[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]{{·}}[[Romanian language|Romanian]]
| flag             = [[File:Flag of Rusyns 2007.svg|200px|border]]<br />
[[Rusyn_flag|Flag of Rusyns]], approved by the [[World Congress of Rusyns]] in 2007{{efn|The blue represents the deep skies, a perspective representation of the Carpathian mountains, hope for a better future, the colour of rational reasoning, freshness of the spirit and the body and undying diligence. The white represents traditional peacefulness, hospitability, kindness, tolerance, peace, moral and physical purity, high culture and the natural pacifism of Rusyns. The red represents all that lives and is beautiful, with the aesthetic ideal of Rusyns, and it symbolises energy and health in man.}}<ref>[http://okruhly-stol.sk/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/rusynska_symbolika_final.pdf]</ref><ref name="Academy">{{cite web|url=https://www.rusynacademy.sk/english/en-academy5.html|title=Academy of Rusyn Culture in the Slovak Republic: Rusyn Symbols|publisher=Academy of Rusyn Culture in the Slovak Republic|access-date=10 March 2021|archive-date=17 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417180902/http://rusynacademy.sk/english/en-academy5.html|url-status=live}}</ref><br />
[[File:Rusyn coat of arms.svg|80px]]<br />The Rusyn coat of arms, based on the coat of arms of [[Subcarpathian Rus]]{{efn|The red bear represents the Carpathian Mountains and the three gold bars the region's three major rivers: Uzh, Tysa and Latorytsia. Dark blue and gold are the region's traditional heraldic colors.}}<ref name="Academy" /><br />[[File:Greater coat of arms of Rusyns.png|185px]]<br />The Greater coat of arms of Rusyns, approved by the [[World Congress of Rusyns]] in 2023{{efn|The [[heraldic motto]] reads "I was, am, and will be a Rusyn"}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.lem.fm/predsedom-skr-i-dalshy-dva-roky-bude-shtefan-lyavinets-delegaty-skhvalili-velikyj-erb/|title=At the 17th World Congress of Rusyns, the greater coat of arms of Rusyns was approved|publisher=At the 17th World Congress of Rusyns, the greater coat of arms of Rusyns was approved|date=19 August 2023}}</ref>
| rels             = Predominantly [[Eastern Catholic Churches|Eastern Catholic]]<br>{{small|([[Ruthenian Greek Catholic Church|Ruthenian Greek Catholic]])}}<br>minority [[Eastern Orthodoxy]]
| related          = Other [[East Slavs]]<br>(primarily [[Ukrainians]])
| native_name      = 
| native_name_lang = 
}}

'''Rusyns''',{{efn|{{Langx|rue|Русины|translit=Rusynŷ|link=yes}}.}} also known as '''Carpatho-Rusyns''',{{efn|{{Langx|rue|Карпаторусины or Карпатьскы Русины|translit=Karpatorusynŷ or Karpaťskŷ Rusynŷ}}.}} '''Carpatho-Russians''',{{sfn|Magocsi|Pop|2005|pp=vii,58}} '''Ruthenians''', or '''Rusnaks''',{{efn|{{Langx|rue|Руснакы or Руснаци|translit=Rusnakŷ or Rusnacy}}.}} are an [[East Slavs|East Slavic]] ethnic group from the [[Carpathian Rus'|Eastern Carpathians]] in [[Central Europe]].<ref name="best"/> They speak [[Rusyn language|Rusyn]], an [[East Slavic languages|East Slavic]] [[Variety (linguistics)|language variety]], treated variously as either a distinct language or a dialect of the [[Ukrainian language]]. As traditional adherents of [[Eastern Christianity]], the majority of Rusyns are [[Eastern Catholics]], though a minority of Rusyns practice [[Eastern Orthodoxy]].

Rusyns primarily self-identify as a distinct ethnic group and are recognized as such in all countries where they exist, with the exception of [[Ukraine]], which officially classifies Rusyns as a sub-group of Ukrainians.<ref name="best">{{cite book |last1=Best |first1=Paul J. |editor-last1=Cole |editor-first1=Jeffrey E.|title=Ethnic Groups of Europe: An Encyclopedia |date=25 May 2011 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA |isbn=979-8-216-08132-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=urD2EAAAQBAJ |language=en |chapter=Carpatho-Rusyns |quote=Carpatho-Rusyns are recognized as a distinct group in all countries where they exist with the exception of Ukraine, which prefers to identity Carpatho-Rusyns as a subsection of the Ukrainian nation... in the 21st century Carpatho-Rusyns have been accepted by most scholars as a Fourth East Slavic nation... the government in Kiev continues with the subethnos concept, refusing to recognize a distinct Carptho-Rusyn ethnic group.}}</ref> In [[Croatia]], [[Hungary]], [[Poland]], [[Romania]], [[Serbia]], and [[Slovakia]], Rusyns have official [[national minority|minority]] status. Some Rusyns identify more closely with their country of residence (i.e. Polish, Slovak), while others self-identify as a branch of the Ukrainian people.{{sfn|Magocsi|Pop|2005|p=}}{{pn|date=May 2025}}

Rusyns are descended from an East Slavic population which inhabited the northeastern regions of the Eastern Carpathians. In those regions, there are several Rusyn groups, including Dolinyans, [[Boykos]], [[Hutsuls]] and [[Lemkos]]. Since the [[fall of communism]] toward the end of the 20th century, there has been a revival in Rusyn culture and identity.<ref name="best"/> Of the estimated 1.7 million people of Rusyn origin, only around 110,000 have been officially identified as such in recent ({{circa}} 2012) national censuses.{{sfn|Magocsi|2015|p=1}}

== Ethnonyms ==
The term '''Rusyn''' ({{Langx|rue|Русин|translit=}}, plural {{Langx|rue|Русины|translit=Rusynŷ|label=none}}) originates from the archaic [[ethnonym]] "[[Rus' (term)|''Rus''{{'}}]]". The respective [[Endonym and exonym|endonymic]] adjective has traditionally been {{Transliteration|rue|rusʹkŷi}} ({{Langx|rue|руськый|label=none}} [[Masculine noun|m.]], {{Langx|rue|руська|label=none}} [[Feminine noun|f.]], {{Langx|rue|руське/руськое|label=none}} [[Neuter noun|n.]]), though {{Transliteration|rue|rusynʹskŷi}} ({{Langx|rue|русиньскый, русинськый, русинский, русиньскій, русински|label=none}}) has also been used; even more so after 1989.{{sfn|Rusinko|2003|p=7}}{{sfn|Magocsi|Pop|2005|pp=433–434}}

In interwar Czechoslovakia, ''Ruthenia'' was called {{Langx|cs|Rusinsko|label=none}} in Czech; sometimes rendered ''Rusinia'' or ''Rusynia'' in American-Rusyn publications.{{sfn|Magocsi|Pop|2005|pp=330, 423, 434, 481}}

=== Regional identifiers ===
'''Carpatho-Rusyn''' or ''Carpatho-Ruthenian'' ({{Transliteration|rue|Karpato-Rusyny}}) is the main regional designation for Rusyns. The term refers to [[Carpathian Ruthenia]] ({{Transliteration|rue|Karpatsʹka Rusʹ}}), which is a historical cross-border region encompassing Subcarpathian Rus' (in northeastern Slovakia and Ukraine's [[Zakarpattia Oblast]]), [[Prešov Region]] (in eastern Slovakia), the Lemko Region (in southeastern Poland), and Maramureş (in north-central Romania). In the Lemko region, the endonym ''Lemko'' (pl. {{Transliteration|rue|Lemkŷ}}) became more common in the twentieth century, along with ''Lemko-Rusyn'' since the 1990s.{{sfn|Magocsi|Pop|2005|pp=433–434}}

The variant '''Rusnak''' ({{Langx|rue|Руснак|label=none}}; plural: {{Transliteration|rue|Rusnakŷ}} or Pannonian-Rusyn, ''Rusnatsi'') was also (and still is) used as an [[endonym]];{{sfn|Rusinko|2003|p=7}}{{sfn|Magocsi|Pop|2005|pp=433–434}} particularly by Rusyns outside the Carpathians in [[Vojvodina]], Serbia and [[Slavonia]], Croatia. However, they may also referred to as ''Vojvodinian Rusyns'' ({{Transliteration|rue|voivodianski Rusnatsi}}), ''Bachka-Srem Rusyns'' ({{Transliteration|rue|bachvansʹko-srimski rusnatsi}}), or formerly as ''Yugoslav Rusyns'' ({{Transliteration|rue|iuzhnoslaviansʹki Rusnatsi}}).{{sfn|Magocsi|Pop|2005|pp=433–434}}

Other terms such as Ruthene, Rusniak, Lemak, Lyshak, and Lemko are considered by some scholars to be historic, local, or [[synonym]]ic names for these inhabitants of Transcarpathia. Others hold that the terms Lemko and Rusnak are simply regional variations for Rusyns or Ruthenes.<ref name="Magocsi" />

Rusyns have at times also been referred to as ''Uhro-Rusyn'' ({{Transliteration|rue|Uhro-Rus}}) in the regions of [[Prešov]], Slovakia and [[Carpathian Ruthenia]].

=== Rus' ===
{{Main|Rus' (term)}}
Several endonyms such as Rus' and Rusyn were used widely by the [[East Slavs]] of [[Kievan Rus']] during the medieval period. Common endonymic use of those terms continued through the life of the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]].

Parallel, medieval [[Latin language|Latin]] terms such as ''Rusi'', ''Russi'' or ''Rusci'' are found in sources of the period and were commonly used as an [[exonym]] for the East Slavs.{{sfn|Magocsi|Pop|2005|pp=433–434}}<ref name="Magocsi" /><ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9064505/Ruthenian|entry=Rusyn|author=Paul Robert Magocsi|title=Rusyn &#124; people &#124; Britannica |date=2015|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|quote=Rusyn, Rusyn ruskyi, also called Ruthenian, Carpatho-Rusyn, Lemko, or Rusnak, any of several East Slavic peoples (modern-day Belarusians, Ukrainians, and Carpatho-Rusyns) and their languages|access-date=2022-02-17|archive-date=2008-06-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080622132854/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9064505/Ruthenian|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Ruthenian ===
{{Main|Ruthenians}}
Since the end of the 11th century, the [[exonym]]ic term '''Rutheni''' ([[Ruthenes]]) was also used by some Latin sources of western provenance as an alternative term for all East Slavs. During the rule of the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]], the scope of ''Rutheni'' gradually narrowed to only refer to inhabitants of the East Slavic regions that now mostly belong to the states of [[Belarus]] and [[Ukraine]].

After the [[Partitions of Poland]], ''Rutheni'' "came to be associated primarily with those [East Slavs] who lived under the [[Habsburg monarchy]]" (and was used as an official designation in the [[Austrian Empire]] after 1843).<ref name="John-Paul Himka 2001">{{cite encyclopedia |author=John-Paul Himka |url=https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CR%5CU%5CRuthenians.htm |title=Ruthenians |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia of Ukraine|Internet Encyclopedia of Ukraine]]|publisher=[[University of Toronto Press]]|year=2001|isbn=978-1-4426-3289-9|volume=4|orig-date=1993|access-date=2022-02-17|archive-date=2021-12-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211202010500/http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CR%5CU%5CRuthenians.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> In the [[Kingdom of Hungary]], ''Ruthene'' was used as the official term for the Rusyn people ({{Langx|hu|rutén or ruszin}}) of Transcarpathia until 1945.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rusyn.hu/hu/kulturalis-ertekeink-es-hagyomanyaink |title=Kultúra és hagyományok |last=Udvari |first=István |date=7 March 2017 |website=www.rusyn.hu |publisher=Országos Ruszin Önkormányzat - Вседержавноє Русинськоє Самосправованя |access-date=17 February 2022 |archive-date=2 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211202010430/http://www.rusyn.hu/hu/kulturalis-ertekeink-es-hagyomanyaink |url-status=live}}</ref> During the early twentieth century the term "became even more restricted: it was generally used to refer to the inhabitants of Transcarpathia and to Transcarpathian emigrants in the [[United States]]", for whom the terms Rusyn and Carpatho-Rusyn are more commonly used since the 1970s.<ref name="John-Paul Himka 2001" />

In some non-[[Slavic languages|Slavic]] languages, Rusyns may be referred to by exonymic or somewhat archaic terms such as ''Carpatho-Ruthenes'' or ''Carpatho-Ruthenians'', but such terminology is not present in the [[Rusyn language]]. Exonymic ''[[Ruthenian language|Ruthenian]]'' designations are seen as less precise because they encompass various East Slavic groups and bear broader ethnic connotations as a result of varied historical usage.{{sfn|Himka|1999|pp=5–8, 135–138}}{{sfn|Magocsi|2011a|p=177}}{{sfn|Magocsi|2015|pp=2–5}}

=== Carpatho-Russian ===
From the mid 1800s and well into the mid 1900s, many Catholic and Orthodox Rusyns in Europe and the United States referred to themselves as '''Carpatho-Russians''' or sometimes as Carpathian Russians''.'' This terminology was also popular with some foreign authors and was and is still being used within the Rusyn diaspora. For example, the popular newspaper of the [[Ruthenian Greek Catholic Church|Byzantine (Greek) Catholic Church]] in the U.S. for decades known as the ‘[https://www.loc.gov/item/sn85054872/ Greek Catholic Union Messenger]’, used the term Carpatho-Russian up until the 1950s (in the 1960s the term Ruthenian briefly came into vogue).<ref name="Warzeski 1971 p248-249" /> As well, the [[American Carpatho-Russian Orthodox Diocese]], with as of 2010 over 10,400 members and 79 parishes in the United States and Canada (and founded by former Byzantine Catholic members), still uses the term Carpatho-Russian on a regular basis. Finally, as of the 21st Century, one can often hear Rusyn Americans within the [[Orthodox Church in America|OCA]] and [[Russian Orthodox Church Outside of Russia|ROCOR]] Orthodox churches self-identify as Carpatho-Russian, and indeed, literature of both these Orthodox bodies commonly uses the terminology Carpatho-Russian to describe Rusyns.{{sfn|Magocsi|Pop|2005|pp=433–434}}{{Efn|Magocsi (2002): "[''Rus&apos;''] was and in some cases still is 'translated' as Russia, with the result that Carpathian Rus' and its Rusyn inhabitants are incorrectly described as Carpatho-Russia and Carpatho-Russians. By contast, Rusyn sources have almost always used the noun Rus' to describe all or part of the Carpathian homeland: ''Karpats'ka Rus', Podkarpats'ka Rus', Priashivs'ka Rus','' or ''Uhors'ka Rus'.''"}}

== History ==

=== Origins ===
There are different theories to explain Rusyn origins.<ref>{{cite book|last=Motta|first=Giuseppe|title=Less than Nations: Central-Eastern European Minorities after WWI, Volume 1 and 2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GnUxBwAAQBAJ|year=2014|publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing|isbn=978-1-4438-5859-5|page=156|quote=There were different theories to explain the presence of Rusyns. In his ''The settlements, economy and history of the Rusyns of Subcarpathia'' (1923) A. Hodinka wondered if Russians arrived before the Magyars, at the same time or later? Were they White Croats? Slavs who mixed with nomad Vlachs?|access-date=2018-11-11|archive-date=2019-07-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190729040953/https://books.google.com/books?id=GnUxBwAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> According to [[Paul Robert Magocsi]], the origin of the present-day Carpatho-Rusyns is complex and not exclusively related to the [[Kievan Rus']]. The ancestors were the early Slavs whose movement to the Danubian Basin was influenced by the [[Huns]] and [[Pannonian Avars]] between the 5th and 6th centuries, the [[White Croats]] who lived on both slopes of the Carpathians and built many hill-forts in the region including [[Uzhhorod]] ruled by the mythical ruler [[Laborec (ruler)|Laborec]], the Rusyns of [[Galicia (Eastern Europe)|Galicia]] and [[Podolia]], and [[Vlachs|Vlach]] shepherds of Transylvania.{{sfn|Magocsi|2005|p=5}} It is thought that the Croats were part of the [[Antes (people)|Antes]] tribal polity who migrated to Galicia in the 3rd-4th century, under pressure by invading [[Huns]] and [[Goths]].<ref>Gluhak, Alemko (1990), Porijeklo imena Hrvat [Origin of the name Croat] (in Croatian), Zagreb, Čakovec: Alemko Gluhak. pp 115–116</ref><ref>Paščenko, Jevgenij (2006), Nosić, Milan (ed.), Podrijetlo Hrvata i Ukrajina [The origin of Croats and Ukraine] (in Croatian), Maveda, pp 84–87. {{ISBN|953-7029-03-4}}</ref><ref>Sedov, Valentin Vasilyevich (2013) [1995]. Славяне в раннем Средневековье [Sloveni u ranom srednjem veku (Slavs in Early Middle Ages)]. Novi Sad: Akademska knjiga. pp. 444, 451, 501, 516. {{ISBN|978-86-6263-026-1}}.</ref> [[George Shevelov]] also considered a connection with [[List of ancient Slavic peoples and tribes#East Slavs|East Slavic tribes]], more specifically, the [[Hutsuls]], and possibly [[Boykos]], argued to be the descendants of the [[Ulichs]] who were not native in the region.<ref>{{cite web|author=George Shevelov|author-link=George Shevelov|title=A Historical Phonology of the Ukrainian Language|year=2002|orig-date=1979|url=https://www.litopys.org.ua/shevelov/shev03.htm|access-date=2008-07-23|language=uk|quote=Говорячи про Україну, слід брати до уваги такі доісторичні слов'янські племена, перелічені та/або згадані в Київському Початковому літописі, як деревляни (Середнє Полісся), сіверяни (Східне Полісся), поляни (Київщина, цебто ядро Русі), бужани (називані також волинянами або дулібами), уличі або улучі, тиверці (Подністров'я) та хорвати (Карпати? Перемищина?). Дуліби востаннє згадуються в записі за 907 р., уличі за 922 р., поляни й тиверці за 944 р., деревляни за 990 р., хорвати за 992 р., сіверяни за 1024 р. Дивлячись суто географічно, середньополіські говірки можуть бути виведені від деревлян, східнополіські від сіверян, західноволинські від дулібів; висловлено також гіпотезу, обстоювану — з індивідуальними нюансами — низкою вчених (Шахматовим, Лєр-Сплавінським, Зілинським, Нідерле, Кобилянським та ін.), що гуцули, а можливо й бойки, є нащадками уличів, які під тиском печенігів залишили свої рідні землі над Богом, переселившися до цієї частини карпатського реґіону. Проте нам нічого не відомо про мовні особливості, якими відрізнялися між собою доісторичні слов'янські племена на Україні, а отже будь-які спроби пов'язати сучасні говірки зі згаданими племенами ані довести, ані, навпаки, спростувати незмога.|archive-date=2008-06-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080615144502/http://litopys.org.ua/shevelov/shev03.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> As the region of the [[Ukrainian Carpathians]], including [[Carpathian Ruthenia|Zakarpattia]] and [[Prykarpattia]], has since the Early Middle Ages been inhabited by the tribes of Croats,{{efn|name=ListofRefs1| <ref name="Magocsi 1995">{{cite journal|title=The Carpatho-Rusyns|first=Paul Robert|last=Magocsi|author-link=Paul Robert Magocsi|journal=Carpatho-Rusyn American|volume=XVIII|number=4|year=1995|url=https://carpatho-rusyn.org/cra/chap3.html|quote=The purpose of this somewhat extended discussion of early history is to emphasize the complex origins of the Carpatho-Rusyns. They were not, as is often asserted, exclusively associated with Kievan Rus', from which it is said their name Rusyn derives. Rather, the ancestors of the present-day Carpatho-Rusyns are descendants of: (1) early Slavic peoples who came to the Danubian Basin with the Huns; (2) the White Croats; (3) the Rusyns of Galicia and Podolia; and (4) the Vlachs of Transylvania.|access-date=2022-02-17|archive-date=2021-12-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211202010405/http://carpatho-rusyn.org/cra/chap3.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Valentin Vasilyevich |last=Sedov |year=2013 |orig-date=1995 |title=Славяне в раннем Средневековье |trans-title=Sloveni u ranom srednjem veku (Slavs in Early Middle Ages) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HD4oAAAAMAAJ |publisher=Akademska knjiga |location=Novi Sad |isbn=978-86-6263-026-1 |pages=444, 451 |access-date=2018-11-10 |archive-date=2020-07-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727171406/https://books.google.com/books?id=HD4oAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Kozak 1999">{{cite book|last=Козак|first=В. Д.|title=Етногенез та етнічна історія населення Українських Карпат|year=1999|publisher=[[National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine|Institute of Ethnology of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine]]|location=Lviv|volume=1|language=uk|pages=483–502}}</ref>{{sfn|Magocsi|2002|pp=2–4}}<ref name="EIU 2007">{{cite encyclopedia|title=КАРПАТИ КРАЇНСЬКІ |url=https://www.history.org.ua/?termin=Karpaty_Ukrainski|author=Вортман Д.Я.|author2=Косміна О.Ю. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Ukrainian History|year=2007|publisher=[[Naukova Dumka]], [[NASU Institute of History of Ukraine]]|volume=4|language=uk|isbn=978-966-00-0692-8|quote=Не пізніше 6 ст. нас. Східнокарпатського регіону стає переважно слов'ян. Одне з літописних племен – білих хорватів (див. Хорвати) – локалізують у Передкарпатті. Наприкінці 10 ст. їх підкорив вел. кн. київ. Володимир Святославич і таким чином зх. кордони Київської Русі сягнули Карпат|access-date=2022-02-17|archive-date=2016-03-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308050005/http://history.org.ua/?termin=Karpaty_Ukrainski|url-status=live}}</ref>}}<!--End of ListofRefs1--> in Ukrainian encyclopedias and dictionaries, and the ''[[Great Russian Encyclopedia]]'', the Rusyns are generally considered to be the descendants of the White Croats.{{efn|name=ListofRefs2| <ref name="GRE 2016">{{cite encyclopedia |title=РУСИ́НЫ|url=https://bigenc.ru/ethnology/text/3520892|author=М. Ю. Дронов |encyclopedia=[[Great Russian Encyclopedia]]|year=2016|publisher=Bolshaya Rossiyskaya Entsiklopediya, [[Russian Academy of Sciences]]|language=ru|quote=В этногенезе Р. приняли участие потомки племени белых хорватов, выходцы из др. вост.–слав. земель и др.|access-date=2019-06-20|archive-date=2019-06-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190620155323/https://bigenc.ru/ethnology/text/3520892|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=ДОЛЫНЯ́НЕ|url=https://bigenc.ru/ethnology/text/3456468|author=И. А. Бойко|encyclopedia=[[Great Russian Encyclopedia]]|year=2016|publisher=Bolshaya Rossiyskaya Entsiklopediya, [[Russian Academy of Sciences]]|language=ru|quote=Сформировались на основе вост.-слав. населения 7–9 вв. (хорваты, или белые хорваты), вошедшего в 10 в.|access-date=2019-06-21|archive-date=2019-06-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190620000000/https://bigenc.ru/ethnology/text/3456468|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=ЛЕ́МКИ|url=https://bigenc.ru/ethnology/text/2138846|author=И. А. Бойко|encyclopedia=[[Great Russian Encyclopedia]]|year=2016|publisher=Bolshaya Rossiyskaya Entsiklopediya, [[Russian Academy of Sciences]]|language=ru|quote=Сформировались к 17 в. на основе потомков историч. хорватов и укр. переселенцев...|access-date=2019-06-21|archive-date=2019-06-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190620155329/https://bigenc.ru/ethnology/text/2138846|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Boikos |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia of Ukraine|Internet Encyclopedia of Ukraine]] |url=https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CB%5CO%5CBoikos.htm|author=Sofiia Rabii-Karpynska|year=2013|orig-date=1984|publisher=[[University of Toronto Press]]|volume=1|isbn=978-0-8020-3362-8|quote=The Boikos are believed to be the descendants of the ancient Slavic tribe of White Croatians that came under the rule of the Kievan Rus' state during the reign of Prince Volodymyr the Great. Before the Magyars occupied the Danube Lowland this tribe served as a direct link between the Eastern and Southern Slavs.|access-date=2022-02-17|archive-date=2021-10-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211022013611/http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CB%5CO%5CBoikos.htm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |entry=Hutsuls |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia of Ukraine|Internet Encyclopedia of Ukraine]]|entry-url=https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CH%5CU%5CHutsuls.htm |author=Nicolae Pavliuc |author2=Volodymyr Sichynsky |author3=Stanisław Vincenz |title=Encyclopedia of Ukraine: A-F. Vol. 1 |year=2001 |orig-date=1989 |publisher=[[University of Toronto Press]] |volume=2 |isbn=978-0-8020-3362-8 |quote=The Slavic White Croatians inhabited the region in the first millennium AD; with the rise of Kievan Rus', they became vassals of the new state.|access-date=2022-02-17|archive-date=2021-10-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211009050312/http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CH%5CU%5CHutsuls.htm}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=БОЙКИ|url=https://www.history.org.ua/?termin=Bojky|author=Войналович В.А.|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Ukrainian History|year=2003|publisher=[[Naukova Dumka]], [[NASU Institute of History of Ukraine]]|volume=1|language=uk|page=688|isbn=966-00-0734-5|quote=Гадають, що Б. – нащадки давнього слов'ян. племені білих хорватів, яких Володимир Святославич приєднав до Київської Русі|access-date=2022-02-17|archive-date=2016-06-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160625034010/http://www.history.org.ua/?termin=Bojky|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=ГУЦУЛИ |url=https://www.history.org.ua/?termin=Guculy |author=Ковпак Л.В. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Ukrainian History |year=2004 |publisher=[[Naukova Dumka]], [[NASU Institute of History of Ukraine]] |volume=2 |language=uk |isbn=966-00-0632-2 |quote=Г. – нащадки давніх слов'ян. племен – білих хорватів, тиверців й уличів, які в 10 ст. входили до складу Київської Русі ... Питання походження назви "гуцули" остаточно не з'ясоване. Найпоширеніша гіпотеза – від волоського слова "гоц" (розбійник), на думку ін., від слова "кочул" (пастух). |access-date=2022-02-17 |archive-date=2016-04-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160414010721/http://www.history.org.ua/?termin=Guculy |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=[[Ivan Katchanovski]]|last2=Kohut|first2=Zenon E.|last3=Nebesio|first3=Bohdan Y.|first4=Myroslav|last4=Yurkevich|title=Historical Dictionary of Ukraine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-h6r57lDC4QC|year=2013|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-8108-7847-1|page=321|quote=In the opinion of some scholars, the ancestors of the Lemkos were the White Croatians, who settled the Carpathian region between the seventh and tenth centuries.|access-date=2019-06-20|archive-date=2017-06-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170615153436/https://books.google.com/books?id=-h6r57lDC4QC|url-status=live}}</ref>}}<!--End of ListofRefs2-->

==== Anthropology ====
According to anthropological studies, the Eastern Carpathian population makes one of the sub-regional clines of the Ukrainian population, which can be regionally divided into Eastern and Western Carpathian variants. In the study by M. S. Velikanova (1975) the skulls from a medieval necropolis near village of [[Vasyliv]] in [[Zastavna Raion]] were very similar to contemporary Carpathian population, and according to [[:uk:Сегеда Сергій Петрович|S. P. Segeda]], [[:uk:Дяченко Василь Дмитрович|V. Dyachenko]] and [[:uk:Алексєєва Тетяна Іванівна|T. I. Alekseyeva]] this anthropological complex developed in the Middle Ages or earlier, as descendants of the medieval Slavs of Galicia and carriers of [[Chernyakhov culture]] along [[Prut]]-[[Dniester]] rivers, possibly with some [[Thracian]] component. According to the data, the population has the lowest admixture in Ukraine of Turkic speaking populations, like [[Volga Tatars]] and [[Bashkirs]], while in comparison to other populations they have similarities with neighbouring Eastern [[Slovaks]], [[Gorals]] of Poland, [[Romanians]], some groups of [[Czechs]] and [[Hungarians]], Northwestern [[Bulgaria]]ns, Central and Northern Serbians, and most of Croatians.<ref name="Segeda 1999">{{cite book|last=Segeda|first=Sergei Petrovich|chapter=Антропологічний склад українців Східних Карпат|title=Етногенез та етнічна історія населення Українських Карпат|year=1999|publisher=Institute of Ethnology of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine|location=Lviv|volume=1|language=uk|pages=461–482}}</ref><ref name="Segeda 2001">{{cite book|last=Segeda|first=Sergei Petrovich|title=Antropolohiíà: navchal'nyĭ posibnyk dlíà studentiv humanitarnykh spet́s̀ial'nosteĭ vyshchykh navchal'nykh zakladiv|chapter=Антропологічний склад українського народу|chapter-url=https://izbornyk.org.ua/segeda/se03.htm|year=2001|publisher=Lybid|location=Kyiv|language=uk|isbn=966-06-0165-4|access-date=2022-02-17|archive-date=2021-12-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211202010407/http://izbornyk.org.ua/segeda/se03.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Population genetics ====
The 2006 mitochondrial DNA study of Carpathian Highlanders – [[Boykos]], [[Hutsuls]] and [[Lemkos]] people<ref name="pmid19589018" /> – showed a common ancestry with other modern Europeans.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Willis |first=Catherine |year=2006 |title=Study of the Human Mitochondrial DNA Polymorphism |journal=McNair Scholars Journal |volume=10 |issue=1 |url=https://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1071&context=mcnair |access-date=2009-06-21 |archive-date=2010-06-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100622142039/http://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1071&context=mcnair |url-status=live}}</ref> A 2009 mitochondrial DNA study of 111 samples found that in comparison to eight other Central and Eastern European populations (Belarusian, Croatian, Czech, Hungarian, Polish, Romanian, Russian, Ukrainian), the three Rusyn groups have a greater distance between themselves than these populations, with Boykos showing the greatest distance from all and did not cluster with anyone because have atypically low frequencies of haplogroup H (20%) and J (5%) for a European population, while [[Lemkos]] are closest to the Czech and Romanian (0.17) population, and Hutsuls closest to the Croatian (0.11) and Ukrainian (0.16) population.<ref name="pmid19589018">{{cite journal|last1=Nikitin|first1=Alexey G.|last2=Kochkin|first2=Igor T.|last3=June|first3=Cynthia M.|last4=Willis|first4=Catherine M.|last5=Mcbain|first5=Ian|last6=Videiko|first6=Mykhailo Y.|title=Mitochondrial DNA sequence variation in Boyko, Hutsul and Lemko populations of Carpathian highlands|journal=Human Biology|volume=81|issue=1|year=2009|pages=43–58|doi=10.3378/027.081.0104|pmid=19589018|s2cid=45791162}}</ref>

The 2014 Y-DNA studies of 200 [[Pannonian Rusyns]] in the region of [[Vojvodina]], Serbia, found they mostly belong to haplogroup [[Haplogroup R1a|R1a]] (43%), [[Haplogroup I-M438#I2a-L621|I2]] (20%), [[Haplogroup E-V68#V-13|E-V13]] (12.5%), and [[Haplogroup R1b|R1b]] (8.5%), while [[Haplogroup I-M253|I1]], [[Haplogroup G-M201|G2a]], [[Haplogroup J-M172|J2b]], [[Haplogroup N-M231|N1]] between 2.5 and 4.5%, and [[Haplogroup J-M267|J1]], [[Haplogroup T-M184|T]], and [[Haplogroup H (Y-DNA)|H]] only in traces of less than 1%.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Veselinovic|display-authors=etal|title=Genetic polymorphism of 17 Y chromosomal STRs in the Rusyn population sample from Vojvodina Province, Serbia.|journal=International Journal of Legal Medicine|volume=128|issue=2|year=2014|pages=273–274|doi=10.1007/s00414-013-0877-9|pmid=23729201|s2cid=29357585}}</ref> They cluster closest to the Ukrainian and Slovakian population, "providing evidence for their genetic isolation from the Serbian majority population".<ref>{{cite journal|author=Rębała|display-authors=etal|title=Northern Slavs from Serbia do not show a founder effect at autosomal and Y-chromosomal STRs and retain their paternal genetic heritage.|url=https://www.fsigenetics.com/article/S1872-4973(13)00185-3/abstract|journal=[[Forensic Science International: Genetics]]|volume=8|issue=1|year=2014|pages=126–131|doi=10.1016/j.fsigen.2013.08.011|pmid=24315599|access-date=10 November 2018|archive-date=17 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220217115658/https://www.fsigenetics.com/article/S1872-4973%2813%2900185-3/fulltext|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref> The 2015 Y-DNA study of 150 men from [[Zakarpattia Oblast|Zakarpattia]] and [[Chernivtsi Oblast]] (Bukovina), found they mostly belong to R1a1a1*(М198), I2a (Р37.2), R1a1a1 (М458) ranging around and less than 30%, with E1b1b1a1 (M78), R1b1b2 (M269), and I1 (М253) ranging between 4-14%. The sampled population is most similar to other Ukrainians, while the Bukovina population slightly "differs from the typical Ukrainian population" because it has the highest percentage of I2a (>30%) and the lowest percentage of R1a (30%) in Ukraine. Bukovina's percentage of I2 is similar to near Moldovan and Romanian population, while the highest percentage is among South Slavs in [[Balkans|Western Balkans]]. It was concluded that although bordered by diverse nations, the Carpathians seemingly were a barrier decreasing gene flow southward of N1c (М178), R1a (М198) from the region, and northward of E1b (М78), R1b (М269), J (М304) and G (М201) to the region.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=O. M. Utevska|author2=M. I. Chukhraeva|author3=A. T. Agdzhoyan|author4=L. A. Atramentova|author5=E. V. Balanovska|author6=O. P. Balanovsky|title=Populations of Transcarpathia and Bukovina on the genetic landscape of surrounding regions|journal=Regulatory Mechanisms in Biosystems|volume=6|issue=2|date=2015|doi=10.15421/021524|pmid=23879710|pages=133–140|doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Early history ===
{{Expand section|date=December 2021}}
The general usage of 'Rusyn' by [[East Slavs]] dates back to over 11 centuries, its origin signifying the ethnic tie to the political entity of [[Kievan Rus']], which existed from the late ninth to the early 13th century. The East Slavs mixed with other peoples over centuries, including in the south with Iranian and later with Germanic peoples, in the west with Baltic peoples, in the east with Finnish and Turkic peoples.<ref>{{Cite news|date=December 1989|title=The East Slavs|work=News From Ukraine, Kyiv, p. 2}}</ref>

Over the centuries these loosely affiliated peoples developed different political and economic centers as well as new names. By 18th century the official names used by [[Russian Empire]] were Great Russians (modern [[Russians]]), Little Russians (modern [[Ukrainians]]) and White Russians (modern [[Belarusians]]). So by the mid-20th century the original name Rus or Rusyn was retained only in the Carpathian Mountains.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=August 1981|title=Carpatho-Rusyns|journal=Byzantine-Ruthenian Diocese of Parma, Parma, Ohio}}</ref>

Rusyns settled in the Carpathian Mountain region in various waves of immigration from the north between the eighth and 17th centuries. Weapons and skeletons found in tombs in [[Bereg County]] from the 10th century era suggest that [[Normans|Norman Vikings]] (who played a role in the founding of Kiev Rus') were there as well.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Benedek|first=Andras|title=Gens fidelissima: The Rusyns|year=2001 |publisher=Matthias Corvinus Publishing |location=Buffalo |pages=12}}</ref> Even so, as late as the 11th century, this mountainous area was still a sparsely inhabited 'No-Man's Land' border between the kingdoms of Kievan Rus' and Hungary.{{sfn|Magocsi|Pop|2005|pp=321–322, 481}}

In 1241, the Carpathians fell to [[Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'|Mongol invasions]] led by Genghis Khan's grandson, [[Batu Khan]], with populations exterminated and villages torched.{{sfn|Bonkáló|1990|pp=12–13}} The Mongols entered the region via the [[Veretskyi Pass|Veretski Pass]], just to the north of [[Mukachevo]].

In 1396, exiled Prince [[Theodor Koriatovich]], member of the Lithuanian [[House of Gediminas]], purchased the city of [[Mukachevo]], settling himself in the city's [[Palanok Castle]]. He might have facilitated the migration of up to 40,000 from [[Podolia]] but the number is disputed. The arrival of Koriatovich and his retinue was a milestone for the Rusyns, substantially improving the region's administrative, ecclesiastical and cultural aspects.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=1990|title=Manifesto Of The Carpatho-Rusyns in Czechoslovakia|journal=Rusyn Committee, Presov|pages=3–4}}</ref> This included building and fortifying [[Palanok Castle|Mukachevo Castle]] with cannons, a moat, workers and artisans, and the founding of an Orthodox monastery on the Latorytsia River.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Tymofelev|first=Ihor|date=1998|title=Koriatovych|work=The Day – Ukrainian Daily Newspaper, Mukachevo}}</ref>

=== Modern history ===
The [[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian monarchy]] controlled the Carpathians from 1772 to 1918. With the increased [[Magyarization]] in the nineteenth century, for some educated and intellectual Rusyns it was natural to move to [[Budapest]], while for other Slavic minded intellectuals the Russian Empire became a favored destination.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=1993|title=Spring Issue|journal=Carpatho-Rusyn American, Pittsburgh|pages=3}}</ref>

The Rusyns have always been subject to larger neighboring powers, but in the 19th century a Rusyn national movement was formed which emphasized distinct ethnic identity and literary language.<ref name="GRE 2016" /> During the [[Spring of Nations]] on 2 May 1848 in Lemberg (today [[Lviv]]) was established the first political representation of the Galician Rusyns, the [[Main Ruthenian Council]] ({{langx|rue|Головна Руська Рада}}, ''Holovna Ruska Rada'').<ref name="Melnyk 2019">Ihor Melnyk. ''[https://zbruc.eu/node/6683 Main Ruthenian Council (Головна Руська Рада)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190804164241/https://zbruc.eu/node/6683 |date=2019-08-04}}''. Zbruc. 30 April 2013</ref> The most active and leading stratum among Rusyns was Greek-Catholic clergy (see [[Greek Catholic Eparchy of Mukachevo]], [[Ruthenian Greek Catholic Church]], a successor of Ecclesia Ruthena unita).<ref name="Melnyk 2019" />

The nineteenth century also saw the spread of pan Slavism in Europe, and a pro-Moscow view became popular. The Russian military campaign of Tsar Nicholas I through the Carpathians in 1849 had significance for the local Rusyn population, who came into close contact with an almost 200,000 man Russian army. This interaction had an impact on the rising national consciousness of that time. [[Alexander Dukhnovych|Aleksander Dukhnovich]] (1803–1865), who wrote the unofficial Rusyn National Anthem ("I was, am, and will be a Rusyn"), and who by some is considered to be a sort of 'George Washington' of the Rusyns, reminisced that when he saw the Russian Cossacks on the streets, he "danced and cried with joy".<ref>{{Cite journal|date=March 19, 1993|title=Aleksander Dukhnovich|journal=Carpatho Rus' / Karpatska Rus', Yonkers}}</ref>

A few decades later, when economic conditions and repression worsened in the late 19th century, massive emigration of Rusyns to America took place, beginning in the early 1870s. Between 1899 and 1931, Ellis Island listed 268,669 Rusyn immigrants.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=May 1995|title=Rusyn Immigration|journal=The New Rusyn Times, Pittsburgh|pages=11}}</ref> Most settled in the northeastern states, but Rusyn settlements also appeared in more far flung states such as Minnesota, Colorado, Alabama, Washington and Montana. Smaller numbers also emigrated to Canada, Brazil and Argentina.

[[File:Клочурак.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Stepan Klochurak]]]]
Rusyns formed two ephemeral states after [[World War I]]: the [[Lemko-Rusyn Republic]] and [[Komancza Republic]]. Prior to this time, some of the founders of the Lemko-Rusyn Republic were sentenced to death or imprisoned in [[Talerhof]] by the prosecuting attorney [[Kost Levytsky]] ({{Langx|rue|Кость Леви́цький}}), future president of the [[West Ukrainian People's Republic]].<ref name="GRE 2016" /><ref>{{cite book |title=Terezin i Talergof: k 50-letnej godovščine tragedii galic.-rus. naroda |last=Vavrik |first=Vasilij Romanowicz |year=2001 |publisher=Soft-izdat |location=Moscow |language=ru |oclc=163170799 |url=https://www.edrus.org/content/view/288/62 |access-date=2009-06-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101223131144/https://www.edrus.org/content/view/288/62 |archive-date=2010-12-23 |url-status=dead}}</ref> In the [[interwar period]], the Rusyn diaspora in Czechoslovakia enjoyed liberal conditions to develop their culture (in comparison with Ukrainians in Poland or Romania).<ref>Orest Subtelny, ''Ukraine. A History''. Second edition, 1994. University of Toronto Press/ p. 350–351. Subtelny treats transcarpathian Rusyns as a group of Ukrainians</ref> [[Hutsul]] [[Stepan Klochurak]] was a prime minister of [[Hutsul Republic]] centered in [[Yasinia]] that was seeking union with the West Ukrainian People's Republic, but was overran by the Hungarian troops, later Klochurak became a Defense Minister of [[Carpatho-Ukraine]].<ref name="GRE 2016" />

After World War I, the majority of Rusyns found themselves in the new country of Czechoslovakia. The interwar period became a mini renaissance for Rusyn culture, as they were permitted their own schools, theater, anthem, and even their own governor.

[[File:Romanians before WW1.jpg|thumb|left|Map of territories occupied by Ruthenes in the Carpathian region near Huszt, Munkács, Ungvár]]
During the [[Dissolution of Austro-Hungarian Monarchy]] (1918),<ref>PRECLÍK, Vratislav. Masaryk a legie (Masaryk and legions), váz. kniha, 219 pages, first issue – vydalo nakladatelství Paris Karviná, Žižkova 2379 (734 01 Karvina, Czech Republic) ve spolupráci s Masarykovým demokratickým hnutím (Masaryk Democratic Movement, Prague), 2019, {{ISBN|978-80-87173-47-3}}, pp. 87–89, 110–112, 124–128, 140–148, 184–209</ref>  various parts of Rusyn people were faced with different political challenges. Those who lived in northeastern counties of the [[Kingdom of Hungary (1867–1918)|Hungarian]] part of the former Monarchy were faced with pretensions of Hungary, Romania, and Czechoslovakia. On the other hand, those who lived in the former [[Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria]] were faced with pretensions of Poland and Ukraine.{{sfn|Rychlík|Rychlíková|2016|p=}}

[[File:Польська карта народо-населення Центральної Європи 1927 року..jpg|thumb|Polish map of 1927 indicating location of Rusyns and Ukrainians (labelled {{lang|pl|Rusini}}) and Belarusians ({{lang|pl|Bialo Rusini}})]]
In the 1920s and 1930s a dispute existed between Russophile and Ukrainophile Rusyns.<ref name="GRE 2016" /> In October 1938, a series of political reforms were initiated, leading to the creation of the [[Second Czechoslovak Republic]], consisting of three autonomous political entities, one of them being the Subcarpathian Rus' ({{Langx|rue|Підкарпатьска Русь}}). On 11 October 1938, first autonomous Government of Subcarpathian Rus was appointed, headed by prime-minister Andrej Bródy. Soon after, a crisis occurred between pro-Rusyn and pro-Ukrainian fractions, leading to the fall of Bródy government on 26 October. New regional government, headed by [[Avgustyn Voloshyn]], adopted a pro-Ukrainian course and opted for the change of name, from ''Subcarpathian Rus''' to ''Carpathian Ukraine''.{{sfn|Rychlík|Rychlíková|2016|p=}}

[[File:Act of Subcarpathian Rus Autonomy 1938.png|thumb|upright|left|Constitutional Law on the Autonomy of Subcarpathian Rus' (1938)]]
That move led to the creation of a particular terminological duality. On 22 November 1938, authorities of the Second Czechoslovak Republic proclaimed the ''Constitutional Law on the Autonomy of Subcarpathian Rus''' ({{Langx|cs|Ústavní zákon o autonomii Podkarpatské Rusi}}), officially reaffirming the right of [[self-determination]] of Rusyn people ([[preamble]]), and confirming full political and administrative autonomy of Subcarpathian Rus', with its own assembly and government. In the constitutional system of the Second Czechoslovak Republic, the region continued to be known as the Subcarpathian Rus', while local institutions promoted the use of the term ''Carpathian Ukraine''.{{sfn|Rychlík|Rychlíková|2016|p=}}

[[File:Carpatho Ukraine March 1939.png|thumb|right|[[Carpatho-Ukraine]] in 1939]]
The Republic of [[Carpatho-Ukraine]], which existed for one day on March 15, 1939, before it was occupied and annexed by Hungary, is sometimes considered to have been a self-determining Rusyn state that had intentions to unite with [[Kiev]].{{Citation needed|date=November 2009}} The Republic's president, [[Avgustyn Voloshyn]], was an advocate of writing in [[Rusyn language|Rusyn]].{{Citation needed|date=November 2009}} The Hungarian annexation caused support for Russophile direction, while in Germany occupied Poland support for Ukrainian identity.<ref name="GRE 2016" />

Although the Carpathians were not a major WWII battlefield, the Rusyns saw their share of horror and destruction, beginning with the Hungarian government's 1941 deportation of the [[History of the Jews in Carpathian Ruthenia|Carpathian Jews]]. In September 1944, while retreating from a Soviet Red Army offensive, the Nazis who were passing through blew up all the bridges in Uzhhorod, including one built in the 14th century.

On 26 November 1944 in [[Mukachevo]] representatives from all cities and villages of the land adopted the manifesto uniting Zakarpattia Ukraine with Soviet Ukraine.<ref name="holukr101130">Nytka, V ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20110824192655/https://mincult.kmu.gov.ua/mincult/uk/publish/article/229723;jsessionid=ED6F86F840B33FAE918AEDB1B6628B50?mustWords=%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BD%D1%8F&searchPublishing=1 Zakarpattia celebrated the 66th Anniversary of the Manifest about the Union (Закарпаття відзначило 66-і роковини Маніфесту про возз'єднання)]''. [[Holos Ukrayiny]]. 30 November 2010</ref>

The Soviets occupied the Carpathians, and in 1945 the Rusyn ethnic homeland was split among three countries, as western portions were incorporated into Czechoslovakia and Poland, while the eastern portion became part of the Soviet Union and was officially named [[Zakarpattia Oblast|Transcarpathia]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Subtelny |first=Orest |title=Ukraine: A History |year=1988 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |location=Toronto |page=487}}</ref> After World War II, Transcarpathia was declared as a part of Ukrainia.<ref name="GRE 2016" />

In Poland, the new Communist government deported many Rusyns from their ancestral region, sending many east to Ukraine, and others to the far west of the country. In Czechoslovakia a policy of [[Ukrainization]] was implemented. In Ukraine, many Rusyns who owned land or livestock, often funded via their own family members in America, were now branded by the Soviets as kulaks, or rich peasants. Property and farm animals were confiscated and newly established kolkhozes (collectivized farms) were built, with people being forced to work on their own former land, 'employed' by the Communist government. Some of the less lucky were sent to Siberia.{{citation needed|date=January 2023}}

In 1947, under the [[Operation Vistula]] happened [[forced resettlement]] of c. 150,000 Lemkos, Boykos and other Ukrainians between Poland and Ukraine. In the same time some 8,500 Rusyns voluntarily emigrated from Czechoslovakia to Ukraine, but more than half of them returned during the 1960s.<ref name="GRE 2016" />

[[File:Будинок русинів (Мукачево).jpg|thumb|Sign reads "House of Subcarpathian Rusyns" (Dom Podkarpatskikh Rusinov) in [[Mukachevo]]]]
These acts were protested for years, but to no avail. In the US, the Greek Catholic Union's 1964 convention even adopted a resolution calling on the United Nations to act "so that Carpatho-Russia be recognized and accepted into the free nations of the world as an autonomous state".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Masich|first=John|date=1967|title=Highlights in the Glorious History of the Greek Catholic Union of the USA|journal=Jubilee Almanac of the Greek Catholic Union of the USA, Munhall PA|pages=263}}</ref>

In former [[Yugoslavia]], Rusyns were officially recognized as a distinct [[national minority]], and their legal status was regulated in Yugoslav federal units of [[Socialist Republic of Serbia|Serbia]] and [[Socialist Republic of Croatia|Croatia]]. In the Constitution of Serbia, that was adopted in 1963, Rusyns were designated as one of seven (explicitly named) national minorities (Article 82),<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Og2Kb5H4VkC&q=%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8 |title=Службени гласник (1963): Устав Социјалистичке Републике Србије |year=1963 |access-date=2022-02-17 |archive-date=2021-12-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211202010402/https://books.google.com/books?id=2Og2Kb5H4VkC&dq=%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Катунин|2015|pp=232–233}} and the same provision was implemented in the [[Statute of the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina]] that was adopted in the same year (Article 32). Further on, the Constitutional Law of 1969 regulated the position of [[Rusyn language]] as one of five official languages in Vojvodina (Article 67).<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zaQMAAAAYAAJ&q=%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3 |title=Уставни закон Социјалистичке Аутономне Покрајине Војводине (1969) |access-date=2022-02-17 |archive-date=2021-12-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211202011902/https://books.google.com/books?id=zaQMAAAAYAAJ&q=%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3 |url-status=live |last1=(Serbia) |first1=Vojvodina |year=1969}}</ref>

=== Recent history ===
After the [[fall of communism]], new opportunities arose for Rusyns in Poland and in the newly formed countries of Slovakia and Ukraine. The Rusyns of the Transcarpathia region of Ukraine were able to vote in December 1991 for self-rule. With an 89% voter turnout, 78% voted Yes to autonomy.<ref>{{Cite news|date=February 16, 1992|title=Rusyns in Transcarpathia|work=Byzantine Catholic World, Pittsburgh, p. 8}}</ref> But with the Russian majority in the Odesa region casting a similar vote, the Ukrainian government, fearing secession, has refused to honor this referendum.{{citation needed|date=January 2025}}

In terms of minority rights, the question of Rusyn self-identification and recognition in [[Ukraine]] has been a subject of interest for European institutions, as well as the [[United Nations]].{{citation needed|date=February 2022}} Nationally, Rusyns are considered (by both state and cultural authorities) only a sub-group of the [[Ukrainians|Ukrainian]] people.{{sfn|Magocsi|Pop|2005|p=}} In spite of this, Ukraine's [[Zakarpattia Oblast]] has recognized Rusyns as a "distinct nationality" within the oblast since a 2007 proclamation by its regional assembly.{{sfn|Magocsi|2012|p=12}}

[[File:02016 0639 Zjazd Karpacki (Sanok).jpg|thumb|Lemkos is southeastern Poland]]
By the end of the 20th century there appeared many societies and organizations considering Rusyns as people separate from Ukrainians. By the early 21st century they had representatives in parliaments of Serbia, Hungary, and Romania, published their own press, and in 2007 the Museum of Ruthenian Culture was opened in [[Prešov]], Slovakia.<ref name="GRE 2016" />

In 2010 in Mukachevo were festivities commemorating the union of Zakarpattia with Ukraine, four out of 663 of congress delegates who adopted the Manifest about the Union and who were still alive attended the event: F. Sabov, O. Lohoida, M. Moldavchuk and J. Matlakh.<ref name="holukr101130" /> They shared their experience about first years of the People's Council in revival of the region.<ref name="holukr101130" />

There is also ongoing [[linguistic]] and [[political]] controversy as to whether [[Rusyn language|Rusyn]] is a distinct [[Slavic languages|Slavic language]] or one of several dialects of the [[Ukrainian language]]. In several countries, it is recognized as a distinct minority language. Though Ukraine also [[Language policy in Ukraine|adopted a law]] that recognized Rusyn as one of several minority and regional languages in 2012, that law was revoked in 2014.{{sfn|Csernicskó|Fedinec|2016|pp=560–582}}

In 2021 while discussing the borders of modern Ukraine, [[On the Historical Unity of Russians and Ukrainians|Russian President Vladimir Putin specifically referred to the people in the Carpathian Mountains of modern-day Ukraine as Rusyns]], rather than Ukrainians. In writing about the Soviet Union's post World War II takeover of the Transcarpathian region, Putin stated that, "quote, 'Rusyns (Русины) made up a considerable share of the local population', unquote". Then, using the pre-World War II term to describe the region, he asserted that the population of "Subcarpathian Rus", also known as Podkarpatska Rus (Подкарпатскa Рус) voted to join the Soviet Union either as "either part of the Russian Soviet republic or as a separate Carpathian republic". Putin noted however that the Soviet authorities "ignored the choice of the people" and incorporated it instead into the Ukrainian Soviet republic.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Putin|first=Vladimir|date=July 12, 2021|title=On the Historical Unity of Russians and Ukrainians|url=https://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/66181|url-status=live|website=Official Internet Resources of the President of Russia|access-date=February 17, 2022|archive-date=February 16, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220216201806/http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/66181}}</ref>

Today there are estimated to be approximately 1.5 million Rusyns in Europe<ref>{{Cite news|last=Custer|first=Richard D.|title=Rusyns, Washington, D.C.}}</ref> and a healthy pro-Rusyn movement exists in the Carpathians. Some Ukrainian nationalists have argued that the modern 'Rusyn movement' is in service of the expansionist aims of modern [[Russia]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Myshanych|first=Oleksa|date=September 1997|title=Political Ruthenianism – A Ukrainian Problem|journal=The Ukrainian Quarterly, New York}}</ref>

== Autonomist and separatist movements ==
{{See also|Regionalism in Ukraine}}According to Mrs Jozsefne Csepanyi-Bardos, the president of the Ruthenian Ethnic Minority Council in Budapest Capital.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ruthenians (Ukraine) |url=https://www.crwflags.com/FOTW/FLAGS/ua_ruth.html |access-date=2022-10-28 |website=www.crwflags.com}}</ref>  The flag of the Ruthenians of the World and the Ruthenian Ethnic Minority Council is a tricolour in a 2:1:1 ratio.
[[File:The_flag_of_the_Ruhenian_Ethnic_Minority_Council.png|right|244x244px]]
Ukrainian academician, doctor of historical sciences, head of department of National Minorities of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine Institute of Political and Ethno-national research, May Panchuk explained that soon after [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]] and during the 1991 Ukrainian referendum, there was provided additional question for Zakarpattia residents only whether they wish to obtain a self-governed territory within Ukraine.<ref name="setl160421" /> It triggered Rusyns to create their own political parties and movements.<ref name="setl160421" /> Already in March 1992 the recently created "[[Subcarpathian republican party]]" published its program with first elements of separatism: create independent, neutral "Republic Subcarpathian Ruthenia" just as Switzerland; receive full political and economic independence; recognize Rusyn people as a full-scale nationality among other nations.<ref name="setl160421" /> The party contained a well expressed Kremlin orientation and did not hide its connections with pro-Russians elements.<ref name="setl160421" /> In 1993 in [[Bratislava]] there was presented the "government of Subcarpathian Ruthenia" with an emphasized change – as "separate subject of the [[Commonwealth of Independent States]]".<ref name="setl160421" /> The activity of the "government" was openly supported by "[[Russkiy dom]]", "[[Russkiy Mir Foundation]]", [[Association of Zakarpattia democrats]], and other pro-Russian organizations.<ref name="setl160421" /> In December 1994 so called "minister of foreign affairs" T. Ondyk appealed to the [[President of Russia]] [[Boris Yeltsin]] to cancel the 1945 treaty between the Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia about Zakarpattia Ukraine.<ref name="setl160421" /> At that same time, Ondyk appealed to the presidents of the United States and Hungary accusing the Ukrainian government in the policy of extermination of Rusyns and Hungarians.<ref name="setl160421" />

A considerable controversy has arisen regarding the Rusyn separatist movement led by the Orthodox priest [[Dimitry Sydor]] (now Archbishop of Uzhhorod, in the [[Ukrainian Orthodox Church (Moscow Patriarchate)]]), his relationship with the [[Russian Orthodox Church]] and funding for his activities.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.ua-reporter.com/novosti/42228|script-title=ru:Дмитрий Сидор отказался давать показания СБУ и "наехал" на журналистов|trans-title=Dmitry Sydorov refused to give evidence to a Ukrainian Security Services investigation and "struck back" at journalists|language=ru|work=ua-reporter.com|date=19 November 2008|access-date=20 March 2015|archive-date=22 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141222155124/http://www.ua-reporter.com/novosti/42228|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.ua-reporter.com/content/58928|script-title=uk:ПОЛІТИЧНЕ РУСИНСТВО І ЙОГО СПОНСОРИ|trans-title=Political Rusynism and its sponsors|language=uk|work=ua-reporter.com|date=11 July 2009|access-date=19 March 2015|archive-date=22 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141222160643/http://www.ua-reporter.com/content/58928|url-status=live}}</ref> Russia has, as a result of the Russian census of 2002, recognized the Rusyns as a separate ethnic group in 2004, and has been accused by the Ukrainian government of fueling ethnic tensions and separatism among Rusyns and Ukrainians.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.radiosvoboda.org/content/article/24433107.html|script-title=uk:Україна в лещатах російських спецслужб|trans-title=Ukraine is in the grip of Russian secret services|language=uk|work=radiosvoboda.org|date=25 December 2011|access-date=3 March 2016|archive-date=3 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303185729/http://www.radiosvoboda.org/content/article/24433107.html|url-status=live|last1=Гвать |first1=Іван}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2001-11-02 |title=Unpo - Rusyn People |url=http://www.unpo.org/member/rusyn/rusyn.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20011102075138/http://www.unpo.org/member/rusyn/rusyn.html |archive-date=2001-11-02  |access-date=2022-10-28}}</ref>

A criminal case under Part 2, Art. 110 of the Ukrainian Criminal Code was initiated after the 1st European Congress of Rusyns took place in [[Mukachevo]] on June 7, 2008. At that particular congress the reinstatement of the Zakarpattia's status as special "territory of Rusyns to the south of the Carpathians" with self-government under the constitutional name Subcarpathian Rus was recognized. On October 29, at the 2nd congress in Mukachevo, a memorandum was signed calling for the authorities to recognize the Subcarpathian Rus autonomy (by December 1). That same day, according to the ''[[Kommersant]]-Ukraine'' (Ukrainian edition) agents of the [[Security Service of Ukraine]] (SBU) questioned Dmytro Sydor and Yevgeniy Zhupan. They were summoned to SBU as witnesses in a criminal case "on the infringement on territorial integrity of Ukraine" initiated in June 2008.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ua.glavred.info/archive/2008/10/30/092718-16.html|script-title=uk:Лідерів русинів допитали в СБУ|trans-title=Leaders of Rusyns were questioned at the SBU|language=uk|work=ua.glavred.info|date=30 October 2008|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708111911/https://ua.glavred.info/archive/2008/10/30/092718-16.html|archive-date=8 July 2011}}</ref> According to internet publisher "[[NEWSru|Newsru]]", earlier in 2008 the Zakarpattia Rusyns appealed to Russia to recognize independence of [[Carpathian Ruthenia|Subcarpathian Ruthenia]] from Ukraine.<ref name="newsru120320">[https://web.archive.org/web/20140309023917/https://rus.newsru.ua/ukraine/20mar2012/sidor.html The leader of Zakarpattia Rusyns, a priest of UOC-MP, received three years conditionally for separatism (Лидеру закарпатских русинов, священнику УПЦ МП, дали три года условно за сепаратизм)]. Newsru.ua. 20 March 2012</ref> In 2014 with the start of the [[Russo-Ukrainian War]], an activist of the [[Subcarpathian Ruthenia movement]] named Petro Hetsko, who claims to be prime minister of the Subcarpathian Ruthenia, asked the [[President of Russia]] to intervene and help "neutralize Galician Nazism in Zakarpattia".<ref name="setl160421">[https://svetlovodsk.com.ua/8964-sbu.html?fb_comment_id=849331198505739_849332888505570 Hybrid war: ethnic factor of the Zakarpattia Rusyns. Analytics of IS (Гибридная война: этнический фактор русинов Закарпатья. Аналитика ИС)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211202011243/http://svetlovodsk.com.ua/8964-sbu.html?fb_comment_id=849331198505739_849332888505570 |date=2021-12-02}}. Svetlovodsk.com.ua. 21 April 2016</ref>

Research conducted by the [[University of Cambridge]] during the height of [[political Rusynism]] in the mid-1990s that focused on five specific regions within the Zakarpattia Oblast having the strongest pro-Rusyn cultural and political activism, found that only nine percent of the population of these areas claimed Rusyn ethnicity.<ref>[https://www.taraskuzio.net/Nation%20and%20State%20Building_files/national-rusyns.pdf Taras Kuzio (2005). ''The Rusyn Question in Ukraine: Sorting Out Fact from Fiction.''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090327140741/https://www.taraskuzio.net/Nation%20and%20State%20Building_files/national-rusyns.pdf |date=2009-03-27}} Canadian Review of Studies in Nationalism, XXXII</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20060910222404/https://dev.eurac.edu:8085/mugs2/do/blob.pdf?type=pdf&serial=1036425198529 Political and Ethno-Cultural Aspects of the Rusyns' problem: A Ukrainian Perspective] – by Natalya Belitser, Pylyp Orlyk Institute for Democracy, Kyiv, Ukraine</ref> In the present day, according to the Ukrainian census, most – over 99% – of the local inhabitants consider themselves to be Ukrainians. (Ukrainian census numbers inflated since 1991 refer to local ones for accuracy).<ref name="Ukraine" />

==Religion ==
=== Early history ===
Religion and Rusyn history are deeply intertwined, often resulting in controversy. Many believe that when Rusyns first came to Christianity it was through the Orthodox faith, although this has been challenged by many others who assert the initial Christian influence actually came from Catholic Moravia. One of the earliest saints of the (Orthodox) Monastery of the Caves at Kiev was the Rusyn Moses Uhrin (died 1043),<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Barriger|first=Lawrence|title=Saints Cyril & Methodios – Spiritual Insights|journal=The Church Messenger (Johnstown, PA)}}</ref> who prior to becoming a monk served Boris, the prince of Ancient Rus'. Moses and his brothers Efrem and Georgii stories are recorded in the noted ''[[Primary Chronicle]]''. Also originating from this time is the unique Carpathian church [[Prostopinije]] (Plain Chant), which is closely related to the ancient chant of Kievan Rus' and has even preserved elements of it.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gardner|first=Johann von|date=July 1979|title=Orthodox Chant|journal=Orthodox Life|pages=46}}</ref>

For over 600 years, the Orthodox Church was the only Rusyn church in the Carpathians. But under the growing influence of the then ruling Austro-Hungarian Empire, Orthodox clergy were reduced over time to the legal status of peasant-serfs, and even the bishop of Mukachevo was at the mercy of the Hungarian lords. To improve their condition, some Orthodox priests attempted to form a new church under the Catholics. In 1614, 50 priests convened at the Krasni Brid Monastery with this intent, but a crowd of Orthodox protested and dispersed the group. A second attempt in the 1630s under Bishop [[Vasyl Tarasovych]] also failed. Finally in April 1646, Bishop [[Petro Parfenii#Biography|Parfenii Petrovich]] was able to convene a meeting of 63 (out of a few hundred) priests who pledged their allegiance to the [[Pope|Pope of Rome]]. Their signed document became known as the [[Union of Uzhhorod]], resulting in the formation of the [[Ukrainian Catholic Church]]. This new Church was given greater material assistance from the Austro-Hungarian Empire while being allowed to maintain their Eastern Rite traditions, including married priests. From that time, the Rusyns had two bishops, one Greek Catholic and one Orthodox, until 1721 when the last remaining Orthodox priests in the western counties accepted the Union.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Udvari|first=Istvan|title=The Rusyns – An East Slavic People|location=Budapest}}</ref> Some priests in the eastern counties of [[Bereg County|Bereg]] and [[Máramaros County|Maramaros]] remained Orthodox until 1745.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Benedek|first=Andras|title=Gens fidelissima: The Rusyns|year=2001|pages=41}}</ref>

=== Recent history ===
In the 1890s, 145 years after Orthodoxy had ceased to exist in the Carpathians, a so-called 'return to Orthodoxy' movement began, reaching a high point in the 1920s. Many Greek Catholics who became Orthodox were arrested for treason and a few were even executed by the government, with the [[Thalerhof internment camp]] and martyrdom (by firing squad) of the Orthodox priest [[Maxim Sandovich]] in 1914 being the best known incidents. Meanwhile, the Russian Bolshevik Revolution was forcing Russians of the nobility and middle class to flee, and many settled in the US. These Russians arrived and began joining the American Russian Orthodox Church (then called the Metropolia) at precisely the same time Carpatho-Russians in America were also 'returning' to the Orthodox faith. This mixing furthered Russophile leanings among many Rusyns. Leading the charge was Fr. [[Alexis Toth]], a former Greek Catholic priest who led as many as 20,000 Rusyn Americans to Orthodoxy, for which he was canonized by the Orthodox Church (due to his efforts, perhaps 1/3rd of American Rusyns are Orthodox today). This American mixing further influenced events and persecutions back in the Carpathian homeland, where thousands of fleeing Orthodox Russians also settled, including monks who founded the Ladomirova Monastery.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=April 11, 2003|title=Ladomirova|journal=Carpatho-Rus' – Karpatska -Rus' Lemko Association (Allentown, PA)|pages=1}}</ref> Indeed, [[Laurus Škurla]] who was born in Ladomirova (now in Slovakia) rose to become Metropolitan Laurus, the leader of the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia.

Conversely, it was Greek Catholics of the Carpathians who suffered in the 1940s. By force, the Soviet government annulled the [[Union of Uzhhorod]] in 1946, and the Greek Catholic Church was liquidated exactly 300 years after its formation. The [[Greek Catholic Cathedral, Uzhhorod]] was transferred to the Moscow-based Russian Orthodox Church in 1948, and priests who refused to convert to Orthodoxy were sent to the Siberian and Arctic labor camps, where many died. Others were simply murdered in their home villages. A horrific example of this was the martyrdom (by assassination) of Greek Catholic Bishop [[Theodore Romzha]]. To add salt to the wound, in 1971 the Russian Orthodox Synod of Zagorsk, U.S.S.R. indirectly justified this violence by officially ratifying the annulment.<ref>{{Cite news|date=November 20, 1971|title=Assail Russian Patriarch|work=Svoboda Ukrainian Weekly (Jersey City, N.J.)}}</ref>

And while no longer the case, from the early and even until the mid-1900s in America, religious and nationalist causes went together.{{fact|date=October 2024}} Aside from Russian Orthodox/Greek Catholic struggle, the dislike of Ukrainians by Rusyn religious leaders was strong and expressed often, as Ukrainian nationalism was deemed a destructive force to Rusyn culture. The influential newspaper of the American Greek Catholic Church, the 'GCU Messenger', wrote in 1954: "To us Carpatho-Russian people here and in our native country under the green Carpathians, there can be no greater insult and offense then when someone calls us Ukrainians. We know not such people on the world's map."<ref name="Warzeski 1971 p248-249">{{Cite book |last=Warzeski |first=Walter |title=Byzantine Rite Rusyns |year=1971 |publisher=Byzantine Seminary Press |location=Pittsburgh |pages=248–249}}</ref>

'''Europe Today'''

In Europe today, some tensions still exist. As an example, the aforementioned Cathedral of the Exaltation of the Cross in Uzhhorod belonged to the Greek Catholics but after WWII had been given to the Russian Orthodox Church by the Communist government. With the pending fall of communism, a well-meaning visit to this cathedral in February 1990 by American Byzantine Catholic (Greek Catholic) Archbishop [[Stephen Kocisko]], whose own Rusyn parents were born in the Carpathians, led to confrontation from Rusyn Orthodox protestors. Later in 1991, there were major protests, including physical attacks and hunger strikes when it was decided to transfer the cathedral back to the Greek Catholics.
[[File:Orthodox protest Greek Catholic Archbishop Kocisko's Uzhorod Cathedral visit Feb. 1990.jpg|thumb|Orthodox protest Greek Catholic Archbishop Kocisko's 1990 Uzhhorod Cathedral visit.]]
The Orthodox immediately set about to build a new [[Uzhhorod Orthodox Cathedral]], under the guidance of the Rusyn Fr. [[Dimitry Sydor]], a Moscow Patriarchate priest, who is perhaps the most controversial cleric in today's Carpathians. In a nod to Moscow, the architecture of the new cathedral is based on the design of the famous and newly rebuilt [[Cathedral of Christ the Saviour]] in Moscow, which is the largest church in all of Russia.

At the parish level, numerous churches which had been forcibly Orthodox for decades switched back to the Greek Catholic jurisdiction, and new ones were also constructed. As well, in spite of continued pressure, the region's Greek Catholic Church steadfastly refuses to be included under the jurisdiction of the Ukrainian oriented Lviv Ukrainian Catholic Eparchy. Notably and in another example of Rusyns going against the tide and seen as a pushback against Ukrainianism, an estimated 542 of the existing 550 Transcarpathian Orthodox churches chose to remain under the (Russian) Moscow Patriarchate rather than join the (Ukrainian) Kiev/Kyiv Patriarchate.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kuzio|first=Taras|date=2005|title=The Rusyn Question in Ukraine|journal=Canadian Review of Studies in Nationalism|pages=10}}</ref> And as of 2021 according to the Ukrainian government itself, Transcarpathia had one of the highest adherence levels in Ukraine to the Moscow Orthodox Patriarchate rather than the Kyiv Orthodox Patriarchate.<ref>{{Cite web|date=December 2020|title=Report on the Network of Religious Organizations for 2021 |url=https://dess.gov.ua/statistics-2020/|url-status=live|website=Civil Service of Ukraine on Ethnopolitics and Freedom of Conscience|access-date=2021-11-13|archive-date=2021-11-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211113193957/https://dess.gov.ua/statistics-2020/}}</ref>

=== Greek Catholics ===
{{see|Ruthenian Greek Catholic Church}}
[[File:St Michael's Greek Catholic Church, Turja Pasika Transcarpathia Ukraine (built 1810).jpg|thumb|St Michael's Greek Catholic Church, Turja Pasika Transcarpathia Ukraine (built 1810)]]
Many Rusyns are [[Eastern Catholic Churches|Eastern Catholics]] of the [[Byzantine Rite]], who since the [[Union of Uzhhorod]] in 1646 have been in communion with the [[See of Rome]].{{sfn|Pekar|1979|p=}}{{sfn|Litwin|1987|pp=57–83}}{{sfn|Véghseő|2015|pp=147–181}} This church, the [[Ruthenian Greek Catholic Church]], is distinct from the [[Latin Church|Latin Catholic Church]]. It has retained the Byzantine Rite liturgy, sometimes including the [[Church Slavonic]] language, the liturgical forms of Byzantine or [[Eastern Orthodox Christianity]], and married priests.

The [[Pannonian Rusyns]] of Croatia are organized under the [[Greek Catholic Eparchy of Križevci]], and those in the region of [[Vojvodina]] (northern Serbia), are organized under the [[Greek Catholic Eparchy of Ruski Krstur]], headed by bishop [[Đura Džudžar]], who is an ethnic Rusyn. Those in the [[diaspora]] in the [[United States]] established the [[Byzantine Catholic Metropolitan Church of Pittsburgh]].{{citation needed|date=May 2020}}

=== Eastern Orthodox ===
{{see|Eparchy of Mukachevo and Prešov|American Carpatho-Russian Orthodox Diocese}}
[[File:Saints Peter & Paul Orthodox Church, Mokra Transcarpathia Ukraine.jpg|thumb|Saints Peter & Paul Orthodox Church, Mokra Transcarpathia Ukraine]]
Although originally associated with the [[Eastern Orthodox Eparchy of Mukachevo]], that diocese was suppressed after the [[Union of Uzhhorod]]. New Eastern Orthodox [[Eparchy of Mukachevo and Prešov]] was created in 1931 under the auspices of the [[Serbian Orthodox Church]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=stUkAQAAIAAJ Eastern Churches Journal: A Journal of Eastern Christendom, vol. 4 (1997)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211202010405/https://books.google.com/books?id=stUkAQAAIAAJ |date=2021-12-02}}, p. 61</ref> That eparchy was divided in 1945, eastern part joining [[Russian Orthodox Church]] as the [[Eparchy of Mukachevo and Uzhhorod]], while western part was reorganized as [[Eastern Orthodox Eparchy of Prešov]] of the [[Czech and Slovak Orthodox Church]].

Many Rusyn Americans left Catholicism for Eastern Orthodoxy in the 19th century due to disputes with the [[Latin Church]] bishops, who viewed different practices in the Byzantine Rite (such as married clergy) with suspicion.[[File:St Nicholas Carpatho-Russian Orthodox Church, Jacobs Creek PA.jpg|thumb|St Nicholas Carpatho-Russian Orthodox Church, Jacobs Creek Pennsylvania, USA]]
Another large segment of [[Rusyn Americans]] belong to the [[American Carpatho-Russian Orthodox Diocese]], which is headquartered in [[Johnstown, Pennsylvania]].  From its early days, this group was [https://www.acrod.org/diocese/history recognized by the Ecumenical Patriarchate] as a self-governing diocese.

The affiliation of Eastern Orthodox Rusyns was adversely affected by the [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Communist revolution]] in the Russian Empire and the subsequent [[Iron Curtain]] which split the Orthodox diaspora from the Eastern Orthodox believers living in the ancestral homelands. A number of émigré communities have claimed to continue the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Tradition]] of the pre-revolution church while either denying or minimizing the validity of the church organization operating under Communist authority.

For example, the [[Orthodox Church in America]] (OCA) was granted autocephalous (self-governing) status by the Moscow Patriarchate in 1970. Although approximately 25% of the OCA was Rusyn in the early 1980s, an influx of Eastern Orthodox émigrés from other nations and new converts wanting to connect with the [[Eastern Christianity|Eastern Church]] have lessened the impact of a particular Rusyn emphasis in favor of a new American Orthodoxy.

In 1994, the historian [[Paul Robert Magocsi]] stated that there were approximately 690,000 Carpatho-Rusyn church members in the United States, with 320,000 belonging to the largest [[Greek Catholic]] affiliations, 270,000 to the largest [[Eastern Orthodox]] affiliations, and 100,000 to various Protestant and other denominations.{{sfn|Magocsi|2005|p=}}

== Location ==
{{Main|Places inhabited by Rusyns}}

[[File:Vojvodina west east slavs.png|thumb|[[Pannonian Rusyns]] in Vojvodina, Serbia (2002 census)]]
[[File:Places inhabited by Rusyns.png|thumb|Places inhabited by Rusyns]]
The traditional homeland of the Rusyn people, [[Carpathian Rus']], lies at the heart of the Carpathian mountains, on the borders of modern-day Ukraine, Poland, and Slovakia. Today, approximately three-quarters of Rusyns reside within Ukraine, specifically the geographic region known as [[Zakarpattia Oblast|Transcarpathia]] (historic [[Carpathian Ruthenia#Subcarpathian Rus' (1928–1938)|Subcarpathian Rus']]).{{refn|Magocsi, 2012}}

There also exists a multitude of Rusyn diaspora communities throughout neighboring countries in Europe and North America. The oldest of these diaspora communities is located in the [[Pannonian Plain]].{{refn|Magocsi, 2012}} Since the mid-18th century, the resettled communities of Pannonia have existed in parts of present-day Serbia (particularly, [[Ethnic groups of Vojvodina|Vojvodina]], known historically as Bachka) and Croatia (in [[Vukovar-Srijem County]]).<ref name="GRE 2016" /> The United States holds the largest population of Rusyns outside of Carpathian Rus', mostly within the [[Rust Belt|former industrial centers]] of the [[Northeastern US|Northeastern]] and [[Midwest]]ern United States. At the end of the 19th and early 20th centuries, approximately 225,000 Rusyns [[emigrate]]d here.{{refn|Magocsi, 2012}} Within Europe, Rusyns also migrated and settled in [[Prnjavor, Bosnia and Herzegovina|Prnjavor]], a town in the northern region of present-day [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]].<ref name="GRE 2016" /> The community in the [[Czech Republic]] is located in northern [[Moravia]] and the capital of [[Prague]]. Populations of Rusyns also migrated to Canada and Argentina in the 1920s and Canada, Australia, and Germany in the 1970s and 1980s.{{refn|Magocsi, 2012}}

== Demography ==
Of the estimated 1.2 to 1.6 million people of Rusyn origins,<ref name="Magocsi" /><ref name="GRE 2016" /> only around 90,000 individuals have been officially identified as such in recent national censuses (see infobox above). This is due, in part, to the refusal of some governments{{Which|date=May 2020}} to count Rusyns and/or allow them to self-identify on census forms, especially in Ukraine.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://zakarpattya.net.ua/News/10991-Zakonodavstvo-Ukrainy-ne-dozvoliaie-vyznaty-rusyniv-Zakarpattia-okremoiu-natsionalnistiu--|title=Законодавство України не дозволяє визнати русинів Закарпаття окремою національністю|access-date=18 March 2015|archive-date=5 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150405055905/http://zakarpattya.net.ua/News/10991-Zakonodavstvo-Ukrainy-ne-dozvoliaie-vyznaty-rusyniv-Zakarpattia-okremoiu-natsionalnistiu--|url-status=live}}</ref> The ethnic classification of Rusyns as a separate [[East Slavic peoples|East Slavic]] ethnicity distinct from [[Russians]], [[Ukrainians]], or [[Belarusians]] is, consequently, politically controversial.<ref>Ivan Pop: ''Encyclopedia of Subcarpathian Ruthenia''(Encyclopedija Podkarpatskoj Rusi). Uzhhorod, 2000. ''With support from Carpatho-Russian ethnic research center in the USA'' {{ISBN|9667838234}}</ref>{{sfn|Magocsi|Pop|2005|p=280}}<ref>Tom Trier (1998), ''Inter-Ethnic Relations in Transcarpathian Ukraine''</ref> The claim that Rusyns are a Ukrainian subgroup is disputed by some non-mainstream scholars,<ref>{{cite news |first=Piotr |last=Trochanowski |author-link=Petro Trochanowski |title=Lemkowszczyzna przebudzona |trans-title=[[Lemkivshchyna]] Awakened |newspaper=Gazeta Wyborcza (Krakowski dodatek) |location=Cracow |page=2 |date=14 January 1992 |language=pl}}</ref> as well as other scholars from the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Canada, and the United States. According to the [[2001 Ukrainian Census]], thirty percent of Rusyns in Ukraine identified Ukrainian as their native language, while two thirds named the Rusyn language.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://2001.ukrcensus.gov.ua/results/nationality_population/nationality_popul2/select_5/?botton=cens_db&box=5.5W&k_t=00&p=0&rz=1_1&rz_b=2_1%20&n_page=1 | title=Number of persons of individual ethnic groups other than those of Ukrainian ethnicity and their native language | publisher=State Committee for Statistics of Ukraine: 2001 Census | access-date=18 March 2015 | language=uk | script-title=uk:Чисельність осіб окремих етнографічних груп украінського етносу та їх рідна мова | trans-title=Number of persons of individual ethnic groups other than those of Ukrainian ethnicity and their native language | archive-date=23 October 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131023100709/http://2001.ukrcensus.gov.ua/results/nationality_population/nationality_popul2/select_5/?botton=cens_db&box=5.5W&k_t=00&p=0&rz=1_1&rz_b=2_1%20&n_page=1 | url-status=live}}</ref> However, about 10 thousand people, or 0.8%, of Ukraine's [[Zakarpattia Oblast]] (Province) identified themselves as Rusyns; by contrast, over 1 million considered themselves Ukrainians.<ref name="Ukraine" />  According to the 2022 Romanian census, there were 834 people (0.004% of the population) who identified themselves officially as Rusyns, and 594 who declared that their language was Rusyn.<ref>"Comunicat de presă Primele date provizorii pentru Recensământul Populației și Locuințelor, runda 2021", at https://web.archive.org/web/20221230125029/https://insse.ro/cms/sites/default/files/com_presa/com_pdf/cp-date-provizorii-rpl_2.pdf , p. 11 (on ethnicity) and p. 12 (on language).</ref>

The [[endonym]] ''Rusyn'' has frequently gone unrecognised by various governments, and has in other cases been prohibited.<ref name="Magocsi">{{cite journal|author=Paul Magocsi|author-link=Paul Robert Magocsi|url=https://www.litopys.org.ua/rizne/magocie.htm|year=1995|title=The Rusyn Question|journal=Political Thought|volume=2–3|issue=6|access-date=2022-02-17|archive-date=2022-02-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220202015353/http://www.litopys.org.ua/rizne/magocie.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> Today, Slovakia, Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Serbia and Croatia officially recognize contemporary Rusyns as an ethnic minority.{{Citation needed|date=April 2021}} In 2007, Carpatho-Rusyns were recognized as a separate ethnicity in Ukraine by the [[Zakarpattia Oblast Council]] on a regional level,<ref name="GRE 2016" /> and in 2012 the Rusyn language gained official regional status in certain areas of the province, as well as nationwide based on the 2012 Law of Ukraine, "[[Language policy in Ukraine|On the principles of the state language policy]]". However, most contemporary self-identified ethnic Rusyns live outside of Ukraine.{{citation needed|date=May 2020}}

=== Ethnic subgroups ===
Rusyns may be divided into two significant subgroups: Carpathian Rusyns and [[Pannonian Rusyns]].  While both groups are descendants of Rusyn populations from [[Carpathian Rus']], Pannonian Rusyns migrated from the Carpathian to parts of modern-day Croatia and Serbia ([[Vojvodina]]) in the 19th century. Additionally, the two groups speak different dialects (or languages, depending on the author):  the former group speaking [[Carpathian Rusyn language|Carpathian Rusyn]]<ref>{{cite book| author = Дуличенко А. Д. | chapter = Малые славянские литературные языки. III. Восточнославянские малые литературные языки. IIIа. Карпаторусинский| title = Языки мира. Славянские языки |location= М. |year= 2005 |publisher= [[Academia]] | pages = 610–611 | isbn = 978-5-87444-216-3 | author-link = Aleksandr Dulichenko}}</ref> and the latter speaking [[Pannonian Rusyn language|Pannonian Rusyn]].

Other more specific, regional subgroups (debatably) include Lemkos, Boykos, Hutsuls, and Dolinyans ({{lit|lowlanders}}).<ref name="GRE 2016" /> However, the Lemko-Boyko-Hutsul subdivision popular with Ukrainian scholars was only first promoted in the 1920s by the ''Lemko Committee'' and other contemporary Ukrainian scholars.<ref name="Pasieka">{{cite journal |last1=Pasieka |first1=Agnieszka |title=Making an Ethnic Group: Lemko-Rusyns and the Minority Question in the Second Polish Republic |journal=European History Quarterly |volume=51 |issue=3 |doi=10.1177/02656914211027121 |date=August 2021|pages=386–410 |s2cid=237155677 |doi-access=free}}</ref>  Furthermore, while [[Lemkos]] and Rusyns are recognized as distinct ethnic minorities in Poland and Slovakia (respectively), neither [[Boykos]] nor [[Hutsuls]] are formally recognized in any country; nor are any Rusyns for that matter recognized as such in Ukraine.<ref name="pmid19589018" /><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?AddButton=pages%5CH%5CU%5CHutsuls.htm |title=Encyclopedia of Ukraine: Hutsuls |access-date=2022-02-17 |archive-date=2021-12-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211202011302/http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?AddButton=pages%5CH%5CU%5CHutsuls.htm |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Schaefer">Richard T.Schaefer (ed.), 2008, ''Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and Society, Volume 1'', SAGE Publications, p. 1341.</ref><ref name="Olson">{{cite book|last1=Olson|first1=James Stuart|last2=Pappas|first2=Lee Brigance|last3=Pappas|first3=Nicholas Charles|first4=Nicholas C. J.|last4=Pappas|title=An Ethnohistorical Dictionary of the Russian and Soviet Empires|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CquTz6ps5YgC|year=1994|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-313-27497-8|pages=135–136|access-date=2018-11-11|archive-date=2019-12-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191211230337/https://books.google.com/books?id=CquTz6ps5YgC|url-status=live}}</ref>

Regarding these common ethnographic divisions, prominent Rusyn scholar, Paul Robert Magocsi, has said the following: {{blockquote| The tripartite Lemko-Boiko-Hutsul schema […] does not, however, respond to reality on the ground. For example, Carpatho-Rusyns on the southern slopes of the mountains have never referred to themselves as either Lemkos or Boikos, while the area inhabited by self-designated Hutsuls is for the most part outside Carpathian Rus'. Only 17 villages […] (a mere 3 percent of the total number of villages in historic Carpathian Rus') are inhabited by persons who may use Hutsul as a self-identifier. On the other hand, the name Hutsul has taken on a broader and vaguer meaning. Especially in today's Ukraine it is used as a kind of term of endearment to describe all the inhabitants of Ukraine's Transcarpathian oblast, who are viewed with nostalgia as pristine mountaineers […]{{sfn|Magocsi|2015|p=3}}}}

==Gallery==
<gallery class="center">
Boykos of Maniava.jpg|[[Boykos|Boyko]] family, late 19th century
Бойки.jpg|Boyko family, early 20th century
Ukrainian hutsuls 1.jpg|[[Hutsuls|Hutsul]] family, 1925–1939
Hutsul music band.jpg|Hutsul music band, 1918–1935
Carpatho-Rusyn sub-groups - Sanok area Lemkos in original goral folk-costumes from Mokre (Poland) ..jpg|[[Lemkos]] from [[Sanok]] in stylized highland folk-costumes from Mokre (Poland)
Carpatho-Rusyn sub-groups - Przemyśl area Ukrainians in original goral folk-costumes..jpg|Rusyns from [[Przemyśl]]
Carpatho-Rusyn sub-groups - Presov area Lemkos (left side) and Przemyśl area Ukrainians in original goral folk-costumes..jpg|Boykos from [[Prešov]] (left side) and Lemkos from Przemyśl
Narodna nosnja petrovci.jpg|Ruthenian costume from [[Petrovci, Croatia|Petrovci]], [[Croatia]]
</gallery>

==See also==
* [[Polish Uplanders]]

== Explanatory notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== Citations ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== General and cited sources ==
{{Refbegin|2}}
* {{Cite book|last=Bonkáló|first=Alexander|title=The Rusyns|year=1990|location=New York|publisher=Columbia University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sy8fAAAAMAAJ|isbn=978-0-88033-190-6|access-date=2019-03-23|archive-date=2019-05-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190515134517/https://books.google.com/books?id=sy8fAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite journal|last1=Csernicskó|first1=István|last2=Fedinec|first2=Csilla|title=Four Language Laws of Ukraine|journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights|year=2016|volume=23|pages=560–582|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/311926631|access-date=2021-07-08|archive-date=2022-02-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220217115653/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/311926631_Four_Language_Laws_of_Ukraine|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book|last=Himka|first=John-Paul|title=Religion and Nationality in Western Ukraine: The Greek Catholic Church and the Ruthenian National Movement in Galicia, 1870–1900|year=1999|location=Montreal & Kingston|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press|isbn=978-0-7735-1812-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j2yhkvCx60IC|access-date=2021-08-22|archive-date=2021-12-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211202011905/https://books.google.com/books?id=j2yhkvCx60IC|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Катунин|first=Дмитрий А.|title=Языковые права русинов, украинцев и других национальных меньшинств в законодательстве Республики Сербия|journal=Русин: Международный исторический журнал|year=2015|volume=39|number=1|pages=229–238|url=https://journals.tsu.ru/engine/download.php?id=54654&area=files|access-date=2022-02-17|archive-date=2021-08-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210807124944/http://journals.tsu.ru/engine/download.php?id=54654&area=files|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Litwin|first=Henryk|title=Catholicization among the Ruthenian Nobility and Assimilation Processes in the Ukraine during the Years 1569–1648|journal=Acta Poloniae Historica|year=1987|volume=55|pages=57–83|url=https://rcin.org.pl/Content/30516/WA303_48794_1987-55_APH_03_o.pdf|access-date=2022-02-17|archive-date=2021-07-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210706083105/http://rcin.org.pl/Content/30516/WA303_48794_1987-55_APH_03_o.pdf|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book|editor-last1=Magocsi|editor-first1=Paul R.|editor-last2=Pop|editor-first2=Ivan I.|editor-link1=Paul R. Magocsi|title=Encyclopedia of Rusyn History and Culture|year=2005|orig-date=2002|edition=2. rev.|location=Toronto|publisher=University of Toronto Press}}
* {{Cite book|last=Magocsi|first=Paul R.|author-link=Paul R. Magocsi|title=The Roots of Ukrainian Nationalism: Galicia as Ukraine's Piedmont|year=2002|location=Toronto|publisher=University of Toronto Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CdiIa8n7SsgC|isbn=978-0-8020-4738-0|access-date=2019-03-22|archive-date=2019-05-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190515133409/https://books.google.com/books?id=CdiIa8n7SsgC|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book|last=Magocsi|first=Paul R.|author-link=Paul R. Magocsi|title=Our people: Carpatho-Rusyns and their Descendants in North America|year=2005|orig-date=1984|edition=4. rev.|location=Wauconda|publisher=Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rnMOAQAAMAAJ|isbn=978-0-86516-611-0|access-date=2019-03-22|archive-date=2019-05-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190515004740/https://books.google.com/books?id=rnMOAQAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Magocsi|first=Paul R.|author-link=Paul R. Magocsi|title=The Fourth Rus': A New Reality in a New Europe|journal=Journal of Ukrainian Studies|year=2011a|volume=35–36 (2010–2011)|pages=167–177|url=https://cius-archives.ca/files/original/06e65909058c8543b80153d33b7f3a55.pdf|access-date=2021-08-22|archive-date=2021-07-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210717054617/https://cius-archives.ca/files/original/06e65909058c8543b80153d33b7f3a55.pdf|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book|last=Magocsi|first=Paul R.|author-link=Paul R. Magocsi|title=With Their Backs to the Mountains: A History of Carpathian Rus' and Carpatho-Rusyns|year=2015|location=Budapest-New York|publisher=Central European University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Nzj2DAAAQBAJ|isbn=9786155053467|access-date=2019-03-22|archive-date=2020-12-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201208125111/https://books.google.com/books?id=Nzj2DAAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book|last=Pekar|first=Athanasius B.|title=The Bishops of the Eparchy of Mukachevo, with Historical Outlines|year=1979|location=Pittsburgh|publisher=Byzantine Seminary Pres|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kl7lAAAAMAAJ|access-date=2019-03-14|archive-date=2020-11-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201119202407/https://books.google.com/books?id=Kl7lAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book|last=Rusinko|first=Elaine|title=Straddling Borders: Literature and Identity in Subcarpathian Rus'|year=2003|location=Toronto|publisher=University of Toronto Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XoT3hxJZ2lsC|isbn=978-0-8020-3711-4|access-date=2019-03-23|archive-date=2019-05-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190515005604/https://books.google.com/books?id=XoT3hxJZ2lsC|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Rychlík|first1=Jan|last2=Rychlíková|first2=Magdaléna|title=Podkarpatská Rus v dějinách Československa 1918–1946|year=2016|location=Praha|publisher=Vyšehrad|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jIJuDwAAQBAJ|isbn=9788074297694|access-date=2019-03-18|archive-date=2019-05-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190515121831/https://books.google.com/books?id=jIJuDwAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Véghseő|first=Tamás|title=Reflections on the Background to the Union of Uzhhorod / Ungvár (1646)|journal=Eastern Theological Journal|year=2015|volume=1|issue=1|pages=147–181|url=https://real.mtak.hu/39976/3/veghseo_ETJ_1_2015.pdf|access-date=2022-02-17|archive-date=2021-07-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210706083105/http://real.mtak.hu/39976/3/veghseo_ETJ_1_2015.pdf|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book|last=Magocsi|first=Paul R.|author-link=Paul R. Magocsi|title=Carpatho-Rusyns|year=2012|location=New York|publisher=Carpatho-Rusyn Research Center}}
{{Refend}}

== Further reading ==
{{See also|List of Slavic studies journals}}
{{Refbegin|2}}
* {{Cite book|last=Bidermann|first=Hermann Ignaz|title=Die ungarischen Ruthenen, ihr Wohngebiet, ihr Erwerb und ihre Geschichte|year=1862|volume=1|location=Innsbruck|publisher=Wagnersche Universitäts-Buchhandlung|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y88rAQAAMAAJ|access-date=2019-03-23|archive-date=2019-05-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190514202231/https://books.google.com/books?id=y88rAQAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book|last=Bidermann|first=Hermann Ignaz|title=Die ungarischen Ruthenen, ihr Wohngebiet, ihr Erwerb und ihre Geschichte|year=1867|volume=2|location=Innsbruck|publisher=Wagnersche Universitäts-Buchhandlung|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bpEAAAAAcAAJ|access-date=2019-03-23|archive-date=2019-05-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190514231659/https://books.google.com/books?id=bpEAAAAAcAAJ|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book|last=Chlebowski|first=Cezary|title=Wachlarz: Monografia wydzielonej organizacji dywersyjnej Armii Krajowej: wrzesien 1941-marzec 1943|year=1983|location=Warszawa|publisher=Instytut Wydawniczy Pax|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4i0rAAAAMAAJ|isbn=9788321106786|access-date=2019-03-23|archive-date=2019-05-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190515032506/https://books.google.com/books?id=4i0rAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book|last=Dyrud|first=Keith P.|title=The Quest for the Rusyn Soul: The Politics of Religion and Culture in Eastern Europe and in America, 1890-World War I|year=1992|location=Philadelphia|publisher=Balch Institute Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vjpKAAAAMAAJ|isbn=978-0-944190-10-4|access-date=2019-03-23|archive-date=2019-05-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190514095155/https://books.google.com/books?id=vjpKAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book|last=Golovatsky|first=Yakov|author-link=Yakov Golovatsky|title=Zustände der Russinen in Gallizien: Ein Wort zur Zeit|year=1846|location=Leipzig|publisher=Slawische Buchhandlung|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X7xbAAAAcAAJ|access-date=2019-03-23|archive-date=2019-05-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190515020426/https://books.google.com/books?id=X7xbAAAAcAAJ|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book|last=Kokaisl|first=Petr|title=In the footsteps of the Rusyns in Europe: Ukraine, Slovakia, Serbia, Poland and Hungary|year=2023|location=Praha|publisher=Nostalgie|isbn=978-80-908883-0-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2bSvEAAAQBAJ&dq=kokaisl+rusyns&pg=PA4|access-date=2023-07-25}}
* {{Cite book|last=Lansdowne|first=Alan|title=Is there a credible case for Rusyn National Self-Determination in Ukraine?|year=2008|series=MA Thesis|location=London|publisher=School of Slavonic and Eastern European Studies|url=https://www.twirpx.com/file/1535336}}
* {{Cite book|last=Mayer|first=Maria|title=Rusyns of Hungary: Political and Social Developments, 1860–1910|year=1997|location=New York|publisher=Columbia University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W3DiAAAAMAAJ|isbn=978-0-88033-387-0|access-date=2019-03-23|archive-date=2019-05-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190514221246/https://books.google.com/books?id=W3DiAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Magocsi|first=Paul R.|author-link=Paul R. Magocsi|title=An Historiographical Guide to Subcarpathian Rus'|journal=Austrian History Yearbook|year=1973|volume=9|pages=201–265|url=https://shron1.chtyvo.org.ua/Magochii_Pavlo_Robert/An_Historiographical_Guide_to_Subcarpathian_Rus_anhl.pdf|doi=10.1017/S006723780001910X|s2cid=144778333 |access-date=2019-03-19|archive-date=2019-12-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191205040050/https://shron1.chtyvo.org.ua/Magochii_Pavlo_Robert/An_Historiographical_Guide_to_Subcarpathian_Rus_anhl.pdf|url-status=dead}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Magocsi|first=Paul R.|author-link=Paul R. Magocsi|title=The Ruthenian Decision to Unite with Czechoslovakia|journal=Slavic Review|year=1975|volume=34|issue=2|pages=360–381|url=https://shron1.chtyvo.org.ua/Magochii_Pavlo_Robert/The_Ruthenian_Decision_to_Unite_with_Czechoslovakia_anhl.pdf|doi=10.2307/2495193|jstor=2495193|s2cid=155615547 |access-date=2019-03-19|archive-date=2019-04-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190428052942/https://shron1.chtyvo.org.ua/Magochii_Pavlo_Robert/The_Ruthenian_Decision_to_Unite_with_Czechoslovakia_anhl.pdf|url-status=dead}}
* {{Cite book|last=Magocsi|first=Paul R.|author-link=Paul R. Magocsi|title=The Shaping of a National Identity: Subcarpathian Rus', 1848–1948|year=1978|location=Cambridge|publisher=Harvard University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XcOOAAAAIAAJ|isbn=978-0-674-80579-8|access-date=2019-03-19|archive-date=2020-07-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727180414/https://books.google.com/books?id=XcOOAAAAIAAJ|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book|last=Magocsi|first=Paul R.|author-link=Paul R. Magocsi|title=Galicia: A Historical Survey and Bibliographic Guide|year=1983|location=Toronto|publisher=University of Toronto Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qgTrJm85sDQC|isbn=978-0-8020-2482-4|access-date=2019-03-19|archive-date=2020-07-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727174919/https://books.google.com/books?id=qgTrJm85sDQC|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book|last=Magocsi|first=Paul R.|author-link=Paul R. Magocsi|title=The Carpatho-Rusyn Americans|year=1988|edition=1.|location=New York-Philadelphia|publisher=Chelsea House Publishers|url=https://archive.org/details/carpathorusyname00mago|url-access=registration|isbn=978-0-87754-866-9}}
* {{Cite book|last=Magocsi|first=Paul R.|author-link=Paul R. Magocsi|title=Carpatho-Rusyn Studies: An Annotated Bibliography, 1975–1984|year=1988|volume=1|location=New York|publisher=Garland|isbn=978-0-8240-1214-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M2EnAQAAIAAJ|access-date=2019-03-19|archive-date=2020-07-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727175037/https://books.google.com/books?id=M2EnAQAAIAAJ|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book|last=Magocsi|first=Paul R.|author-link=Paul R. Magocsi|title=Carpatho-Rusyn Studies: An Annotated Bibliography, 1985–1994|year=1998|volume=2|location=New York|publisher=Columbia University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kvPiAAAAMAAJ|isbn=978-0-88033-420-4|access-date=2019-03-22|archive-date=2019-05-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190515034215/https://books.google.com/books?id=kvPiAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book|last=Magocsi|first=Paul R.|author-link=Paul R. Magocsi|title=Carpatho-Rusyn Studies: An Annotated Bibliography, 1995–1999|year=2006|volume=3|location=New York|publisher=Columbia University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6RzjAAAAMAAJ|isbn=978-0-88033-531-7|access-date=2019-03-22|archive-date=2019-05-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190514235348/https://books.google.com/books?id=6RzjAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book|last=Magocsi|first=Paul R.|author-link=Paul R. Magocsi|title=Carpatho-Rusyn Studies: An Annotated Bibliography, 2000–2004|year=2011b|volume=4|location=New York|publisher=Columbia University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vCGWuQEACAAJ|isbn=978-0-88033-684-0|access-date=2019-03-22|archive-date=2019-05-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190514231239/https://books.google.com/books?id=vCGWuQEACAAJ|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book|last=Magocsi|first=Paul R.|author-link=Paul R. Magocsi|title=Carpatho-Rusyn Studies: An Annotated Bibliography, 2005–2009|year=2013|volume=5|location=New York|publisher=Columbia University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YlWzvgEACAAJ|isbn=978-0-8240-5836-4|access-date=2019-03-22|archive-date=2019-05-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190515021234/https://books.google.com/books?id=YlWzvgEACAAJ|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Magocsi|first=Paul R.|author-link=Paul R. Magocsi|title=Magyars and Carpatho-Rusyns: On the Seventieth Anniversary of the Founding of Czechoslovakia|journal=Harvard Ukrainian Studies|year=1990|volume=14|issue=3–4|pages=427–460|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EDkMAQAAMAAJ|access-date=2019-03-22|archive-date=2019-05-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190515014731/https://books.google.com/books?id=EDkMAQAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book|last=Magocsi|first=Paul R.|author-link=Paul R. Magocsi|title=The Rusyns of Slovakia: An Historical Survey|year=1993|location=New York|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-88033-278-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d-VnAAAAMAAJ|access-date=2019-03-22|archive-date=2019-09-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190930112130/https://books.google.com/books?id=d-VNAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book|editor-last=Magocsi|editor-first=Paul R.|editor-link=Paul R. Magocsi|title=A New Slavic Language is Born: The Rusyn Literary Language of Slovakia|year=1996|location=Boulder|publisher=East European Monographs|isbn=978-0-88033-331-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K7diAAAAMAAJ|access-date=2021-08-22|archive-date=2021-08-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210822170713/https://books.google.com/books?id=K7diAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book|last=Magocsi|first=Paul R.|author-link=Paul R. Magocsi|title=Of the Making of Nationalities There is No End|year=1999a|volume=1|location=Boulder|publisher=East European Monographs|isbn=978-0-88033-438-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8OuzAAAAIAAJ|access-date=2021-08-22|archive-date=2021-06-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210616063251/https://books.google.com/books?id=8OuzAAAAIAAJ|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book|last=Magocsi|author-link=Paul R. Magocsi|first=Paul R.|title=Of the Making of Nationalities There is No End|year=1999b|volume=2|location=Boulder|publisher=East European Monographs|isbn=978-0-88033-438-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KMuzAAAAIAAJ|access-date=2021-08-22|archive-date=2021-06-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210617024252/https://books.google.com/books?id=KMuzAAAAIAAJ|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book|last=Magocsi|first=Paul R.|author-link=Paul R. Magocsi|title=A History of Ukraine: The Land and Its Peoples|year=2010|orig-date=1996|edition=2. rev.|location=Toronto|publisher=University of Toronto Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TA1zVKTTsXUC|isbn=978-1-4426-1021-7|access-date=2019-03-22|archive-date=2020-08-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819223631/https://books.google.com/books?id=TA1zVKTTsXUC|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book|last=Magocsi|first=Paul R.|author-link=Paul R. Magocsi|chapter=Carpathian Rus': Interethnic Coexistence without Violence|title=Shatterzone of Empires: Coexistence and Violence in the German, Habsburg, Russian, and Ottoman Borderlands|year=2013|location=Bloomington-Indianapolis|publisher=Indiana University Press|pages=449–462|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xam0fUlrXfkC|isbn=978-0-253-00631-8|access-date=2019-03-22|archive-date=2019-05-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190514130504/https://books.google.com/books?id=Xam0fUlrXfkC|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book|last=Magocsi|first=Paul R.|author-link=Paul R. Magocsi|title=Historical Atlas of Central Europe|year=2018|orig-date=1993|edition=3. rev.|location=Toronto|publisher=University of Toronto Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p-d_DwAAQBAJ|isbn=978-1-4875-2331-2|access-date=2019-03-22|archive-date=2020-08-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819172357/https://books.google.com/books?id=p-d_DwAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book|last=Petrov|first=Aleksei L.|editor-last=Magocsi|editor-first=Paul R.|editor-link=Paul R. Magocsi|title=Medieval Carpathian Rus': The Oldest Documentation About the Carpatho-Rusyn Church and Eparchy|year=1998|orig-date=1930|location=New York|publisher=Columbia University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d2PZAAAAMAAJ|isbn=978-0-88033-388-7|access-date=2019-03-22|archive-date=2019-05-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190515003429/https://books.google.com/books?id=d2PZAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book|last=Shandor|first=Vikenty|title=Carpatho-Ukraine in the Twentieth Century: A Political and Legal History|year=1997|location=Cambridge|publisher=Harvard University Press|url=https://archive.org/details/carpathoukrainei0000shan|url-access=registration}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category}}
* [https://tccweb.org/ The Carpathian Connection]
* [https://www.carpathorusynsociety.org/ The Carpatho-Rusyn Society]
* [https://www.carpatho-rusyn.org/ Carpatho Rusyn Knowledge Base]
* [https://www.acrod.org/ American Carpatho-Russian Diocese]

{{Navbox Rusyns}}
{{Slavic ethnic groups}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Rusyns| ]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Croatia]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Poland]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Russia]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Serbia]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Slovakia]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Ukraine]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Vojvodina]]
[[Category:Members of the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization]]
[[Category:East Slavs]]