View source for Russula

{{Short description|Genus of fungi}}
{{Automatic taxobox
| image = Russulamexicana.jpg
| image_caption = The sickener (''[[Russula emetica|R. emetica]] group'')
| taxon = Russula
| authority = [[Christian Hendrik Persoon|Pers.]] (1797)
| type_species = ''[[Russula emetica]]''
| type_species_authority = ([[Schaeff.]]) [[Christian Hendrik Persoon|Pers.]] (1796)
| diversity = c. 700 species
| diversity_link = List of Russula species
| synonyms_ref = <ref name="urlMycoBank"/>
| synonyms = *''Agaricus'' trib. ''Russula'' <small>(Pers.) [[Elias Magnus Fries|Fr.]] (1821)</small>
* ''Bucholtzia'' <small>[[Kurt Lohwag|Lohwag]] (1924)</small><ref name="Lohwag 1924"/>
* ?''[[Cystangium]]'' <small>[[Rolf Singer|Singer]] & [[Alexander H. Smith|A.H.Sm.]] (1960)</small>
* ''Dixophyllum'' <small>[[Franklin Sumner Earle|Earle]] (1909)</small><ref name="Earle 1909"/>
* ''Elasmomyces'' <small>Cavara 1898</small>
* ''Gymnomyces'' <small>[[George Edward Massee|Massee]] & [[Leonard Rodway|Rodway]] (1898)</small><ref name="Massee 1898"/>
* ''Lactarelis'' <small>Earle (1909)</small><ref name="Earle 1909"/>
* ''Macowanites'' <small>[[Károly Kalchbrenner|Kalchbr.]] (1882)</small><ref name="Lebel 2007"/>
* ''Martellia'' <small>[[Mattir.]] (1900)</small><ref name="Mattirolo 1900"/>
* ''Omphalomyces'' <small>[[Giovanni Antonio Battarra|Battarra]] ex Earle (1909)</small><ref name="Earle 1909"/>
* ''Phaeohygrocybe'' <small>[[Henn.]] (1901)</small><ref name="Hennings 1901"/>
* ''Russulina'' <small>[[J.Schröt.]] (1889)</small><ref name="Schröter 1889"/>
}}

'''''Russula''''' is a very large [[genus]] composed of around 750 worldwide species of fungi. The genus was described by [[Christian Hendrik Persoon]] in 1796.

The mushrooms are fairly large, and brightly colored – making them one of the most recognizable genera among mycologists and mushroom collectors. Their distinguishing characteristics include usually brightly coloured caps, a white to dark yellow [[spore print]], brittle, attached [[gill (mushroom)|gills]], an absence of [[latex]], and absence of [[partial veil]] or [[universal veil|volva]] tissue on the stem. Microscopically, the genus is characterised by the [[amyloid]] ornamented spores and flesh (trama) composed of spherocysts. Members of the related genus ''[[Lactarius (fungus)|Lactarius]]'' have similar characteristics but emit a milky [[latex]] when their gills are broken.

The [[ectomycorrhiza]]l mushrooms are typically common. Although some species are toxic, a number of others are [[Edible mushroom|edible]].

==Taxonomy==
[[Christian Hendrik Persoon]] first [[circumscription (taxonomy)|circumscribed]] the genus ''Russula'' in his 1796 work ''Observationes Mycologicae'', and considered the defining characteristics to be the fleshy [[basidiocarp|fruit bodies]], depressed [[pileus (mycology)|cap]], and equal [[lamella (mycology)|gills]].<ref name="Persoon 1796"/> He reduced it to the rank of [[tribe (biology)|tribe]] in the genus ''[[Agaricus]]'' in 1801. [[Elias Fries]] similarly regarded ''Russula'' as a tribe of ''Agaricus'' in his influential ''[[Systema Mycologicum]]'' (1821), but later (1825) raised it to the rank of genus in the ''Systema Orbis Vegetabilis''. Around the same time, [[Samuel Frederick Gray]] also recognized ''Russula'' as a genus in his 1821 work ''The Natural Arrangement of British Plants''.<ref name="Gray 1821"/>
The name ''Russula'' is derived from the [[Latin]] word ''russus'', meaning "red".<ref name="Schalkwijk-Barendsen 1991"/>

=== Sequestrate species ===
The description of ''Russula'' was changed in 2007 when molecular analysis revealed that several [[Secotioid|sequestrate]] species formerly classified in ''Macowanites'' (syn. ''Elasmomyces''<ref name="Lebel 2000" />) were shown to lie within ''Russula''. The type species of ''Macowanites'', ''[[Russula agaricina|Macowanites agaricinus]]'', was transferred and several new species were added: ''[[Russula albidoflava]]'', ''[[Russula albobrunnea|R.&nbsp;albobrunnea]]'', ''[[Russula brunneonigra|R.&nbsp;brunneonigra]]'', ''[[Russula galbana|R.&nbsp;galbana]]'', ''[[Russula pumicoidea|R.&nbsp;pumicoidea]]'', ''[[Russula reddellii|R.&nbsp;reddellii]]'',  ''[[Russula sinuata|R.&nbsp;sinuata]]'', and ''[[Russula variispora|R.&nbsp;variispora]]''.<ref name="Lebel 2007" /> The genus names ''Gymnomyces'' and ''Martellia'', formerly used for sequestrate species, are now accepted synonyms of ''Russula'',<ref name="urlMycoBank" /> The genus ''[[Cystangium]]'' is also probably a synonym of ''Russula'' but is still in use.<ref name="Trierveiler-Pereira 2014" /><ref name="Buyck 2010" />
[[File:Russula (Russulafamilie) 24-10-2024. (d.j.b).jpg|thumb|260px| Oddly shaped Russula in decline.]]
== Identification ==
{{Quote box|align=right|width=235px|qalign=right|salign=left|quote = "If we know of any one, who in the pride of intellect spurned all mental tasks as mere play, we would tame him by insisting on his mastering, classifying and explaining the synonyms of the genus ''Russula''."|source =[[Anna Maria Hussey]], ''[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/2976840 Illustrations of British mycology]'', 1855}}
[[File:Russula_flavida_Veracruz.jpg|thumb|right|''[[Russula flavida|R. flavida]]'', [[Mexico]]]]

Like the genus ''Lactarius'', russulas have a [[Russulaceae#Distinctive flesh consistency|distinctive flesh consistency]], which is also reflected in the appearance of the gills and stipe, and normally makes them immediately recognizable. They have no trace of a veil (no ring, or veil remnants on the cap). The gills are brittle except in a few cases, and cannot be bent parallel with the cap without breaking. Hence the genus ''Russula'' is sometimes known [[common name|colloquially]] as "brittle gills".<ref name="Marley 2010"/> They have splitting gills and do not exude a milky substance at cut surfaces, contrary to the genus ''Lactarius''. Presence of large spherical cells, 'sphaerocysts', in the stipe is an important characteristic feature to distinguish the members of Russulaceae from other mushrooms. In ''Russula'', the stipe breaks like the flesh of an apple, while in most other families it only breaks into fibres.<ref name="Mohanan 2011"/> The [[spore print|spore powder]] varies from white to cream, or even orange.

While it is relatively easy to identify a sample mushroom as belonging to this genus, it is a significant challenge to distinguish member species of ''Russula''. This task often requires microscopic characteristics, and subtle subjective distinctions, such as the difference between a ''mild to bitter'' and a ''mild to acrid'' flavor. Moreover, the exact [[phylogenetic]] relationships of these mushrooms have yet to be resolved in the professional mycological community, and may ultimately depend on [[DNA sequencing]] analysis.

The following characteristics are often important in identifying individual species:
* the exact colour of the spore powder (white/cream/ochre),
* the taste (mild/bitter/acrid),
* colour changes in the flesh,
* the distance from the centre to which the cap skin can be pulled off: (peeling percentage).
* cap colour (but this is often very variable within one species),
* reaction of the flesh to [[Iron(II) sulfate|ferrous sulphate]] (FeSO<sub>4</sub>), formalin, alkalis, and other chemicals,
* ornamentation of the spores, and
* other microscopic characteristics, such as the appearance of the [[cystidium|cystidia]] in various mounting reagents.

Despite the difficulty in positively identifying collected specimens, the possibility to spot the toxic species by their acrid taste makes some of the mild species, such as ''[[Russula cyanoxantha|R.&nbsp;cyanoxantha]]'' and ''[[Russula vesca|R. vesca]]'', popular edible mushrooms. ''Russula'' is mostly free of deadly poisonous species, and mild-tasting ones are all edible.<ref>See [http://www.mtsn.tn.it/russulales-news/in_edibility.asp "Russulales News", "Edibility and toxicity of Russulales" page, "5.1.2. Edible Russulae" section] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070822112146/http://www.mtsn.tn.it/russulales-news/in_edibility.asp |date=2007-08-22 }}.</ref>{{Failed verification|date=July 2024}}

== Ecology ==
All ''Russula'' species are [[ectomycorrhiza]]l symbionts with higher plants and trees, and the genus has a collectively diverse [[host (biology)|host]] range.<ref name="Trappe 1962"/> Some species are [[cosmopolitan distribution|cosmopolitan]] and capable of forming associations with one or more hosts in a range of habitats, while others are more constrained in either host or habitat or both.<ref name="Roberts 2004"/> The [[mycoheterotrophic]] plant ''[[Monotropa uniflora]]'' associates with a small range of fungal hosts, all of them members of [[Russulaceae]], including 18 species of ''Russula''.<ref name="Yang 2006"/>

Russula fruit bodies provide a seasonal food source for [[slug]]s, [[squirrel]]s and [[deer]].<ref name="Cazares 1994"/><ref name="Maser 1978"/><ref name="Maser 1985"/><ref name="Keller 2002"/>

Some russulas can [[bioaccumulation|bioaccumulate]] high levels of toxic metals from their environment. For example, ''[[Russula atropurpurea]]'' is capable of concentrating [[zinc]], a property attributed to the presence of [[metallothionein]]-like [[peptide]]s in the mushroom.<ref name="Leonhardt 2014"/> ''[[Russula nigricans]]'' can accumulate [[lead]] to a level up to five times more concentrated than the soil it grows in,<ref name="Busuioc 2013"/> while ''[[Russula ochroleuca|R.&nbsp;ochroleuca]]'' concentrates environmental [[mercury (element)|mercury]].<ref name="Drewnowska 2012"/>

== Toxicity ==
The main pattern of toxicity seen among ''Russula'' species to date has been gastrointestinal symptoms in those with a spicy (acrid) taste when eaten raw or undercooked; many of these are red-capped species such as ''[[Russula emetica|R.&nbsp;emetica]]'', ''[[Russula sardonia|R.&nbsp;sardonia]]'' and ''[[Russula nobilis|R. nobilis]]''. The Asian species ''[[Russula subnigricans]]'' has been the cause of several fatal cases of [[rhabdomyolysis]] in Japan.<ref name="Money 2011" /> Several active agents have been isolated from the species, including russuphelin&nbsp;A<ref name="Takahashi 1992" /> and [[cycloprop-2-ene carboxylic acid]].<ref name="Matsuura 2009" />

== Edibility ==
[[File:Hypomyces lactifluorum Oaxaca.jpg|thumb|right|Lobster mushroom]]
Humans collect several species of ''Russula'' for food. There is a cultural divide toward interpretation of ''Russula'' edibility. In general, North American field guides tend to list mostly non-edible species and advise caution when consuming any member of the genus. In contrast, European field guides have a more favorable opinion and list more edible species.<ref name="Marley 2010"/>

In the [[Pacific Northwest]] region of North America, only ''[[Russula brevipes]]'' parasitized with ''[[Hypomyces lactifluorum]]''—known as lobster mushroom—is collected commercially. Several ''Russula'' species are sold in the markets of [[Izta-Popo Zoquiapan National Park]] (central Mexico): ''[[Russula brevipes|R.&nbsp;brevipes]]'', ''[[Russula cyanoxantha|R.&nbsp;cyanoxantha]]'', ''[[Russula mexicana|R.&nbsp;mexicana]]'' and ''[[Russula olivacea|R.&nbsp;olivacea]]''. In [[Tlaxcala]], wild species sold in market include ''[[Russula alutacea|R.&nbsp;alutacea]]'', ''R.&nbsp;cyanoxantha'', ''[[Russula delica|R.&nbsp;delica]]'', ''[[Russula mariae|R.&nbsp;mariae]]'', ''[[Russula olivacea|R.&nbsp;olivacea]]'', ''[[Russula romagnesia|R.&nbsp;romagnesia]]'', and ''[[Russula xerampelina|R.&nbsp;xerampelina]]''.<ref>Dugan (2011), pp. 77–78.</ref>

In Madagascar, species collected from introduced eucalypt forests include ''[[Russula madecassense]]'', ''[[Russula prolifica]]'', and several other species of minor importance, including some that have not yet been officially described.<ref>Dugan (2011), p. 69.</ref> ''Russula'' is the most commonly consumed and economically important mushroom genus in [[Madagascar]], particularly ''[[Russula prolifica]]'' and ''[[Russula edulis]]''. This and other edible Russula are typically stripped of their cap cuticle before selling to make them more similar in appearance to the ''[[Agaricus bisporus]]''.<ref name="Buyck 2008" /> In [[Tanzania]], ''[[Russula cellulata]]'' and ''[[Russula ciliata]]'' are sometimes used as food.<ref>Dugan (2011), p. 70.</ref>

''[[Russula cyanoxantha]]'' is a popular edible throughout Asia, Europe, and the Pacific.<ref>Dugan (2011), pp. 46, 62.</ref> In Finland, commonly eaten species include (but are not limited to) ''[[Russula vinosa]]'', ''[[Russula vesca]], [[Russula paludosa]], [[Russula decolorans]], [[Russula xerampelina]]'' and ''[[Russula claroflava]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.evira.fi/elintarvikkeet/valmistus-ja-myynti/elintarvikeryhmat/ruokasienet/kauppasienet/|title=Suositeltavat ruokasienet|work=Evira|access-date=2018-08-20|language=fi|archive-date=2017-11-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115225634/https://www.evira.fi/elintarvikkeet/valmistus-ja-myynti/elintarvikeryhmat/ruokasienet/kauppasienet/|url-status=dead}}</ref>''

In Thailand, russulas collected by locals and sold in roadsides and local markets include ''[[Russula alboareolata]]'', ''[[Russula lepida]]'', ''[[Russula nigricans]]'', ''[[Russula virescens]]'', and ''[[Russula xerampelina]]''.<ref>Dugan (2011), p. 58.</ref> Edible russulas in [[Nepal]] include ''[[Russula flavida]]'' and ''[[Russula chlorides]]''.<ref>Dugan (2011), p. 57.</ref> The tropical Chinese species ''[[Russula griseocarnosa]]'', misidentified as the European ''[[Russula vinosa|R.&nbsp;vinosa]]'' until 2009, is commercially collected as food and medicine.<ref name="Wang 2009" />

==Natural products==
Despite the large number of species, the [[secondary metabolite]]s of ''Russula'' have not been well investigated, especially compared to ''Lactarius''. ''[[Russula foetens]]'' was shown to produce the marasmane [[sesquiterpene]]s [[Lactapiperanol A]] and [[Lactapiperanol E]].<ref name="Wang 2005"/> A novel [[lectin]] with potent [[in vitro]] antitumor activity was isolated from ''[[Russula rosea]]'', the first lectin reported from a ''Russula''.<ref name="Zhang 2010"/> This mushroom is also the source of the sesquiterpenes rulepidanol and rulepidadienes A and B.<ref name="Vidari 1998"/> ''[[Russula nigricans]]'' contains the compound nigricanin, the first [[ellagic acid]] derivative isolated from higher fungi.<ref name="Tan 2004"/>

==Notable species==
[[File:Russula chloroides.jpg|thumb|right|''R. chloroides'']]
{{further|List of Russula species}}
* ''[[Russula cyanoxantha]]'' – high quality edible with blue to greenish cap, mild taste and white, greasy gills.
* ''[[Russula emetica]]''
* ''[[Russula subnigricans]]'' – a poisonous mushroom causing [[rhabdomyolysis]] in [[Japan]], [[China]], and [[Taiwan]].
* ''[[Russula virescens]]'' – an excellent edible, recognizable by the green and distinctly crackled cap cuticle;
* ''[[Russula xerampelina]]'' – an edible russula that smells and tastes like shrimp or seafood.

==See also==
{{Portal|Fungi}}
* [[Mushroom hunting]]
* [[Mushroom poisoning]]

==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em|refs=

<ref name="Busuioc 2013">{{cite journal |vauthors=Busuioc G, Elekes C |title=Response of four ''Russula'' species under copper sulphate and lead acetate treatments |journal= Notulae Botanicae Horti Agrobotanici Cluj-Napoca|year=2013 |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=538–45 |url=http://www.notulaebotanicae.ro/index.php/nbha/article/viewFile/9146/7666 |format=PDF|doi=10.15835/nbha4129146 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

<ref name="Buyck 2008">{{cite journal |author=Buyck B. |title=The edible mushrooms of Madagascar: An evolving enigma |journal=Economic Botany |year=2008 |volume=62 |issue=3 |pages=509–520 |doi=10.1007/s12231-008-9029-4|bibcode=2008EcBot..62..509B |s2cid=39119949 }}</ref>

<ref name="Buyck 2010">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Buyck B, Hofstetter V, Verbeken A, Walleyn R |title=Proposal to conserve ''Lactarius'' nom. cons. (Basidiomycota) with conserved type |journal=Taxon |volume=59 |year=2010 |pages=447–453 |doi=10.1002/tax.591031 |doi-access=free }} {{open access}}</ref>

<ref name="Cazares 1994">{{cite journal |vauthors=Cazares E, Trappe JM |year=1994 |title=Spore dispersal of hypogeous, ectomycorrhizal fungi on a glacier forefront by mammal mycophagy |journal=Mycologia |volume=86 |issue=4 |pages=507–510 |url=http://www.cybertruffle.org.uk/cyberliber/59350/0086/004/0507.htm |doi=10.2307/3760743|jstor=3760743 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

<!-- protolog reference for Elasmomyces
<ref name="Cavara 1897">{{cite journal |author=Cavara F. |title=Contributo alla conoscenza delle Podazineae (Elasmomyces mattirolianus nov. gen. et sp.) |journal=Malpighia |year=1897 |volume=11 |pages=414–28 |language=it |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/34835251}}</ref>
-->

<!-- not used atm.
<ref name="Davis 2012">{{cite book |vauthors=Davis MD, Sommer R, Menge JA |title=Field Guide to Mushrooms of Western North America |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=961gjLm2o9EC&pg=PA378 |year=2012 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-27108-1 |page=378}}</ref>
-->

<ref name="Drewnowska 2012">{{cite journal |vauthors=Drewnowska M, Sąpór A, Jarzyńska G, Nnorom IC, Sajwan KS, Falandysz J |title=Mercury in ''Russula'' mushrooms: Bioconcentration by Yellow-ocher Brittle Gills ''Russula ochroleuca'' |journal=Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part A |year=2012 |volume=47 |issue=11 |pages=1577–91 |doi=10.1080/10934529.2012.680420 |pmid=22702818|bibcode=2012JESHA..47.1577D |s2cid=27097507 }}</ref>

<ref name="Earle 1909">{{cite journal |author=Earle FS. |title=The genera of North American gill fungi |journal=Bulletin of the New York Botanical Garden |year=1909 |volume=5 |pages=373–451 (see p9.&nbsp;409–10) |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/31042582}}</ref>

<ref name="Gray 1821">{{cite book |author=Gray SF. |title=A Natural Arrangement of British Plants |volume=1 |publisher=Baldwin, Cradock and Joy |location=London, UK |page=618 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/30087320|year=1821 }}</ref>

<ref name="Hennings 1901">{{cite journal |author=Hennings P. |title=Beiträge zur Flora von Afrika. XXI. Fungi. camerunenses novi. III |journal=Botanische Jahrbücher für Systematik, Pflanzengeschichte und Pflanzengeographie |year=1901 |volume=30 |pages=39–57 |language=de |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/211262}}</ref>

<ref name="Keller 2002">{{cite journal |vauthors=Keller HW, Snell KL |year=2002 |title=Feeding activities of slugs on Myxomycetes and macrofungi |journal=Mycologia |volume=94 |issue=5 |pages=757–760 |url=http://www.cybertruffle.org.uk/cyberliber/59350/0094/005/0757.htm |doi=10.2307/3761690 |pmid=21156549|jstor=3761690 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

<ref name="Lebel 2000">{{cite journal |vauthors=Lebel T, Trappe JM |year=2000 |title=Type Studies of Sequestrate Russulales. I. Generic Type Species |journal=Mycologia |volume=92 |issue=6 |pages=1188–1205 |jstor=3761486 |doi=10.2307/3761486}}</ref>

<ref name="Lebel 2007">{{cite journal |vauthors=Lebel T, Tonkin JE |year=2007 |title=Australasian species of ''Macowanites'' are sequestrate species of ''Russula'' (Russulaceae, Basidiomycota) |journal=Australian Systematic Botany |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=355–381 |doi=10.1071/SB07007}} {{closed access}}</ref>

<ref name="Leonhardt 2014">{{cite journal |vauthors=Leonhardt T, Sácký J, Šimek P, Šantrůček J, Kotrba P |title=Metallothionein-like peptides involved in sequestration of Zn in the Zn-accumulating ectomycorrhizal fungus ''Russula atropurpurea'' |journal=Metallomics |year=2014 |volume=6 |issue=9 |pages=1693–701 |doi=10.1039/c4mt00141a |pmid=24992964|doi-access=free }}</ref>

<ref name="Lohwag 1924">{{cite journal |author=Lohwag H. |title=Entwicklungsgeschichte und systematische Stellung von Secotium agaricoides (Czern.) Holl |journal=Österreichische Botanische Zeitschrift |year=1924 |volume=73 |issue=7–9 |pages=161–74 |language=de |doi=10.1007/bf01634995|s2cid=27240181 }}</ref>

<ref name="Marley 2010">{{cite book |author=Marley G. |title=Chanterelle Dreams, Amanita Nightmares: The Love, Lore, and Mystique of Mushrooms |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KJybhI1yWucC&pg=PA20 |year=2010 |publisher=Chelsea Green Publishing|isbn=978-1-60358-280-3 |page=20}}</ref>

<ref name="Maser 1978">{{cite journal |vauthors=Maser C, Trappe JM, Nussbaum RA |year=1978 |title=Fungal-small mammal interrelationships with emphasis on Oregon coniferous forests |journal=Ecology |volume=59 |issue=4 |pages=799–809 |doi=10.2307/1938784 |url=http://ir.library.oregonstate.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/1957/17292/Fungal-small%20mammal%20interrelationships.pdf |jstor=1938784 |bibcode=1978Ecol...59..799M }}</ref>

<ref name="Maser 1985">{{cite journal |vauthors=Maser C, Maser Z, Trappe JM |year=1985 |title=Food habits of the northern flying squirrel (''Glaucomys sabrinus'') in Oregon |journal=Canadian Journal of Zoology |volume=63 |issue=4 |pages=1084–1088 |doi=10.1139/z85-162 |jstor=1938784}}</ref>

<ref name="Massee 1898">{{cite journal |author=Massee GE. |year=1898 |title=Fungi exotici, I |journal=Bulletin of Miscellaneous Informations of the Royal Botanical Gardens Kew |volume=1898 |issue=138 |pages=113–136 |jstor=4115483 |doi=10.2307/4115483|doi-access=free }} {{open access}}</ref>

<ref name="Matsuura 2009">{{cite journal |vauthors=Matsuura M, Saikawa Y, Inui K, Nakae K, Igarashi M, Hashimoto K, Nakata M |title=Identification of the toxic trigger in mushroom poisoning |journal=Nature Chemical Biology |year=2009 |volume=5 |issue=7 |pages=465–7 |doi=10.1038/nchembio.179 |pmid=19465932}}</ref>

<ref name="Mattirolo 1900">{{cite journal |author=Mattirolo O. |title=Gli ipogei di Sardegna e di Sicilia |journal=Malpighia |year=1900 |volume=14 |pages=39–110 (see p.&nbsp;78) |language=it |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/34717638}}</ref>

<ref name="Money 2011">{{cite book |author=Money NP. |title=Mushroom |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QI7TOrbewzUC&pg=PA118 |year=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-973256-2 |page=118}}</ref>

<ref name="Mohanan 2011">{{cite book |author=Mohanan C. |title=Macrofungi of Kerala |publisher=Kerala Forest Research Institute |location=Kerala, India |year=2011 |pages=597 |isbn=978-81-85041-73-5}}</ref>

<ref name="Persoon 1796">{{cite book |author=Persoon CH. |title=Observationes mycologicae |year=1796 |location=Leipzig, Germany |publisher=Apud Petrum Phillippum Wolf |page=100 |url=http://bibdigital.rjb.csic.es/ing/Libro.php?Libro=5680&Pagina=104 |language=la |quote=Pileus carnorufus, utplurimum depressus; Lamellae longitudine aequales. |access-date=2014-11-27 |archive-date=2014-12-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141205020457/http://bibdigital.rjb.csic.es/ing/Libro.php?Libro=5680&Pagina=104 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

<ref name="Roberts 2004">{{cite journal |vauthors=Roberts C, Ceska O, Kroeger P, Kendrick BW |year=2004 |title=Macrofungi from six habitats over five years in Clayoquot Sound, Vancouver Island |journal=Canadian Journal of Botany |volume=82 |pages=1518–1538 |doi=10.1139/B04-114 |issue=10}}</ref>

<ref name="Schalkwijk-Barendsen 1991">{{cite book |author=Schalkwijk-Barendsen HME. |title=Mushrooms of Western Canada |publisher=Lone Pine Publishing |location=Edmonton, Canada |year=1991 |page=[https://archive.org/details/mushroomsofweste0000scha/page/208 208] |isbn=978-0-919433-47-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/mushroomsofweste0000scha/page/208 }}</ref>

<ref name="Schröter 1889">{{cite book |author=Schröter J. |title=Kryptogamen-Flora von Schlesien |year=1889 |publisher=Cramer |location=Lehre, Germany |volume=3-1(5) |page=549}}</ref>

<ref name="Takahashi 1992">{{cite journal |vauthors=Takahashi A, Agatsuma T, Matsuda M, Ohta T, Nunozawa T, Endo T, Nozoe S |year=1992 |title=Russuphelin A, a new cytotoxic substance from the mushroom ''Russula subnigricans'' Hongo |journal= Chemical & Pharmaceutical Bulletin|volume=40 |issue=12 |pages=3185–8 |pmid=1294320 |doi=10.1248/cpb.40.3185|doi-access=free }}</ref>

<ref name="Tan 2004">{{cite journal |vauthors=Tan JW, Xu JB, Dong ZJ, Luo DQ, Liu JK |title=Nigricanin, the first ellagic acid derived metabolite from the basidiomycete ''Russula nigricans'' |journal=Helvetica Chimica Acta |year=2004 |volume=87 |issue=4 |pages=1025–1029 |doi=10.1002/hlca.200490074}}</ref>

<ref name="Trappe 1962">{{cite journal |author=Trappe JM. |title=Fungus associates of ectotrophic mycorrhizae |journal=Botanical Review |year=1962 |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=538–606 |jstor=4353659 |doi=10.1007/bf02868758|bibcode=1962BotRv..28..538T |s2cid=42698903 }}</ref>

<ref name="Trierveiler-Pereira 2014">{{cite journal |vauthors=Trierveiler-Pereira L, Smith ME, Trappe JM, Nouhra E |title=Sequestrate fungi from Patagonian ''Nothofagus'' forests: ''Cystangium'' (Russulaceae, Basidiomycota) |journal=Mycologia |year=2014 |doi=10.3852/13-302 |volume=107 |issue=1 |pages=90–103 |pmid=25232070|s2cid=9078246 |hdl=11336/12605 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

<ref name="urlMycoBank">{{cite web |title=MycoBank: ''Russula'' |url=http://www.mycobank.org/BioloMICS.aspx?Table=Mycobank&Rec=57329&Fields=All |publisher=MycoBank |access-date=2014-11-29}}</ref>

<ref name="Vidari 1998">{{cite journal |vauthors=Vidari G, Che Z, Garlaschelli L |title=New nardosinane and aristolane sesquiterpenes from the fruiting bodies of ''Russula lepida'' |journal=Tetrahedron Letters |year=1998 |volume=39 |issue=33 |pages=6073–6076 |doi=10.1016/S0040-4039(98)01251-9}}</ref>

<ref name="Wang 2005">{{cite journal |vauthors=Wang XN, Wang F, Du JC, Ge HM, Tan RX, Liu JK |title=A new marasmane sesquiterpene from the Basidiomycete ''Russula foetens'' |journal=Zeitschrift für Naturforschung |year=2005 |volume=60b |issue=10 |pages=1065–7 |url=http://www.znaturforsch.com/ab/v60b/s60b1065.pdf |doi=10.1515/znb-2005-1007 |s2cid=36019486 }}</ref>

<ref name="Wang 2009">{{cite journal |vauthors=Wang XH, Yang ZL, Li YC, Knudsen H, Liu PG |title=''Russula griseocarnosa'' sp. nov. (Russulaceae, Russulales), a commercially important edible mushroom in tropical China: mycorrhiza, phylogenetic position, and taxonomy |journal=Nova Hedwigia |year=2009 |volume=88 |issue=1–2 |pages=269–82 |doi=10.1127/0029-5035/2009/0088-0269}}</ref>

<ref name="Yang 2006">{{cite journal |vauthors=Yang S, Pfister DH |title=''Monotropa uniflora'' plants of eastern Massachusetts form mycorrhizae with a diversity of russulacean fungi |journal=Mycologia |year=2006 |volume=98 |issue=4 |pages=535–540 |doi=10.3852/mycologia.98.4.535 |pmid=17139846|s2cid=39886589 }}</ref>

<ref name="Zhang 2010">{{cite journal |author=Zhang G, Sun, J, Wang H, Ng TB. |title=First isolation and characterization of a novel lectin with potent antitumor activity from a ''Russula'' mushroom |journal=Phytomedicine |year=2010 |volume=17 |issue=10 |pages=775–781 |doi=10.1016/j.phymed.2010.02.001|pmid=20378319 }}</ref>

}}

==Cited literature==
* {{cite book |author=Dugan FM. |title=Conspectus of World Ethnomycology |year=2011 |publisher=American Phytopathological Society|location=St. Paul, Minnesota |isbn=978-0-89054-395-5}}
* Arora, D. (1986). ''Mushrooms demystified: A comprehensive guide to the fleshy fungi'', Berkeley: Ten Speed Press. pp.&nbsp;83–103.
* Kibby, G. & Fatto, R. (1990). ''Keys to the species of Russula in northeastern North America'', Somerville, NJ: Kibby-Fatto Enterprises. 70 pp.
* Weber, N. S. & Smith, A. H. (1985). ''A field guide to southern mushrooms'', Ann Arbor: U Michigan P. 280 pp.
* Moser, M. (1978) ''Basidiomycetes II: Röhrlinge und Blätterpilze'', Gustav Fischer Verlag Stuttgart. English edition: ''Keys to Agarics and Boleti...'' published by Roger Phillips, London.
* Partly translated from [[:nl:Russula|Dutch page]].

==External links==
{{Wikispecies}}{{Commons|Russula}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060118182722/http://www.mtsn.tn.it/russulales-news/ Russulales News]
* [http://www.mushroomexpert.com/russula.html Genus Russula at Mushroom Expert.com]
* [https://mushroomobserver.org/name/show_name/22603 Genus Russula at Mushroom Observer]

{{Taxonbar|from=Q216110}}
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[[Category:Russula| ]]
[[Category:Russulales genera]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Christiaan Hendrik Persoon]]
[[Category:Taxa described in 1797]]