View source for Russo-Turkish wars

{{Short description|Series of conflicts between 1568 and 1918}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict          = Russo-Turkish wars
| place             = [[Eastern Europe]] and [[Western Asia]]
| date              = 1568–1918 (350 years)
| image             = Russo-Ottoman wars.jpg
| image_size        = 340px
| territory         = Ottomans permanently lose [[Annexation of the Crimean Khanate by the Russian Empire|Crimea]], most of [[Treaty of Bucharest (1812)|Bessarabia]] and parts of [[Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca|modern Ukraine]], and most of the [[Russian conquest of the Caucasus|Caucasus]]
| combatant1        = {{flagicon image|Flag of Oryol ship (variant).svg}}&nbsp;[[Tsardom of Russia]] (until 1721)<br />{{flagicon image|Flag of Russia.svg}}&nbsp;[[Russian Empire]] (1721–1917)<br />{{flagicon image|Flag of Russia.svg}}&nbsp;[[Russian Republic]] (1917)<br />{{flagicon image|Flag of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (1918–1925).svg}}&nbsp;[[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russian SFSR]] (1917–1918)
| combatant2        = {{flagicon image|Flag of the Ottoman Empire (1844–1922).svg}}&nbsp;[[Ottoman Empire]]<br />'''Vassals:'''<br />[[File:Flag of the Crimean Khanate (15th century).svg|23px|link=]]&nbsp;[[Crimean Khanate|Crimea]]<br />{{flagicon image|Flag of Muhammad Ali.svg}}&nbsp;[[Khedivate of Egypt|Egypt]]
| caption           = '''Left-to-right from top:'''<br />[[Siege of Ochakov (1737)|Siege of Ochakov]] (1737), [[Siege of Izmail]] (1790), [[Siege of Sevastopol (1854–1855)|Siege of Sevastopol]] (1854–1855), [[Siege of Plevna]] (1877), [[Battle of Sarikamish]] (1914–1915), [[Erzurum offensive|Battle of Erzurum]] (1916)
| result            = *Military campaigns largely resulted in Russian victories, with the exception of Ottoman victories in the [[Pruth River Campaign]] and the [[Crimean War]]
*[[Russian Civil War|Russian Empire collapsed in 1917]] and succeeded by the [[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics]] in 1922; [[Partition of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Empire partitioned between 1918 and 1922]] and succeeded by the [[Republic of Turkey]] in 1923
| partof            = the [[Ottoman wars in Europe]]
}}
{{Campaignbox Russo-Ottoman Wars}}
The '''Russo-Turkish wars''' ({{langx|ru|Русско-турецкие войны}} {{Transliteration|ru|Rússko-Turétskiye vóiny}}), or the '''Russo-Ottoman wars''' ({{langx|tr|Osmanlı-Rus savaşları}}), began in 1568 and continued intermittently until 1918. They consisted of twelve conflicts in total, making them one of the longest series of wars in the [[history of Europe]].<ref name="Dowlng" /> All but four of these wars ended in losses for the [[Ottoman Empire]], which was undergoing a period of [[Stagnation of the Ottoman Empire|stagnation]] and [[Decline of the Ottoman Empire|decline]]. Conversely, they showcased the ascendancy of the [[Russian Empire]] as a significant European power after [[Peter the Great]] oversaw extensive modernization efforts in the early 18th century.<ref name=":d10.1353/kri.2011.0018">{{cite journal | vauthors=((Ágoston, G.)) | journal=Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History | title=Military Transformation in the Ottoman Empire and Russia, 1500–1800 | volume=12 | issue=2 | pages=281–319 | publisher=Slavica Publishers | date= 2011 | issn=1538-5000 | doi=10.1353/kri.2011.0018| s2cid=19755686 }}</ref><ref name=":1fajsdkfsdl">{{cite journal | vauthors=((Kafadar, C.)) | journal=Harvard Middle East and Islamic Review | volume=4|issue=1–2| title=The Question of Ottoman Decline | date= 1999}}</ref><ref name=":1fsdafd">{{cite journal | vauthors=((Howard, D. A.)) | journal=Journal of Asian History | title=Ottoman Historiography and the Literature of Decline of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries | volume=22 | issue=1 | pages=52–77 | publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag | date= 1988}}</ref> Ultimately, however, the end of the Russo-Turkish wars came about with the dissolution of the two belligerents' respective states as a consequence of [[World War I]]: the [[Russian Civil War|Russian Empire collapsed]] in 1917 and was ultimately succeeded by the [[Soviet Union|Union of Soviet Socialist Republics]] in 1922; while the [[Partition of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Empire was partitioned]] between 1918 and 1922 and succeeded by the [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]] in 1923.

== History ==

=== Initial and intermediate phases (1568–1739) ===
{{See also|Territorial evolution of Russia|Transformation of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman ancien régime}}

==== Russia before Peter the Great ====
[[File:Crimean Khanate 1600.gif|thumb|250px|The [[Crimean Khanate]] in about 1600. Note that the areas marked [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth|Poland]] and [[Tsardom of Russia|Muscovy]] were claimed rather than administered.]]
{{See also|Crimean–Nogai slave raids in Eastern Europe}}
The first [[Russo-Turkish War (1568–1570)]] occurred after the [[conquest of Kazan]] and [[Astrakhan]] by the Russian tsar [[Ivan the Terrible]]. The Ottoman Sultan [[Selim II]] tried to squeeze the Russians out of the lower [[Volga]] by sending a military expedition to Astrakhan in 1569. The Turkish expedition ended in disaster for the [[Military of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman army]], which could not take Astrakhan and almost completely perished in the steppes, while the [[Ottoman Navy|Ottoman fleet]] was wrecked by a storm in the [[Sea of Azov]].<ref>Martin, Janet (1996). Medieval Russia:980-1584. Cambridge University Press.</ref> The peace treaty between the two sides cemented Russia's rule on the Volga, but allowed the Ottoman Empire to obtain a number of commercial benefits. The [[Crimean Khanate]], an Ottoman [[vassal]], continued its expansion against the [[Tsardom of Russia]], burning down [[Fire of Moscow (1571)|Moscow]] in 1571, but was defeated at the [[Battle of Molodi]] in 1572.

The next conflict between Russia and Turkey began 100 years later as part of the struggle for the territory of Ukraine. While Russia conquered [[Left-bank Ukraine]] after the [[Russo-Polish War (1654–1667)]], the Ottoman Empire, in the course of the [[Polish–Ottoman War (1672–1676)]], spread its rule over all of [[right-bank Ukraine]] with the support of its [[vassal]], [[Petro Doroshenko]] (1665–1672).<ref name="FaroqhiMcGowan1997">{{cite book|author1=Suraiya Faroqhi|author2=Bruce McGowan|author3=Sevket Pamuk|title=An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c00jmTrjzAoC&pg=PA428|date=28 April 1997|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-57455-6|pages=428}}</ref> The latter's pro-Ottoman policy caused disapproval among many [[Ukrainian Cossacks]], who would elect [[Ivan Samoilovich]] as sole [[Hetmans of Ukrainian Cossacks|Hetman of all Ukraine]] in 1674.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Gábor Kármán|author2=Lovro Kunčević|title=The European Tributary States of the Ottoman Empire in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=80lLuG3KRGIC&pg=PA146|date=2013-06-20|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-25440-4|pages=146}}</ref> In 1676, Russian troops captured [[Chigirin]] and overthrew Doroshenko, who was exiled to Russia. In 1677, the Ottoman army tried to retake Chigirin, but was defeated. In 1678, the Ottoman army was finally able to take Chigirin after a bloody assault, but here the Ottoman expansion to the northeast was stopped.<ref>Флоря Б. Н. Россия, Речь Посполитая и Правобережная Украина в последние годы гетманства П. Дорошенко (1673—1677 гг.) // Древняя Русь. Вопросы медиевистики. — 2016. — Т. 65, No. 3. — С. 90.</ref> In 1679–80, the Russians repelled the attacks of the [[Crimean Tatars]] and signed the [[Treaty of Bakhchisarai]] in 1681, which established the Russo-Turkish border on the [[Dnieper River]].<ref>{{cite book|author1=Sergei R. Grinevetsky|author2=Igor S. Zonn|author3=Sergei S. Zhiltsov|title=The Black Sea Encyclopedia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KFCqBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA661|date=2014-09-30|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-642-55227-4|pages=661}}</ref>

==== Russia during and after Peter the Great ====
Russia joined the European [[Holy League (1684)|Holy League]] ([[Habsburg monarchy|Austria]], [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth|Poland]], [[Republic of Venice|Venice]]) in 1686.<ref name="Davies">{{cite book|author=Brian Davies|title=Empire and Military Revolution in Eastern Europe: Russia's Turkish Wars in the Eighteenth Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RJcg5lNqjS8C&pg=PT14|date=2011-06-16|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-1-4411-6238-0}}</ref>{{rp|14}} During the war, the Russian army organized the [[Crimean campaigns of 1687 and 1689]] and the [[Azov campaigns (1695–96)]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Jeremy Black|title=The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: Renaissance to Revolution, 1492-1792|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=neUKEvaYPZYC&pg=PA36|date=1996-03-28|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-47033-9|pages=36}}</ref> In the light of Russia's preparations for the war with [[Sweden]] and other countries' signing the [[Treaty of Karlowitz]] with Turkey in 1699, the Russian government signed the [[Treaty of Constantinople (1700)|Treaty of Constantinople]] with the Ottoman Empire in 1700.<ref>{{cite book|author=Edward J. Phillips|title=The Founding of Russia's Navy: Peter the Great and the Azov Fleet, 1688-1714|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AwK3pQaf5EYC|year=1995|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-313-29520-1|pages=113}}</ref> Following the results of peace, Russia managed to annex [[Azov]] and get access to the Sea of Azov.

[[File:Azov.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Azov campaigns|Capture of Azov]] by the troops of [[Peter the Great]] in 1696]]

After the Russians had defeated the Swedes and the pro-[[Swedish Empire]] Ukrainian Cossacks led by [[Ivan Mazepa]] in the [[Battle of Poltava]] in 1709, [[Charles XII of Sweden]] managed to persuade the Ottoman Sultan [[Ahmed III]] to declare war on Russia on November 20, 1710. The [[Pruth River Campaign|Prut campaign]] of Peter the Great ended very unsuccessfully for Russia. The Russian army, led by the tsar, was surrounded by a superior Turkish-Tatar army and was forced to agree to unfavorable peace conditions, according to which it returned the previously captured Azov to the Ottoman Empire.<ref>{{cite book|author=Cathal J. Nolan|title=Wars of the Age of Louis XIV, 1650-1715: An Encyclopedia of Global Warfare and Civilization: An Encyclopedia of Global Warfare and Civilization|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Nn_61ts-hQwC&pg=PA190|date=2008-07-30|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-313-35920-0|pages=191}}</ref>

By the late 17th century, [[Safavid Iran]], which neighbored both empires and had been one of the greatest rivals for Turkey [[Ottoman-Persian Wars|for centuries]] (16th–19th centuries), had been heavily declining. Taking advantage of the situation, Russia and the Ottoman Empire conquered swaths of its territory comprising contemporary [[Dagestan]], [[Azerbaijan]], and [[Northern Iran]], which was taken by [[Peter the Great|Peter I]] in the [[Russo-Persian War (1722–1723)]]; the Ottomans took the territory to the west, comprising modern day [[Armenia]], parts of Eastern [[Anatolia]], as well as western Iran. The gains by both were confirmed in the [[Treaty of Constantinople (1724)]]. For a few years, they bordered each other along a large territory in the Caucasus, which caused further frictions.

Russia managed to secure a favourable international situation by signing treaties with Persia in [[Treaty of Resht|1732]] and [[Treaty of Ganja|1735]]. These returned all Iranian territories gained since 1722 in the [[North Caucasus|North]] and [[South Caucasus]] and Northern Iran, and avoided war with the emerging leader of Persia, [[Nader Shah]]. The treaties had other diplomatically favourable aspects as they established a Russo-Iranian alliance against Turkey, as Persia was [[Ottoman–Persian War (1730–35)|at war with]] the Ottoman Empire. In the meantime Russia was also supporting the accession to the Polish throne of [[Augustus III of Poland|Augustus III]] in the [[War of the Polish Succession]] (1733–35), over the [[Kingdom of France|French]]-nominated [[Stanisław Leszczyński]]. Austria had been Russia's ally since 1726.
[[File:Europe 1748-1766 en.png|thumb|250px|Europe before the [[Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)|Russo-Turkish War]] of 1768–1774]]
Russia entered into [[Russo-Turkish War (1735–39)|another war]] with the Ottoman Empire in 1736, prompted by raids on [[Cossack Hetmanate|Ukraine]] by Crimean Tatars and the military campaign of the [[List of Crimean khans|Crimean khan]] in the [[Caucasus]]. In May 1736, the Russian army launched an invasion of the Crimean peninsula and burned the capital of the Crimean Khanate, [[Bakhchysarai]]. On June 19, the Russian Don army under the command of General [[Peter Lacy]] captured Azov.<ref name="Ingrao">{{cite book|author1=Charles W. Ingrao|author2=Nikola Samardžić|author3=Jovan Pesalj|title=The Peace of Passarowitz, 1718|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T3Sg_1wR4poC&pg=PA136|year=2011|publisher=Purdue University Press|isbn=978-1-55753-594-8|pages=136–138}}</ref> In July 1737, the [[Burkhard Christoph von Münnich|Münnich]] army took by storm the Ottoman fortress of [[Ochakov]]. The Lacy army (now 40,000 strong) marched into the Crimea the same month, inflicting some defeats on the army of the Crimean Khan and capturing [[Karasu-Bazar|Karasubazar]]. Lacy and his soldiers had to leave the Crimea, however, due to lack of supplies.<ref name="Ingrao" />

Austria entered the war against Turkey in July 1737 but was defeated a number of times. In August, Russia, Austria and Turkey began negotiations in [[Nemirov]], which would turn out to be fruitless.<ref>{{cite web|title=Nemirov Congress of 1737|url=https://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Nemirov+Congress+of+1737|website=The Free Dictionary|publisher=Farlex, Inc|access-date=27 May 2018}}</ref> There were no significant military operations in 1738. The Russian army had to leave Ochakov and [[Kinburn Peninsula|Kinburn]] due to a plague outbreak. In 1739, the [[Burkhard Christoph von Münnich|Münnich]] army crossed the [[Dnieper]], defeated the Ottoman Empire at [[Battle of Stavuchany|Stavuchany]],<ref>{{cite book|author=Spencer C. Tucker|title=A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East &#91;6 volumes&#93;: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h5_tSnygvbIC&pg=PA734|date=2009-12-23|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-85109-672-5|pages=734}}</ref> and occupied the fortress of [[Khotin]] and [[Iaşi]]. However, Austria was defeated by the Ottoman Empire once again and signed a [[Treaty of Belgrade|separate peace treaty]] on August 21. This, coupled with the imminent threat of [[The War of the Hats|Swedish invasion]], forced Russia to sign the [[Treaty of Niš (1739)|Treaty of Niš]] with Turkey on September 18, ending the war.<ref name="Ingrao" />

=== Gradual Ottoman defeat (1768–1878) ===
{{anchor|GRADDEF|Gradual defeat}}
{{Main|Decline of the Ottoman Empire}}

====Russian advances under Catherine the Great====
Following a border incident at Balta, Sultan [[Mustafa III]] [[Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)|declared war]] on Russia on September 25, 1768. The Turks formed an alliance with the Polish opposition forces of the [[Bar Confederation]], while Russia was supported by [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]], which offered naval advisers to the [[Imperial Russian Navy]].<ref name="Davies" /><ref name="Davies2" />

In January 1769, a 70-thousand Turkish-Tatar army led by Crimean Khan [[Qırım Giray]] [[Crimean–Nogai raids into East Slavic lands|invaded]] the lands of central Ukraine. Crimean Tatars, Turks and [[Nogai Horde|Nogais]] ravaged [[New Serbia (historical province)|New Serbia]], took a significant number of [[Slavery in the Ottoman Empire|slaves]]. Their raid was repulsed by the garrison of the [[Fortress of St. Elizabeth]], after which the movement to the Black Sea continued troops of General [[Pyotr Rumyantsev|Rumyantsev]].<ref>О устройстве новых укреплений по границам Екатеринославской губернии</ref><ref>Lord Kinross, 'The Ottoman Centuries', p. 397</ref>
[[File:Chesmabattle.jpg|thumb|250px|The destruction of the Ottoman fleet in [[Battle of Chesma]]]]
The Polish opposition was defeated by [[Aleksandr Vasilievich Suvorov|Alexander Suvorov]], who was then transferred to the Ottoman theatre of operations, where in 1773 and 1774 he won several minor and major battles following the previous grand successes of the Russian Field-Marshal [[Pyotr Rumyantsev]] at [[Battle of Larga|Larga]] and [[Battle of Kagul|Kagul]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Spencer C. Tucker|title=A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East &#91;6 volumes&#93;: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h5_tSnygvbIC&pg=PA862|date=2009-12-23|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-85109-672-5|pages=862}}</ref>

Naval operations of the [[Russian Baltic Fleet]] in the Mediterranean yielded victories under the command of [[Alexei Grigoryevich Orlov|Aleksei Orlov]]. In 1771, [[Egypt Eyalet|Egypt]] and [[Ottoman Syria|Syria]] rebelled against Ottoman rule, while the Russian fleet totally destroyed the [[Ottoman Navy]] at the [[Battle of Chesma]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Battle of Çeşme|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Cesme|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=28 May 2018}}</ref>

On July 21, 1774, the Ottoman Empire signed the [[Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca]], which formally granted independence to the [[Crimean Khanate]], but in reality it became dependent on Russia. Russia received 4.5&nbsp;million rubles and two key seaports allowing direct access to the [[Black Sea]]. It also marked the first time that a foreign power directly interfered in the affairs of the [[Sublime Porte]], as the treaty gave Russia protector status over Turkey's Orthodox Christian subjects.<ref>{{cite web|title=Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Treaty-of-Kucuk-Kaynarca|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=28 May 2018}}</ref>

In 1783, Russia [[Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Empire|annexed the Crimean Khanate]]. In the same year, Russia established its protectorate over the [[Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti]] according to the [[Treaty of Georgievsk]]. In 1787, Empress [[Catherine II]] made a triumphant [[Crimean journey of Catherine the Great|trip across the Crimea]], accompanied by representatives of foreign courts and her ally, [[Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor]]. These events and the friction caused by mutual complaints of infringements of the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca, which had closed the previous war, stirred up public opinion in [[Constantinople]], and the British ambassador lent his support to the war party.<ref>{{cite book|author=Mungo Melvin CB OBE|title=Sevastopol's Wars: Crimea from Potemkin to Putin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8c4vDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT903|date=2017-05-18|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|isbn=978-1-4728-2227-7|pages=903}}</ref>
[[File:Сражение при Рымнике. Гравюра.jpg|thumb|250px|Clash between Russo-Austrian and Turkish troops in the [[Battle of Rymnik]], 1788]]
In 1787 the Ottomans demanded that Russia vacate the Crimea. Russia declared war, but Ottoman preparations were inadequate and the moment was ill-chosen, now that Russia and Austria were in alliance, a fact that came to light only after events were already in motion. The Turks [[Ottoman–Habsburg wars|drove back the Austrians]] from [[Mehadia]] and overran the [[Banat]] (1789); but in Moldavia Field-Marshal Pyotr Rumyantsev was successful and captured [[Iaşi]] and [[Khotyn]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Michael Hochedlinger|title=Austria's Wars of Emergence, 1683-1797|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qbpACwAAQBAJ&pg=PA385|date=2015-12-22|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-88793-5|pages=385}}</ref> Ottoman generals were incompetent, and the army mutinous; expeditions for the relief of [[Bender, Moldova|Bender]] and [[Akkerman]] failed, [[Belgrade]] was taken by the Austrians,<ref>{{cite book|author=Michael Hochedlinger|title=Austria's Wars of Emergence, 1683-1797|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qbpACwAAQBAJ&pg=PA385|date=2015-12-22|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-88793-5|pages=385}}</ref> The Russian army under the command of [[Alexander Suvorov]] defeated the Turks in the [[Battle of Rymnik]] and [[Siege of Izmail|captured Izmail]]. The fall of [[Anapa]] completed the series of Ottoman disasters.<ref name="Dowlng" /> The Russian [[Black Sea Fleet]], created just a few years earlier, under the command of [[Admiral Ushakov]], inflicted a series of defeats on the Turkish Fleet and seized the initiative in the Black Sea.

Sultan [[Selim III]] was nervous to restore his country's prestige by a victory before making peace, but the condition of his military rendered this hope unavailing. Turkey signed an assistance pact with [[Prussia]] on 31 January 1790, but received no help during the war.<ref>{{cite book|author=Douglas M. Gibler|title=International Military Alliances, 1648-2008|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y3-iCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA99|date=2008-10-15|publisher=SAGE Publications|isbn=978-1-60426-684-9|pages=99}}</ref> Accordingly, the [[Treaty of Jassy]] was signed with Russia on 9 January 1792, by which the Crimea and Ochakov were left to Russia, the [[Dniester]] was made the frontier in Europe, and the Asiatic frontier remained unchanged.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Gábor Ágoston|author2=Bruce Alan Masters|title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC&pg=PA298|date=2010-05-21|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-1-4381-1025-7|pages=298}}</ref>

==== Engagements in the 19th century ====
{{see also|Eastern Question}}
[[File:Siege of Varna 1828.jpg|thumb|250px|Russian [[Siege of Varna (1828)|siege of Varna]] in [[Ottoman Bulgaria|Ottoman-ruled Bulgaria]], July–September 1828]]
Gábor Ágoston attributes the decline of Ottoman power relative to Russia to the reactionary [[Janissaries]]:
:Despite all these treatises and efforts at modernization, the Janissaries and their allies managed to derail Sultan Selim III's Western-style military, bureaucratic, and financial reforms through a [[Ottoman coups of 1807–1808|coup]], even killing the sultan himself. It was not until the 1830s that [[Tanzimat|fundamental reforms]] could be started under [[Mahmud II]], who [[Auspicious Incident|destroyed the Janissaries]] in 1826, a century and a quarter after Peter the Great's liquidation of the ''[[Streltsy uprising|strel'tsy]].''<ref>Gábor Ágoston, "Military transformation in the Ottoman Empire and Russia, 1500–1800." ''Kritika'' 12.2 (2011) p. 319.</ref>

In 1806, the Ottoman Empire incited by [[Napoleonic France]] started a [[Russo-Turkish War (1806–1812)|new war]]. The long six-year war for Russia took place in parallel with the [[Russo-Persian War (1804–1813)|Russo-Persian War]], the [[Finnish War|Russo-Swedish War]] and the [[War of the Fourth Coalition]]. Despite this, in the decisive campaign of 1811, the Russian army of [[Mikhail Kutuzov|Kutuzov]] defeated the Ottoman army on the [[Danube]], which made it possible to conclude a peace treaty beneficial for Russia, according to which Russia gained [[Bessarabia]].

The Ottoman Empire had maintained military parity with Russia until the second half of the eighteenth century,<ref>{{cite book |last=Aksan |first=Virginia |title=Ottoman Wars, 1700–1860: An Empire Besieged |publisher=Pearson Education Ltd. |date=2007 |pages=130–5 |isbn=978-0-582-30807-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Woodhead |first=Christine |title=New Views on Ottoman History, 1453–1839 |pages=983 |quote=the Ottomans were able largely to maintain military parity until taken by surprise both on land and at sea in the Russian war from 1768 to 1774. |journal=The English Historical Review |date=2008 |volume=123 |publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref> but by the 1820s the Ottoman armies were unable to put down the [[Greek War of Independence]] in [[Morea|southern Greece]]. The great powers of Europe intervened, and assisted [[Kingdom of Greece|Greece]] with its independence. After the [[Battle of Navarino]] and the [[Russo-Turkish War (1828–29)]], in which the Russian army first crossed the [[Balkan Mountains]] and took [[Adrianople]], Turkey recognized the independence of Greece and the transition of the [[Caucasian Riviera|Black Sea coast of the Caucasus]] to Russia. Thus Greece became the first independent country created out of a section of the Ottoman Empire. Russian Empire aspirations for a section of the empire and bases on Russia's southern flank provoked [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|British]] fears over naval domination of the Mediterranean and control of the land route to the [[Indian Subcontinent]].<ref name="Stone">[[David R. Stone]], ''A Military History of Russia: From Ivan the Terrible to the War in Chechnya'' (Greenwood Publishing, 2006)</ref>
[[File:BattleOfSinop 2.jpg|thumb|250px|The destruction of the Ottoman fleet in [[Battle of Sinop]]]]
When in 1853 Russia destroyed the entire Ottoman fleet at [[Battle of Sinop|Sinop]], Britain and [[Second French Empire|France]] concluded that armed intervention on the side of the Ottomans was the only way to halt a massive Russian expansion. Even though the Ottomans and Russians were on opposing sides, the roots of the ensuing [[Crimean War]] lay in the rivalry between the British and the Russians. The war ended unfavorably for the Russians, with the Paris [[Treaty of Paris (1856)|peace of 1856]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Crimean War|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Crimean-War|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=28 May 2018}}</ref>

The wars declined Ottoman morale and turned it helpless, illustrating that modern technology and superior weaponry were the most important part of a modern army, and a part that the Ottoman Empire was sorely lacking. While fighting alongside the British, French, and even the [[Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861)|Piedmontese]], the Ottomans could see how far they had fallen behind. Things began to change after the Crimean War.<ref>{{cite book|author=Roderic H. Davison
 |title=Reform in the Ottoman Empire, 1856-1876
 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1kTWCgAAQBAJ
 |date=2015-12-08|publisher=Princeton University Press|
 isbn=978-1-4008-7876-5 |page=5}}</ref>

One of these changes arose as Europeans began to see commercial opportunity in the empire and the money entering via trade dramatically increased. The government also received a great deal of extra money from a uniform tax system with little corruption.<ref>{{cite book|author=Monica Pohle Fraser|title=East Meets West - Banking, Commerce and Investment in the Ottoman Empire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kr-oDQAAQBAJ|date=2016-12-05|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-351-94219-5}}</ref> The Sultan got a tighter grip on the provincial [[bey]]s and increased the tribute they had to pay. However, Sultan [[Abdülaziz]], used much of this money on furnishing and creating great palaces to rival the ones in England and France, which he had visited.<ref>{{cite book|author=Alan Palmer|title=The Decline and Fall of the Ottoman Empire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wExCJpgNlmMC&pg=PT159|date=2011-05-19|publisher=Faber & Faber|isbn=978-0-571-27908-1|pages=159–}}</ref> The empire was undergoing a revolution, and throughout Anatolia a new [[Rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman nationalism]] was appearing. It seemed as though it might be possible for the empire to turn its decline around.

[[File:Вступление русских в Адрианополь 1878.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Russian troops entering [[Adrianople]]]]

The monetary and governmental collapse combined with a new threat from Russia began the final stages of the Empire's collapse. Russia had been forced by the Crimean War to give up its ambitions of conquering the Ottoman capital of [[Constantinople]] and taking control of the [[Bosphorus]]. Instead it decided to focus on gaining power in the [[Balkans]]. The population of much of the Balkans were [[Slavs]], as were the Russians. They also mainly followed the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]], as did the Russians. When new movements in Russia, such as that of the [[Slavophile]]s, started to enter the region, it became agitated and prone to revolution. When the government in Constantinople tried to initiate measures to prevent an economic collapse throughout the empire, it touched off a [[Herzegovina Uprising (1875–77)|revolt in Herzegovina]] in 1875. The revolt in [[Herzegovina]] quickly spread to [[Bosnia Vilayet|Bosnia]] and then [[April Uprising of 1876|Bulgaria]]. Soon [[Principality of Serbia|Serbia]] also entered the war against the Turks. These revolts were the first test of the new [[Ottoman Army (1861–1922)|Modern Ottoman Army]]. Even though they were not up to Western European standards, the army fought effectively and brutally; during the war, the Ottomans carried out the [[Batak massacre]] in 1876. [[Januarius MacGahan]], a journalist of the [[New York Herald]] and the London ''[[The Daily News (UK)|The Daily News]]'' wrote of the terrible happenings after his visit to Batak with [[Eugene Schuyler]]. According to most sources, around 5,000 people were massacred in Batak alone.<ref>
{{cite book |last=Crampton |first=R.J.|title=Bulgaria |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-GRpAAAAMAAJ |date=2007 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-820514-2 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-GRpAAAAMAAJ&q=batak 92]}}</ref> The total number of victims in the April uprising according to most estimates around 15,000,<ref>{{cite EB1911|wstitle=Bulgaria/History |display=Bulgaria: History: The Revolt of 1876 |volume=4 |page=782}}</ref><ref>''Genocide and gross human rights violations: in comparative perspective'', Kurt Jonassohn, 1999, p.210</ref> which is supported by [[Eugene Schuyler]]'s report, published in ''The Daily News'', according to which at least 15,000 persons were killed during the April Uprising in addition to 36 villages in three districts being buried.<ref>"Schuyler's Preliminary Report on the Moslem Atrocities", published with the letters by Januarius MacGahan, London, 1876.</ref> According to [[Donald Quataert]] around 1,000 Muslims were killed by Christian Bulgarians and consequently 3,700 Christians were killed by Muslims.<ref name="Quataert">Quataert, Donald. ''The Ottoman Empire 1700–1922'', Cambridge University Press 2005, pp.69</ref><ref>Millman, Richard. ''The Bulgarian Massacres Reconsidered''. pp. 218–231</ref>
[[File:The defeat of Shipka Peak, Bulgarian War of Independence.JPG|thumb|The Russian and Bulgarian [[Battle of Shipka Pass|defence of Shipka Pass]] against Turkish troops was crucial for the [[independence of Bulgaria]].]]
Soon the Balkan rebellions were beginning to falter. In Europe, papers were filled with reports of Ottoman soldiers killing thousands of Slavs. Even in Great Britain [[William Ewart Gladstone]] published his account of Ottoman atrocities in his ''Bulgarian Horrors and the Question of the East''.<ref>[http://www.attackingthedevil.co.uk/related/bulgarian_horrors.php Bulgarian Horrors and the Question of the East, 5 September 1876]</ref> The uprisings raised a chance for Russia, and ([[Alexander Gorchakov|Prince Gorchakov]]) and [[Austria-Hungary]] ([[Gyula Andrássy|Count Andrássy]]), who made the secret [[Reichstadt Agreement]] on July 8, 1876, on partitioning the Balkan peninsula depending on the outcome.

The following year a [[Russo-Turkish War (1877–78)|new Russo-Turkish war]] had begun. Despite fighting better than they ever had before, the modernised Ottoman armies still were not equal to the [[Imperial Russian Army]]. This time there was no help from abroad; in truth, many European nations supported the Russian war, as long as it did not get too close to Constantinople. Ten and a half months later when the war had ended, the age of Ottoman domination over the Balkans was over. In the Balkans, the Russian army, having crossed the Danube, captured the [[Battle of Shipka Pass|Shipka Pass]]. The Turkish army of [[Osman Nuri Pasha]], after a stubborn struggle, [[Siege of Plevna|surrendered to Plevna]]. After that, the Russian army crossed the Balkan Mountains, defeated the remaining Turkish troops and reached the approaches to Constantinople. In the Caucasus, the Turkish army held back the Russian offensive, but after a defeat at the [[Battle of Aladzha]], retreated to [[Erzurum]], after which the Russians took [[Kars]]. On the Black Sea, the Ottoman fleet had a colossal advantage, since the Russian [[Black Sea Fleet]] fleet had not recovered from the Crimean War. Despite this, the hostilities on the Black Sea in this war were not important.

[[File:Treaty of San Stefano.jpg|thumb|Negotiations for San Stefano Agreement]]

In response to the Russian proximity to the straits the British, against the wishes of the new Sultan [[Abdul Hamid II]], intervened in the war. A large task force representing British naval supremacy entered the straits of [[Sea of Marmara|Marmara]] and anchored in view of both the [[Dolmabahçe Palace]] and the Russian army. Looking at the prospect of a British entry into the war the Russians decided to settle the dispute. The [[Treaty of San Stefano]] gave [[United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia|Romania]] and [[Principality of Montenegro|Montenegro]] their independence, Serbia and Russia each received extra territory, [[Austria-Hungary]] was given control over [[Austro-Hungarian rule in Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia]], and [[Principality of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]] was given almost complete autonomy. The hope of the Sultan was that the other great powers would oppose such a one-sided resolution and a conference would be held to revise it. His hope became reality and in 1878 the [[Congress of Berlin]] was held where [[German Empire|Germany]] promised to be an "honest broker" in the treaty's revision. In the new treaty Bulgarian territory was decreased and the war indemnities were cancelled. The conference also again hurt Anglo-Ottoman relations by giving the British the island of [[Cyprus]]. While annoyed at [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|British Prime Minister]] [[Benjamin Disraeli]], the Sultan had nothing but praise for [[Otto von Bismarck]] who forced many of the major concessions upon Russia. These close Germano-Ottoman relations would persist until both empires' very end.

The Russian extension in this century developed with the main theme of supporting independence of Ottomans' former provinces and then bringing all of the Slav peoples of the Balkans under Bulgaria or using Armenians in the east sets the stage. At the end of the century from Russian perspective; [[Kingdom of Romania|Romania]], [[Kingdom of Serbia|Serbia]] and Montenegro and the autonomy of Bulgaria was achieved. That alarmed the [[Great Powers]]. After the [[Congress of Berlin]] the Russian expansion was controlled through stopping the expansion of Bulgaria. The Russian public felt that at the end of Congress of Berlin thousands of Russian soldiers had died for nothing.

====Sovereignty of Caucasian territories====
During the Greek uprising, the Russian Empire reached the Ottoman borders in the [[Caucasus]], which were located in the southwest of the region, as well as northeastern [[Anatolia]]. Under the terms of the [[Treaty of Adrianople (1829)|Treaty of Adrianople]], the Ottoman Empire recognized Russian sovereignty over western [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], which was formerly under Ottoman suzerainty, and recognized Russian domination of present-day [[Armenia]], which had been conquered a year earlier (1828) by the Russians from [[Qajar Iran]] through the [[Treaty of Turkmenchay]].<ref name="Stone" /> After the war of 1877–78, Russia also received [[Kars]] and [[Ardahan]].

=== Collapse of Russian and Ottoman empires (1914–1923) ===
{{Main|Caucasus campaign|Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire|Russian Revolution}}
[[File:Western Armenia September 1917.png|thumb|250x250px|The area of Russian [[Occupation of Turkish Armenia|occupation]] of northeast Turkey and the Caucasus ([[Western Armenia]]) in summer 1916.]]
During the early months of [[World War I]], [[Kars Oblast|Kars]] was a key military objective for the Ottoman army. [[Enver Pasha]] who pushed the Ottoman Empire into World War I, needed a victory against the Russians to defend his position. He collected an army on the eastern border. The army was badly defeated under Enver's command at the [[Battle of Sarikamish]] January 2, 1915, against [[Nikolai Yudenich]]. This defeat was more due to the winter weather and bad planning, given the fact that Russians were actually preparing to evacuate Kars. With the loss of the eastern army, Ottoman defenses crumbled with further small battles and the Russian army succeeded in advancing as far west as [[Erzincan]].<ref name="Stone" /> The Ottoman army suffered the next heavy defeat in the [[Erzurum Offensive|Battle of Erzurum]] in 1916, after which the Russian army captured the whole of [[Western Armenia]]. After the 1916 campaign, the front remained stable until the [[Russian Revolution]].

The collapse of the Russian army after the 1917 revolution left only thinly spread Armenian units to resist the inevitable Ottoman counter-attack. The newly declared [[First Republic of Armenia]] took over Kars in April 1918. That same year in March, the [[Baku Commune]] was established in the [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]]. The commune later became the [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship]], in turn conquered by the Ottoman [[Islamic Army of the Caucasus]], then shortly by the [[Triple Entente]] and finally the [[Bolsheviks]]. Defeat on other fronts caused the Ottoman Empire to [[Armistice of Mudros|surrender]] and withdraw forces. Both the [[Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic|Armenian]] and [[Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic|Azerbaijani]] Republics ended up being part of the [[Soviet Union]] in 1920.<ref name="Stone" /> The Soviet-Turkish border was established under the [[Treaty of Moscow (1921)]].

== List of conflicts ==

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!
!width=250|Name
!width=75|Date
!Result
|-
|1
|[[Russo-Turkish War (1568–70)|First Russo-Turkish War]]
|1568–1570
|Russian victory<ref>Janet Martin, ''Medieval Russia: 980-1584'', (Cambridge University Press, 1996), 356.</ref> 
|-
|-
|2
|[[Russo-Crimean Wars#Russo-Crimean wars of 1571-1572|Russo-Crimean wars]]
|1571–1572
|1571: Crimean-Ottoman victory: [[Fire of Moscow (1571)|Moscow is burned down]]<br>
1572: Russo-Cossack victory: a second Crimean-Ottoman invasion is repelled at the [[Battle of Molodi]]
|-
|3
|[[Russo-Turkish War (1676–81)|Second Russo-Turkish War]]{{efn|In fact, this is the third armed conflict between Russians and Turks, but in the conflict of 1571-1572 there was no direct declaration of war, and Turkish units acted only as support for the Crimean army}}
|1676–1681
|Disputed{{efn|The result of the war, which was ended by the [[Treaty of Bakhchisarai]], is Ottoman victory. Some{{sfn|Murphey|1999|p=9}}{{sfn|Davies|2006|p=512}} yet another historian contends it was a Russian victory.{{sfn|Davies|2007|p=172}}{{sfn|Gumilev|2023|p=462}} While some historians state the war was indecisive (stalemate).{{sfn|Kollmann|2017|p=14}}{{sfn|Stone|2006|p=41}}{{sfn|Davies|2006|p=512}}}}<br>[[Treaty of Bakhchisarai]]<ref>"Treaty of Bakhchisarai", ''Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia'', Vol. I, ed. [[Alexander Mikaberidze]], (ABC-CLIO, 2011), 180.</ref>
|-
|4
|[[Russo-Turkish War (1686–1700)|Third Russo-Turkish War]]<br>(subset of the [[Great Turkish War]])
|1686–1700
|Habsburg, Polish-Lithuanian, Russian, and Venetian victory<ref name="Treaty">"Treaty of Constantinople (1700)", Alexander Mikaberidze, ''Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia'', Vol. I, 250.</ref><br />[[Treaty of Karlowitz]] and [[Treaty of Constantinople (1700)|Treaty of Constantinople]]: Russia gains possession of [[Azov]] and the fortresses of Taganrog, Pavlovsk, and Mius<ref name="Treaty" />
|-
|5
|[[Russo-Turkish War (1710–1713)|Fourth Russo-Turkish War]]<br>(subset of the [[Great Northern War]])
|1710–1713
|Ottoman victory<ref name="Quataert" />{{rp|41}}<br>[[Treaty of Pruth]] and [[Treaty of Adrianople (1713)]]: Russia cedes [[Azov]] to the Ottoman Empire and demolishes the fortresses of Taganrog, Kodak, Novobogoroditskaya, and Kamenny Zaton<br>Russia agrees to stop meddling in the affairs of the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]]
|-
|6
|[[Austro-Russian–Turkish War (1735–39)|Fifth Russo-Turkish War]] (also known as the [[Austro-Russian-Turkish War (1735-1739)|Austro-Russian-Turkish War]])
|1735–1739
|
[[Treaty of Belgrade]]: Habsburgs cede the [[Kingdom of Serbia (1718–39)|Kingdom of Serbia]] with [[Belgrade]], the southern part of the [[Banat of Temeswar]] and northern [[Bosnia]] to the Ottomans, and the [[Banat of Craiova]] ([[Oltenia]]), gained by the [[Treaty of Passarowitz]] in 1718, to [[Wallachia]] (an Ottoman subject), and set the demarcation line to the rivers [[Sava (river)|Sava]] and [[Danube]]<br>[[Treaty of Niš (1739)|Treaty of Niš (3 October 1739)]]:<ref name="Nis">"Treaty of Nis (1739)", Alexander Mikaberidze, ''Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia'', Vol. I, 647.</ref><ref>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/Russo-Turkish-wars Russo-Turkish wars] // [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]</ref> Russia gives up territorial claims to Ottoman Moldova and Bessarabia; Ottomans cede the demilitarized [[Azov]] to Russia, as well as the [[Zaporizhzhia (region)|Zaporozhye]] region<ref name="Nis" />
|-
|7
|[[Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)|Sixth Russo-Turkish War]]
|1768–1774
|Russian victory<ref name="Davies2">Brian L. Davies, ''The Russo-Turkish War, 1768-1774: Catherine II and the Ottoman Empire'' (Bloomsbury, 2016).</ref><ref name="Dowlng">Dowling T. C. Russia at War: From the Mongol Conquest to Afghanistan, Chechnya, and Beyond. ABC-CLIO. 2014.</ref>{{rp|744}}<ref name="Madariaga">Isabel De Madariaga, ''Russia in the Age of Catherine the Great'' (1981)</ref>{{rp|205–214}}<br>[[Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca]]: Ottoman Empire cedes [[Kerch]], [[Enikale]], [[Kabardino-Balkaria|Kabardia]] and part of [[Yedisan]] to Russia; [[Crimean Khanate]] becomes a Russian [[client state]]
|-
|8
|[[Russo-Turkish War (1787–92)|Seventh Russo-Turkish War]]
|1787–1792
|Russian victory<ref>Black J. European Warfare, 1660-1815. Taylor & Francis, 1994. P. 25</ref><ref name="Dowlng" />{{rp|745}}<ref name="Madariaga" />{{rp|393–426}}<br>[[Treaty of Jassy]]: Russia annexes Ozi, Ottomans recognize Russian annexation of the [[Crimean Khanate]]
|-
|9
|[[Russo-Turkish War (1806–12)|Eighth Russo-Turkish War]]
|1806–1812
|Disputed<br>[[Treaty of Bucharest (1812)]]: Russia annexes [[Bessarabia]]
|-
|10
|[[Russo-Turkish War (1828–29)|Ninth Russo-Turkish War]]
|1828–1829
|Russian victory<ref>John Frederick Baddeley, ''The Russian conquest of the Caucasus'' (Routledge, 2013. ch 12)</ref><br>[[Treaty of Adrianople (1829)]]: Russia occupies the [[Danubian Principalities]], Greek independence from the Ottoman Empire
|-
|11
|[[Crimean War]]
|1853–1856
|Ottoman, British, French and Piedmontese victory<ref>Orlando Figes, ''The Crimean War: A History'' (2010)</ref><br>[[Treaty of Paris (1856)]]: mutual demilitarization of the [[Black Sea]], Russia cedes [[Southern Bessarabia]] and recognizes ''de jure'' Ottoman suzerainty over [[Danubian Principalities]]
|-
|12
|[[Russo-Turkish War (1877–78)|Tenth Russo-Turkish War]]
|1877–1878
|Russian and allied victory<ref>Ian Drury, ''The Russo-Turkish War 1877'' (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2012).</ref><br>''De jure'' independence of Romania, Serbia and Montenegro and ''de facto'' independence of Bulgaria from the Ottoman Empire<br>Territory of [[Kars Oblast]] and [[Batum Oblast]] ceded to Russia
|-
|13
|[[World War I]]:<ref>Also extended into the [[Russian Civil War]].</ref>
* [[Caucasus Campaign]]
* [[XV Corps (Ottoman Empire)|XV Corps]] actions on the [[Eastern Front (World War I)|Eastern Front]]
* [[Islamic Army of the Caucasus]]
* [[Persian campaign (World War I)|Persian Campaign]]
|1914–1918
|Indecisive<ref>Price, M. P. (1918). War & Revolution in Asiatic Russia. United Kingdom: Macmillan</ref>
[[Treaty of Batum]]
*Return to the pre-war borders in 1918
|}

==See also==
* [[Foreign policy of the Russian Empire]]
* [[Foreign policy of the Ottoman Empire]]
* [[Crimean–Nogai slave raids in Eastern Europe]]
** [[Russo-Crimean Wars]]
* [[List of Serbian–Ottoman conflicts]]
* [[Caucasian War]]
* [[Russo-Persian Wars]]

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Sources==
* {{Cite book |last=Gumilev |first=Lev |author-link=Lev Gumilev |title=От Руси к России |trans-title=For Rus' to Russia |location=Moscow |publisher=[[AST (publisher)|AST]] |year=2023 |series=Эксклюзивная классика |orig-date=1996 |isbn=978-5-17-153845-3 |edition=revised}}
* {{cite book |chapter=Muscovy at war and peace |first=Brian |last=Davies |editor-first=Maureen |editor-last=Perrie |title=The Cambridge History of Russia From Early Rus to 1689 |volume=1 |publisher= Cambridge University Press |year=2006 }}
* {{cite book |last=Davies |first=Brian |title=Warfare, State and Society on the Black Sea Steppe, 1500–1700 |date=2007 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-203-96176-6}}
* {{cite book |title=The Russia Empire, 1450-1801 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2017 |first=Nancy Shields |last=Kollmann }}
* Lewitter, Lucjan Ryszard. "The Russo-Polish Treaty of 1686 and Its Antecedents." ''Polish Review'' (1964): 5-29 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25776561 online].
* {{cite book |first=Rhoads |last=Murphey |title=Ottoman Warfare, 1500-1700 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=1999 }}
* {{cite book |first=David R. |last=Stone |title=A Military History of Russia: From Ivan the Terrible to the War in Chechnya |publisher=Greenwood Publishing |year=2006 }}

==Further reading==
{{See also|Bibliography of Russian history (1613–1917)}}
* Ágoston, Gábor "Military transformation in the Ottoman Empire and Russia, 1500–1800." ''Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History'' 12.2 (2011): 281-319 [http://www.reenactor.ru/ARH/PDF/Agoston.pdf online].
* Allen, William and Paul Muratoff. ''Caucasian Battlefields: A History Of The Wars On The Turco-Caucasian Border 1828-1921'' (2011) {{ISBN|0-89839-296-9}},
* {{cite book|last=Dowling|first=Timothy C.|title=Russia at War: From the Mongol Conquest to Afghanistan, Chechnya, and Beyond &#91;2 volumes&#93;|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KTq2BQAAQBAJ&pg=PA728|year=2014|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-948-6}}
* Dupuy, R. Ernest and Trevor N. Dupuy. ''The Encyclopedia of Military History from 3500 B.C. to the Present'' (1986 and other editions), passim and 1461–1464.
* {{cite book |title=Russia in the Age of Peter the Great |last=Hughes |first=Lindsey |author-link=Lindsey Hughes |year=2000 |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven, CT |isbn=978-0-300-08266-1 |pages=640}}
* Jelavich, Barbara. ''St. Petersburg and Moscow: Tsarist and Soviet Foreign Policy, 1814–1974'' (1974)
* Kagan, Frederick, and Robin Higham, eds. ''The Military History of Tsarist Russia'' (2008)
* Topal, Ali E. "The effects of German Military Commission and Balkan wars on the reorganization and modernization of the Ottoman Army" (Naval Postgraduate School 2013) [https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a620489.pdf online]

{{Russian Conflicts}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Russo-Turkish Wars}}
[[Category:Russo-Turkish wars|*]]
[[Category:Wars involving the Russian Empire]]
[[Category:Wars involving the Tsardom of Russia]]
[[Category:Wars involving Ukraine]]
[[Category:Wars involving Moldavia]]
[[Category:Bessarabia Governorate]]
[[Category:History of Wallachia]]
[[Category:Kingdom of Romania]]
[[Category:Modern history of Bulgaria]]
[[Category:Early modern history of Georgia (country)]]
[[Category:Military operations involving the Crimean Khanate]]
[[Category:Invasions of Europe]]