View source for Roman Syria

{{Short description|Roman province located in modern-day Turkey, Syria, and Lebanon}}
{{other uses|Syria (disambiguation)}}
{{Expand Italian|topic=hist|date=February 2024}}
{{Infobox Former Subdivision
|native_name = {{aut|Provincia Syria}}<br />{{lang|grc|ἐπαρχία Συρίας}}{{br}}<small>''eparchía Syrías''</small>
|common_name = Syria
|image_map   = Roman Empire - Syria (125 AD).svg
|image_map_caption = Roman Syria highlighted in 125 AD
|era         = 
|subdivision = Province
|nation      = the [[Roman Empire]]
|year_start  = 64 BC
|year_end    = 198 AD
|today       = {{plainlist|
*[[Syria]]
*[[Lebanon]]
*[[Turkey]]}}
|p1          = Seleucis of Syria
|p2          = Coele-Syria
|p3          = Herodian Tetrarchy{{!}}Herodian Tetrarchy<br/> &nbsp;'''∟'''Iturea<br/> &nbsp;'''∟'''Trachonitis
|s1          = Coele Syria (Roman province)
|s2          = Phoenice (Roman province)
|capital     = [[Antioch]]<br />(modern-day [[Antakya]], [[Hatay Province|Hatay]], [[Turkey]])
|event_start = Conquest of [[Coele-Syria]] by [[Pompey]]
|event_end   = Province divided into [[Coele Syria (Roman province)|Coele Syria]] and [[Phoenice (Roman province)|Phoenice]]
|demonym     = 
}}
'''Roman Syria''' was an early [[Roman province]] annexed to the [[Roman Republic]] in 64 BC by [[Pompey]] in the [[Third Mithridatic War]] following the defeat of [[Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)|King of Armenia]] [[Tigranes the Great]], who had become the protector of the Hellenistic kingdom of [[Seleucid Empire|Syria]].<ref name="Books.google.co.uk">{{cite book|last=Sicker|first=Martin|author-link=Martin Sicker|title=Between Rome and Jerusalem: 300 Years of Roman-Judaean Relations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UKK4ge9FD14C&pg=PA39|year=2001|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-275-97140-3|page=39}}</ref>

Following the partition of the [[Herodian Kingdom of Judea]] into a [[Herodian Tetrarchy|tetrarchy]] in 4 BC, it was gradually absorbed into Roman provinces, with Roman Syria annexing [[Iturea and Trachonitis (tetrarchy)|Iturea and Trachonitis]]. By the late 2nd century AD, the province was divided into [[Coele Syria (Roman province)|Coele Syria]] and [[Phoenice (Roman province)|Syria Phoenice]].

== Provincia Syria ==
[[File:The Scene of the Theater in Palmyra.JPG|thumb|The ancient city of [[Palmyra]] was an important trading center and possibly Roman Syria's most prosperous city|alt=]]
[[File:Roman Empire 125.png|thumb|250px|The Roman empire in the time of [[Hadrian]] (ruled 117–138 AD), showing, in western Asia, the [[imperial province]] of Syria, with four [[Roman legion|legions]] deployed in 125 AD. (During the Principate)]]
Syria was [[Pompey's Eastern Settlement|annexed]] to the [[Roman Republic]] in 64 BC, when [[Pompey|Pompey the Great]] had the [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucid king]] [[Antiochus XIII Asiaticus]] executed and deposed his successor [[Philip II Philoromaeus]]. Pompey appointed [[Marcus Aemilius Scaurus (praetor 56 BC)|Marcus Aemilius Scaurus]] to the post of governor of Syria.

Following the [[fall of the Roman Republic]] and its transformation into the [[Roman Empire]], Syria became a Roman imperial province, governed by a [[Legatus|Legate]]. During the early empire, the Roman army in Syria accounted for three legions with auxiliaries who defended the border with [[Parthia]].

In 6 AD, Emperor [[Augustus]] deposed the [[ethnarch]] [[Herod Archelaus]] and united [[Judea]], [[Samaria]] and [[Idumea]] into the [[Judea (Roman province)|Roman province of Judea]]; such province was placed under the direct authority of the Legate of Syria [[Publius Sulpicius Quirinius]], who appointed [[Coponius]] as [[Prefect]] of Judea. Following the death of [[Philip the Tetrarch|Herod Philip II]] (34 AD) and the removal of [[Herod Antipas]] (39 AD) [[Iturea|Ituraea]], [[Trachonitis]], [[Galilee]] and [[Perea]] were also transferred under the jurisdiction of the province of Syria.

From 37 to 41 AD, much of the southern region was separated from Syria and transformed into a [[client kingdom]] under [[Herod Agrippa|Herod Agrippa I]]. After Agrippa's death, his kingdom was gradually re-absorbed into the Roman Empire, until it was officially transformed into a Roman province following the death of [[Herod Agrippa II]].

Syrian province forces were directly engaged in the [[First Jewish–Roman War]] of 66–70 AD. In 66 AD, [[Cestius Gallus]], legate of Syria, brought the Syrian army, based on [[Legio XII Fulminata]], reinforced by auxiliary troops, to restore order in Judaea and quell the revolt. The legion, however, was ambushed and destroyed by Jewish rebels at the [[Battle of Beth Horon (66)|Battle of Beth Horon]], a result that shocked the Roman leadership. The future emperor [[Vespasian]] was then put in charge of subduing the Jewish revolt. In the summer of 69, Vespasian, with the Syrian units supporting him, launched his bid to become Roman emperor. He defeated his rival [[Vitellius]] and ruled as emperor for ten years when he was succeeded by his son [[Titus]].

Based on an inscription recovered from [[Tel Dor|Dor]] in 1948, [[Quintus Coredius Gallus Gargilius Antiquus|Gargilius Antiquus]] was known to have been the governor of a province in the eastern part of the Empire, possibly Syria, between his consulate and governing Asia.<ref name=Gera-Cotton>Dov Gera and Hannah M. Cotton, [http://dor.huji.ac.il/Download/Article/QedemReports2_Ch14.pdf "A Dedication from Dor to a Governor of Syria"], ''Israel Exploration Journal'', 41 (1991), pp. 258–66</ref> In November 2016, an inscription in Greek was recovered off the coast of Dor by [[Haifa University]] underwater archaeologists, which attests that Antiquus was governor of the province of [[Judea (Roman province)|Judea]] between 120 and 130, possibly prior to the [[Bar Kokhba revolt]].<ref>[http://www.haaretz.com/jewish/archaeology/1.756193 Divers Find Unexpected Roman Inscription From the Eve of Bar-Kochba Revolt] Haaretz.com (Last accessed 6 June 2017)</ref>

As related by [[Theodor Mommsen]],
{{blockquote|The governor of Syria retained the civil administration of the whole large province undiminished, and held for long alone in all Asia a command of the first rank. [...] It was only in the course of the second century that a diminution of his prerogatives occurred, when [[Hadrian]] took [[Legio III Gallica|one of the four legions]] from the governor of Syria and handed it over to the governor of [[Syria Palaestina|Palestine]].<ref name="Mommsen 1886 117–118">{{harvnb|Mommsen|1886|pp=117–118}}.</ref>}}

==Aftermath==
===Division into Coele Syria and Syria Phoenice===
{{main|Coele Syria (Roman province)|Syria Phoenice}}
{{Infobox Former Subdivision
|native_name = {{aut|Provincia Coele Syria}}<br/>{{lang|grc|ἐπαρχία Κοίλης Συρίας}}
|common_name = Coele Syria
|image_map = Roman Empire with provinces in 210 AD.png
|image_map_caption = Roman Empire in 210
|era         = 
|subdivision = Province
|nation      = the [[Roman Empire]]
|year_start  = 198
|year_end    = end of 4th century
|capital     = [[Antioch]]
|p1          = Syria (Roman province)
|flag_p1     = Vexilloid of the Roman Empire.svg
|s1          = Syria Prima
|flag_s1     = Simple Labarum.svg
|s2          = Syria Secunda
|flag_s2     = Simple Labarum.svg
|today       = {{plainlist|
*{{flag|Syria}}
*{{flag|Turkey}}}}
}}
{{Infobox Former Subdivision
|native_name = {{aut|Provincia Syria Phoenice}}
|common_name = Syria Phoenice
|image_map = Roman Empire with provinces in 210 AD.png
|image_map_caption = Roman Empire in 210
|era         = 
|subdivision = Province
|nation      = the [[Roman Empire]]
|year_start  = 198
|year_end    = end of 4th century
|capital     = [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]]
|p1          = Syria (Roman province)
|flag_p1     = Vexilloid of the Roman Empire.svg
|p2          = Syria Palaestina
|flag_p2     = Vexilloid of the Roman Empire.svg
|s1          = Phoenice Paralia
|flag_s1     = Simple Labarum.svg
|s2          = Phoenice Libanensis
|flag_s2     = Simple Labarum.svg
}}
[[Septimius Severus]] divided the province of Syria proper into [[Coele Syria (Roman province)|Syria Coele]] and [[Syria Phoenice]],<ref>{{harvnb|Marquardt|1892|p=373}}: "Tandis que la Judée ou Syria Palaestina demeurait ainsi séparée de la Syrie depuis l'an 66 après J.-C., la Syrie elle-même fut plus tard divisée en deux provinces : la Syria magna ou Syria Coele, et la Syria Phoenice".</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Adkins|Adkins|1998|p=121}}: "Septimius Severus divided the remaining province into Syria Coele and Syria Phoenice".</ref> with Antioch and [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]] as their respective provincial capitals.

As related by [[Theodor Mommsen]],
{{blockquote|It was [[Septimius Severus|Severus]] who at length withdrew the first place in the Roman military hierarchy from the Syrian governor. After having subdued the province—which had wished at that time to make [[Pescennius Niger|Niger]] emperor, as it had formerly done with its governor [[Vespasian]]—amidst resistance from the capital Antioch in particular, he ordained its partition into a northern and a southern half, and gave to the governor of the former, which was called [[Coele Syria (Roman province)|Coele-Syria]], two legions, to the governor of the latter, the province of [[Syria Phoenice|Syro-Phoenicia]], one [legion].<ref name="Mommsen 1886 117–118"/>}}

From the later 2nd century, the [[Roman Senate]] included several notable Syrians, including [[Claudius Pompeianus]] and [[Avidius Cassius]].

Syria was of crucial strategic importance during the [[Crisis of the Third Century]]. In 244 AD, Rome was ruled by a native Syrian from Philippopolis (modern day [[Shahba]]) in the province of Arabia Petraea. The emperor was Marcus Iulius Philippus, more commonly known as [[Philip the Arab]]. Philip became the 33rd emperor of Rome upon its millennial celebration.

Roman Syria was invaded in 252/253 (the date is disputed) after a Roman field army was destroyed in the [[Battle of Barbalissos]] by the King of Persia [[Shapur I]] which left the Euphrates river unguarded and the region was pillaged by the Persians. In 259/260 a similar event happened when [[Shapur I]] again defeated a Roman field army and captured the Roman emperor, Valerian, alive at the [[Battle of Edessa]]. Again, Roman Syria suffered as cities were captured, sacked and pillaged.

From 268 to 273, Syria was part of the breakaway [[Palmyrene Empire]].

{| border="0" class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
! colspan=3 | The 'Orient' in the time of [[Septimius Severus]] c. 200 AD<ref>{{cite book|last=Cohen|first=Getzel M.|title=The Hellenistic Settlements in Syria, the Red Sea Basin, and North Africa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RqdPcxuNthcC&pg=PA40|date=3 October 2006|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-93102-2|page=40, note 63|quote=In 194 A.D. The emperor Septimus Severus divided the province of Syria and made the northern part into a separate province called Coele Syria.}}</ref>
|-
| '''[[Coele Syria (Roman province)|Coele Syria]]'''
| ''Provincia Syria Coele''
|-
| '''[[Phoenice (Roman province)|Phoenicia]]'''
| ''Provincia Syria Phoenice''
|-
| '''[[Syria Palaestina|Palaestina]]'''
| ''Provincia Syria Palaestina''
|-
| '''[[Arabia Petraea|Arabia]]'''
| ''Provincia Arabia Petraea''
|}

=== Dominate reform===
Following the reforms of [[Diocletian]], Syria Coele became part of the [[Diocese of the East]].<ref name="ODB1999">{{cite book | editor-first = Alexander | editor-last = Kazhdan | title = [[Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium]] | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 1991 | isbn = 978-0-19-504652-6 | page=1999}}</ref> Sometime between 330 and 350 (likely c. 341), the province of ''[[Euphratensis]]'' was created out of the territory of ''Syria Coele'' along the western bank of the [[Euphrates]] and the former [[Kingdom of Commagene]], with [[Manbij|Hierapolis]] as its capital.<ref>{{cite book | editor-first = Alexander | editor-last = Kazhdan | title = [[Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium]] | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 1991 | isbn = 978-0-19-504652-6 | page=748}}</ref>

===Syria in the Byzantine Empire===
{{further|History of the Byzantine Empire}}
[[File:Mosaic of the Female Musicians.jpg|thumb|20 square meter [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] era mosaic found in [[Maryamin, Homs|Maryamin]], [[Syria]], currently located in the Hama museum|alt=]]
After c. 415, ''Syria Coele'' was further subdivided into ''Syria I'' (or ''[[Syria Prima]]''), with its capital remaining at [[Antioch]], and ''Syria II'' (''Syria Secunda'') or ''Syria Salutaris'', with its capital at [[Apamea on the Orontes]]. In 528, [[Justinian I]] carved out the small coastal province ''[[Theodorias (province)|Theodorias]]'' out of territory from both provinces.<ref name="ODB1999"/>
[[File:Church of Saint Simeon Stylites 17.jpg|thumb|[[Church of Saint Simeon Stylites]], one of the oldest surviving churches in the world]]
The region remained one of the most important provinces of the [[Byzantine Empire]]. It was [[Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628|occupied]] by the [[Sasanians]] between 609 and 628, then reconquered by the emperor [[Heraclius]], but lost again to the [[Muslim conquest of the Levant|advancing Muslims]] after the [[Battle of Yarmouk]] and the [[Battle of the Iron Bridge|fall of Antioch]].<ref name="ODB1999"/><ref>{{Cite book |title=East Rome, Sasanian Persia and the End of Antiquity |last=Howard-Johnson |first=James D. |author-link1= James Howard-Johnson|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-86078-992-5 |pages=6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1U4rUaLdYnQC&pg=RA2-PA6}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Muhammad and the Empires of Faith: The Making of the Prophet of Islam |last=Antony |first=Sean |publisher=University of California Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-520-34041-1 |pages=184 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RSzJDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA184}}</ref>
The city of [[Antioch]] was reconquered by [[Nikephoros II Phokas|Nikephorus Phocas]] in 963, along with other parts of the country, at that time under the [[Hamdanids]], although still under the official suzerainty of the [[Abbasids|Abbasid]] caliphs and also claimed by the [[Fatimids|Fatimid]] caliphs. After emperor [[John I Tzimiskes]] failed to conquer Syria up to Jerusalem, a Muslim reconquest of Syria followed in the late 970s undertaken by the Fatimid Caliphate that resulted in the ousting of the Byzantines from most parts of Syria. However, Antioch and other northern parts of Syria remained in the empire and other parts were under the protection of the [[Macedonian dynasty|emperors]] through their Hamdanid, [[Mirdasid dynasty|Mirdasid]], and [[Marwanids (Diyar Bakr)|Marwanid]] proxies, until the [[Seljuq dynasty|Seljuk]] arrival, who after three decades of incursions, conquered Antioch in 1084. Antioch was captured again during the 12th century by the revived armies of the [[Byzantine Empire under the Komnenos dynasty|Comnenii]]. However, by that time the city was regarded as part of Asia Minor and not of Syria.

== Demographics ==
Syria had a diverse demographic distribution. The rural inland was mostly populated by [[Aramaic]] speakers descended from various [[West Semitic languages|West Semitic]] peoples who inhabited Syria. [[History of the Arabs|Arabs]] were settled throughout [[Hauran]], [[Trachonitis]] and [[Homs|Emesa]] which they controlled. Arabs were also part of [[Palmyra]]'s composition, which included Aramaeans, Arabs and [[Amorites]].<ref>{{cite book|first= Richard |last=Stoneman|title=Palmyra and Its Empire: Zenobia's Revolt Against Rome |orig-year=1992 | year=1994| publisher=University of Michigan Press|isbn=978-0-472-08315-2}}</ref> The [[Phoenicia]]n coast maintained a [[Phoenician language|Phoenician]]-speaking majority well into the end of 2nd century, and their main urban centers included [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]], [[Sidon]] and [[Berytus]].

On the other hand, [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]] comprised a majority in Hellenistic urban centers such [[Antioch]], [[Apamea, Syria|Apamea]], [[Cyrrhus]] and the [[Decapolis]], which had been settled by Greeks under [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucid]] patronage.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cohen |first1=Getzel M. |title=The Hellenistic Settlements in Syria, the Red Sea Basin, and North Africa |date=2006 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=9780520931022 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RqdPcxuNthcC}}</ref>

Estimates for the population of the entire [[Levant]] in the 1st century vary from 3.5–4 million to 6 million, levels only matched even by 19th century levels. Urban centers peaked and so did population density in the rural settlements. [[Antioch]] and [[Palmyra]] reached a peak of 200,000–250,000 inhabitants, while Apamea counted 117,000 'free citizens' circa AD 6. Combined with their dependancies and villages, Apamea and Cyrrhus may have counted as high as 500,000 each. The [[Syrian Coastal Mountain Range]], marginal hill country, were less densely settled and had a population of around 40–50,000.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kennedy |first1=David L. |title=Demography, the Population of Syria and the Census of Q. Aemilius Secundus |url=https://www.academia.edu/11730357 |website=Academia|date=January 2006 }}</ref>

== Identity ==
The inhabitants of Syria adopted [[Hellenization|Greek customs]] while maintaining elements of [[Ancient Near East|Near Eastern]] culture. The continuity of pre-Hellenistic cultures was inconsistent across different regions, and where it existed, it varied, including [[Arameans|Aramean]], [[Phoenicia]]n, and [[neo-Hittite]] influences. However, many areas documented exclusively Greek elements.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Introduction |date=2013 |work=Syrian Identity in the Greco-Roman World |pages=10–11 |editor-last=Andrade |editor-first=Nathanael J. |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/syrian-identity-in-the-grecoroman-world/introduction/DEE9846C22F1E9B064D4AF9EFD008C0A |access-date=2024-02-04 |series=Greek Culture in the Roman World |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/cbo9780511997808.003 |isbn=978-0-511-99780-8|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

In contrast to [[Jews]], who shared collective historical memories, Syrians lacked a unified cultural or social identity. The unifying aspects in Roman Syria were Greek civic structures and narratives promoted by Roman imperial rule, suggesting that Syrian culture was largely defined through Greek and Roman influences. The term 'Syrian' therefore primarily functioned as a geographical designation.<ref name=":0" />

== Episcopal sees ==
Ancient episcopal sees of the late [[Roman province]] of '''Syria Prima (I)''' listed in the ''[[Annuario Pontificio]]'' as [[titular see]]s:<ref name=AP>''Annuario Pontificio 2013'' (Libreria Editrice Vaticana 2013 {{ISBN|978-88-209-9070-1}}), "Sedi titolari", pp. 819-1013</ref>
* [[Anasartha]] (Khanasir)
* [[Barcusus (titular see)|Barcusus]] (Baquza or [[Dead Cities#Harim Mountains (Mount Bārīshā and Mount Aʻlā)|Banqusa]])
* [[Aleppo|Beroea]] (Aleppo)
* [[Chalcis in Syria]] (Qinnasrin)
* [[Jableh|Gabala]] (Jableh)
* [[Gabula (Syria)|Gabula]] (at the marsh of Al-Jabbul)
* [[Gindarus]] (Jandairis)
* [[Laodicea in Syria]] (Latakia)
* [[Salamias]] (Salamiyah)
* [[Seleucia Pieria]]

Ancient episcopal sees of the late Roman province of '''Syria Secunda (II)''' listed in the ''[[Annuario Pontificio]]'' as [[titular see]]s:<ref name=AP/>
* '''[[Apamea, Syria|Apamea in Syria]], the Metropolitan Archdiocese'''
* [[Arethusa (see)|Arethusa]] (Al-Rastan)
* [[Balanea]] (Baniyas)
* [[Hama|Epiphania in Syria]] (Hama)
* [[Larissa in Syria]] (Shaizar)
* [[Mariamme]] (Maryamin)
* [[Raphanea]] 
* [[Seleucobelus]] (Seleucopolis)

==See also==
*[[History of Syria]]
*[[Ottoman Syria]]
*[[Assyria (Roman province)]]
*[[Roman governors of Syria|List of governors of Roman Syria]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==Sources==
* {{cite book|last1=Adkins|first1=Lesley|last2=Adkins|first2=Roy A.|title=Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome|year=1998|publisher=Oup USA |isbn=978-0-19-512332-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9JJdqJ8YGH8C}}
* {{cite book|last=Marquardt|first=Joachim|title=L'organisation de l'Empire romain|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u_uOAtKJ3qcC|year=1892}}
* {{cite book|last=Mommsen|first=Theodor|author-link=Theodor Mommsen|title=The History of Rome|year=1886|publisher=R. Bentley|url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924071192458}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Syria (Roman province)}}
*{{cite web |url=http://pleiades.stoa.org/places/981550 |title=Places: 981550 (Syria) |author=Bagnall, R., J. Drinkwater, A. Esmonde-Cleary, W. Harris, R. Knapp, S. Mitchell, S. Parker, C. Wells, J. Wilkes, R. Talbert, M. E. Downs, M. Joann McDaniel, B. Z. Lund, T. Elliott, S. Gillies |date=30 January 2018 |access-date=March 8, 2012<!-- 3:00 pm -->|publisher=Pleiades}}

{{Ancient Syria and Mesopotamia}}
{{Assyrian topics}}
{{Journeys of Paul of Tarsus}}
{{Roman history by territory}}
{{Roman provinces AD 117}}
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[[Category:Roman Syria| ]]
[[Category:Ancient Levant]]
[[Category:Seleucid Empire successor states]]
[[Category:Former countries in West Asia]]
[[Category:60s BC establishments]]
[[Category:1st-century BC establishments in the Roman Republic]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in the 2nd century]]
[[Category:198 disestablishments]]
[[Category:190s disestablishments in the Roman Empire]]
[[Category:Jews and Judaism in the Roman Empire]]