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{{short description|1831 opera by Giacomo Meyerbeer}}
{{Infobox opera
| name              = Robert le diable
| type              = [[Grand opera]]
| composer          = [[Giacomo Meyerbeer]]
| image             = Pierre-Luc-Charles Cicéri - Eugène Cicéri - Philippe Benoist - Adolphe Jean Baptiste Bayot - Décorations de théâtre, Robert le diable, 3e act.jpg
| image_upright     = 1.3
| image_caption     = Set for Act III in the première
| translated_name   = Robert the Devil
| librettist        = {{ubl| [[Eugène Scribe]] | [[Germain Delavigne]] }}
| language          = French
| premiere_date     = {{Start date|1831|11|21|df=y}} 
| premiere_location = [[Paris Opéra]]
}}
'''''Robert le diable''''' (''Robert the Devil'') is an [[opera]] in five acts composed by [[Giacomo Meyerbeer]] between 1827 and 1831, to a [[libretto]] written in French by [[Eugène Scribe]] and [[Germain Delavigne]]. ''Robert le diable'' is regarded as one of the first [[grand opera]]s at the [[Paris Opéra]].  It has only a superficial connection to the medieval legend of ''[[Robert the Devil]]''.

The opera was immediately successful from its first night on 21 November 1831 at the Opéra; the dramatic music, harmony and orchestration, its melodramatic plot, its star singers and its sensational stage effects compelled [[Frédéric Chopin]], who was in the audience, to say, "If ever magnificence was seen in the theatre, I doubt that it reached the level of splendour shown in ''Robert''...It is a masterpiece...Meyerbeer has made himself immortal".<ref name="Brown">Brown, ''Robert le diable'', p. 572</ref> ''Robert'' initiated the European fame of its composer, consolidated the fame of its librettist, Scribe, and launched the reputation of the new director of the Opéra, [[Louis-Désiré Véron]], as a purveyor of a new genre of opera. It also had influence on development of the [[ballet]], and was frequently mentioned and discussed in contemporary French literature.

''Robert'' continued as a favourite in opera houses all over the world throughout the nineteenth century. After a period of neglect, it began to be revived towards the end of the twentieth century.

==Background==
[[File:Meyerbeer 1825.jpg|upright=0.6|thumb|left|Meyerbeer, c. 1825, shortly before he commenced working on ''Robert''.]]Giacomo Meyerbeer's early studies had been in Germany, but from 1816 to 1825 he worked in Italy. There he studied opera, then dominated by [[Gioachino Rossini]], and wrote his own Italian operas, which were moderately successful and also had some performances in other European countries.<ref>Conway (2012), pp. 246–248</ref> The success of ''[[Il crociato in Egitto]]'' (1824) throughout Europe, including at Paris in 1825, persuaded Meyerbeer, who was already thirty-three years old, to fulfil at last his ambition to base himself in Paris and to seek a suitable libretto for an opera to be launched there.<ref>Conway (2012), pp. 249–50</ref>

Meyerbeer first mentions ''Robert le diable'' in his diaries in February 1827. The ''[[Journal de Paris]]'' announced on 19 April 1827 that the libretto of Scribe and Delavigne had been passed by the censor and that 'the music is to be entrusted to a composer, M. Meyer-Beer, who, having acquired a brilliant reputation in Germany and Italy, is extending it to our country, where several of his works have been already successfully represented.'<ref>Meyerbeer (1999), p. 384 & pp. 422–3</ref>

The libretto was fabricated on the basis of old legends about Duke [[Robert the Magnificent]] of [[Normandy]], the father of [[William the Conqueror]], alleged in some versions to have been the son of the [[Devil]]. The librettists padded out this outline with a variety of melodramatic incidents. The plot reflected 'the fantastic legendary elements which fascinated the opera public of 1830', a taste which had evolved from the 1824 Paris production of [[Carl Maria von Weber]]'s ''[[Der Freischütz]]'' (in its French version ''Robin des bois''), which also features a doubtful hero befriended by a demon promising him success.<ref>Crosten (1948), p. 92</ref><ref name="Taruskin 2010, p. 217">Taruskin (2010), p. 217</ref>

The libretto was originally planned as a three-act ''[[opéra comique]]'' for the [[Opéra-Comique]] theatre. Meyerbeer stopped work on the opera in 1827 when the theatre underwent financial difficulties. In August 1829, the composer and librettists agreed to refashion the work in a five-act form to meet the requirements of the Paris Opéra.<ref name="Brzoska 2003, p. 190">Brzoska (2003), p. 190</ref> This entailed some significant rewriting of the storyline, reducing the essentially comic role of Raimbaut (who vanishes after Act 3 in the final version, but whose antics – including the spending of Bertram's money – continued throughout in the earlier libretto). It also meant that the traditional 'pairing' of lovers in opéra comique (Robert/Isabelle paralleled throughout by the 'lower-class' Raimbaut/Alice) was swept aside in favour of concentration on the more sensational story-line of Robert's diabolic ancestry.<ref>Heuber (1992), p. 1357. For details of the earlier version see Everist (1994).</ref>

The contract for the opera, specifying it as a "grand opera in five acts and seven scenes", was signed by the then director of the Opéra, Émile Lubbert, on 29 December 1829. Meyerbeer completed the composition of the work in [[Spa, Belgium]] in June and July 1830.<ref>Meyerbeer (1999), p. 391</ref> Its characterisation as a "French grand opera" placed it in succession to [[Daniel Auber|Auber]]'s ''[[La muette de Portici]]'' (1828) and [[Gioachino Rossini|Rossini]]'s ''[[William Tell]]'' (1829) in this new genre.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1_0VBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA173 |page=173 |title=Berlioz on Music: Selected Criticism, 1824-1837 |author=Hector Berlioz |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2015|isbn=978-0-19-939195-0 }}</ref> The composer undertook further work on the opera in early 1831, converting spoken passages to [[recitative]]s and adding [[ballet]] episodes, including, in Act 3, the "[[Ballet of the Nuns]]", which was to prove one of the opera's great sensations, and which [[Henri Duponchel]] had suggested to replace the original humdrum scenario set in [[Mount Olympus#The abode of the gods|Olympus]]. He also rewrote the two major male roles of Bertrand and Robert to suit the talents of [[Nicolas Levasseur]] and [[Adolphe Nourrit]], respectively.<ref name="Brzoska 2003, p. 190"/><ref name="Heubner 1992, p. 1357">Heubner (1992), p. 1357</ref>

==Performance history==

===Premiere seasons in Paris===
[[File:Robert le Diable (Meyerbeer) 1831.jpg|thumb|Poster for the 1831 first performance]]

The opera premiered on 21 November 1831 at the [[Académie de musique|Paris Opéra]]. The success owed much to the opera's star singers – Levasseur as Bertram, Nourrit as Robert — and to the provocative "[[Ballet of the Nuns]]" in the third act, featuring the great ballerina, [[Marie Taglioni]].

The choreography for the ballet was elaborated by the ballerina's father, [[Filippo Taglioni]]. The audience's prurient delight in this scandalous scene is well conveyed by the reviewer for the ''Revue des Deux-Mondes'': <blockquote>A crowd of mute shades glides through the arches. All these women cast off their nuns' costume, they shake off the cold powder of the grave; suddenly they throw themselves into the delights of their past life; they dance like [[bacchante]]s, they play like lords, they drink like [[sapper]]s. What a pleasure to see these light women...<ref>cited in Williams (2003), p. 71</ref> </blockquote>The set for the ballet was an innovative and striking design by [[Henri Duponchel]] and [[Pierre-Luc-Charles Ciceri]].<ref>Carnegy, p. 15–6</ref> Duponchel had also introduced technical innovations for the staging, including 'English traps' for the sudden appearance and disappearance of the ghosts. (Meyerbeer was led to complain that the spectacle was too much and was pushing his music into the background).<ref>Carlson 1972, p. 75.</ref> Taglioni danced the Abbess only six times in Paris; she was replaced by Louise Fitzjames, (who danced the role 232 times).<ref name="Jürgenson 1998, p. 76">Jürgenson (1998), p. 76</ref>

At the invitation of Nourrit, [[Cornélie Falcon]] made her debut at the age of 18 at the Opéra in the role of Alice on 20 July 1832. The cast included Nourrit. Although suffering from stage fright, Falcon managed to sing her first aria without error, and finished her role with "ease and competence." Her tragic demeanor and dark looks were highly appropriate to the part,<ref>Pitou 1990, p. 449.</ref> and she made a vivid impression on the public,<ref>Fétis 1862, p. 179.</ref> which included on that night [[Daniel Auber|Auber]], [[Hector Berlioz|Berlioz]], [[Fromental Halévy|Halévy]], [[Maria Malibran]], [[Giulia Grisi]], [[Honoré Daumier]], [[Alexandre Dumas]] and [[Victor Hugo]]. On hearing her in the role, Meyerbeer himself declared his opera at last 'complete'.<ref>Smart 2003, pp. 113–4</ref>
[[File:Jules Arnout - Meyerbeer's Robert le diable at the Académie impériale de Musique, Théâtre de l'Opéra.jpg|thumb |upright=1.1 |right |Act 3 scene 2 of ''Robert'' at the Paris Opéra ([[Salle Le Peletier]]), 1831]]

By April 1834 the opera had received over 100 performances in Paris.<ref name="Kaufman">Kaufman</ref> Nourrit sang the role of Robert until 1837, when he was replaced as premier tenor at the Opéra by [[Gilbert Duprez]], whom, however, Meyerbeer did not like in the role; nor did he approve of an alternative, Lafont. However, he was impressed by the newcomer [[Mario (tenor)|Mario]] (Cavaliere Giovanni Matteo di Candia), and wrote for him a new aria for Robert which was performed at his debut in the revival of the opera on 30 November 1838. Mario's debut was the launch of his very successful career. Others singing in the 1838 revival included [[Julie Dorus-Gras]] (Alice), [[Prosper Dérivis]] (Bertram) and [[François Wartel]] (Raimbaut).<ref>Kühnhold (1988)</ref> By Meyerbeer's death in 1864 the opera had been performed over 470 times in Paris alone.<ref name="Jürgenson 1998, p. 76"/>

===Early performances outside Paris===
A succession of representations throughout Europe and in the Americas launched Meyerbeer's international fame. A version of the opera – under the title of ''The Fiend-Father'', by [[Rophino Lacy]] – was first presented in London at the [[Theatre Royal, Drury Lane]] on 20 February 1832; the original version appeared at the [[Haymarket Theatre]] on 11 June of that year. Lacy's version was given in New York on 7 April 1834.<ref name="Brown" /> In 1832 the opera reached Berlin, Strasbourg, Dublin and Liège; in 1833 Brussels, Copenhagen, Vienna and Marseilles; in 1834 Lyon, Budapest, The Hague, Amsterdam and Saint Petersburg;<ref name="Kaufman"/> in 1835 (12 May) it obtained its first American performance in the original French at the [[Théâtre d'Orléans]] in New Orleans.<ref>Belsom, Jack (2007). {{cite web |url=http://www.neworleansopera.org/about_us_history.html |title=A History of Opera in New Orleans |access-date=2013-06-11 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080531005833/http://www.neworleansopera.org/about_us_history.html |archive-date=May 31, 2008 }}</ref> Italian versions were given in Lisbon in 1838, and in Florence in 1840.<ref name="Kaufman"/>

Meyerbeer took particular care over the first London and Berlin productions. He travelled to London to check the singers and production for the original version,<ref>Conway (2012), pp. 114–5</ref> and requested that the German translation for Berlin be undertaken by the poet [[Ludwig Rellstab]], strongly recommending that Taglioni and her father Fillipo be re-engaged, and that Ciceri's sets should be reproduced. Although Taglioni danced and the sets were retained, the translation was eventually carried out by Meyerbeer's friend [[Theodor Hell]].<ref>Letter of 4 February 1832 to the Berlin theatre director, Count von Redern; see Becker (1989), pp. 48–49.</ref> Meyerbeer wrote additional ballet music for Taglioni for the Berlin production.<ref name="Jürgenson 1998, p. 76"/>

The Danish choreographer [[August Bournonville]] saw Fitzjames's performance as the Abbess in Paris in 1841, and based his own choreography, which was used in Copenhagen between 1833 and 1863, on this. This choreography, which has been fully preserved, represents the only record of Filippo Taglioni's original.<ref>Jürgenson (1998), pp. 78–79</ref>

In 1847 [[Felix Mendelssohn]] attended a London performance of ''Robert'' – an opera which musically he despised<ref>Conway (2012), p. 244</ref> – in order to hear [[Jenny Lind]]'s British debut, in the role of Alice. The music critic [[Henry Chorley]], who was with him, wrote "I see as I write the smile with which Mendelssohn, whose enjoyment of Mdlle. Lind's talent was unlimited, turned round and looked at me, as if a load of anxiety had been taken off his mind."<ref>Chorley (1972), 194</ref>

===Twentieth century===
During the early twentieth century, Meyerbeer's operas gradually disappeared from the stage, partly due to their length and expense to mount, partly due to their denigration by supporters of [[Richard Wagner|Wagnerian]] opera.<ref>Levarie (1995), p. 253</ref> In 1898, [[George Bernard Shaw]], in ''The Perfect Wagnerite'', had already cast scorn on ''Robert'' and commented that "Nowadays young people cannot understand how anyone could have taken Meyerbeer's influence seriously."<ref>Shaw (1981), vol. 3, pp. 530–531</ref>

Nevertheless, productions of ''Robert'' included those in New Orleans and Nice in 1901, Paris (at the [[Théâtre de la Gaîté (rue Papin)|Gaité Lyrique]]) in 1911, Barcelona in 1917, at the [[Vienna Volksoper]] in 1921 and Bordeaux in 1928. The first production after the Second World War was in Florence in 1968, a shortened version with a cast including [[Renata Scotto]] and [[Boris Christoff]]. In 1984 the revival at the Paris Opéra with [[Rockwell Blake]] (Robert), [[Samuel Ramey]] (Bertram), Walter Donati (Raimbaut), [[Michèle Lagrange]] (Alice) and [[June Anderson]] (Isabelle) was the first performance there since 1893.<ref name="Kaufman"/> In 1999 a new production was mounted at the [[Prague State Opera]].<ref>[http://www.operaprague.eu/en/repertoar/robertdabel.html?im=3 Prague State Opera] website</ref>

A performance of a new critical edition of ''Robert le diable'' by Wolfgang Kühnhold was presented at the [[Berlin State Opera]] in March 2000<ref>Stephen Agus, [http://www.meyerbeer.com/berlin_Robert-review.htm "An account of two extraordinary performances of ''Robert le Diable'' in March, 2000"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429194603/http://www.meyerbeer.com/berlin_Robert-review.htm |date=2011-04-29 }}, Meyerbeer Fan Club website. Retrieved 10 January 2010</ref> with [[Jianyi Zhang]] (Robert), Stephan Rügamer (Raimbaut), [[Kwangchul Youn]] (Bertram), Marina Mescheriakova (Alice), and [[Nelly Miricioiu]] (Isabelle), conducted by [[Marc Minkowski]].

===Twenty-first century===
A new production of the opera, directed by [[Laurent Pelly]], was premiered at the [[Royal Opera House]] London on 6 December 2012, the first time it had been performed there since 1890.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2012/dec/07/robert-le-diable-review|title=Robert le diable – Review|author= Tim Ashley|publisher=[[The Guardian]] (London)|date=7 December 2012|access-date=22 December 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.roh.org.uk/productions/robert-le-diable-by-laurent-pelly|title=Royal Opera House website 2012/13 season page on ''Robert le diable''|access-date=6 December 2012|archive-date=19 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130119005052/http://www.roh.org.uk/productions/robert-le-diable-by-laurent-pelly|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.operatoday.com/content/2012/12/meyerbeer_rober.php|title=Meyerbeer Robert le Diable, Royal Opera House|author=Anne Ozorio|publisher=Opera Today|date=9 December 2012|access-date=22 December 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.musicomh.com/opera/roh-diable_1212.htm|title=Robert le Diable – Opera Reviews – MusicOMH|author=Sam Smith|access-date=30 December 2012|archive-date=29 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130129123116/http://www.musicomh.com/opera/roh-diable_1212.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>

At [[La Monnaie]], Brussels, there were concert performances of ''Robert le Diable'' in April 2019, with Dmitry Korchak as Robert, [[Nicolas Courjal]] as Bertram and [[Lisette Oropesa]] as Isabelle, conducted by [[Evelino Pidò]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Robert le Diable |url=https://www.lamonnaie.be/en/program/838-robert-le-diable |website=La Monnaie / De Munt |access-date=27 November 2018 |language=en}}</ref>

==Roles==
{| class="wikitable"
|+ {{sronly|Roles, voice types, and premiere cast}}
!Role
![[Voice type]]
!Premiere cast, 21 November 1831<br />(Conductor: [[François Habeneck]])
|-
|[[Robert I, Duke of Normandy|Robert]], ''Duke of Normandy''
|[[tenor]]
|[[Adolphe Nourrit]]
|-
| Isabelle, ''Princess of Sicily Palmide''
|[[soprano]]
|[[Laure Cinti-Damoreau]]
|-
|Bertram, ''Robert's friend''
|[[bass-baritone]]
|[[Nicolas Levasseur]]
|-
|Alice, ''Robert's half-sister and Raimbaut's [[fiancée]]''
|soprano
|[[Julie Dorus-Gras]]
|-
|Raimbaut, ''a [[minstrel]]''
|tenor
|Marcelin Lafont
|-
|Alberti, ''a knight''
|bass
|Jean-Pierre Hurteau
|-
|Herald
|tenor
| [[Jean-Étienne-Auguste Massol]]
|-
|Lady-in-waiting to Isabelle
|soprano
|Lavry
|-
|Priest
|bass
|
|-
|Prince of Granada
|silent
|
|-
|Hėléna, ''Abbess''
|[[ballerina]]
|[[Marie Taglioni]]
|}

==Synopsis==
[[File:Louis Guéymard as Robert le Diable by Gustave Courbet - The Metropolitan Museum of Art 436015 (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|[[Louis Guéymard|Guéymard]] as Robert ([[Gustave Courbet|Courbet]], 1857)]]
The plot of the opera has been often cut or rearranged in various productions. The outline given below follows the description given in ''[[The New Grove Dictionary of Opera]]'' (1992).<ref>Heubner (1992)</ref>

=== Act 1 ===
''On the shore at Palermo''

Robert and his mysterious friend Bertram are among a group of knights who are preparing to compete in a tournament for the hand of Princess Isabelle. They all praise wine, women and gambling (''Versez à tasses pleines''). Robert's attendant Raimbaut sings a ballad about a beautiful princess from Normandy who married a devil; the princess had a son, Robert, known as 'le diable'. Robert indignantly reveals that he is the son in question and condemns Raimbaut to death. Raimbaut begs for pardon and tells Robert that he is engaged to marry. Robert relents and relishes the thought of the ''[[droit du seigneur]]''. Raimbaut's fiancée arrives; Robert recognizes her as his foster-sister Alice and pardons Raimbaut. Alice tells Robert that his mother has died and that her last words were a warning about a threatening dark force (''Va! Va! dit-elle''). She offers Robert his mother's will. Robert is too overcome to read it and asks Alice to keep it for the present. Robert expresses his longing for his beloved Isabelle and Alice offers to take a letter to her. Alice warns Robert to beware of Bertram but he ignores her. With Bertram's encouragement, Robert gambles with the knights and loses all of his money, as well as his armour.

=== Act 2 ===
''A room in the palace at Palermo''

Isabelle is sad at Robert's absence and expresses her unease that their marriage will never take place (''En vain j’espère''). She is delighted when she receives Robert's letter. Robert arrives and the pair express their pleasure at being together again. Isabelle provides him with new armour for the [[Tournament (medieval)|tournament]]. Robert is preparing for the tournament when Bertram suddenly appears and persuades Robert to go to a nearby forest, claiming that the Prince of Granada, his rival for Isabelle's love, wants to fight with him. When Robert has left, the court gathers to celebrate the marriage of six couples with dancing. The Prince of Granada enters and asks Isabelle to present him with arms for the tournament. Isabelle expresses her sorrow at Robert's disappearance but prepares to open the tournament, singing in praise of chivalry (''La trompette guerrière'').

=== Act 3 ===

[[File:Robert le Diable, Pierre-Luc Charles Cicéri, esquisse acte III, tab. 2 - 1831.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|left|Sketch of an unused design for Act 3, scene 2 ([[Pierre-Luc-Charles Ciceri|Ciceri]], c. 1831)]]''The countryside near Palermo''
[[File:Robert-le-diable.jpg|300px|thumb|[[Edgar Degas|Degas]]: "Ballet of the Nuns" from Act 3 of ''Robert le diable'' (1876 version)]]
Bertram meets Raimbaut, who has arrived for an assignation with Alice. He gives him a bag of gold and advises him not to marry Alice as his new wealth will attract plenty of women (''Ah! l’honnête homme''). Raimbaut leaves and Bertram gloats at having corrupted him. Bertram reveals that Robert, to whom he is truly devoted, is his son; he then enters an adjoining cave to commune with the spirits of hell. Alice enters and expresses her love for Raimbaut (''Quand je quittai la Normandie''). She overhears strange chanting coming from the cave and decides to listen; she learns that Bertram will lose Robert forever if he cannot persuade him to sign away his soul to the Devil by midnight. On emerging from the cave, Bertram realizes that Alice has heard everything (''Mais Alice, qu’as-tu donc?''). He threatens her and she promises to keep silent. Robert arrives, mourning the loss of Isabelle, and Bertram tells him that to win her he should seize a magic branch from the tomb of [[Saint Rosalia]] in a nearby deserted cloister. Although to take it is sacrilege, the branch will give Robert magical powers. Robert declares that he will be bold and do as Bertram instructs. Bertram leads Robert to the cloister. The ghosts of nuns rise from their tombs, beckoned by Bertram, and [[Ballet of the Nuns|dance]], praising the pleasures of drinking, gambling and lust. Robert seizes the branch and fends off the demons who surround him.

=== Act 4 ===
''A room in the palace''

Isabelle is preparing for her marriage with the Prince of Granada. Alice rushes in to inform her of what she has learnt about Robert, but she is interrupted by envoys of the Prince who enter bearing gifts. Robert arrives and, using the power of the branch, freezes everyone except himself and Isabelle.

Unsettled by the power he's wielding, he confesses to Isabelle that he is using witchcraft, but begs her not to reject him. She expresses her love for him and implores him to repent (''Robert, toi que j'aime''). Robert breaks the branch and the spell it has created, and is taken into custody by Isabelle's attendants.
[[File:Trio act5 Robert le Diable by Meyerbeer - second painting by Lépaulle 1835 - Letellier 2012.jpg|thumb|250px|Act 5 scene 1, with [[Nicolas Levasseur|Levasseur]], [[Adolphe Nourrit|Nourrit]], and [[Cornélie Falcon|Falcon]], as painted by the costume designer, [[François-Gabriel Lépaulle]] (1835)]]

=== Act 5 ===
''Outside Palermo Cathedral''

A group of monks extol the power of the Church. Bertram has freed Robert from the guards and the two arrive to prevent the marriage of Isabelle to the Prince of Granada. Bertram attempts to get Robert to sign a document in which he promises to serve Bertram for all eternity. He reveals to Robert that he is his true father and Robert decides to sign the oath from filial devotion. Before he can do so, Alice appears with the news that the Prince has been prevented from marrying Isabelle. Alice prays for divine help (''Dieu puissant, ciel propice'') and hands Robert his mother's will. Robert reads his mother's message, in which she warns him to beware the man who seduced and ruined her. Robert is wracked by indecision. Midnight strikes and the time for Bertram's coup is past. He is drawn down to hell. Robert is reunited with Isabelle in the cathedral, to great rejoicing.

==Costume designs for the first production==
The costumes were designed by [[François-Gabriel Lépaulle]].<ref>Letellier 2012, pp. 130–131.</ref>

<gallery class="center">
Meyerbeer - Robert le Diable - costume de Melle Dorus (rôle d'Alice) - gravé par Maleuvre.jpg|{{center|Dorus-Gras as Alice}}
Meyerbeer - Robert le Diable - costume d'Adolphe Nourrit (rôle de Robert, acte 1) - gravé par Maleuvre.jpg|{{center|Nourrit as Robert}}
Meyerbeer - Robert le Diable - costume de Mme Cinti-Damoreau (rôle d'Isabelle) - gravé par Maleuvre.jpg|{{center|Cinti-Damoreau as Isabelle}}
Meyerbeer - Robert le Diable - costume de Levasseur (rôle de Bertram) - gravé par Maleuvre.jpg|{{center|Levasseur as Bertram}}
Meyerbeer - Robert le Diable - costumes par Jules Marre - 12. Robert.jpg|{{center|Costume for a devil}}
</gallery>

==Reception==
A number of factors influenced the opera's very favourable reception. The initial cast contained leading singers of the period and, as it changed, equally brilliant stars (e.g. Falcon) were introduced as replacements. The sensational plot and the notoriety of the Nuns' ballet ensured that the opera was a hot topic in journals and reviews. This was assisted by the marketing skills of the director Véron and the publisher [[Maurice Schlesinger|Schlesinger]]. The scenery was of exceptional quality: "This was as much an opera to see as to hear, and it has been argued that the real hero behind ''Robert le diable'' was Cicéri, the designer."<ref name="Taruskin 2010, p. 217"/> Meyerbeer was keen to keep influential persons on his side. For example, he sent free tickets for 'a good box' to [[Heinrich Heine]].<ref>(Letter from Meyerbeer to Heine of December 1831, cited in Becker (1989), p. 46</ref> And of course the businessman Véron knew how to use (and pay) the [[claque]] and its leader Augustin Levasseur.<ref>Crosten (1948) p. 42and p. 47</ref>

But undoubtedly the novelty and colour of the music of Meyerbeer deserves major credit. The alliance of his German musical training, along with his study of opera for many years in Italy, was highly attractive to a Parisian audience which 'asked only to be astonished and surprised.'<ref>[[Théophile Gautier]], cited in Crosten (1948), p. 114</ref> The critic Ortigue wrote that Meyerbeer 'straight away [took] his position at the crossroads where Italian song and German [[orchestration]] have to meet.'<ref name="cited in Brzoska 2003, p. 192">cited in Brzoska (2003), p. 192</ref> Meyerbeer paid close attention to unusual combinations and textures and original orchestration, examples being the use of low brass and woodwind playing [[chromatic]] passages associated with Bertram;<ref name="Heubner 1992, p. 1357"/> the use of a brass band and male choir to characterise the demons in Act 3; and so on. [[Hector Berlioz]] was particularly impressed; he wrote an entire article in the ''[[Revue et gazette musicale]]'', entitled 'On the Orchestration of ''Robert le diable'' ', which concluded:
:''Robert le Diable'' provides the most astonishing example of the power of instrumentation when applied to dramatic music; ... a power of recent introduction which has achieved its fullest development in the hands of M. Meyerbeer; a conquest of modern art which even the Italians will have to acknowledge in order to prop up as best they can their miserable system which is collapsing in ruins.<ref>Article of 12 July 1835; cited in [http://www.hberlioz.com/Predecessors/meyerbeer.htm Berlioz and Meyerbeer] in The Hector Berlioz website, retrieved 7 April 2012</ref>

The opera was perceived to have weaknesses of characterization. For example, Robert's dithering behaviour led to one comment that "what is least diabolical in ''Robert le diable'' is Robert himself."<ref>cited in Crosten (1948), p. 99. Crosten comments: "In fact, [Robert] is so fundamentally characterless that it is a matter of wonder why either Heaven or Hell should be inclined to worry over his destiny."</ref> But the critic [[François-Joseph Fétis|Fétis]] gave the consensus opinion: "''Robert le diable'' is not only a masterpiece; it is also a remarkable work within the history of music ...[it] seems to me to unite all the qualities needed to establish a composer's reputation unshakeably."<ref name="cited in Brzoska 2003, p. 192"/>

The success of the opera led to Meyerbeer himself becoming a celebrity. King [[Frederick William III of Prussia]], who attended the second performance of ''Robert'', swiftly invited him to compose a German opera, and Meyerbeer was invited to stage ''Robert'' in Berlin.<ref>Becker (1989), p. 39</ref> In January 1832 he was awarded membership of the [[Legion of honour|Légion d'honneur]].<ref>Everist (1994), p. 210</ref> This success – coupled with Meyerbeer's known family wealth – inevitably also precipitated envy amongst his peers. Berlioz wrote "I can't forget that Meyerbeer was only able to persuade [the Opéra] to put on ''Robert le diable'' ... by paying the administration sixty thousand francs of his own money"; and Chopin lamented "Meyerbeer had to work for three years and pay his own expenses for his stay in Paris before ''Robert le diable'' could be staged ... Three years, that's a lot – it's too much."<ref>Both cited in Conway (2012), pp. 252–3. Both Veron and Meyerbeer however were later to deny the rumours that the composer had subsidized the production. See Becker (1989), pp. 147–8</ref>

== Influence ==
The success of ''Robert'' had profound consequences, for the institution of the Paris Opéra itself, for the music, staging and popularity of nineteenth century opera as a whole, and for ballet.

[[File:Duoconcertantchopin.jpg|thumb|left|First page of manuscript of ''Grand duo concertant'' on themes of ''Robert'' by Chopin and Franchomme]]The fortuitous timing of the opera's premiere, not long after the [[July Revolution]], and its sensational and novel effects, meant that it was widely identified with the new, liberal, ideas of the [[July Monarchy]]. As Berlioz commented, Meyerbeer had "not only the luck to be talented, but the talent to be lucky."<ref>Berlioz (1970), p. 569</ref> [[Honoré de Balzac]] (in his novella ''[[Gambara (short story)|Gambara]]'')<ref>Brzoska (2003), p. 193</ref> and Heinrich Heine (in his poem ''Angélique'')<ref>Conway (2012), p. 254</ref> are just two of the contemporary writers to express their fascination with the opera. [[Alexandre Dumas]] set a chapter of ''[[The Count of Monte Cristo]]'' between two acts of ''Robert''; and [[George Sand]] wrote about it at length in her ''Lettres d'un voyageur''.<ref>Everist (1994), 212</ref> It is the only nineteenth-century opera to have a [[rose]] named after it.<ref>Everist (1994), 213. See also [http://www.roselocator.com/rose_locator/roses/mauve/848_robert_le_diable.php roselocator.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110630195746/http://www.roselocator.com/rose_locator/roses/mauve/848_robert_le_diable.php |date=2011-06-30 }} for a picture (link accessed 9 June 2012).</ref>

Also, the absence of starchy historical content in ''Robert'' doubtless played a part in attracting the bourgeoisie to the opera, until then regarded as primarily an aristocratic entertainment. The success of the opera also justified the government's policy of '[[privatization]]' in selling the management to Véron, and this was a landmark in the dilution of state control and patronage in the fine arts.<ref>Heubner (1992), p. 1359</ref> Although Véron had not commissioned it (having taken control only after the Revolution), ''Robert'' was his first new production as manager of the Opéra, and its success underwrote his policy of commissioning similar works. These were to include Meyerbeer's ''[[Les Huguenots]]'', [[Fromental Halévy]]'s ''[[La Juive]]'', and [[Daniel Auber]]'s ''[[Gustave III (Auber)|Gustave III]]''. However, while they used 'the same dazzling theatrical rhetoric' as ''Robert'', they led to 'uniformly horrific dénouements' with 'gripping moral urgency', their more sophisticated plot-lines reflecting the changes in taste of the new opera clientele.<ref>Taruskin (2010), p. 218</ref> They [[Grand opera#The golden age of grand opera: 1830.E2.80.931850|established Paris as Europe's opera capital]], with the Opéra itself as its centre, in the period 1830 until 1850.

The Act 3 ballet is regarded by some as the first of the ''[[ballet blanc|ballets blancs]]'' (whereby the principal ballerina and the [[corps de ballet]] are all clothed in white) which became a favourite of the nineteenth-century repertoire. Later examples include ''[[La Sylphide]]'' (1832) (also choreographed by Filippo Taglioni and danced by his daughter), ''[[Giselle]]'' (1841), ''[[Pas de Quatre]]'' (1845) and ''[[Les Sylphides]]'' (1909).<ref>Jürgenson (1998), p. 73</ref>

Music from the opera became the subject of numerous virtuoso works of the time. The brilliant transcription of its themes (''Reminiscences de Robert le diable'')<ref>Liszt, S. p. 413. [http://imslp.org/wiki/R%C3%A9miniscences_de_Robert_le_diable,_S.413_(Liszt,_Franz) Score] at [[IMSLP]]</ref> made by the composer and virtuoso [[Franz Liszt]] was so popular that it became his calling card: on more than one occasion he was forced to interrupt his programmed concerts to play it because of the demands of the audience.<ref>Hamilton (2008), pp. 87–88</ref> On the day of its publication by Maurice Schlesinger, the edition of 500 was completely sold out and it had to be immediately reprinted.<ref>Walker (1983), p. 167</ref> Indeed, the success of ''Robert'', whose score was also published by Schlesinger, was said to have saved him from bankruptcy.<ref>Conway (2012), p. 238</ref> Frédéric Chopin and [[Auguste Franchomme]] jointly composed a ''[[Grand Duo concertant (Chopin and Franchomme)|Grand duo concertant]]'' on themes from the opera, for cello and piano, in 1832,<ref>Chopin, B. p.70 [http://imslp.org/wiki/Grand_duo_concertant_sur_des_th%C3%A8mes_de_Robert_le_diable,_B.70_(Chopin,_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric) Score] available from [[IMSLP]]</ref> and the Italian pianist and composer [[Adolfo Fumagalli]] composed an elaborate fantasy on the opera for left hand alone as his Op. 106.<ref>"Grande Fantaisie pour Piano pour la main gauche sur ''Robert le Diabl'' de de Meyerbeer, Op. 106. [http://imslp.org/wiki/Grande_Fantaisie_pour_Piano_pour_la_main_gauche_sur_Robert_le_Diable_de_Meyerbeer,_Op.106_(Fumagalli,_Adolfo) Score] available from [[IMSLP]]</ref>

Other pieces based on the opera included works by [[Adolf von Henselt]]<ref>Variations de Concert on ‘Quand Je Quittai La Normandie’ from Meyerbeer's ''Robert le Diable'', Op.11. [http://imslp.org/wiki/Variations_de_Concert_on_%E2%80%98Quand_Je_Quittai_La_Normandie%E2%80%99_from_Meyerbeer%27s_%27Robert_le_Diable%27,_Op.11_(Henselt,_Adolf_von) Score] available from [[IMSLP]]</ref> and [[Amédée Méreaux|Jean-Amédée Méreaux]].

[[Edgar Degas]] painted the scene of the Nuns' ballet twice. The earlier version (1871) is in the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]], New York. In 1876 Degas painted a larger version for the singer [[Jean-Baptiste Faure]] (who had sung the part of Bertram); this version is in the [[Victoria and Albert Museum]], London.<ref>[http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/29.100.552 'The Ballet from ''Robert le Diable'' ', Metropolitan Museum of Art website], accessed 16 April 2012</ref>

The work's popularity spawned many parodies and pastiches including one by [[W. S. Gilbert]], ''[[Robert the Devil (Gilbert)|Robert the Devil]]'', which opened at the [[Gaiety Theatre, London]] in 1868.  It is referenced in the opening scene of [[Andrew Lloyd Webber|Andrew Lloyd Webber's]] ''[[The Phantom of the Opera (1986 musical)|The Phantom of the Opera]]'', where one of the items being auctioned off is described as "Lot 664: a wooden pistol and three human skulls from the 1831 production of ''Robert le diable'' by Meyerbeer."{{fact|date=November 2017}}

==Recordings==
{| class="wikitable"
!Year
!Cast:<br />Alice, Isabelle,<br />Raimbaut, Robert,<br />Bertram
!Conductor,<br />Opera House and Orchestra
!Label<ref>[http://www.operadis-opera-discography.org.uk/CLMEROBE.HTM#6 Recordings of ''Robert le diable''] on operadis-opera-discography.org.uk]</ref>
|-
|1968,<br />May 7,<br />sung in Italian
|Stefania Malagù,<br />[[Renata Scotto]],<br />Gianfranco Manganotti,<br />Giorgio Merighi,<br />[[Boris Christoff]]
|[[Nino Sanzogno]],<br />Coro e Orchestra del [[Maggio Musicale Fiorentino]]
| CD: Pantheon Music<br />cat. XLNC 127<br />[http://www.worldcat.org/search?q=kw%3Asanzogno+ti%3Arobert+le+diable&fq=%28x0%3Asnd+%7C+x0%3Aaudiobook+%7C+x0%3Amusic%29&qt=advanced&dblist=638 WorldCat]
|-
|1985,<br />July 2
|Michèle Lagrange,<br />[[June Anderson]],<br />Walter Donati,<br />[[Alain Vanzo]],<br />[[Samuel Ramey]]
|[[Thomas Fulton]],<br />[[Opéra National de Paris|Choeurs et Orchestre de l'Opéra National de Paris]]
|CD: Adonis<br />cat. 85003<br />{{OCLC|44115287}}
|-
|1985,<br />filmed in Paris
|Michèle Lagrange,<br />June Anderson,<br />Walter Donati,<br />[[Rockwell Blake]],<br />Samuel Ramey
|Thomas Fulton,<br />Choeurs et Orchestre de l'Opéra National de Paris
|DVD: Encore<br />cat. DVD 2006<br />{{OCLC|62095709}}
|-
|1988,<br />Feb. 21,<br />live in New York
|Frances Ginsberg,<br />Marilyn Mims,<br />[[Anthony Laciura]],<br />[[Chris Merritt]],<br />Samuel Ramey
|[[Eve Queler]],<br />unknown
|MP3: House of Opera<br />cat. 7784
|-
|2000,<br />March 14,<br />live in Berlin
|{{Nowrap|Marina Mescheriakova}},<br />[[Nelly Miricioiu]],<br />Stephan Rügamer,<br />[[Jianyi Zhang]],<br />[[Kwangchul Youn]]
|[[Marc Minkowski]],<br />Chorus and Orchestra of [[Staatsoper Unter den Linden]]
| CD: House of Opera<br />cat. CD 689<ref>Listing and reviews at [http://www.operadis-opera-discography.org.uk/CLMEROBE.HTM Operadis] website, accessed 2 June 2014.</ref>
|-
|2000,<br />live in Martina Franca
|Annalisa Raspagliosi,<br />[[Patrizia Ciofi]],<br />Alessandro Codeluppi,<br />[[Warren Mok]],<br />Giorgio Surjan
|Renato Palumbo,<br />Bratislava Chamber Choir, Orchestra Internazionale d'Italia
|CD: Dynamic<br />cat. CDS 368/1-3<br />
|-
|2001,<br />March 11,<br />live in Berlin
|Brigitte Hahn,<br />Nelly Miricioiu,<br />Stephan Rügamer,<br />Jianyi Zhang,<br />Kwangchul Youn
|Marc Minkowski,<br />Chorus and Orchestra of Staatsoper Unter den Linden
|CD: Richter Audio Encyclopedia<br />cat. AE 006
|-
|2012,<br />March 23
|[[Carmen Giannattasio]],<br />[[Patrizia Ciofi]],<br />Martial Defontaine,<br />[[Bryan Hymel]],<br />[[Alastair Miles]]
|[[Daniel Oren]],<br />Coro del Teatro dell' Opera di Salerno, Orchestra Filarmonica Salernitana
|CD: Brilliant Classics<br />cat. 94604-3
|-
|2012,<br />Dec. 6–15
|[[Marina Poplavskaya]],<br />Patrizia Ciofi,<br />Jean-François Borras,<br />Bryan Hymel,<br />[[John Relyea]]
|Daniel Oren,<br />Chorus and Orchestra of the [[Royal Opera House]]
|DVD: Opus&nbsp;Arte<ref>{{OCLC|853794284}}</ref><br />cat. OA BD 7121 ({{Nowrap|[[Blu-ray]]}}), OA 1106 ([[NTSC]]&nbsp;[[DVD]])
|-
|2019,<br />April 5,<br />live in Brussels
|Yolanda Auyanet,<br />[[Lisette Oropesa]],<br />Julien Dran,<br />[[:de:Dmitry Korchak|Dmitry Korchak]],<br />[[Nicolas Courjal]]
|[[Evelino Pidò]],<br />unknown
|CD: Euro Opera<br />cat. EO 3713
|-
|2021,<br />Sept. 20–27,<br />live and studio
|[[Amina Edris]],<br />[[Erin Morley]],<br />Nico Darmanin,<br />[[John Osborn (tenor)|John Osborn]],<br />Nicolas Courjal
|Marc Minkowski,<br />[[Opéra National de Bordeaux|Choeur de l'Opéra National de Bordeaux]], [[Orchestre National Bordeaux Aquitaine]]
|CDs and book:<br />[[Bru Zane]]<br />cat. BZ 1049
|}

==References==
'''Notes'''
{{reflist|30em}}
'''Printed sources'''
* [[Heinz Becker (musicologist)|Becker, Heinz]]; Becker, Gudrun (1989). ''Giacomo Meyerbeer: A Life in Letters'', translated by Mark Violette. London: Christopher Helm. {{ISBN|0-931340-19-5}}.
* Berlioz, Hector (1970). ''The Memoirs of Berlioz'', translated by David Cairns. London: Panther.
* Brown, Clive (2001). "Giacomo Meyerbeer", pp.&nbsp;570–577, in ''The New Penguin Opera Guide'', edited by [[Amanda Holden (writer)|Amanda Holden]]. New York: Penguin / Putnam. {{ISBN|0-14-029312-4}}.
* Brzoska, Matthias (2003). 'Meyerbeer: ''Robert le Diable'' and ''Les Huguenots'' ' in Charlton (2003), pp.&nbsp;189–207.
* Carlson, Marvin (1972). ''The French Stage in the Nineteenth Century.'' Metuchen, New Jersey: The Scarecrow Press. {{ISBN|978-0-8108-0516-3}}.
* Carnegy, Patrick (2006). ''Wagner and the Art of the Theatre''. New Haven: Yale University Press. {{ISBN|9780300106954}}.
* Charlton, David, editor (2003). ''[[Cambridge Companions to Music|The Cambridge Companion to Grand Opera]]''. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-521-64118-0}} (hardcover); {{ISBN|9780521646833}} (paperback).
* Chorley, Henry F. (1972). ''Thirty Years' Musical Recollections'', edited by [[Ernest Newman]]. New York: Vienna House.
* Conway, David (2012). ''Jewry in Music: Entry to the Profession from the Enlightenment to Richard Wagner''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|9781107015388}}.
* Crosten, William L. (1948). ''French Grand Opera: An Art and a Business''. New York: King's Crown Press.
* Everist, Mark (1994). 'The Name of the Rose: Meyerbeer's opéra comique, Robert le Diable', in ''Revue de musicologie'', vol.80 no.2, pp.&nbsp;211–250.
* [[François-Joseph Fétis|Fétis F-J.]] (1862). ''Biographie universelle des musiciens'' (in French), second edition, volume 3. Paris: Didot. [https://books.google.com/books?id=ssmzj4ZblG4C&pg=PP7 View] at [[Google Books]].
* Hamilton, Kenneth (2008). ''After the Golden Age: Romantic Pianism and Modern Performance''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-517826-5}}.
* Heubner Steven (1992). 'Robert le Diable', in ''The New Grove Dictionary of Opera'' edited by Stanley Sadie, London: Macmillan Press, vol. 3, pp.&nbsp;1357–1359.
* Jürgenson, Knud Arne (1998). 'The "Ballet of the Nuns" from ''Robert le diable'' and its Revival", in ''Meyerbeer und das europäische Musiktheater'' edited by S. Döhring and A. Jacobshagen, pp.&nbsp;73–86. Laaber: Laaber-Verlag. {{ISBN|3-89007-410-3}}.
* Letellier, Robert Ignatius (2012). ''Meyerbeer's ''Robert le Diable'': The Premier ''Opéra Romantique. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. {{ISBN|9781443841917}}.
* Levarie, Siegmund (1995), "Meyerbeer [Meyer Beer], Giacomo [Jakob Liebmann]" in ''The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians'', ed. Stanley Sadie. Vol. 12, pp. 246–256. London: Macmillan. {{ISBN|0333231112}}
* Meyerbeer, Giacomo (1999). ''The Diaries of Giacomo Meyerbeer. Volume 1: 1791–1839'', translated and edited by Robert Ignatius Letellier. Madison, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press; London: Associated University Presses. {{ISBN|9780838637890}}.
* Pitou, Spire (1990). ''The Paris Opéra: An Encyclopedia of Operas, Ballets, Composers, and Performers. Growth and Grandeur, 1815–1914''. New York: Greenwood Press. {{ISBN|9780313262180}}.
* Shaw, George Bernard (1981). ''Shaw's Music: The Complete Musical Criticism'', edited by Dan H. Laurence. 3 vols. London: The Bodley Head. {{ISBN|0-370-30333-4}}.
* [[Smart, Mary Ann]] (2003). "Roles, reputations, shadows: singers at the Opéra, 1828–1849", in Charlton (2003), pp.&nbsp;108–128.
* [[Richard Taruskin|Taruskin, Richard]] (2010). ''Music in the Nineteenth Century: The Oxford History of Western Music''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-19-538483-3}}.
* [[Alan Walker (musicologist)|Walker, Alan]] (1988). ''Franz Liszt: The Virtuoso Years 1811–1847''. London: Faber and Faber. {{ISBN|978-0-571-15278-0}}.
* Williams, Simon (2003). 'The Spectacle of the Past in Grand Opera' in Charlton (2003), pp.&nbsp;58–75.

'''Online sources'''
*{{Almanacco|match=Robert le diable}}
* Kaufman, Tom, [https://web.archive.org/web/20120716223947/http://www.meyerbeer.com/robert.htm "A Few Words About ''Robert le Diable''"] on the "Meyerbeer Fan Club" website, retrieved 10 January 2011
* Kühnhold, Wolfgang (1998). [http://www.meyerbeer.com/kuhn1.htm "A Discussion of Meyerbeer's ''Robert le diable''"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150512134053/http://www.meyerbeer.com/kuhn1.htm |date=2015-05-12 }} on the "Meyerbeer Fan Club" website, retrieved 4 April 2012

==External links==
{{Commons category-inline|Robert le Diable (opera)|''Robert le diable''}}
* {{IMSLP2|work=Robert le diable (Meyerbeer, Giacomo)|cname=''Robert le diable''}}
* [https://archive.org/details/robertlediableop1850meye Robert le Diable : opéra en cinq actes], 1850 publication, French, digitized by [[Brigham Young University|BYU]] on archive.org
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=filMAAAAcAAJ&pg=PR3 1831 libretto (Paris: Bezou)] at [[Google Books]]

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