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{{short description|Belief that Christianity should return to the form of the early apostolic church}}
{{Other uses|Restorationism (disambiguation)}}
{{Christianity|expanded=all}}
{{Historical Christian theology}}

'''Restorationism''', also known as '''Christian primitivism''', is a religious perspective according to which the early beliefs and practices of the followers of [[Jesus]] were either lost or adulterated after [[Crucifixion of Jesus|his death]] and required a "restoration".<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Models of Restoration"/><ref name="Routledge Companion"/><ref>Encyclopedia of Religion in the South, p.665, Samuel S. Hill, Charles H. Lippy, Charles Reagan Wilson, 2005: "An Anabaptist, [[Servetus]] believed what has always been basic to restorationism: ... the true, apostolic church .... Restorationists in the South include three churches of the STONE-CAMPBELL TRADITION."</ref> It is a view that often "seeks to correct faults or deficiencies, in other branches of [[Christianity]], by appealing to the primitive church as normative model".<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Models of Restoration"/>{{Rp|635}}

Efforts to restore an earlier, purer form of Christianity are frequently a response to [[denominationalism]]. As [[Rubel Shelly]] put it, "the motive behind all restoration movements is to tear down the walls of separation by a return to the practice of the original, essential and universal features of the Christian religion."<ref name="I Just Want to Be a Christian"/>{{Rp|29}}  Different groups have tried to implement the restorationist vision in a variety of ways; for instance, some have focused on the structure and practice of the church, others on the [[Christian ethics|ethical life of the church]], and others on the direct experience of the [[Holy Spirit]] in the life of the believer.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Models of Restoration"/>{{Rp|635–638}}  The relative importance given to the restoration ideal, and the extent to which the full restoration of the early church is believed to have been achieved, also varies among groups.

More narrowly, the term "Restorationism" is used as a descriptive term for unrelated Restorationist groups which were formed during the eras of the [[Great Awakening|Great Awakenings]], such as the [[Christadelphians]] (Greek: 'Brothers of Christ'), [[Swedenborgians]] (i.e., [[The New Church (Swedenborgian)|The New Church]]), [[Catholic Apostolic Church|Irvingians]] (the largest of which is the [[New Apostolic Church]]), [[Latter Day Saint movement|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (i.e., [[Mormonism]]), [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] (from the [[tetragrammaton]] for God), {{Lang|es|[[La Luz del Mundo]]|italic=yes}} (Spanish: 'the Light of the World'), and {{Lang|tl|[[Iglesia ni Cristo]]|italic=yes}} ([[Tagalog language|Tagalog]]: 'Church of Christ').<ref name="Carson2020"/><ref name="LewisMittelstadt2016">{{cite book |last1=Lewis |first1=Paul W. |last2=Mittelstadt |first2=Martin William |title=What's So Liberal about the Liberal Arts?: Integrated Approaches to Christian Formation |date=27 April 2016 |publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers |isbn=978-1-4982-3145-9 |language=en |quote=The Second Great Awakening (1790-1840) spurred a renewed interest in primitive Christianity. What is known as the Restoration Movement of the nineteenth century gave birth to an array of groups: Mormons (The Latter Day Saint Movement), the Churches of Christ, Adventists, and Jehovah's Witnesses. Though these groups demonstrate a breathtaking diversity on the continuum of Christianity they share an intense restorationist impulse. Picasso and Stravinsky reflect a primitivism that came to the fore around the turn of the twentieth century that more broadly has been characterized as a "retreat from the industrialized world."}}</ref><ref name="Bloesch2005">{{cite book |last1=Bloesch |first1=Donald G. |title=The Holy Spirit: Works Gifts |date=2 December 2005 |publisher=InterVarsity Press |isbn=978-0-8308-2755-8 |page=158 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Spinks2017">{{cite book |last1=Spinks |first1=Bryan D. |title=Reformation and Modern Rituals and Theologies of Baptism: From Luther to Contemporary Practices |date=2 March 2017 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-351-90583-1 |language=en |quote=However, Swedenborg claimed to receive visions and revelations of heavenly things and a 'New Church', and the new church which was founded upon his writings was a Restorationist Church. The three nineteenth-century churches are all examples of Restorationist Churches, which believed they were refounding the Apostolic Church, and preparing for the Second Coming of Christ.}}</ref> In this sense, Restorationism has been regarded as one of the six taxonomic groupings of [[Christianity]]: the [[Church of the East]], [[Oriental Orthodox Churches|Oriental Orthodoxy]], [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodoxy]], [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholicism]], [[Protestantism]], and Restorationism.<ref name="Riswold2009">{{cite book |last1=Riswold |first1=Caryn D. |title=Feminism and Christianity: Questions and Answers in the Third Wave |date=1 October 2009 |publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers |isbn=978-1-62189-053-9 |language=English}}</ref><ref name="GaoSawatsky2023">{{cite web |last1=Gao |first1=Ronnie Chuang-Rang |last2=Sawatsky |first2=Kevin |title=Motivations in Faith-Based Organizations|url=https://hc.edu/center-for-christianity-in-business/2023/02/07/motivations-in-faith-based-organizations/ |publisher=[[Houston Christian University]] |access-date=22 November 2023 |language=English |date=7 February 2023 |quote=For example, Christianity comprises six major groups: Church of the East, Oriental Orthodoxy, Eastern Orthodoxy, Roman Catholicism, Protestantism and Restorationism.}}</ref> These Restorationist groups share a belief that historic Christianity lost the true faith during the [[Great Apostasy]] and that the Church needed to be restored.<ref name="Molloy2017">{{cite book |last1=Molloy |first1=Michael |title=The Christian Experience: An Introduction to Christianity |date=6 April 2017 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-4725-8284-3 |page=366 |language=en|quote=Like other Restorationists, Russell held the theory of the Great Apostasy, the belief that Christianity had fallen away from its original purity. To the simple early message of Christianity, he believed, later teachers and political leaders had added unwarranted beliefs and practices.}}</ref><ref name="Buck2009">{{cite book |last1=Buck |first1=Christopher |title=Religious Myths and Visions of America: How Minority Faiths Redefined America's World Role |date=2009 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-0-313-35959-0 |page=88 |language=en}}</ref>

The term has been used in reference to the [[Restoration Movement|Stone–Campbell Movement]] in the United States,<ref name="Routledge Companion"/>{{Rp|225–226}} and has been also used by more recent groups, describing their goal to re-establish Christianity in its original form, such as some anti-denominational [[charismatic Restorationism|Charismatic Restorationists]], which arose in the 1970s in the United Kingdom and elsewhere.<ref>''Evangelicalism in modern Britain: a history from the 1730s to the 1980s'', David W. Bebbington, pub 1995, Routledge (UK), {{ISBN|0-415-10464-5}}, pg 230,231; 245-249</ref><ref>''Alternative Religions: A Sociological Introduction'', Stephen J. Hunt, pub 2003, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd; {{ISBN|0-7546-3410-8}}, pg 82,83</ref>

==Uses of the term==
The terms ''restorationism'', ''restorationist'' and ''restoration'' are used in several senses within [[Christianity]]. "Restorationism" in the sense of "Christian primitivism" refers to the attempt to correct perceived shortcomings of the current church by using the [[Christianity in the 1st century|primitive church]] as a model to reconstruct [[early Christianity]],<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Models of Restoration">Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, ''The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ'', Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, {{ISBN|0-8028-3898-7}}, 9780802838988, entry on ''Restoration, Historical Models of''</ref>{{Rp|635}} and has also been described as "practicing church the way it is perceived to have been done in the [[New Testament]]".<ref name="Routledge Companion"/>{{Rp|217}} 

Restorationism is called "apostolic" as representing the form of Christianity that the [[Twelve Apostles]] followed. These themes arise early in church history, first appearing in the works of [[Iranaeus]],<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Models of Restoration"/>{{Rp|635}} and appeared in [[Medieval Restorationism|some movements during the Middle Ages]]. It was expressed to varying degrees in the theology of the [[Protestant Reformation]],<ref name="Routledge Companion"/>{{Rp|217}} and [[Protestantism]] has been described as "a form of Christian restorationism, though some of its forms – for example the [[Churches of Christ]] or the [[Baptists]] – are more restorationist than others".<ref>David Lynn Holmes, ''The faiths of the founding fathers'', Oxford University Press US, 2006, {{ISBN|0-19-530092-0}}, 9780195300925, 225 pages</ref>{{Rp|81–82}} 

A number of historical movements within Christianity may be described as "restoration movements", including the [[Glasite]]s in Scotland and England, the independent church led by [[James Haldane]] and [[Robert Haldane]] in Scotland, the American [[Restoration Movement]], the [[Landmarkism|Landmark Baptists]] and the [[Mormonism|Mormons]].<ref>Erwin Fahlbusch and Geoffrey William Bromiley, translated by Geoffrey William Bromiley, ''The encyclopedia of Christianity'', Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2005, 952 pages, {{ISBN|0-8028-2416-1}}, 9780802824165, entry on ''Restoration Movements''</ref>{{Rp|659pf}} A variety of more contemporary movements have also been described as "restorationist".<ref>Max Turner, "[http://www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/pdf/vox/vol19/ecclesiology_turner.pdf Ecclesiology In The Major 'Apostolic' Restorationist Churches In The United Kingdom]", ''Vox Evangelica'' 19 (1989): 83–108.</ref><ref>Elaine Milley, "[http://www.gladtidingsnl.org/articles/emilley1.pdf Modern Theology of Restorationism]", {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160418155804/http://www.gladtidingsnl.org/articles/emilley1.pdf |date=2016-04-18 }}, Master's Thesis, Theological Studies Department, Tyndale College and Seminary</ref> Restorationism has been described as a basic component of some [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostal]] movements such as the [[Assemblies of God]].<ref>Edith Waldvogel Blumhofer, ''Restoring the faith: the Assemblies of God, Pentecostalism, and American culture'', University of Illinois Press, 1993, {{ISBN|0-252-06281-7}}, 9780252062810, 281 pages</ref>{{Rp|4–5}} The terms "Restorationism movement" and "Restorationist movement" have also been applied to the [[British New Church Movement]].<ref>Stephen Hunt, ''Alternative religions: a sociological introduction'', Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2003, {{ISBN|0-7546-3410-8}}, 9780754634102, 268 pages</ref>{{Rp|82–83}}

Capitalized, the term is also used as a synonym for the American [[Restoration Movement]].<ref name="Routledge Companion">Gerard Mannion and Lewis S. Mudge, ''The Routledge companion to the Christian church'', Routledge, 2008, {{ISBN|0-415-37420-0}}, 9780415374200, page 634</ref>{{Rp|225–226}}<ref>
See for example Cassandra Yacovazzi, "[https://baylor-ir.tdl.org/bitstream/handle/2104/5343/Cassie_Yacovazzi_masters.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y ''The Crisis of Sectarianism: Restorationist, Catholic, and Mormon Converts in Antebellum America''], Masters Thesis, Department of History, [[Baylor University]], May 2009</ref> The term "restorationism" can also include the belief that the Jewish people must be restored to the [[promised land]] in fulfillment of biblical prophecy before the [[Second Coming]] of [[Christ]].<ref>Anouar Majid, "[http://alh.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/ajp017v1 The Political Geography of Holiness] {{webarchive|url=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20160210084928/http://alh.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/ajp017v1 |date=2016-02-10 }}", ''American Literary History'', April 17, 2009</ref>{{Rp|3}} ''Christian restorationism'' is generally used to describe the 19th century movement based on this belief, though the term ''[[Christian Zionism]]'' is more commonly used to describe later forms. 

The term ''primitive'',<ref>{{cite book|first=Alan|last=Knight|title=Primitive Christianity in Crisis}}</ref> in contrast with other uses, refers to a basis in scholarship and research into the actual writings of the [[Church Fathers]] and other historical documents. Since written documents for the underground first-century church are sparse, the primitive church passed down its knowledge verbally. Elements of the primitive Christianity movement reject the [[patristic]] tradition of the prolific extrabiblical 2nd- and 3rd-century redaction of this knowledge (the [[Ante-Nicene Fathers]]), and instead attempt to reconstruct primitive church practices as they might have existed in the [[Apostolic Age]]. To do this, they [[Christian revival|revive]] practices found in the Old Testament. The term ''apostolic'' refers to a nonmainstream, often literal, [[apostolic succession]] or historical lineage tracing back to the Apostles and the [[Great Commission]]. These restorationist threads are sometimes regarded critically as being [[Judaizers]] in the [[Ebionite]] tradition.<ref>{{cite book|first=Roderick|last=Meredith|title=Restoring Apostolic Christianity}}</ref>

==Historical models==
The restoration ideal has been interpreted and applied in a variety of ways.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Models of Restoration"/>{{Rp|635}}  Four general historical models can be identified based on the aspect of early Christianity that the individuals and groups involved were attempting to restore.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Models of Restoration"/>{{Rp|635}} These are:
*Ecclesiastical Primitivism;<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Models of Restoration"/>{{Rp|635}}
*Ethical Primitivism;<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Models of Restoration"/>{{Rp|635}}
*Experiential Primitivism;<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Models of Restoration"/>{{Rp|635}} and
*Gospel Primitivism.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Models of Restoration"/>{{Rp|635}}

Ecclesiastical primitivism focuses on restoring the [[Ecclesiastical|ecclesiastical practices]] of the early church.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Models of Restoration"/>{{Rp|635}} [[Huldrych Zwingli]], [[John Calvin]] and the [[Puritan]]s all advocated ecclesiastical primitivism.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Models of Restoration"/>{{Rp|635, 636}}  The strongest advocate of ecclesiastical primitivism in the [[United States]] was [[Alexander Campbell (clergyman)|Alexander Campbell]].<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Models of Restoration"/>{{Rp|636}}

Ethical primitivism focuses on restoring the ethical norms and commitment to [[Disciple (Christianity)|discipleship]] of the early church.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Models of Restoration"/>{{Rp|636}} The [[Anabaptist]]s, [[Barton W. Stone]] and the [[Holiness Movement]] are examples of this form of restorationism.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Models of Restoration"/>{{Rp|636, 637}} The movement often requires observance of universal commandments, such as a [[biblical Sabbath]] as given to [[Adam and Eve]] in the [[Garden of Eden]], and the [[Hebrew calendar]] to define years, seasons, weeks, and days. [[Religious male circumcision|Circumcision]], animal sacrifices, and ceremonial requirements, as practiced in Judaism, are distinguished from the [[Ten Commandments]], [[Noahide laws]]<ref>E.g., clean and unclean animals, {{Bibleverse||Gen.|7:2}}.</ref> and [[High Sabbaths]]<ref>E.g., the {{LORD}}'s cutting covenant with Abraham on [[Quartodeciman]] [[Passover]] as inferred from {{Bibleverse||Ex.|12:41|}}</ref> as given to, and in effect for, all humanity. The [[Sermon on the Mount]] and particularly the [[Expounding of the Law]] warn against [[antinomianism]], the rejection of biblical teachings concerning observance of the Law.<ref>{{Bibleverse||Matt.|5-7|}}</ref>

Experiential primitivism focuses on restoring the direct communication with God and the experience of the [[Holy Spirit]] seen in the early church.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Models of Restoration"/>{{Rp|637}}  Examples include the [[Latter Day Saint movement]] of [[Joseph Smith]] and [[Pentecostalism]].<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Models of Restoration"/>{{Rp|637, 638}}

Gospel primitivism may be best seen in the theology of [[Martin Luther]].<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Models of Restoration"/>{{Rp|638}}  Luther was not, in the strictest sense, a restorationist because he saw human effort to restore the church as [[works righteousness]] and was sharply critical of other [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]] leaders who were attempting to do so.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Models of Restoration"/>{{Rp|638}}  On the other hand, he was convinced that the gospel message had been obscured by the [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic Church]] of the time.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Models of Restoration"/>{{Rp|638}}  He also rejected church traditions he considered contrary to Scripture and insisted on [[Sola scriptura|scripture as the sole authority]] for the church.<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988"/>{{Rp|23}}

These models are not mutually exclusive, but overlap; for example, the Pentecostal movement sees a clear link between ethical primitivism and experiential primitivism.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Models of Restoration"/>{{Rp|635, 637}}

==Middle Ages==
{{Main|Medieval Restorationism}}
According to American Jewish historian [[Barbara Tuchman]], beginning in about 1470 a succession of [[Pope]]s focused on the acquisition of money, their role in Italian politics as rulers of the [[papal states]] and power politics within the [[college of cardinals]].<ref name=folly>{{Cite book |title=The march of folly |first=Barbara W. |last=Tuchman |year=1984 |publisher=Alfred A. Knopf |isbn=9780394527772 |location=New York, U.S.A. |url=https://archive.org/details/marchoffollyfrom00tuch }}</ref> Restorationism<ref name=mirror>{{Cite book|author=Barbara W. Tuchman |year=1978 |title=A Distant Mirror |publisher=Knopf |isbn=0-394-40026-7}}</ref> at the time was centered on movements that wanted to renew the church, such as the [[Lollardy|Lollards]], the [[Brethren of the Common Life]],<ref>{{Cite book|first=Leigh |last=Churchill |year=2004 |title=The Age of Knights & Friars, Popes & Reformers |publisher=Authentic Media |location=Milton Keynes |isbn=978-1-84227-279-4 |page=245}}</ref> the [[Hussite]]s, and [[Girolamo Savonarola]]'s reforms in [[Florence]].<ref>{{Cite book|first=Leigh |last=Churchill |year=2004 |title=The Age of Knights & Friars, Popes & Reformers |publisher=Authentic Media |location=Milton Keynes |isbn=978-1-84227-279-4 |page=281}}</ref>

While these pre-reformation movements did presage and sometimes discussed a break with Rome and papal authority, they also provoked restorationist movements within the church, such as the councils of Constance<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.piar.hu/councils/ecum16.htm |title=Council of Constance |access-date=2008-04-08 |author=Council of Constance |year=1414 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080101090223/http://www.piar.hu/councils/ecum16.htm |archive-date=2008-01-01 }}</ref> and Basle,<ref>{{cite web|title=Council of Basle |url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02334b.htm |access-date=2008-04-08 |date=1431–1449 |author=Council of Basle |publisher=Catholic Encyclopedia 1907}}</ref> which were held in the first half of the 15th century.

Preachers at the time regularly harangued delegates to these conferences regarding [[simony]], [[venality]], lack of [[chastity]] and [[celibacy]], and the holding of multiple [[benefices]].<ref>{{Cite book|author=John M. Todd |title=The Reformation |location=New York |year=1971}}</ref> The lack of success of the restorationist movements led, arguably, to the [[Protestant Reformation]].<ref name="folly"/>

==Protestant Reformation==
[[File:Ulrich-Zwingli-1.jpg|150px|thumb|right|Huldrych Zwingli as depicted by [[Hans Asper]] in an oil portrait from 1531, [[Kunstmuseum Winterthur]].]]
{{Main|Protestant Reformation|Radical Reformation}}

The Protestant Reformation came about through an impulse to repair the Church and return it to what the reformers saw as its original biblical structure, belief, and practice,<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/REFORM/LUTHER.HTM | author=Richard Hooker | title=Martin Luther, The Freedom of a Christian | access-date=2007-03-08 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070323001317/http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/REFORM/LUTHER.HTM | archive-date=2007-03-23 }}</ref> and was motivated by a sense that "the medieval church had allowed its traditions to clutter the way to God with fees and human regulations and thus to subvert the gospel of Christ."<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988">C. Leonard Allen and Richard T. Hughes, "Discovering Our Roots: The Ancestry of the Churches of Christ," Abilene Christian University Press, 1988, {{ISBN|0-89112-006-8}}</ref>{{Rp|21}} At the heart of the Reformation, in the view of later Protestants, was an emphasis on "scripture alone" ([[sola scriptura]]).<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988"/>{{Rp|22–23}}  

As a result, the authority of church tradition, believed to have taken practical precedence over scripture, was rejected.<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988"/>{{Rp|22}} The Protestant Reformation was not a monolithic movement, but consisted of at least three identifiable sub-currents.<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988"/>{{Rp|21}}  One was centered in [[Germany]], one was centered in [[Reformation in Switzerland|Switzerland]], and the third was centered in [[English Reformation|England]].<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988"/>{{Rp|21}}  While these movements shared some common concerns, each had its own particular emphasis.<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988"/>{{Rp|21}}
===German===
The [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] approach can be described as one of "reformation," seeking "to reform and purify the historic, institutional church while at the same time preserving as much of the tradition as possible."<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988"/>{{Rp|21}} The [[Lutheran Church]]es traditionally sees themselves as the "main trunk of the historical Christian Tree" founded by Christ and the Apostles, holding that during the Reformation, at the [[Council of Trent]], the [[Holy See|Church of Rome]] fell away.<ref name="Remensnyder1893">{{cite book |author1=Junius Benjamin Remensnyder |title=The Lutheran Manual |date=1893 |publisher=Boschen & Wefer Company |page=12 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rWA3AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA12 |language=English}}</ref><ref name="Frey1918">{{cite book|last=Frey|first=H.|title=Is One Church as Good as Another?|volume=37|year=1918|publisher=[[The Lutheran Witness]]|language=English|pages=82–83}}</ref> As such, the [[Augsburg Confession]], the Lutheran confession of faith, teaches that "the faith as confessed by Luther and his followers is nothing new, but the true catholic faith, and that their churches represent the true catholic or universal church".<ref name="Ludwig2016">{{cite magazine|title=Luther's Catholic Reformation|last=Ludwig|first=Alan|date=12 September 2016|magazine=[[The Lutheran Witness]]|language=en|quote=When the Lutherans presented the ''Augsburg Confession'' before Emperor Charles V in 1530, they carefully showed that each article of faith and practice was true first of all to Holy Scripture, and then also to the teaching of the church fathers and the councils and even the canon law of the Church of Rome. They boldly claim, "This is about the Sum of our Doctrine, in which, as can be seen, there is nothing that varies from the Scriptures, or from the Church Catholic, or from the Church of Rome as known from its writers" (AC XXI Conclusion 1). The underlying thesis of the ''Augsburg Confession'' is that the faith as confessed by Luther and his followers is nothing new, but the true catholic faith, and that their churches represent the true catholic or universal church. In fact, it is actually the Church of Rome that has departed from the ancient faith and practice of the catholic church (see AC XXIII 13, XXVIII 72 and other places).}}</ref> When the Lutherans presented the Augsburg Confession to [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor]], they explained "that each article of faith and practice was true first of all to Holy Scripture, and then also to the teaching of the church fathers and the councils".<ref name="Ludwig2016"/>
===Swiss===
In contrast, the [[Reformed churches|Reformed]] approach can be described as one of "restoration," seeking "to restore the essence and form of the primitive church based on biblical precedent and example; tradition received scant respect."<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988"/>{{Rp|21}} While [[Martin Luther|Luther]] focused on the question "How can we find forgiveness of sins?", the early Reformed theologians turned to the [[Bible]] for patterns that could be used to replace traditional forms and practices.<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988"/>{{Rp|24}} [[Heinrich Bullinger]] and [[Martin Bucer]] in particular emphasized the restoration of biblical patterns.<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988"/>{{Rp|29–31}} [[John Calvin]] reflected an intermediate position between that of Luther and Reformed theologians such as [[Huldrych Zwingli|Zwingli]], stressing biblical precedents for church governance, but as a tool to more effectively proclaim the [[gospel]] rather than as ends in themselves.<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988"/>{{Rp|291,22}}

Luther opposed efforts to restore "biblical forms and structures,"<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988"/>{{Rp|112}} because he saw human efforts to restore the church as works righteousness.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Models of Restoration"/>{{Rp|638}}  He did seek the "marks of the true church," but was concerned that by focusing on forms and patterns could lead to the belief that by "restoring outward forms alone one has restored the essence."<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988"/>{{Rp|117}} Thus, Luther believed that restoring the gospel was the first step in renewing the church, rather than restoring biblical forms and patterns.<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988"/>{{Rp|118}}  In this sense, Luther can be described as a gospel restorationist, even though his approach was very different from that of other restorationists.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Models of Restoration"/>{{Rp|638}}<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988"/>{{Rp|121}}

Protestant groups have generally accepted history as having some "jurisdiction" in Christian faith and life; the question has been the extent of that jurisdiction.<ref name="Hughes 1988">Richard T. Hughes (editor), ''The American Quest for the Primitive Church'', [[University of Illinois Press]], 1988, 292 pages, {{ISBN|0-252-06029-6}}</ref>{{Rp|5}} A commitment to history and primitivism are not mutually exclusive; while some groups attempt to give full jurisdiction to the primitive church, for others the [[Apostolic Age|apostolic]] "first times" are given only partial jurisdiction.<ref name="Hughes 1988"/>{{Rp|5,6}}

==={{anchor|Church of England and Caroline Divines}}English===

Perhaps the most primitivist minded of the Protestant Reformation era were a group of scholars within the Church of England known as the [[Caroline Divines]], who flourished in the 1600s during the reigns of [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] and [[Charles II of England|Charles II]]. They regularly appealed to the Primitive Church as the basis for their reforms.<ref name="McIlhiney 1975 143–154">{{Cite journal |last=McIlhiney |first=David B. |date=1975 |title=The Protestantism of the Caroline Divines |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/42974662 |journal=Historical Magazine of the Protestant Episcopal Church |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=143–154 |jstor=42974662 |issn=0018-2486}}</ref> Unlike many other Christian Primitivists, the Church of the England and the Caroline Divines did not subject Scriptural interpretation to individual human reason, but rather to the hermeneutical consensus of the Church Fathers, holding to the doctrine of Prima Scriptura as opposed to Sola Scriptura.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Doll |first=Peter |date=1996 |title=The Idea of the Primitive Church in High Church Ecclesiology from Samuel Johnson to J.H. Hobart |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/42611756 |journal=Anglican and Episcopal History |volume=65 |issue=1 |pages=6–43 |jstor=42611756 |issn=0896-8039}}</ref> They did not hold to the separatist ecclesiology of many primitivist groups, but rather saw themselves as working within the historic established church to return it to its foundation in Scripture and the patristic tradition.<ref name="McIlhiney 1975 143–154"/> Among the Caroline Divines were men like Archbishop William Laud, Bishop Jeremy Taylor, Deacon Nicholas Ferrar and the Little Gidding Community and others.

==First Great Awakening==
{{Main|First Great Awakening}}

'''<big>Methodism</big>'''

[[Methodism]] began in the 1700s as a Christian Primitivist movement within the Church of England. John Wesley and his brother Charles, the founders of the movement, were high church Anglican priests in the vein of the Caroline Divines, who had a deep respect for the Primitive Church, which they generally defined as the Church before the Council Of Nicea.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Snyder |first=Howard |date=2016-05-02 |title=Restoring Primitive Christianity in America |url=https://seedbed.com/restoring-primitive-christianity-in-america-2/ |access-date=2022-04-23 |website=Seedbed |language=en-US}}</ref> Unlike many other Christian Primitivists, the Wesleys and the early Methodists did not subject Scriptural interpretation to individual human reason, but rather to the hermeneutical consensus of the Ante-Nicene Fathers, holding to a view of authority more akin to Prima Scriptura rather than Sola Scriptura.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hammond |first=Geordan |date=2009 |title=High Church Anglican Influences on John Wesley's Conception of Primitive Christianity, 1732-1735 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/42612802 |journal=Anglican and Episcopal History |volume=78 |issue=2 |pages=174–207 |jstor=42612802 |issn=0896-8039}}</ref> 

They did not hold to the separatist ecclesiology of many primitivist groups, but rather saw themselves as working within the historic established church to return it to its foundation in Scripture and the tradition of the pre-Nicene Church.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hammond |first=Geordan |url=https://oxford.universitypressscholarship.com/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198701606.001.0001/acprof-9780198701606 |title=John Wesley in America: Restoring Primitive Christianity |date=2014 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-870160-6 |location=Oxford |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198701606.001.0001}}</ref> John Wesley very regularly asserted Methodism's commitment to the Primitive Church, saying, "From a child I was taught to love and reverence the Scripture, the oracles of God; and, next to these, to esteem the primitive Fathers, the writers of the first three centuries. Next after the primitive church, I esteemed our own, the Church of England, as the most Scriptural national Church in the world."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hammond |first=Geordan |date=2009 |title=High Church Anglican Influences on John Wesley's Conception of Primitive Christianity, 1732-1735 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/42612802 |journal=Anglican and Episcopal History |volume=78 |issue=2 |pages=174–207 |jstor=42612802 |issn=0896-8039}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Collins |first=Kenneth J. |date=2017-06-01 |title=The Method of John Wesley's Practical Theology Reconsidered |url=https://scholarlypublishingcollective.org/psup/wms/article/9/2/101/198017/The-Method-of-John-Wesley-s-Practical-Theology |journal=Wesley and Methodist Studies |language=en |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=101–122 |doi=10.5325/weslmethstud.9.2.0101 |issn=2291-1723|url-access=subscription }}</ref> 

And, "Methodism, so called, is the old religion, the religion of the Bible, the religion of the primitive Church, the religion of the Church of England."<ref>{{Cite web |title=John Wesley, Sermon 132: ON LAYING THE FOUNDATION OF THE NEW CHAPEL, NEAR THE CITY-ROAD, LONDON |url=http://wbbm.org/john-wesley-sermons/serm-132.htm |access-date=2022-04-23 |website=wbbm.org}}</ref> On his epitaph is written, "This GREAT LIGHT arose (By the Singular providence of GOD) To enlighten THESE NATIONS, And to revive, enforce, and defend, The Pure Apostolical DOCTRINES and PRACTICES of THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH…"<ref>{{Cite web |title=What we can learn from the words on John Wesley's tomb |url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/what-we-can-learn-from-the-words-on-john-wesleys-tomb |access-date=2022-04-23 |website=The United Methodist Church |language=en}}</ref>

=== Separate Baptists ===
[[File:JamesRobinsonGraves.jpg|thumb|100px|James Robinson Graves]]
During the First Great Awakening, a movement developed among the [[Baptists]] known as [[Separate Baptists]]. Two themes of this movement were the rejection of [[creed]]s and "freedom in the Spirit."<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988" />{{Rp|65}}  The Separate Baptists saw scripture as the "perfect rule" for the church.<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988" />{{Rp|66}} While they turned to the Bible for a structural pattern for the church, they did not insist on complete agreement on the details of that pattern.<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988" />{{Rp|67}}  This group originated in [[New England]], but was especially strong in the [[Southern United States|South]] where the emphasis on a biblical pattern for the church grew stronger.<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988" />{{Rp|67}}  

In the last half of the 18th century it spread to the western frontier of [[Kentucky]] and [[Tennessee]], where the Stone and Campbell movements would later take root.<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988" />{{Rp|68}} The development of the Separate Baptists in the southern frontier helped prepare the ground for the [[Restoration Movement]], as the membership of both the Stone and Campbell groups drew heavily from among the ranks of the Separate Baptists.<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988" />{{Rp|67}} 

Separate Baptist restorationism also contributed to the development of the [[Landmarkism|Landmark Baptists]] in the same area at about the same time as the Stone-Campbell Restoration Movement. Under the leadership of [[James Robinson Graves]], this group looked for a precise blueprint for the primitive church, believing that any deviation from that blueprint would keep one from being part of the true church.<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988" />{{Rp|68}}

==Groups arising in the era of the Second Great Awakening==
{{Main|Second Great Awakening}}
[[File:1839-meth.jpg|thumb|350px|A 1839 [[Methodism|Methodist]] [[camp meeting]], watercolor from the [[Second Great Awakening]].]]
The ideal of restoring a "primitive" form of Christianity grew in popularity in the United States after the [[American Revolution]].<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988"/>{{Rp|89–94}}  This desire to restore a purer form of Christianity played a role in the development of many groups during this period, known as the Second Great Awakening, including the [[History of the Latter Day Saint movement|Mormons]], [[Baptists in the United States|Baptists]] and [[Shakers]].<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988"/>{{Rp|89}}  Several factors made the restoration sentiment particularly appealing during this time period.<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988"/>{{Rp|90–94}}
*To immigrants in the early 19th century, the land in America seemed pristine, edenic and undefiled - "the perfect place to recover pure, uncorrupted and original Christianity" - and the tradition-bound European churches seemed out of place in this new setting.<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988"/>{{Rp|90}}
*The new American democracy seemed equally fresh and pure, a restoration of the kind of just government that God intended.<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988"/>{{Rp|90,91}}
*Many believed that the new nation would usher in a new [[Millennialism|millennial age]].<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988"/>{{Rp|91,92}}
*Independence from the traditional churches of [[Europe]] was appealing to many Americans who were enjoying a new political independence.<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988"/>{{Rp|92,93}}
*A primitive faith based on the [[Bible]] alone promised a way to sidestep the competing claims of all the many [[Christian denomination|denominations]] available and find assurance of being right without the security of an established national church.<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988"/>{{Rp|93}}

[[Camp meeting]]s fueled the Second Great Awakening, which served as an "organizing process" that created "a religious and educational infrastructure" across the trans-Appalachian frontier that encompassed social networks, a religious journalism that provided mass communication, and church related colleges.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Great Awakenings"/>{{Rp|368}}

===American Stone-Campbell Restoration Movement===
{{Main|Restoration Movement}}
[[File:CampbellThomas.png|thumb|100px|[[Thomas Campbell (minister)|Thomas Campbell]]]]
The American Restoration Movement aimed to restore the church and sought "the unification of all Christians in a single body patterned after the church of the New Testament."<ref name="I Just Want to Be a Christian">[[Rubel Shelly]], ''I Just Want to Be a Christian'', 20th Century Christian, Nashville, Tennessee 1984, {{ISBN|0-89098-021-7}}</ref>{{Rp|54}} While the Restoration Movement developed from several independent efforts to go back to apostolic Christianity, two groups that independently developed similar approaches to the Christian faith were particularly important to its development.<ref name="Redigging the Wells">Monroe E. Hawley, ''Redigging the Wells: Seeking Undenominational Christianity'', Quality Publications, Abilene, Texas,  1976, {{ISBN|0-89137-512-0}} (paper), {{ISBN|0-89137-513-9}} (cloth)</ref>{{Rp|27–32}}  The first, led by [[Barton W. Stone]] began at [[Cane Ridge]], Bourbon County, Kentucky and called themselves simply ''Christians''.  The second began in western Pennsylvania and Virginia, now West Virginia, and was led by [[Thomas Campbell (clergyman)|Thomas Campbell]] and his son, [[Alexander Campbell (clergyman)|Alexander Campbell]]. They used the name ''Disciples of Christ''.

[[File:stonebw01.jpg|thumb|100px|Barton W. Stone]]
The Campbell movement was characterized by a "systematic and rational reconstruction" of the early church, in contrast to the Stone movement which was characterized by radical freedom and lack of dogma.<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988"/>{{Rp|106–108}}  Despite their differences, the two movements agreed on several critical issues.<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988"/>{{Rp|108}} Both saw restoring apostolic Christianity as a means of hastening the millennium.<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988"/>{{Rp|108}}  Both also saw restoring the early church as a route to Christian freedom.<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988"/>{{Rp|108}} Both believed that unity among Christians could be achieved by using apostolic Christianity as a model.<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988"/>{{Rp|108}}  

They were united, among other things, in the belief that [[Jesus]] is the Christ, the Son of God; that Christians should celebrate the [[Eucharist|Lord's Supper]] on the [[Sunday|first day of each week]]; and that [[Believer's baptism|baptism of adult believers]] by immersion in water is a necessary condition for [[salvation]]. Because the founders wanted to abandon all denominational labels, they used the biblical names for the followers of Jesus that they found in the Bible.<ref name="McAlister & Tucker, 1975">McAlister, Lester G. and Tucker, William E. (1975), Journey in Faith: A History of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) - St. Louis, Chalice Press, {{ISBN|978-0-8272-1703-4}}</ref>{{Rp|27}}  The commitment of both movements to restoring the early church and to uniting Christians was enough to motivate a union between many in the two movements.<ref name="Hughes and Roberts, 2001">Richard Thomas Hughes and R. L. Roberts, ''The Churches of Christ'', 2nd Edition, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2001, {{ISBN|0-313-23312-8}}, 9780313233128, 345 pages</ref>{{Rp|8,9}}

With the merger, there was the challenge of what to call the new movement.  Clearly, finding a biblical, non-sectarian name was important. Stone wanted to continue to use the name "Christians." Alexander Campbell insisted upon "Disciples of Christ". As a result, both names were used.<ref name="McAlister & Tucker, 1975"/>{{Rp|27–28}}<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Alexander Campbell">Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, ''The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ'', Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, {{ISBN|0-8028-3898-7}}, 9780802838988, 854 pages, entry on ''Campbell, Alexander''</ref>{{Rp|125}}

[[File:Alexander Campbell Age 65.jpg|thumb|100px|left|[[Alexander Campbell (minister)|Alexander Campbell]]]]
The Restoration Movement began during, and was greatly influenced by, the Second Great Awakening.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Great Awakenings">Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, ''The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ'', Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, {{ISBN|0-8028-3898-7}}, 9780802838988, 854 pages, entry on ''Great Awakenings''</ref>{{Rp|368}} While the Campbells resisted what they saw as the spiritual manipulation of the camp meetings, the Southern phase of the Awakening "was an important matrix of Barton Stone's reform movement" and shaped the evangelistic techniques used by both Stone and the Campbells.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Great Awakenings"/>{{Rp|368}}

The Restoration Movement has seen several divisions, resulting in multiple separate groups.  Three modern groups originating in the [[United States|U.S.]] claim the Stone-Campbell movement as their roots: [[Churches of Christ]], [[Christian churches and churches of Christ]], and the [[Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)]].  Some see divisions in the movement as the result of the tension between the goals of restoration and ecumenism, with the [[churches of Christ]] and the [[Christian churches and churches of Christ]] resolving the tension by stressing restoration while the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) resolved the tension by stressing ecumenism.<ref name="Garrett 2002">Leroy Garrett, ''The Stone-Campbell Movement: The Story of the American Restoration Movement'', College Press, 2002, {{ISBN|0-89900-909-3}}, 9780899009094, 573 pages</ref>{{Rp|383}}  Non-U.S. churches associated with this movement include the [[Churches of Christ in Australia]] and the [[Evangelical Christian Church in Canada]].<ref>Sydney E. Ahlstrom, ''A Religious History of the American People'' (2004)</ref><ref name="Melton 2009">Melton's Encyclopedia of American Religions (2009)</ref>

===Christadelphians===
{{Main|Christadelphians}}
[[File:John Thomas.png|thumb|150px|[[John Thomas (Christadelphian)|John Thomas]]]]
[[John Thomas (Christadelphian)|John Thomas]] (April 12, 1805 &ndash; March 5, 1871), was a devout convert to the Restoration Movement after a shipwreck at sea on his emigration to America brought to focus his inadequate understanding of the [[Bible]], and what would happen to him at death. This awareness caused him to devote his life to the study of the Bible and he promoted interpretations of it which were at variance with the mainstream Christian views the [[Restoration Movement]] held.  In particular he questioned the nature of man.  

He held a number of debates with one of the leaders of the movement, [[Alexander Campbell (clergyman)|Alexander Campbell]], on these topics but eventually agreed to stop because he found the practice bestowed no further practical merits to his personal beliefs and it had the potential to create division.  He later determined that salvation was dependent upon having the theology he had developed for baptism to be effective for salvation and published an "Confession and Abjuration" of his previous position on March 3, 1847. He was also [[Rebaptism|rebaptised]].

Following his abjuration and rebaptism he went to [[England]] on a preaching tour in June 1848 including Reformation Movement churches,<ref>''Encyclopedia of new religions: new religious movements, sects and  '' Christopher Hugh Partridge - 2004 "In June 1848, he returned to England and was well received in Nottingham and had further speaking engagements in Derby"</ref> Although his abjuration and his disfellowship in America were reported in the British churches magazines<ref>''The British Millennial Harbinger and Family Magazine'' ed. James Wallis July 1848 cover, October 1848 in full</ref> certain churches in the movement still allowed him to present his views. Thomas also gained a hearing in Unitarian and Adventist churches through his promotion of the concept of "independence of thought" with regards to interpreting the Bible.

Through a process of creed setting and division the Christadelphian movement emerged with a distinctive set of doctrines incorporating Adventism, [[Nontrinitarianism|anti-trinitarianism]], the belief that God is a "substantial and corporeal" being, [[Conscientious objector|objection to military service]], a [[Laity|lay-membership]] with full participation by all members, and other doctrines consistent with the spirit of the Restorationist movement.<ref name="christadelphianhistory">{{cite web | title =Our History | publisher =Williamsburg Christadelphians | url =http://www.widomaker.com/~cpatax/xadelfia/who01.htm | access-date =2008-04-03 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20080509084920/http://www.widomaker.com/~cpatax/xadelfia/who01.htm | archive-date =2008-05-09 | url-status =dead }}</ref> One consequence of objection to military service was the adoption of the name Christadelphians to distinguish this small community of believers and to be granted exemption from military service in the [[American Civil War]].<ref name="christadelphianhistory" />

===Swedenborgians===
[[File:Bryn Athyn Cathedral - panoramio.jpg|thumb|[[Bryn Athyn Cathedral]], the episcopal seat of the [[General Church of the New Jerusalem]], a [[Swedenborgian]] Christian denomination]]
[[The New Church (Swedenborgian)|The New Church]] was founded on the basis of the theology of [[Emanuel Swedenborg]].<ref name="Spinks2017"/> As such, it is often known as the  Swedenborgian Church.<ref name="Spinks2017"/> The New Church's view of God is that "Jesus is God incarnate, not (as certain interpretations of the traditional Christian trinity contend) an emanation of the Godhead."<ref name="Gallagher2021"/> The New Church propounds the doctrine of [[Correspondence (theology)|Correspondence]], which teaches that "Every word or fact of the Bible corresponded to a spiritual truth or mystical truth."<ref name="Gallagher2021">{{cite book |last1=Gallagher |first1=Eugene V. |last2=Willsky-Ciollo |first2=Lydia |title=New Religions: Emerging Faiths and Religious Cultures in the Modern World |date=15 February 2021 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA |isbn=979-8-216-12291-3 |language=en}}</ref> Additionally, The New Church teaches that "Objects in the physical world have spiritual correspondences."<ref>{{cite web |last1=Nelson |first1=Paul |title=Virginia Street Swedenborgian Church |url=https://saintpaulhistorical.com/items/show/120 |publisher=Saint Paul Church |access-date=2 November 2023 |language=en}}</ref>

===Irvingians===
{{main|Catholic Apostolic Church}}
[[File:City of Edinburgh - Catholic Apostolic Church - 20230924122415.jpg|thumb|[[Mansfield Place Church]], a former cathedral of the [[Catholic Apostolic Church]] in Edinburgh, UK]]
The [[Catholic Apostolic Church]] (Irvingian Church) was founded according to the theology of [[Edward Irving]] (1792–1834), who taught that "God could work miracles in His Church as easily now as two thousand years ago."<ref>{{cite book |title=What is the Catholic Apostolic Church? |date=1834 |publisher=Wesleyan Conference Office |page=5 |language=English}}</ref> Belonging to the Restorationist branch of Christianity, the Irvingian Churches teach that they "exercise the charismata of the Apostolic age".<ref name="Carson2020"/> The church was organised in 1835 with the [[holy orders|fourfold ministry]] of "apostles, prophets, evangelists, and pastors."<ref name="Cannon2009">{{cite book |last1=Cannon |first1=John |title=A Dictionary of British History |date=21 May 2009 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-955037-1 |page=127 |language=English}}</ref><ref name="Carson2020">{{cite book |last1=Carson |first1=D. A. |title=Themelios, Volume 44, Issue 3 |date=10 February 2020 |publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers |isbn=978-1-7252-6010-8 |language=en |quote=From this nexus at Albury Park would eventually emerge the openly-restorationist Catholic Apostolic Church, in which both Drummond and London Scots preacher, Edward Irving (1792-1834), would figure prominently. Significant for the purposes of this discussion is the fact that the Catholic Apostolic Church would distinguish itself not only for its bold claim to exercise the charismata of the Apostolic age, but also for its lavish liturgies borrowed from the pre-Reformation church, both East and West.}}</ref> 

As a result of [[schism]] within the Catholic Apostolic Church, other Irvingian Christian denominations emerged, including the [[Old Apostolic Church]], [[New Apostolic Church]], [[Reformed Old Apostolic Church]] and [[United Apostolic Church]]; of these, the New Apostolic Church is the largest Irvingian Christian denomination today, with 16 million members.<ref name="Nyika2008">{{cite book |last1=Nyika |first1=Felix Chimera |title=Restore the Primitive Church Once More: A Survey of Post Reformation Christian Restorationism |date=2008 |publisher=Kachere Series |page=14 |language=English |quote=In the 1990s the New Apostolic Church had almost 300 apostles with 60,000 congregations comprising 16 million members globally.}}</ref><ref name="Kuligin2005">{{cite journal |last1=Kuligin |first1=Victor |title=The New Apostolic Church |journal=Africa Journal of Evangelical Theology |date=2005 |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=1–18 |language=English}}</ref> Irvingianism, possessing elaborate [[Christian liturgy|liturgies]], teaches three [[sacraments]]: [[Baptism]], [[Holy Communion]] and [[New Apostolic Church#Holy Sealing|Holy Sealing]].<ref name="Carson2020"/><ref name="Whalen1981">{{cite book |last1=Whalen |first1=William Joseph |title=Minority Religions in America |date=1981 |publisher=Alba House |isbn=978-0-8189-0413-4 |page=104 |language=English}}</ref><ref name="Nomos1992">{{cite book |title=Decisions of the Bundesverfassungsgericht (Federal Constitutional Court) Federal Republic of Germany |date=1992 |publisher=Nomos |isbn=978-3-8329-2132-3 |page=6 |language=English}}</ref>

===Latter Day Saint movement===
{{Main|Latter Day Saint movement|Restoration (Mormonism)}}
Adherents to the Latter Day Saint movement believe that founder [[Joseph Smith]] was a [[prophet]] of God, chosen to restore the primitive, apostolic church established by Jesus. Like other restorationist groups, members believe that the church and priesthood established by Jesus were [[Great Apostasy (Latter Day Saints)|withdrawn from the Earth]] after the end of the apostolic age and before the [[First Council of Nicaea]] in 325.<ref name=Bushman/>

Unlike other reformers, who based their movements on their own interpretations of the Bible, Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery held that they were visited by John the Baptist to receive the Aaronic Priesthood. This restoration authorized members to receive [[revelation#Latter Day Saint movement|revelation]] from God in order to restore the original apostolic organization lost after the events of the New Testament.<ref name=Bushman>{{cite book |last=Bushman |first=Richard | author-link=Richard Bushman |year=2008 |series=[[Very Short Introductions]]|title=Mormonism: A Very Short Introduction |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-531030-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6m059lR04IoC|page=20}}</ref> According to Allen and Hughes, "[n]o group used the language of 'restoration' more consistently and more effectively than did the [Latter Day Saints] ... early Mormons seemed obsessed with restoring the ancient church of God."<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988"/>{{Rp|94}}

[[File:Joseph Smith, Jr. portrait owned by Joseph Smith III.jpg|150px|thumb|[[Joseph Smith]]]]

According to Smith, God [[First Vision|appeared to him]] in 1820, instructing him that the creeds of the churches of the day were corrupted.<ref>{{lds|Joseph Smith - History|jsh|1|19}}</ref> In addition to restoring the primitive church, Smith claimed to receive new and ongoing revelations. In 1830, he published ''[[The Book of Mormon]]'', with [[Book of Mormon witnesses|him and witnesses]] declaring to be a translation through divine means from the [[Golden Plates]] he obtained from [[angel Moroni|an angel]].{{cn|date=April 2024}} 

The largest and most well known church in the Latter Day Saint movement is [[the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (LDS Church), followed by [[Community of Christ]] (formerly RLDS), and dozens of [[List of denominations in the Latter Day Saint movement|other denominations]].{{cn|date=April 2024}} Members of the LDS Church believe that, in addition to Smith being the first prophet appointed by Jesus in the "latter days", every subsequent [[Apostle (Latter Day Saints)|apostle]] and [[President of the Church (LDS Church)|church president]] also serves in the capacity of [[prophet, seer and revelator]].{{cn|date=April 2024}}

Some among the [[Churches of Christ]] have attributed the restorationist character of the Latter Day Saints movement to the influence of [[Sidney Rigdon]], who was associated with the Campbell movement in Ohio but left it and became a close friend of Joseph Smith.<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988"/>{{Rp|95}}<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Mormonism">{{cite encyclopedia|editor1-first=Douglas Allen |editor1-last=Foster|editor2-first=Anthony L. |editor2-last=Dunnavant|editor3-first=Paul M. |editor3-last=Blowers|editor4-first=D. Newell |editor4-last=Williams|encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement|publisher=[[William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company]]|date=2004|isbn=9780802838988|entry=Mormonism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-3UtqrX56rgC |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref>{{rp|544,545}}  Neither the Mormons nor the early Restoration Movement leaders invented the idea of "restoration"; it was a popular theme of the time that had developed independently of both, and Mormonism and the Restoration Movement represent different expressions of that common theme.<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988"/>{{Rp|95}}<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Mormonism"/>{{Rp|544,545}} 

The two groups had very different approaches to the restoration ideal.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Mormonism"/>{{Rp|545}} The Campbell movement combined it with Enlightenment rationalism, "precluding emotionalism, spiritualism, or any other phenomena that could not be sustained by rational appeals to the biblical text."<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Mormonism"/>{{Rp|545}} The Latter Day Saints combined it with "the spirit of nineteenth-century Romanticism" and, as a result, "never sought to recover the forms and structures of the ancient church as ends in themselves" but "sought to restore the golden age, recorded in both Old Testament and New Testament, when God broke into human history and communed directly with humankind."<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Mormonism"/>{{Rp|545}} Mormons gave priority to current revelation.{{cn|date=April 2024}} Primitive observances of "appointed times" like Sabbath were secondary to [[Revelation (Latter Day Saints)|continuing revelation]], similarly to the [[Progressive revelation (Christianity)|progressive revelation]] held by some non-restorationist Christian theologians.{{cn|date=April 2024}}

The "[[Great Apostasy]]", or loss of the original church Jesus established, has been cited with historical evidence of changes in Christian doctrine over time, scriptures prophesying of a coming apostasy before the last days (particularly {{bibleverse|2 Thessalonians|2:1-3}}, {{bibleverse|2 Timothy|4:3-4}} and {{bibleverse|Amos|8:11-12}}) and corruption within the early churches that led to the necessity of the [[Protestant Reformation]], which is seen as an important step towards the development of protected freedoms and speech required for a full restoration to be possible.<ref name = GA2>{{Cite book | last = Talmage | first = James E. | author-link = James E. Talmage | title = The Great Apostasy | publisher = [[Deseret News]] | year = 1909 | url =https://archive.org/details/greatapostasycon00atalm/page/156/mode/1up?view=theater|via=[[Internet Archive]] | page=156|isbn = 0-87579-843-8}}</ref>

===Adventism===
{{Main|Adventism}}
Adventism is a [[Christian eschatology|Christian eschatological]] belief that looks for the imminent [[Second Coming]] of Jesus to inaugurate the [[Kingdom of God]]. This view involves the belief that Jesus will return to receive those who have died in Christ and those who are awaiting his return, and that they must be ready when he returns. Adventists are considered to be both restorationists and [[Conservatism|conservative]] [[Protestants]].<ref>George R. Knight, "A Search for Identity: The Development of Seventh-Day Adventist Beliefs," Review and Herald Pub Assoc., 2000</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2015/05/12/appendix-b-classification-of-protestant-denominations/|title=Pew Research Center, America's Changing Religious Landscape, Appendix B: Classification of Protestant Denominations|date=12 May 2015}}</ref>

====Millerism and Seventh-day Sabbatarianism====
{{Main|Millerism|Sabbath in seventh-day churches}}
[[File:William Miller.jpg|thumb|150px|[[William Miller (preacher)|William Miller]]]]
The Millerites were the most well-known family of the Adventist movements. They emphasized apocalyptic teachings anticipating the end of the world, and did not look for the unity of [[Christendom]] but busied themselves in preparation for Christ's return. Millerites sought to restore a prophetic immediacy and uncompromising biblicism that they believed had once existed but had long been rejected by mainstream Protestant and Catholic churches. From the Millerites descended the Seventh-day Adventists and the Advent Christian Church.

====Seventh-day Adventists====
{{Main|Seventh-day Adventist Church}}

The Seventh-day Adventist Church grew out of the Adventist movement, in particular the Millerites. The Seventh-day Adventist Church is the largest of several [[Adventism|Adventist]] groups which arose from the [[Millerites|Millerite]] movement of the 1840s in upstate [[New York (state)|New York]], a phase of the [[Second Great Awakening]]. Important to the Seventh-day Adventist movement is a belief in [[Progressive revelation (Christian)|progressive revelation]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.andrews.edu/~damsteeg/Prog%20rev.html|title=Seventh-day Adventist Doctrines and Progressive Revelation}}</ref> teaching that the Christian life and testimony is intended to be typified by the [[Spirit of Prophecy (Adventist)|Spirit of Prophecy]], as explained in the writings of [[Ellen G. White]].

Much of the theology of the Seventh-day Adventist Church corresponds to Protestant Christian teachings such as the Trinity and the [[Biblical infallibility|infallibility of Scripture]]. Distinctive teachings include the [[soul sleep|unconscious state of the dead]] and the doctrine of an [[investigative judgment]]. The church is also known for its emphasis on diet and health, its holistic understanding of the person, its promotion of religious liberty, and its conservative principles and lifestyle.

====Worldwide Church of God====
{{See also|Grace Communion International|Armstrongism}}
<!-- [[WP:NFCC]] violation: [[File:HerbertWArmstrong.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Herbert W. Armstrong]] -->
The [[Worldwide Church of God]] arose from the [[Seventh Day churches]]. The personal ministry of [[Herbert W. Armstrong]] became the [[Radio Church of God]], which became the Worldwide Church of God. It later splintered into many other churches and groups when the Worldwide Church of God disassociated itself with the Restoration movements and made major attempts to join the Protestant branch of Christianity. The largest of these groups, the [[Living Church of God]] and the [[United Church of God]], continue in the tradition of the Worldwide Church of God as it was under the leadership of Herbert W. Armstrong.

====Advent Christian Church====
{{Main|Advent Christian Church}}
The Advent Christian Church is unaffiliated with Seventh-day Adventism, but considers itself the second "of six Christian denominations that grew out of the ministry of William Miller".<ref>''Midnight and Morning: The Millerite Movement and the Founding of the Advent Christian Church'', 1831-1860 by Clyde E. Hewitt (Venture Books, 1984), as cited by "The Advent Christian Church: An Introduction", [http://www.areachurches.com/adventinfo.html AreaChurches.com]</ref> As a "first-day" body of Adventist Christians established by ''The Advent Christian General Conference'' in 1860, the church's beliefs include "conditional immortality" and a form of "[[soul sleep]]".

Advent Christians such as [[George Storrs]] and [[Jonas Wendell]] influenced the [[Bible Student movement]].

==Other groups originating in the nineteenth century==
===Bible Students===
{{Main|Bible Student movement}}
[[File:Charles Taze Russell sharp.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Charles Taze Russell|Charles Russell]] in 1911]]
In the 1870s, a Bible study group led by [[Charles Taze Russell]] formed into what was eventually called the [[Bible Student movement]]. Russell's congregations did not consider him to be the founder of a new religion,<ref>Jehovah's Witnesses – Proclaimers of God's Kingdom. chap. 31 p. 707 "A biography of Russell, published shortly after his death, explained: "He was not the founder of a new religion, and never made such claim. He revived the great truths taught by Jesus and the Apostles,"</ref> but that he helped in restoring true Christianity from the [[apostasy]] that Jesus and the [[Apostle Paul]] foretold. They believed that other Churches departed in a [[Great Apostasy]] from the original faith on major points, and that the original faith could be restored through a generally literal interpretation of the Bible and a sincere commitment to follow its teachings. They focused on several key doctrinal points that they considered a return to "primitive Christianity",<ref>{{Cite journal|journal=The Watchtower|date=15 July 2001|page=11|title=Be Joyful Harvest Workers!}}</ref> derived from their interpretation of the Bible, including active [[Proselytism|proselytization]]; strict neutrality in political affairs;<ref>"Militarism and Navalism - How Long?" by Charles Taze Russell, ''Watch Tower'', January 1, 1916, page 5, "We see wrongs perpetrated in every direction; Divine Laws entirely set aside by these so-called Christian nations--Christendom. ...God's nation--is in the world, but not of it. Its members cannot be loyal to the prince of this world [Satan], and to the Prince of Glory, both. ...Indeed, we entreat all the Lord's dear people to remember that there are but the two great Masters; and that we have enlisted on the side of our God and His Christ, and are to prove loyal to these in the midst of a crooked and perverse people, blinded by the god of this world and filled with his spirit of pride, boastfulness, animosity, hatred and strife. It should be our desire to be neutral as between these contending factions of Satan's empire. ...Let us never forget our ''neutrality''. Let us be just toward all, kind, generous. Let us ''avoid as far as possible any discussion of these matters'' with those who would not be able to understand and appreciate our position."[italics added][http://mostholyfaith.com/bible/reprints/Search_Result.asp#Z5:10 Retrieved 2010-12-20] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160410033346/http://mostholyfaith.com/bible/reprints/Search_Result.asp#Z5:10 |date=2016-04-10 }}</ref> abstinence from warfare;<ref>"Bible Students and the Future", ''Watch Tower'', April 1, 1915, page 101, "In all the Continental Armies our Brethren, known as Bible Students, are to be found--not willingly, but by conscription. ...Before the war we recommended to the Brethren that in the event of hostilities they should, so far as possible, if drafted, request positions in the hospital service or in the supplies department, where they could serve the Government efficiently; whereas, if they were ordered to the firing line, they would not be obliged to shoot to kill. We have reasons for believing that these suggestions are being followed... We have exhorted the brethren to strict neutrality so far as the combatants are concerned, whatever might be their natural inclination through accident of birth or association."[http://mostholyfaith.com/bible/reprints/Search_Result.asp#Z101:1 Retrieved 2010-12-20] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160410033346/http://mostholyfaith.com/bible/reprints/Search_Result.asp#Z101:1 |date=2016-04-10 }}</ref> a belief in the imminent manifestation of the [[Kingdom of God]] (or [[World to Come]]) on Earth, and a rejection of [[trinitarianism]], the [[immortality of the soul]], and the definition of [[Hell]] as a place of eternal torment.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Reasoning From The Scriptures|publisher=Watchtower|year=1988|page=169}}</ref>

====Jehovah's Witnesses====
[[Jehovah's Witnesses]] emerged as a distinct religious organization, maintaining control of Russell's [[Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania|Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society]] and [[Corporations of Jehovah's Witnesses|other corporations]]. They continued to develop doctrines that they considered to be an improved restoration of [[first century Christianity]], including increased emphasis on the use of ''[[Jehovah]]'' as God's personal name.<ref>''The Watchtower'', April 15, 1983, pg 29, "Why is God's name, Jehovah, missing from most modern translations of the Bible? Superstition that developed among tradition-bound Jews caused them to avoid pronouncing God's personal name, Jehovah. This has contributed to worldwide ignorance regarding the divine name."</ref>

===Plymouth Brethren===
{{Main|Plymouth Brethren}}
[[File:JohnNelsonDarby.jpg|thumb|150px|[[John Nelson Darby]]]]
The Plymouth Brethren is a [[conservative]], [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]], restorationist movement whose origin can be traced to [[Dublin]], [[Ireland]], in 1827.<ref>{{cite web |first=Shawn |last=Abigail |date=June 2006 |title=What is the history of the 'Brethren'? |url=http://brethrenonline.org/faqs/Brethren.htm#3 |work="Plymouth Brethren" FAQ |access-date=12 June 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160518150855/http://brethrenonline.org/faqs/Brethren.htm#3 |archive-date=18 May 2016 }}</ref><ref name=mackay1981>{{Cite book |first=Harold |last=Mackay |title=Assembly Distinctives |publisher=Everyday Publications |location=[[Scarborough, Toronto|Scarborough]], [[Ontario]] |year=1981 |isbn=978-0-88873-049-7 |oclc=15948378 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/assemblydistinct0000mack }}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|first=John Gifford |last=Bellet |author-link=John Gifford Bellet |title=Interesting Reminiscences of the Early History of "Brethren" in and around 1827 |publisher=bruederbewegung.de |url=http://www.bruederbewegung.de/pdf/reminiscences.pdf |access-date=12 June 2009|display-authors=etal}}</ref> The title, "The Brethren", is one that many of their number are comfortable with, in that the [[Bible]] designates all believers as "brethren". The first English assembly was in [[Plymouth]] in 1831,<ref>{{Cite book|first=Jonathan D. |last=Burnham |year=2004 |title=A Story of Conflict: The Controversial Relationship Between Benjamin Wills Newton and John Nelson Darby |chapter=The Emergence of the Plymouth Brethren |publisher=[[Paternoster Press]] |location=[[Carlisle, Cumbria|Carlisle]] |isbn=978-1-84227-191-9 |oclc=56336926}}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}</ref> where the movement became well known and assemblies diffused throughout Europe and beyond.<ref>{{Cite book|first=William Blair |last=Neatby |title=A History of the Plymouth Brethren |edition=2nd |location=London |publisher=Hodder and Stoughton |year=1902 |page=24 |oclc=11627558}}</ref> 

It was organised primarily by [[George Wigram]], [[Benjamin Wills Newton]] and [[John Nelson Darby]].<ref>{{Cite book|first=Elizabeth A. |last=Livingstone |year=2000 |title=The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=[[Oxford]] |isbn=978-0-19-280057-2 |oclc=46858944}}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}</ref>  The movement soon spread throughout the UK. By 1845, the first English assembly in Plymouth had over 1,000 souls in fellowship.<ref>{{Cite book|first=Napoleon |last=Noel |year=1936 |title=The History of the Brethren |publisher=Knapp |location=[[Denver]] |page=46 |oclc=2807272}}</ref>

They became known as "the brethren from Plymouth", and were soon simply called "Plymouth Brethren". By 1848, divergence of practice and belief led to the development of two separate branches. The rift was caused primarily by a difference of opinions between [[John Nelson Darby]] and [[Benjamin Wills Newton]] in regards to [[eschatology]]. Despite more divisions, assemblies are still often generalized into two main categories: "[[Open Brethren]]" and "[[Exclusive Brethren]]".<ref>{{cite web |publisher=Philip H. Van Amerongen |first=Grant |last=Steidl |year=c. 1988 |title=Schematic Diagram of Brethren History |url=http://pnavce.tripod.com/brethrenhistory/id2.html |access-date=12 June 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081207112358/http://pnavce.tripod.com/brethrenhistory/id2.html |archive-date=7 December 2008 }}</ref> [[John Duncan (theologian)|John Duncan]] criticized the Brethren movement saying "To end sectarianism, the [[Plymouth Brethren]] began by making a new sect, and that sect, of all sects, the most sectarian".<ref name="peebs">{{cite web |url=http://peebs.net/maint.html |title=Welcome |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130216104645/http://peebs.net/maint.html |archive-date=2013-02-16 }}</ref>{{Better source needed|date=February 2013}}

==20th-century and contemporary groups==

===Oneness Pentecostalism===
{{Main|Oneness Pentecostalism}}
Pentecostalism began primarily as a restoration movement that focused on the "experiential" aspect of the early church.<ref>Edith Waldvogel Blumhofer, ''Restoring the Faith: The Assemblies of God, Pentecostalism, and American Culture'', University of Illinois Press, US, 1993, p. 13</ref> The early pioneers of the Pentecostal movement sought to restore the work and power of the Holy Spirit to the church, which they felt had been lost early on after the Apostolic Age. [[Oneness Pentecostalism|Oneness Pentecostals]], in particular, continue to have a lot of restorationist themes present in their movement. Many Oneness Pentecostals see their movement as being a restoration of the Apostolic Church, which is why many of them refer to themselves as "apostolic" or to their movement as the "Apostolic Pentecostal" movement.

====British New Church Movement====
{{Main|British New Church Movement}}
{{Unreferenced section|date=October 2009}}
During the charismatic movement of the 1960s and 1970s, which focused on the transformation of the individual, some leaders formed what has become known as the Charismatic Restorationist Movement. These leaders, of whom [[Arthur Wallis (Bible teacher)|Arthur Wallis]], David Lillie and Cecil Cousen were at the forefront, focused on the nature of the church and shared a distinctive view that authentic church order was being restored to the whole church. This authentic church order centred on what is referred to as the "fivefold ministries", as listed in Ephesians 4:11: Apostles, Prophets, Evangelists, Teachers and Pastors. <ref>Allan Anderson An Introduction to Pentecostalism: Global Charismatic Christianity (Cambridge: CUP, 2004) 104</ref>

Although the Charismatic Movement brought the Pentecostal gifts to the denominational churches, these restorationists considered denominationalism unbiblical, and shared a conviction that God would cause the church to be directly organized and empowered by the holy spirit. The movement has thousands of adherents worldwide, and notable church networks include [[Newfrontiers]] led by [[Terry Virgo]], [[Salt and Light Ministries International]] led by [[Barney Coombs]], and the [[Ichthus Christian Fellowship]] led by Faith and [[Roger T. Forster|Roger Forster]].<ref>Allan Anderson An Introduction to Pentecostalism: Global Charismatic Christianity (Cambridge: CUP, 2004) 104</ref>

====Shepherding movement====
{{Main|Shepherding movement}}
{{Unreferenced section|date=October 2009}}
The British leaders of charismatic restorationism mutually recognised a parallel movement in the United States, centered on the Fort Lauderdale Five; [[Derek Prince]], [[Don Basham]], Bob Mumford, Charles Simpson and Ern Baxter. This movement became known as the Shepherding movement and was the subject of significant controversy in the mid-1970s. The movement left a significant legacy through its influence on contemporary ministries [[International Churches of Christ]], [[Maranatha Campus Ministries]] and [[Great Commission International]].

====Apostolic-Prophetic Movement====
{{Main|Apostolic-Prophetic Movement}}
{{Unreferenced section|date=October 2009}}
More recently another form of charismatic restorationism with a similar recognition of the [[apostle|apostolic]] office has emerged in the form of the Apostolic-Prophetic Movement, centered on the [[Kansas City Prophets]]. Leading proponents of the movement include [[C. Peter Wagner]], [[Rick Joyner]], [[Mike Bickle (minister)|Mike Bickle]] and [[Lou Engle]].

===Church of God (Restoration)===
{{Main|Church of God (Restoration)}}
The Church of God (Restoration) is a Christian denomination that was founded in the 1980s by Daniel (Danny) Layne.<ref>[http://www.churchofgod.net/media/messages Zion's Voice<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100716102721/http://www.churchofgod.net/media/messages |date=2010-07-16 }}</ref> In a booklet written by Layne in the early 1980s, he claimed to be an ex-heroin addict who spent years dealing drugs and living a life of crime and sin on the streets of San Francisco. Layne was originally raised in the [[Church of God (Anderson)]], where his father was a minister. Layne began preaching in the [[Church of God (Guthrie, Oklahoma)]] after his conversion.

One tenet of this group is that they are ordained by both prophecy and divine command to restore the church of God as it was in the [[Acts of the Apostles|Book of Acts]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://webnet77.com/cgi-bin/bible/bible.cgi|title=Advanced Bible Search}}</ref> Most of Daniel Layne's beliefs concerning the [[book of Revelation]] originated from some ministers who had left the Church of God (Anderson) reformation movement thirty or so years earlier. This teaching is upheld by the official [[eschatology]], which is a form of church [[historicism]]. This Church of God (Restoration)<ref name=cog>{{cite web|url=http://www.churchofgod.net/|title=The Church of God : Official WebsiteHome - The Church of God : Official Website|work=The Church of God : Official Website}}</ref> teaches that the 7th Trumpet in the book of the Revelation began to sound around the year 1980 when Daniel Layne was saved, alleging that there was a general discontent among many of its current adherents that were in various Churches of God at that time. A variation of this "[[Seven seals|Seventh Seal]] message"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dswarnerlibrary.com/Worshipping%20Christ%20Original.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070422141907/http://www.dswarnerlibrary.com/Worshipping%20Christ%20Original.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=2007-04-22|title=Worshipping Christ}}</ref> had been taught in other Churches of God for approximately 50 years prior to this point.

===Iglesia ni Cristo===
{{Main|Iglesia ni Cristo}}
''Iglesia ni Cristo'' began in the [[Philippines]] and was incorporated by [[Felix Y. Manalo]] on July 27, 1914.<ref name="Sanders">{{cite book|author-last=Sanders |author-first=Albert J. |chapter=An Appraisal of the Iglesia ni Cristo |title=Studies in Philippine Church History |editor-last=Anderson |editor-first=Gerald H. |publisher=Cornell University Press |date=1969}}</ref><ref name="Tipon">{{cite news |author-last=Tipon |author-first=Emmanuel |date=28 July 2004 |url=http://philippinenews.com/news/view_article.html?article_id=586e5943f3ab9a2049e883c382ca1842 |title=Iglesia Ni Cristo celebrates 90th anniversary |work=PhilippineNews.com |access-date=19 August 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071013143118/http://philippinenews.com/news/view_article.html?article_id=586e5943f3ab9a2049e883c382ca1842 |archive-date=13 October 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The church professes to be the reestablishment of the original church founded by Jesus Christ and teaches that the original church was [[Apostasy#Christianity|apostatized]]. It does not teach the doctrine of the Trinity or the divinity of Jesus.<ref name="Shepherd">{{cite news|author-last=Shepherd |author-first = Harvey |title=Millions mark Church of Christ's 80th anniversary; Founded in the Philippines by Brother Manalo |pages=H.7 |publisher=[[The Gazette (Montreal)]] |date=30 July 1994 |id={{ProQuest|432675014}}}} (as cited by [[ProQuest]])</ref> ''Iglesia ni Cristo'' does not subscribe to the term ''Restoration'' or claim to be a part of the ''Restoration Movement''.{{citation needed|date=July 2016}}

=== La Luz del Mundo ===
{{Main|La Luz del Mundo}}
''La Luz del Mundo'' (full name: {{Lang|es|Iglesia del Dios Vivo, Columna y Apoyo de la Verdad, La Luz del Mundo}}) was founded in [[Mexico]] on 6 April 1926 by Eusebio Joaquín González (14 August 1896 – 9 June 1964), who claimed that God called him to be an [[apostle]] of Jesus Christ and renamed him Aarón. Joaquín claimed that he was commissioned to restore the primitive Christian church of the first century CE. The church, headquartered in [[Guadalajara]], Mexico, asserts that all other forms of Christianity are corruptions that arose after the last of the original apostles died, and rejects traditional Christian doctrines such as [[trinitarianism]], [[original sin]], [[veneration of saints]], and the [[divinity of Jesus]]. 

It continues to claim that it is the restoration of primitive Christianity and that its leaders, including Aarón Joaquín, his son, [[Samuel Joaquín Flores]] (1937–2014), and his grandson, [[Naasón Joaquín García]] (born 1969), who is the church's international director, are apostles responsible for the restoration, without whom it would be impossible for people to truly believe in Jesus and be saved.

=== Apostolic Catholic Church (Philippines) ===
{{Main|Apostolic Catholic Church (Philippines)}}
The Apostolic Catholic Church started as a mainstream [[Catholic lay organization]] that was founded in Hermosa Bataan in the early 1970s by Maria Virginia P. Leonzon Vda. De Teruel.<ref name="Our Member Churches">{{Cite web |title=Our Member Churches |url=https://nccphilippines.org/about-us/our-member-churches/ |access-date=2022-10-04 |language=en-US}}</ref> In 1991, the organisation and the [[Roman Catholic Church]] had a [[schism]]; due to varying issues, it formally separated itself from the Roman Catholic Church, when [[John Florentine Teruel]] was consecrated as a patriarch and registered the church as a [[Protestant]] and [[Independent Catholic]] denomination.<ref name="Our Member Churches" /> The Church describes itself as a Conservative Church which aims to bring back Ancient Catholic Church traditions removed by previous councils and Popes.

===Local churches===
[[File:WatchmanNee.jpg|150px|thumb|[[Watchman Nee]]]]
{{Main|Local churches (affiliation)}}
The [[Local churches (affiliation)|local churches]] are a Christian movement influenced by the teachings of [[J.N. Darby]], [[Watchman Nee]] and [[Witness Lee]] and associated with the [[Living Stream Ministry]] publishing house. Its members see themselves as separate from other Christian groups, denominations, and movements, part of what they sometimes call "[[The Lord's Recovery]]". One of the defining features of the local churches is their adherence to the principle that all Christians in a city or locality are automatically members of the one church in that locality. Another defining feature is the lack of an official organization or official name for the movement. Those in the local churches believe that to take a name would divide them from other believers. Thus, they often say they meet with "the church in [city name]" with the understanding that they are not the only church but belong to the same church as every believer in their city.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://localchurches.org/beliefs/faq.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071214105103/http://www.localchurches.org/beliefs/faq.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=2007-12-14|title=Local Churches Beliefs}}</ref>

===Jesuism===
{{Main|Jesuism}}
Jesuism is the personal [[philosophy]] encompassing the teachings of [[Jesus|Jesus of Nazareth]] and commitment or adherence to [[Sayings of Jesus|those teachings]].<ref>Bouck White. ''The Call of the Carpenter''. US: Doubleday, Page & Company, 1911. p.314.</ref> Jesuism is distinct from and sometimes opposed to mainstream [[Christianity]], the organized religion based on the [[Christian Bible]].<ref>Owen J. Flanagan. ''The Really Hard Problem: Meaning in a Material World''. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2007. p.36</ref> In particular, Jesuism is distinguished from the writings attributed to the [[Paul the Apostle|Apostle Paul]] and from [[Canon law|modern Church doctrine]].<ref>[[Edgar Dewitt Jones]]. ''[https://www.scribd.com/doc/6360262/Paul-the-Stranger-by-Edgar-Jones-Baptist-priest- Paul the Stranger.]'' Abilene: Voice of Jesus, 2003 (online transcription).</ref><ref>Douglas J. Del Tondo. ''[http://www.jesuswordsonly.com/JWO/freechaptersonline.html Jesus' Words Only].'' San Diego: Infinity Publishing, 2006. p.19</ref> Jesuism is not necessarily critical of the Christian Bible or Church doctrine, but rather it does not affirm their authority over the teachings of Jesus. As a philosophy, Jesuism is characterized as [[Naturalism (philosophy)|naturalistic]] and [[Rationalism|rationalist]], rejecting the conflict between [[faith]] and [[science]].<ref>Owen J. Flanagan. ''The Really Hard Problem: Meaning in a Material World''. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2007. p.263</ref>

===World Mission Society Church Of God===
{{Main|World Mission Society Church of God}}
World Mission Society Church of God is a non-denominational Christian movement founded by [[Ahn Sahng-Hong]] in 1964. The church claims to be a restoration of the original Church of God and has teachings differing from other Christian denominations. After Ahn Sahng-hong died in February 1985, a group of people in Church of God Jesus Witnesses including the man Kim Joo-cheol and the woman [[Zahng Gil-jah]] wanted to re-introduce the concept of a "spiritual mother". In March 1985, they moved from Busan to Seoul. At a meeting in Seoul in June 1985, they discussed how to call Zahng Gil-jah, and established a church called Witnesses of Ahn Sahng-hong Church of God which is led by Kim Joo-cheol and Zahng Gil-jah. Two major new doctrines were codified:

Ahn Sahng-hong should be regarded as Jesus Christ who had already come, should be titled Christ Ahn Sahng-hong, and pursuant to a traditional trinitarian view of Christian hypostasis Ahn was consequently also The Holy Spirit, God the Father, and thus God.
Zahng Gil-jah should be regarded as God the Mother, a female image of God, be titled Heavenly Mother, or simply Mother, and together with Ahn Sahng-hong be regarded as God.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://watv.org/church-intro/|title=About Us}}</ref>
==Other religious movements called Restorationist==
{{further|Restorationism_(disambiguation)}}
"Restorationism" is also used to describe a form of [[postmillennialism]] developed during the later half of the 20th century, which was influential among a number of [[charismatic movement|charismatic]] groups and the [[British new church movement]].<ref>Stephen Hunt, ''Christian millenarianism: from the early church to Waco'', Indiana University Press, 2001, {{ISBN|0-253-21491-2}}, 9780253214911, 258 pages</ref>{{Rp|57–58}}

'''Restitutionism''',<ref>Woodrow Wilson Whidden, Jerry Moon, John W. Reeve, ''The Trinity: Understanding God's Love, His Plan of Salvation, and Christian Relationships'', Review & Herald Publishing Association, 2002, p. 164.</ref> is the belief "in an only temporary future punishment and a final restoration of all to the favour and presence of God; a Universalist."<ref>{{cite web |title=restorationist |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/restorationist |website=Wiktionary, the free dictionary |language=en |date=19 August 2024}}</ref> Some dictionaries give "restorationist" as a synonym for this.

Christian restorationism, a 19th-century movement promoting restoration of Jews to the Holy land, which later became known as [[Christian Zionism]].

==Catholic critique of primitivism==
The Catholic critique of primitivism and restorationism presents arguments or claims such as the following:

* First, applying scriptures such as Matthew 16:18-19 where, in the Catholic view, Jesus promised that the "gates of hell" would not prevail against his church, which would be built on the rock of Peter's authorized use of "the keys of the kingdom":<ref>{{CCC|553}}</ref> In this view, Restorationism says in effect that this promise failed, which contradicts Christ's divinity and the Holy Spirit's power.

* Second, that primitivist claims about the early church are non- or anti-historical. According to the Catholic [[theologian]] [[Priesthood in the Catholic Church|Fr.]] Dwight Longenecker:<ref>{{cite web |last1=Longenecker |first1=Fr Dwight |title=The Problem with Primitivism |url=https://www.patheos.com/blogs/standingonmyhead/the-problem-with-primitivism |website=Fr. Dwight Longenecker |language=en}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web |title=Fr. Dwight Longenecker – OLR Church – Our Lady of the Rosary Catholic Church |url=https://olr.church/team/dwight-longenecker/ |access-date=2025-06-19 |language=en-US}}</ref>
{{quote| The Restorationists are usually totally ignorant of what the early Church was really like. They assume is that the early church was congregational, not hierarchical. They assume it was non liturgical and non sacramental. They assume it was Bible based. They assume there was no clergy and that the congregation met in people’s homes. They don’t have any evidence for these assumptions, and all of these assumptions are simply not true, or if they were true in some isolated places they are not the whole truth. [...]

The reason the Primitivists are ignorant of what the primitive Church was really like is because they are largely unaware of the writings of the Early Church fathers. Most of them do not know that we have documents telling us just what the early Christians believed, how they worshipped, how the Church was structured.

This ignorance is not only the lack of education, it is also the result of the Protestant dogma of ''sola Scriptura''.|source=Fr. Dwight Longenecker<ref>{{cite web |last1=Longenecker |first1=Fr Dwight |title=Problem with Primitivism - 3 |url=https://www.patheos.com/blogs/standingonmyhead/problem-with-primitivism-3 |website=Fr. Dwight Longenecker |language=en}}</ref>}} 

* Third, that Christ actually intended the church's practice and doctrine to grow and develop, as is natural for any living thing: in this view, Jesus' promise to the disciples that Holy Spirit will lead them "into all truth" in John 16:13-15 is a process not an event. Thus, the ideal of primitivism is utopian and mistaken. This is the view associated with influential Catholic theologian [[John Henry Newman]]: in his [[Development of doctrine|Development of Christian Doctrine]] he gave seven "notes" which distinguish  a legitimate development of doctrine from a corruption.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Newman |first1=John Henry |title=Newman Reader - Development of Christian Doctrine - Chapter 5 |url=https://www.newmanreader.org/works/development/chapter5.html |website=www.newmanreader.org}}</ref> This view does not deny that there may be accidental accretions over time which should be removed if harmful, nor that there may be primitive practices that can be fruitfully revived.  

* Fourth, the inconsistency of restorationist prescriptions and restorationism's dependence on self-appointed human authority figures (who may go beyond the plain or traditional meaning of Scriptural texts to justify their teaching) with regional appeal, contrasted with the consistency and conservatism over time of the Catholic faith, and evidenced by centuries of recorded miracles, fruitful charitable lives, and notable holy saints: these views were given, for example, by [[Erasmus#Dispute_on_free_will|Erasmus]] in his debate on the extent of human choice with Martin Luther.<ref>{{cite book|author=István Pieter Bejczy|title=Erasmus and the Middle Ages: The Historical Consciousness of a Christian Humanist|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MxLV1yVyT7sC&pg=PA172|year=2001|publisher=Brill|isbn=90-04-12218-4|page=172}}</ref>  

There are also numerous semi-restorationist tendencies that are part of Catholic tradition, such as the [[Renaissance]] ''[[ad fontes]]'' humanist imperative and the modern ''[[Nouvelle_théologie|ressourcement]]'' theology. The [[monasticism|monastic urge]] to live according to the [[evangelical counsels]] may be seen as a kind of primitivism that resorts to the words of Christ rather than implied behaviours in the Book of Acts.

==See also==
{{div col}}
* [[Adventism]]
* [[David Bercot]]
* [[Christianity in the 1st century]]
* [[Christian fundamentalism]]
* [[Christian Zionism]]
* [[Catholic Apostolic Church]]
* [[Constantinian shift]]
* [[Hebrew Christian movement]]
* [[Hebrew Roots]]
* [[Jewish Christianity]]
* [[Judaizers]]
* [[Latter Day Saint movement]]
* [[Philosemitism]]
* [[The Lord's Recovery]]
* [[Members Church of God International]]
* [[Messianic Judaism]]
* [[Quakers]]
* [[Salafism]]
* [[Shakers]]
* {{lang|fr|[[Nouvelle Théologie|Ressourcement]]}}
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
* Birdsall Richard D. "The Second Great Awakening and the New England Social Order." ''Church History'' 39 (1970): 345–64.
* Cross, Whitney, R. ''The Burned-Over District: The Social and Intellectual History of Enthusiastic Religion in Western New York, 1800–1850''.
*{{cite book |title=The Global House Church Movement |last=Zdero |first=Rad |year=2004 |publisher=William Carey Library Publishers |location=[[Pasadena, California|Pasadena]] |isbn=978-0-87808-374-9}}
*{{cite book |title=NEXUS: The World House Church Movement Reader |last=Zdero |first=Rad |year=2007 |publisher=William Carey Library Publishers |location=[[Pasadena, California|Pasadena]] |isbn=978-0-87808-342-8}}
*{{cite book |title=Letters to the House Church Movement: Real Letters, Real People, Real Issues |last=Zdero |first=Rad |year=2011 |publisher=Xulon Press |isbn=978-1-61379-022-9}}

==External links==
*The [https://web.archive.org/web/20110610110122/https://www.mun.ca/rels/restmov/ Restoration Movement Pages] at the [[Memorial University of Newfoundland]]
*[http://www.fairlds.org/pubs/conf/1999BarK.html Restoration Movements] - Kevin Barney, "A Tale of Two Restorations," ''[[Foundation for Apologetic Information & Research]]'', a comparison of the LDS restoration movement and the Alexander Campbell restoration movement from a [[Mormonism|Mormon]] perspective.
*[http://www.fairlds.org/apol/ai018.html Mormon Restorationism] - Topical Guide to topics related to "restoration" from the ''[[Foundation for Apologetic Information & Research]]''
*[http://www.lsm.org/ Publications of Watchman Nee and Witness Lee]

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{{Christian History|collapsed}}
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[[Category:Restorationism (Christianity)| ]]
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[[Category:History of Protestantism]]
[[Category:Christian radicalism]]