View source for Religious pluralism

{{Short description|Stance of supporting peaceful coexistence and diversity of spiritual belief}}
{{About|religious pluralism|other uses of the term|Pluralism (disambiguation)}}
{{use dmy dates|date=April 2023}}
[[File:Kazan church.jpg|thumb|[[Temple of All Religions]] in [[Kazan]], Russia]]
{{Religious freedom}}
[[File:Bosanska Krupa Churches.JPG|thumb|[[Catholic church]], [[Mosque]] and [[Serbian Orthodox Church]] in [[Bosanska Krupa]], Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
[[File:HKBP Ressort Jakarta Kernolong.jpg|thumb|[[Batak Christian Protestant Church]] is located next to the Al Istikharah Mosque in [[Jakarta, Indonesia]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://jakarta.tribunnews.com/2020/12/25/masjid-al-istikharah-dan-gereja-hkbp-kernolong-dibangun-saling-berdekatan-potret-menjaga-toleransi|title=Masjid Al Istikharah dan Gereja HKBP Kernolong Dibangun Saling Berdekatan, Potret Menjaga Toleransi|website=jakarta.tribunnews.com|language=id|date=25 December 2020}}</ref> ]]
[[File:Katarina kyrka & Stockholms moské.JPG|thumb|In Sweden, religions coexist: [[Katarina Church]] and the minaret of the [[Stockholm Mosque]]]]
[[File:Bayswater, London W2 - geograph.org.uk - 4152238.jpg|thumb|The [[West London Synagogue]] and the [[St Matthew's, Bayswater|Church of Saint Matthew]] in London, England]] 
[[File:Mosque of Omar with city.jpg|thumb|Skyline of Bethlehem with the [[Mosque of Omar (Bethlehem)|Mosque of Omar]], the Evangelical Lutheran Christmas Church, Salesian Church of the Sacred Heart of Jesus in [[Bethlehem|Bethlehem.]]]]

'''Religious pluralism''' is an attitude or policy regarding the diversity of [[religion|religious]] [[belief system]]s co-existing in society. It can indicate one or more of the following:

* Recognizing and [[Religious tolerance|tolerating]] the religious diversity of a society or country, promoting [[freedom of religion]], and defining [[secularism]] as [[neutrality (philosophy)|neutrality]] (of the [[State (polity)|state]] or [[Nonsectarian|non-sectarian]] institution) on issues of religion as opposed to opposition of religion in the [[public forum]] or [[Town square|public square]] that is open to [[Freedom of speech|public expression]], and promoting [[Separation of church and state#Friendly and hostile separation|friendly]] [[Separation of church and state|separation of religion and state]] as opposed to [[Separation of religion and state#Friendly and hostile separation|hostile separation]] or [[antitheism]] espoused by other forms of [[secularism]]. 
* Any of several forms of religious [[inclusivism]]. One such worldview holds that one's own religion is not the sole and exclusive source of truth, and thus acknowledges that at least some truths and true values exist in other religions. Another concept is that two or more religions with mutually exclusive truth claims are equally valid; this may be considered a form of either [[toleration]] (a concept that arose as a result of the [[European wars of religion]]) or [[moral relativism]].
*''Perennialism'' (based on the concept of ''[[Perennial philosophy|philosophia perennis]]'') is the understanding that the exclusive claims of different religions turn out, upon closer examination, to be variations of universal truths that have been taught since time immemorial. While some perennialists are [[religious universalism|universalists]] who accept [[religious syncretism]], those of the [[Traditionalist School]] reject it, and uphold the importance of the historical, "orthodox" faiths.
* Sometimes as a synonym for [[ecumenism]], i.e., the promotion of some level of unity, co-operation, and improved understanding between different religions or different [[Religious denomination|denomination]]s within a single religion.
* As a term for the condition of harmonious co-existence between adherents of different [[religion]]s or [[religious denomination]]s.

==Definition and scopes==
{{Main|Religious tolerance}}
[[File:Kuta Bali Indonesia Puja-Mandala-01.jpg|thumb|Puja Mandala, a temple that symbolizes tolerance of diversity in Indonesia located in [[Kuta, Bali]]<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.antaranews.com/berita/3445500/puja-mandala-simbol-kerukunan-umat-beragama-di-pulau-bali|title=Puja Mandala, simbol kerukunan umat beragama di Pulau Bali|website=antaranews.com|language=id|access-date=5 October 2024|date=17 March 2023}}</ref> ]][[File:1893parliament.jpg|thumb|Congress of [[Parliament of the World's Religions]], [[Chicago]], 1893]]

Religious pluralism, to paraphrase the title of a recent academic work, goes beyond mere toleration.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Grimshaw |first=Mike |date=2023-01-11 |title=On Canaries, Icebergs and the public sphere: The pragmatic compromise of religious pluralism |url=https://journal.uinsgd.ac.id/index.php/kt/article/view/20508 |journal=Khazanah Theologia |language=en |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=71–86 |doi=10.15575/kt.v5i1.20508 |issn=2715-9701|doi-access=free }}</ref> Chris Beneke, in ''Beyond Toleration: The Religious Origins of American Pluralism'', explains the difference between religious tolerance and religious pluralism by pointing to the situation in the late 18th century [[United States]]. By the 1730s, in most colonies religious minorities had obtained what contemporaries called [[religious tolerance|religious toleration]]:{{Sfn | Beneke | 2006 | p = 6}} "The policy of toleration relieved religious minorities of some physical punishments and some financial burdens, but it did not make them free from the indignities of prejudice and exclusion. Nor did it make them equal. Those 'tolerated' could still be barred from civil offices, military positions, and university posts."{{Sfn | Beneke | 2006 | p = 6}} In short, religious toleration is only the absence of [[religious persecution]], and does not necessarily preclude [[religious discrimination]]. However, in the following decades something extraordinary happened in the [[Thirteen Colonies]], at least if one views the events from "a late eighteenth-century perspective".{{Sfn | Beneke | 2006 | p = 5}} Gradually the colonial governments expanded the policy of religious toleration, but then, between the 1760s and the 1780s, they replaced it with "something that is usually called [[Freedom of religion|religious liberty]]".{{Sfn | Beneke | 2006 | p = 6}} Mark Silka, in "Defining Religious Pluralism in America: A Regional Analysis", states that religious pluralism "enables a country made up of people of different faiths to exist without sectarian warfare or the persecution of religious minorities. Understood differently in different times and places, it is a [[cultural construct]] that embodies some shared conception of how a country's various religious communities relate to each other and to the larger nation whole."<ref name="Silk 64–81">{{Cite book |last=Silk |first=Mark |title=Defining Religious Pluralism in America: A Regional Analysis |date=July 2007 |volume=612 |pages=64–81}}</ref>

Religious pluralism can be defined as "respecting the otherness of others".<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Grimshaw |first=Mike |date=2023-01-11 |title=On Canaries, Icebergs and the public sphere: The pragmatic compromise of religious pluralism |url=https://journal.uinsgd.ac.id/index.php/kt/article/view/20508 |journal=Khazanah Theologia |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=71–86 |doi=10.15575/kt.v5i1.20508 |s2cid=256164273 |issn=2715-9701|doi-access=free }}</ref> Freedom of religion encompasses all religions acting within the law in a particular region. [[Exclusivist]] religions teach that theirs is the only way to [[salvation]] and to religious truth, and some of them would even argue that it is necessary to suppress the falsehoods taught by other religions. Some [[Protestant]] [[sect]]s argue fiercely against [[Roman Catholicism]], and [[Fundamentalist Christianity|fundamentalist Christians]] of all kinds teach that religious practices like those of [[Paganism]] and [[witchcraft]] are pernicious. This was a common historical attitude prior to the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], and has informed governmental policy into the present day. For instance, [[Saudi Arabia]] has no protection for freedom of religion, and the country's non-Muslim population are at risk for discrimination and arrest on religious grounds. Of course, many religious communities have long been engaged in building peace, justice, and development themselves, and the emergence of the secular peacemaking field has led religious communities to systematize and institutionalize their own peacebuilding and interfaith work. The Catholic Church has worked in development and poverty reduction, human rights, solidarity, and peace, and after [[World War II]], it began to develop specific tools and apply conflict transformation practices.<ref name="Kazemzadeh 2017">{{cite journal |url=https://www.academia.edu/43891542 |title=Pluralism and Democracy in Islam |journal=Internal Journal of Acpcs |date=January 2017 |last1=Kazemzadeh |first1=Hamed |archive-date=15 February 2022 |access-date=3 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220215134627/https://www.academia.edu/43891542 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Giving one religion or denomination special rights that are denied to others can weaken religious pluralism. This situation was observed in Europe through the [[Lateran Treaty]] and [[Church of England]]. In the modern era, many Islamic countries have laws that criminalize the act of leaving Islam for someone born into a Muslim family, forbid entry to non-Muslims into mosques, and forbid construction of churches, synagogues or temples in their countries.<ref name="Meister 2010 p23-57">Chad Meister (2010), ''The Oxford Handbook of Religious Diversity'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19534013-6}}, pp. 32–57</ref>

[[Relativism]], the belief that all religions are equal in their value and that none of the religions give access to absolute truth, is an extreme form of [[inclusivism]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://carm.org/what-relativism|title=What is relativism?|work=CARM – The Christian Apologetics & Research Ministry|date=21 January 2012|access-date=18 April 2013|archive-date=25 June 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110625061234/http://carm.org/what-relativism|url-status=dead}}</ref> Likewise, [[syncretism]], the attempt to take over creeds of practices from other religions or even to blend practices or creeds from different religions into one new faith is an extreme form of inter-religious dialogue. Syncretism must not be confused with [[ecumenism]], the attempt to bring closer and eventually reunite different denominations of one religion that have a common origin but were separated by a [[Schism (religion)|schism]].

==History==
{{Main|History of religious pluralism}}
[[File:Istanbul text with Abrahamic religions symbols.jpg|thumb|right|[[Istanbul]] text with Abrahamic religions in [[Turkey]]]]
[[File:Druck Augsburger Reichsfrieden.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Front page of the 1555 [[Peace of Augsburg]], which recognized two different churches in the [[Holy Roman Empire]]]]
[[Cultural pluralism|Cultural]] and religious pluralism has a long history and development that reaches from antiquity to contemporary trends in [[post-modernity]].

German philosophers of religion [[Ludwig Feuerbach]] and [[Ernst Troeltsch]] concluded that [[Eastern religions|Asian religious traditions]], in particular [[Hinduism]] and [[Buddhism]], were the earliest proponents of religious pluralism and granting of [[Freedom of religion|freedom to the individuals to choose their own faith]] and develop a personal religious construct within it<ref name="Meister 2010 p62-72" /><ref>Roof & McKinney (1985), "Denominational America and the new religious pluralism", ''The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science'', 480(1), pp. 24–38</ref> (see also [[Buddhism and Hinduism|Relationship between Buddhism and Hinduism]]); [[Jainism]], another [[Indian religions|ancient Indian religion]], as well as [[Daoism]] have also always been inclusively flexible and have long favored religious pluralism for those who disagree with their religious viewpoints.<ref name="Meister 2010 p62-72">Chad Meister (2010), ''The Oxford Handbook of Religious Diversity'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195340136}}, pp. 62–72</ref> The [[Age of Enlightenment]] in Europe triggered a sweeping transformation about religion after the [[French Revolution]] ([[liberalism]], [[democracy]], [[civil and political rights]], [[freedom of thought]], [[separation of Church and State]], [[secularization]]), with rising acceptance of religious pluralism and [[decline of Christianity]]. According to Chad Meister,<ref name="Meister 2010 p62-72" /> these pluralist trends in the Western thought, particularly since the 18th century, brought mainstream Christianity and Judaism closer to the Asian traditions of philosophical pluralism and religious tolerance.

==Classical civilization: Greek and Roman religions==
{{See also|Ancient Greek religion|Greco-Roman mysteries|Paganism|Pax deorum}}
For the Romans, [[Religion in Ancient Rome|religion was part of the daily life]].<ref>[[Jörg Rüpke]], "Roman Religion – Religions of Rome", in ''A Companion to Roman Religion'' (Blackwell, 2007), p. 4.</ref> Each home had a household shrine at which prayers and [[libation]]s to the family's domestic deities were offered. Neighborhood shrines and sacred places such as springs and groves dotted the city. The [[Roman calendar]] was structured around religious observances; in the [[Roman Empire|Imperial Era]], as many as 135 days of the year were devoted to [[Roman festivals|religious festivals]] and games (''[[ludi]])''.<ref>Matthew Bunson, ''A Dictionary of the Roman Empire'' (Oxford University Press, 1995), p. 246.</ref> [[Women in Ancient Rome|Women]], [[Slavery in ancient Rome|slaves]] and children all participated in a range of religious activities. Some public rituals could be conducted only by women, and women formed what is perhaps Rome's most famous priesthood, the state-supported [[Vestal Virgins]], who tended Rome's sacred hearth for centuries, until [[Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire|disbanded under Christian persecution and domination]].

The Romans are known for the [[List of Roman deities|great number of deities]] they honored. The presence of [[Magna Graecia|Greeks on the Italian peninsula]] from the beginning of the historical period influenced Roman culture, introducing some religious practices that became as fundamental as the cult of [[Apollo]]. The Romans looked for common ground between their major gods and those of the Greeks, adapting [[Greek mythology|Greek myths]] and iconography for Latin literature and Roman art. [[Etruscan religion]] was also a major influence, particularly on the practice of [[augury]], since Rome had once been ruled by Etruscan kings.

[[Mystery religions]] imported from the [[Near East]] ([[Ptolemaic Egypt]], [[Parthian Empire|Persia]] and [[Mesopotamia]]), which offered initiates [[Soteriology|salvation through a personal God]] and [[Afterlife|eternal life after the death]], were a matter of personal choice for an individual, practiced in addition to carrying on one's [[Sacra gentilicia|family rites]] and participating in public religion. The mysteries, however, involved exclusive oaths and secrecy, conditions that conservative Romans viewed with suspicion as characteristic of "[[Magic in the Greco-Roman world|magic]]", conspiracy ({{Lang|la|coniuratio}}), and subversive activity. Sporadic and sometimes brutal attempts were made to suppress religionists who seemed to threaten traditional Roman morality and unity, as with the [[Roman senate|Senate]]'s efforts to [[Senatus consultum de Bacchanalibus|restrict the Bacchanals]] in 186 BC.

[[File:0 Relief représentant Mithra - Louvre-Lens (2).JPG|thumb|250px|right|Marble relief of [[Tauroctony|Mithras slaying the bull]] (2nd century, [[Louvre-Lens]]); [[Mithraism]] was among the most widespread [[mystery religions]] of the Roman Empire.<ref>G. W. Bromiley (ed.), ''The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia'', Vol. 4 (Eerdmans, 1988), p. 116. {{ISBN|0-8028-3784-0}}.</ref>]]
As the Romans extended their dominance throughout the Mediterranean world, their policy in general was to [[Interpretatio romana|absorb the deities and cults of other peoples]] rather than try to eradicate them,<ref>"This mentality", notes John T. Koch, "lay at the core of the genius of cultural assimilation which made the Roman Empire possible"; entry on "Interpretatio romana", in ''Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia'' (ABC-Clio, 2006), p. 974.</ref> since they believed that preserving tradition promoted social stability.<ref>Rüpke, "Roman Religion – Religions of Rome", p. 4; Benjamin H. Isaac, ''The Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity'' (Princeton University Press, 2004, 2006), p. 449; W.H.C. Frend, ''Martyrdom and Persecution in the Early Church: A Study of Conflict from the Maccabees to Donatus'' (Doubleday, 1967), p. 106.</ref>

One way that Rome incorporated diverse peoples was by [[Freedom of religion|supporting their religious heritage]], building temples to local deities that framed their theology within the hierarchy of Roman religion. Inscriptions throughout the Empire record the side-by-side worship of local and Roman deities, including dedications made by Romans to local Gods.<ref>Janet Huskinson, ''Experiencing Rome: Culture, Identity and Power in the Roman Empire'' (Routledge, 2000), p. 261.</ref> By the height of the Empire, numerous [[Interpretatio graeca|international deities]] were cultivated at Rome and had been carried to even the most remote [[Roman provinces|provinces]] (among them [[Cybele]], [[Isis]], [[Osiris]], [[Serapis]], [[Epona]]), and Gods of [[Monism|solar monism]] such as [[Mithras]] and [[Sol Invictus]], found as far north as [[Roman Britain]]. Because Romans had never been obligated to cultivate one deity or one cult only, [[religious tolerance]] was not an issue in the sense that it is for competing [[Monotheism|monotheistic religions]].<ref>A classic essay on this topic is [[Arnaldo Momigliano]], "The Disadvantages of Monotheism for a Universal State", in ''Classical Philology'', 81.4 (1986), pp. 285–297.</ref> The monotheistic rigor of [[Hellenistic Judaism|Judaism]] posed difficulties for Roman policy that led at times to compromise and the granting of special exemptions, but sometimes to intractable conflict.

==Christianity==
{{Main|Christianity and other religions}}

{{See also|Ecumenism}}
[[File:Christian cross.svg|thumb | 220x124px | right | alt=The [[Christian cross]] which is a very popular symbol of Christianity. |
The [[Christian cross]]. A very popular symbol of [[Christianity]].]]
Some Christians<ref>[http://www.christians.eu/why-jesus/ "Why Jesus?"], Christians EU. Article stating that Jesus is the saviour and not Mohammed or Buddha—see second part of this article.</ref> have argued that religious pluralism is an invalid or self-contradictory concept.

Maximal forms of religious pluralism claim that all religions are equally true, or that one religion can be true for some and another for others. Most Christians hold this idea to be [[logic]]ally impossible from the [[principle of contradiction]].<ref>Jason Carlson, [http://www.christianministriesintl.org/articles/12.html "Defending Salvation Through Christ Alone"], {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091003214003/http://www.christianministriesintl.org/articles/12.html |date=2009-10-03 }}, Christian Ministries International</ref> The two largest Christian branches, the [[Catholic Church]] and the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]], both claim to be the "[[one true church]]" and that "[[Extra Ecclesiam nulla salus|outside the true Church there is no salvation]]"; Protestantism however, which has many different denominations, has no consistent doctrine in this regard, and has a variety of different positions regarding religious pluralism.

Other Christians have held that there can be truth value and salvific value in other faith traditions. [[John Macquarrie]], described in the ''Handbook of Anglican Theologians'' (1998) as "unquestionably [[Anglicanism]]'s most distinguished systematic theologian in the second half of the twentieth century",<ref>p. 168, Timothy Bradshaw (1998), "John Macquarrie", in: Alister E. McGrath (ed). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZHzZAAAAMAAJ&q=macquarrie The SPCK Handbook of Anglican Theologians]'' (pp. 167–68). London: [[SPCK]]. {{ISBN|978-0-281-05145-8}}</ref> wrote that "there should be an end to proselytizing but that equally there should be no syncretism of the kind typified by the [[Baháʼí Faith|Baháʼí]] movement" (p.&nbsp;2).<ref name="Macquarrie 1996">John Macquarrie (1996). ''Mediators between human and divine: From Moses to Muhammad''. New York: Continuum. {{ISBN|0-8264-1170-3}}</ref> In discussing nine founders of major faith traditions (Moses, Zoroaster, Lao-zu, Buddha, Confucius, Socrates, Krishna, Jesus, and Muhammad), which he called "mediators between the human and the divine", Macquarrie wrote that:

{{Blockquote|I do not deny for a moment that the truth of God has reached others through other channels – indeed, I hope and pray that it has. So while I have a special attachment to one mediator, I have respect for them all. (p. 12)<ref name="Macquarrie 1996" />}}

[[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] also teaches a form of religious pluralism, that there is at least some truth in almost all religions and philosophies.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/ensign/1977/10/respect-for-other-peoples-beliefs?lang=eng |title=Respect for Other People's Beliefs |first=Gerald E. |last=Jones |publisher=[[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] |magazine=[[Ensign (LDS magazine)|Ensign]] |date=October 1977}}</ref>

===Classical Christian views===
Before the [[East-West Schism|Great Schism]], mainstream Christianity confessed "one holy catholic and apostolic church", in the words of the [[Nicene Creed]]. [[Roman Catholic]]s, Orthodox Christians, [[Anglicanism|Episcopalian]]s and most Protestant Christian denominations still maintain this belief. Furthermore, the [[Catholic Church]] makes the claim that it alone is the [[one true church|one and only true Church]] founded by [[Jesus Christ]], but the [[Eastern Orthodox]] and [[Oriental Orthodox]] Churches also make this claim in respect to themselves.{{Citation needed |date=July 2022}}

Church unity for these groups, as in the past, is something very visible and tangible, and schism was just as serious an offense as heresy. Following the Great Schism, Roman Catholicism sees and recognizes the Orthodox Sacraments as valid but illicit and without canonical jurisdiction. Eastern Orthodoxy does not have the concept of "validity" when applied to Sacraments, but it considers the ''form'' of Roman Catholic Sacraments to be acceptable, and there is some recognition of Catholic sacraments among some, but not all, Orthodox. Both generally mutually regard each other as "[[heresy|heterodox]]" and "[[schism]]atic", while continuing to recognize each other as Christian, at least [[secundum quid]] (see [[ecumenicism]]).

===Modern Christian views===
Some other Protestants hold that only believers who believe in certain fundamental doctrines know the true pathway to salvation. The core of this doctrine is that Jesus Christ was a perfect man, is the Son of God and that he died and rose again for the wrongdoing of those who will accept the gift of salvation. They continue to believe in "one" church, an "invisible church" which encompasses different types of Christians in different sects and denominations, believing in certain issues they deem fundamental, while disunited on a variety of doctrines they deem non-fundamental. Some [[evangelical]] Protestants are doubtful if Roman Catholics or Eastern Orthodox can possibly be members of this "invisible church", and usually they reject religious (typically [[restorationist]]) movements rooted in 19th-century American Christianity, such as [[Mormonism]], [[Christian Science]], or [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] as not distinctly Christian.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://apologeticsindex.org/d01b.html#prot |title=The Protestant Principle |website=Apologetics index: Biblical Guide To Orthodoxy And Heresy |access-date=7 February 2016}}</ref>

The [[Catholic Church]], unlike some Protestant denominations, affirms "developmental theology", understood to mean that the "[[Holy Spirit in Christianity|Holy Spirit]], in and through the evolving and often confused circumstances of concrete history, is gradually bringing the Church to an ever more mature understanding of the [[deposit of faith]] (the saving truths entrusted by Jesus Christ to the Apostles—these as such cannot be changed or added to). The Church comes to recognize [[baptism of desire]] quite early in its history. Later, the Church realizes that Romans 2:14–16, for example, allows for the salvation of non-Christians who do not have unobstructed exposure to Christian teachings: "When Gentiles who have not the law do by nature what the law requires.... They show that what the law requires is written on their hearts....<ref>Robert Magliola, ''Facing Up to Real Doctrinal Difference: How Some Thought-Motifs from Derrida Can Nourish the Catholic-Buddhist Encounter'' (Angelico P., 2014), pp. 101–2.</ref> Various forms of "implicit faith" come to hold standing, until at [[Vatican Council II]], the Church declares: "Nor shall divine providence deny the assistance necessary for salvation to those who, without any fault of theirs, have not yet arrived at an explicit knowledge of God, and who, not without grace, strive to lead a good life" (#16). Vatican Council II in its Declaration [[Nostra aetate]] addresses the non-Christian religions with respect and appreciation, affirming the goodness found in them. Since Vatican Council II, Catholic dialogists in particular are working out the implications of [[John Paul II]]'s statement, in [[Redemptor hominis]] #6 that Christians should recognize "the Holy Spirit operating outside the visible confines of the [[Body of Christ#Catholicism|Mystical Body of Christ]]." Among these dialogists, [[Robert Magliola]], an affiliate of the Italian community Vangelo e Zen ("The Gospel and Zen"), Desio and Milano, Italy, who taught in predominantly Buddhist cultures for years, and practiced Buddhist-Catholic dialogue there and in the West, and who is widely published in this dialogue, argues the following:
{{Blockquote | If God has willed that all persons be saved (see [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]] #851, quoting 1 Tim. 2:4) but has not sent the opportunity of Christian conversion to all, how can we not conclude that God wills those good Buddhists in this latter category to live, flourish, and die as good Buddhists? That God in His providence—at least for now—wants Buddhism to be the setting for millions of good and noble people in the world? (This does not mean that Catholics should not witness to the Catholic faith or even—on the proper occasions and in a courteous way—consider it their duty to preach Catholicism to Buddhists, and to teach it mightily. But it does mean that Catholics would do well to remember that God alone sends the grace of conversion when and to whom He wills.)<ref>Robert Magliola, ''Facing Up to Real Doctrinal Difference: How Some Thought-Motifs from Derrida Can Nourish the Catholic-Buddhist Encounter'' (Angelico P., 2014), pp. 116, 142, where he applies the same reasoning to relations with other non-Christian religions.</ref>}}

==Hinduism==
{{multiple issues|section=yes|
{{original research section|date=June 2025}}
{{unbalanced|section|date=June 2025}}
{{more citations needed section|date=June 2025}}
{{primary sources section|date=June 2025}}
}}
[[File:Om symbol.svg|thumb | 220x124px | right | alt=OM is a popular symbol in Hinduism. It is a Sanskrit letter in the Devanagari script. |
The [[Om]] (aum) is a [[Sanskrit]] sound and a popular symbol of [[Hinduism]].]]
{{See also|Hinduism and other religions}}
[[Hinduism]] is naturally pluralistic<ref>{{Cite news|title=Hinduism|language=en|url=https://pluralism.org/hinduism|access-date=2021-08-21}}</ref> as it "acknowledges different forms and representations of the divine, all understood in their relation to the supreme being, Brahman." Historians argue that the differentiations between the various Indic religions of the subcontinent were blurred before their specific codification and separation during British efforts to catalog different Indic philosophies.{{citation needed|date=May 2022}} Moreover, Hinduism itself is the oldest major religion, explaining a relative lack of antipathy towards specifiable religious traditions – and so the Hindu religion has no theological difficulties in accepting degrees of truth in other religions.{{citation needed|date=August 2019}} From a Vedantic perspective, Swami Bhaskarananda argues that Hinduism emphasizes that everyone actually worships the same God, whether one knows it or not.<ref>See Swami Bhaskarananda, ''Essentials of Hinduism'' (Viveka Press 2002) {{ISBN|1-884852-04-1}}</ref> In the 8th sutra of the Pratyabhijñahrdyam, the Indian philosopher Ksemaraja says that all the siddhantas or theses of all the darsanas (schools of thought) are just the different aspects of the one Atman. It being all-pervading and all-inclusive, from matter to consciousness to nothingness, all are its aspects or its different roles. The [[Advaita Vedanta]] philosophy, a widely held view of many Hindus who follow [[Hinduism|Sanatana Dharma]], encompasses pluralism.{{clarify|date=August 2021}}<ref>{{cite book|title=An Occult Glossary:A Compendium of Oriental and Theosophical Terms|author=T. Depurucker|date=January 2003|publisher=Kessinger Publishing|page=130|isbn=9780766129757|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eRztON94euYC&q=paramatman&pg=PA130}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Arvind Sharma|title=A Guide to Hindu Spirituality|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VYeAIM0d-KYC |year=2006|publisher=World Wisdom |isbn=978-1-933316-17-8|pages=38–43, 68–75}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Richard King|title=Orientalism and Religion: Post-Colonial Theory, India and "The Mystic East" |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eOiDNx_co5wC |year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-63234-3|pages=128–132}}</ref> Other, lesser-known philosophers have strived to encompass Indic philosophies under traditions other than Advaita, including the Indian philosopher Vijñabhikshu. Thus, the culture of open boundaries and continuous interaction and synthesis between all schools of thought is a very important aspect in understanding Hinduism and its fundamental nature of plurality.

In several [[mantra]]s, [[sutra]]s, [[smriti]], and [[Śruti|shruti]], the idea that there are many ways to approach Truth or an underlying Reality is emphasized.

For example, the [[Rigveda|Rig Veda]] states that the [[Satya|Truth]] can be known in different ways:

{{Blockquote|text={{lang|sa|एकं सद्विप्रा बहुधा वदन्ति}}
{{lang|sa-latn|ékam sat vipra bahudā vadanti}}

Truth is One, though the sages know it variously|title=Rig Veda|source=1.164.46}}

The Rig Veda also envisions an ideal world where a diverse collective speaks together to focus upon an idea that pervades all:

{{Blockquote|text={{lang|sa-latn|saṃ ghachadhvaṃ saṃ vadadhvaṃ saṃ vo manāṃsi jānatām <br>devā bhāghaṃ yathā pūrve saṃjānānā upāsate <br>samāno mantraḥ samitiḥ samānī samānaṃ manaḥ saha cittameṣām<br>samānaṃ mantramabhi maṇtraye vaḥ samānena vohaviṣā juhomi <br>samānī va ākūtiḥ samānā hṛdayāni vaḥ <br>samānamastu vomano yathā vaḥ susahāsati}}

Assemble, speak together: let your minds be all of one accord, as ancient Gods unanimous sit down to their appointed share.

The place is common, common the assembly, common the mind, so be their thought united.

A common purpose do I lay before you, and worship with your general oblation.

One and the same be your resolve, and be your minds of one accord. United be the thoughts of all that all may happily agree.|title=Rig Veda|source=1.191.2-4}}

The [[Uddhava Gita]] is explicit that those interested in spirituality should learn the perspectives of a diverse group of proficient practitioners rather than a singular one who espouses a specific doctrine:

{{Blockquote|text=Though the Absolute Truth is One, various sages and scriptures have described Him in many different ways. For this reason, an aspiring spiritual practitioner would do well to learn the perspectives of numerous spiritual masters, rather than just hearing from one.|title=Uddhava Gita|source=3:21}}

Conversely, the [[Bhagavad Gita]] warns against exclusivism:

{{Blockquote|text={{lang|sa|यत्तु कृत्स्नवदेकस्मिन्कार्ये सक्तमहैतुकम्।<br>अतत्त्वार्थवदल्पं च तत्तामसमुदाहृतम्}}

But that which clings blindly to one idea as if it were all, without logic, truth or insight, that has its origin in Darkness.|title=Bhagavad Gita|source=18:22}}

It also affirms [[Satya|Truth]] in a variety of spiritual practices:

{{Blockquote|text={{lang|sa|ये यथा मां प्रपद्यन्ते तांस्तथैव भजाम्यहम्।<br>मम वर्त्मानुवर्तन्ते मनुष्याः पार्थ सर्वशः}}

{{lang|sa-latn|ye yathā māṃ prapadyante tāṃs tathāiva bhajāmyaham mama vartmānuvartante manuṣyāḥ pārtha sarvaśaḥ.}}

As people approach me, so I receive them. All paths lead to Me.|title=Bhagavad Gita|source=4:11}}

==Buddhism==
[[File:Buddhism dham jak.png|thumb |120x120px| alt=The Buddhist dharm chakra. Which is like a chariot wheel is a popular symbol of Buddhism. | [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] [[dharmachakra]], a popular symbol of [[Buddhism]].]]
Buddhist doctrine, fundamentally based upon minimizing or negating the suffering which arises from attachment, like its sister Indic religions, opposes exclusivism and emphasizes pluralism. This is not only encapsulated in the life story of the Buddha, who sought many gurus himself before resolving to seek Enlightenment on his own, but also in Buddhist scripture.

{{Blockquote|text={{lang|pi-latn|Katunnam kilesasîmânam atîtattâ<br>Sîmâtigo bâhitapâpattâ ka brâhmano.}}

<p>What one person, abiding by the (philosophical) views, saying, 'This is the most excellent,' considers the highest in the world, everything different from that he says is wretched, therefore he has not overcome dispute.</p>|title=Sutta Nipata|source=796}}

The Buddha also himself stated that truth is compromised when an individual is not open to entertaining a wide array of teachings. Moreover, without a pluralist understanding, the Buddha stated that truth cannot be discovered or ascertained such that it is truly known:

{{Blockquote|text=If a person has faith, Bhāradvāja, he preserves truth when he says: 'My faith is thus'; but he does not yet come to the definite conclusion: 'Only this is true, anything else is wrong.' In this way, Bhāradvāja, there is the preservation of truth; in this way he preserves truth; in this way we describe the preservation of truth. But as yet there is no discovery of truth.|author=The Buddha|title=The Pali Canon|source=Bhikkhu Bodhi. "In the Buddha's Words: An Anthology of Discourses from the Pali Canon"}}

In the Lankavatara Sutra, the Buddha gave a long treatise on the idea that various expressions of Truth may seem contradictory or boundless, yet they all speak of Truth itself – emphasizing that an Enlightened One both accepts pluralism in that there are many ways to referring to Truth, but rises above it through the understanding that Truth transcends all labels.

{{Blockquote | In a political sense, the earliest references to Buddhist views on religious pluralism are found in the [[Edicts of Ashoka|Edicts of Emperor Ashoka]]:

All religions should reside everywhere, for all of them desire self-control and purity of heart. Rock Edict Nb. 7 (S. Dhammika)

Contact (between religions) is good. One should listen to and respect the doctrines professed by others. Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, desires that all should be well-learned in the good doctrines of other religions. Rock Edict Nb. 12 (S. Dhammika)}}

When asked, "Don't all religions teach the same thing? Is it possible to unify them?" the [[14th Dalai Lama|Dalai Lama]] said:<ref>[http://www.zenit.org/article-8376?l=english "Dalai Lama Asks West Not to Turn Buddhism Into a 'Fashion{{'"}}], ''Zenit'', 2003-10-08, retrieved 2009-06-18.</ref>

{{Blockquote | People from different traditions should keep their own, rather than change. However, some Tibetan may prefer Islam, so he can follow it. Some Spanish prefer Buddhism; so follow it. But think about it carefully. Don't do it for fashion. Some people start Christian, follow Islam, then Buddhism, then nothing.

In the United States I have seen people who embrace Buddhism and change their clothes! Like the New Age. They take something Hindu, something Buddhist, something, something.... That is not healthy.

For individual practitioners, having one truth, one religion, is very important. Several truths, several religions, is contradictory.

I am Buddhist. Therefore, Buddhism is the only truth for me, the only religion. To my Christian friend, Christianity is the only truth, the only religion. To my Muslim friend, [Islam] is the only truth, the only religion. In the meantime, I respect and admire my Christian friend and my Muslim friend. If by unifying you mean mixing, that is impossible; useless.}}

==Islam==
{{primary sources|section|date=June 2025}}
[[File:Star and Crescent.svg|alt=Crescent symbol.|thumb|120x120px|The [[Star and crescent|crescent and star]], a symbol of the [[Islamic world]]]]
{{Main|Islam and other religions|Liberalism and progressivism within Islam}}

Following a period of fighting lasting around a hundred years before 620 AD which mainly involved Arab and Jewish inhabitants of [[Medina]] (then known as ''Yathrib''), religious freedom for Muslims, Jews and [[Paganism|pagans]] was declared by [[Muhammad]] in the [[Constitution of Medina]]. In early Muslim history (until mid 11th century), most Islamic scholars maintained a level of separation from the state which helped to establish some elements of institutional religious freedom. The Islamic [[Caliphate]] later guaranteed religious freedom under the conditions that non-Muslim communities accept ''[[dhimmi]]'' status and their adult males pay the ''[[jizya]]'' tax instead of the ''[[zakat]]'' paid by Muslim citizens.<ref>{{cite book|last=Njeuma|first=Martin Z.|title=Fulani Hegemony in Yola (Old Adamawa) 1809–1902|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dfQA4Q6fX7EC&q=Fulani%20Hegemony%20in%20Yola%20(Old%20Adamawa)%201809-1902&pg=PA82|year=2012|publisher=African Books Collective|isbn=978-9956726950|page=82|quote=Of all the various forms of taxation known to Islamic communities, it seems only two{{snd}} the zakat and the jixya were of importance in Adamawa. [...] The jizya was the levy on non-Muslim peoples who surrendered to Islam and were given the status dhimmi}}</ref> Though Dhimmis were not given the same political rights as Muslims, they nevertheless did enjoy equality under the laws of property, contract, and obligation.<ref>H. Patrick Glenn, ''Legal Traditions of the World''. [[Oxford University Press]], 2007, p. 219.</ref><ref>The French scholar Gustave Le Bon (the author of ''La civilisation des Arabes'') writes "that despite the fact that the incidence of taxation fell more heavily on a Muslim than a non-Muslim, the non-Muslim was free to enjoy equally well with every Muslim all the privileges afforded to the citizens of the state. The only privilege that was reserved for the Muslims was the seat of the caliphate, and this, because of certain religious functions attached to it, which could not naturally be discharged by a non-Muslim." Mun'im Sirry (2014), ''Scriptural Polemics: The Qur'an and Other Religions'', p. 179. [[Oxford University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0199359363}}.</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Abou El Fadl|first1=Khaled|author-link=Khaled Abou El Fadl|title=The Great Theft: Wrestling Islam from the Extremists|date=2007|publisher=[[HarperOne]]|isbn=978-0061189036|page=204|quote = According the dhimma status system, non-Muslims must pay a poll tax in return for Muslim protection and the privilege of living in Muslim territory. Per this system, non-Muslims are exempt from military service, but they are excluded from occupying high positions that involve dealing with high state interests, like being the president or prime minister of the country. In Islamic history, non-Muslims did occupy high positions, especially in matters that related to fiscal policies or tax collection.}}</ref>

Religious pluralism existed in classical [[Islamic ethics]] and [[Sharia]], as the [[religious law]]s and courts of other religions, including Christianity, Judaism and [[Hinduism]], were usually accommodated within the Islamic legal framework, as seen in the early [[Caliphate]], [[Al-Andalus]], [[Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent|Indian subcontinent]], and the [[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|Ottoman Millet]] system.<ref name="Weeramantry-138">{{cite book|last=Weeramantry|first=C. G.|title=Justice Without Frontiers: Furthering human rights. Volume 1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3-1sH1wc58UC|year=1997|publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers|isbn=9041102418|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3-1sH1wc58UC&pg=PA138 138]}}</ref><ref name="Sachedina">{{cite book|title=The Islamic Roots of Democratic Pluralism|first=Abdulaziz Abdulhussein|last=Sachedina|year=2001|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=0195139917|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/islamic_sac_2001_00_4172}}</ref> In medieval Islamic societies, the ''[[qadi]]'' (Islamic judges) usually could not interfere in the matters of non-Muslims unless the parties voluntarily choose to be judged according to Islamic law, thus the ''dhimmi'' communities living in [[Islamic state]]s usually had their own laws independent from the Sharia law, such as the Jews who would have their own ''[[Halakha]]'' courts.<ref>{{cite book |title=Under Crescent and Cross: The Jews in the Middle Ages|author=Mark R. Cohen|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|year=1995|isbn=069101082X|page=74|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fgbib5exskUC&q=cohen+Under+Crescent+and+Cross|access-date=10 April 2010|author-link=Mark R. Cohen}}</ref>

Dhimmis were allowed to operate their own courts following their own legal systems in cases that did not involve other religious groups, or capital offences or threats to public order.<ref name="al-Qattan-99">{{cite journal |doi=10.1017/S0020743800055501|first=Najwa|last=al-Qattan|title=Dhimmis in the Muslim Court: Legal Autonomy and Religious Discrimination|journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies|volume=31|issue=3|pages=429–444|publisher=University of Cambridge|year=1999|s2cid=159763960 |issn=0020-7438}}</ref> Non-Muslims were allowed to engage in religious practices that were usually forbidden by Islamic law, such as the consumption of alcohol and pork, as well as religious practices which Muslims found repugnant, such as the [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] practice of [[incest]]uous [[Xwedodah|"self-marriage"]] where a man could marry his mother, sister or daughter. According to the famous Islamic legal scholar [[Ibn Qayyim]] (1292–1350), non-Muslims had the right to engage in such religious practices even if it offended Muslims, under the conditions that such cases not be presented to Islamic Sharia courts and that these religious minorities believed that the practice in question is permissible according to their religion.<ref>{{cite book |title=Islam and the Blackamerican: looking toward the third resurrection|author=Sherman A. Jackson|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=2005|isbn=019518081X|page=144|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nprKYM8sleYC&q=ankiha+fasida&pg=PA144|access-date=10 April 2010}}</ref>

Despite Dhimmis enjoying special statuses under the Caliphates, they were not considered equals, and sporadic persecutions of non-Muslim groups did occur in the history of the Caliphates.<ref>[[A Shameful Act: The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility]] {{ISBN|0805079327}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Granada|author1= Richard Gottheil|author2= Meyer Kayserling|url=https://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/6855-granada|date=1906|access-date=2023-01-02|website=jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jews-of-morocco|title=Jews of Morocco|website=www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org}}</ref> 

The primary sources that guide Islam, namely [[Quran]] and [[hadith|Sunnah]]s, may be interpreted as promoting the fundamental right to practice an individual's belief.<ref>Cole & Hammond (1974), "Religious pluralism, legal development, and societal complexity: rudimentary forms of civil religion", ''Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion'', vol. 13, no. 2, pp. 177–189</ref><ref name="Bonner 2008 p23-31">Michael Bonner (2008), ''Jihad in Islamic History: Doctrines and Practice'', Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0691138381}}, pp. 23–31</ref> However, the acceptability of religious pluralism within Islam remains a topic of active debate, though the vast majority of Islamic scholars and historical evidences reveal Islam's commitment to no coercion in religion, supporting pluralism in the context of relative toleration. Hamed Kazemzadeh, a pluralist orientalist, argues that cultural absolutism of ours is, of course, today under heavy pressure, a double pressure of defining and semi-bankrupt imperialism and surprisingly strong counter assertive challenge that changed the mentality of Muslims to have a pluralist identity.<ref name="Kazemzadeh 2017" /> Then he highlights the policy method of Islam Messenger in the early Islamic civilization toward other religions.

In Surah Al-Tawba, verse 29 demands Muslims to fight all those who do not believe in Islam, including Christians and Jews (People of the Book), until they pay the [[Jizya]], a tax, with willing submission.
{{blockquote|
Fight those who do not believe in Allah and the Last Day, nor comply with what Allah and His Messenger have forbidden, nor embrace the religion of truth from among those who were given the Scripture, until they pay the tax, willingly submitting, fully humbled.|{{qref|9|29|c=y}} }}

Some people have concluded from verse 9:29, that Muslims are commanded to attack all non-Muslims until they pay money, but Shaykh Jalal Abualrub writes:
{{blockquote|
These Ayat (Quranic verses) stress the necessity of fighting against the People of the Scripture, but under what conditions? We previously established the fact that the Islamic State is not permitted to attack non-Muslims who are not hostile to Islam, who do not oppress Muslims, or try to convert Muslims by force from their religion, or expel them from their lands, or wage war against them, or prepare for attacks against them. If any of these offenses occurs, however, Muslims are permitted to defend themselves and protect their religion. Muslims are not permitted to attack non-Muslims who signed peace pacts with them, or non-Muslims who live under the protection of the Islamic State.|source=Abualrub, Holy Wars, Crusades, Jihad }}

In Surah Al-Nisa, verse 89 has been misquoted to seem that it says to slay the [[Apostasy|apostates]]. In actuality, it only commands Muslims to fight those who practice oppression or persecution or attack the Muslims.
{{blockquote|
<poem>4:88 Why are you ˹believers˺ divided into two groups regarding the hypocrites while Allah allowed them to regress ˹to disbelief˺ because of their misdeeds? Do you wish to guide those left by Allah to stray? And whoever Allah leaves to stray, you will never find for them a way.
4:89 They wish you would disbelieve as they have disbelieved, so you may all be alike. So do not take them as allies unless they emigrate in the cause of Allah. But if they turn away, then seize them and kill them wherever you find them, and do not take any of them as allies or helpers,
4:90 except those who are allies of a people you are bound with in a treaty or those wholeheartedly opposed to fighting either you or their own people. If Allah had willed, He would have empowered them to fight you. So if they refrain from fighting you and offer you peace, then Allah does not permit you to harm them.
4:91 You will find others who wish to be safe from you and their own people. Yet they cannot resist the temptation ˹of disbelief or hostility˺. If they do not keep away, offer you peace, or refrain from attacking you, then seize them and kill them wherever you find them. We have given you full permission over such people.</poem>|{{qref|4|88-91|c=y}} }}

===Sufism===
[[Sufi]]s are practitioners of the mystical tradition of Islam. Sufis such as [[Rumi]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dadoo |first1=Yusuf |title=Syncretism, Universalism and Religious Pluralism in the Poetry of Jalāl al-Dīn Rūmī |journal=Journal for the Study of Religion |date=2004 |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=103–121 |jstor=24764337 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24764337 |issn=1011-7601}}</ref> and [[Abu Sa'id Abu'l-Khayr]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fenton |first1=Paul B. |title=Jews and Judaism in the Poetry and Prose of the Persian Sufi Abū Sa'īd-i Abū l-Ḫayr (967–1049 CE): An Approach to the Religious Other in Medieval Islamic Society |journal=Religions |date=8 April 2025 |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=476 |doi=10.3390/rel16040476|doi-access=free }}</ref> have been associated with religious pluralism or tolerant views toward religious others. Not all Sufis hold pluralist or tolerant views of other religions; Gregory A. Lipton argues that [[Ibn Arabi]] held exclusivist views on Islam and other religions, against pluralist readers of Ibn Arabi such as [[Frithjof Schuon]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lipton |first1=Gregory A. |title=Rethinking Ibn 'Arabi |date=2018 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=9780190684501}}</ref>

===Ahmadiyya===
{{See also|Prophethood (Ahmadiyya)}}
{{More citations needed section|date=June 2025}}
Ahmadis recognize many founders of world religions to be from God, who all brought teaching and guidance from God to all peoples. According to the [[Ahmadiyya]] understanding of the [[Quran]], every nation in the history of mankind has been sent a prophet, as the Quran states: ''And there is a guide for every people''. Though the Quran mentions only 24 prophets, the founder of Islam, [[Muhammad]] states that the world has seen 124,000 prophets. Thus other than the prophets mentioned in the Quran, Ahmadis, with support from theological study also recognize [[Buddha]], [[Krishna]], founders of [[Religion in China|Chinese religions]] to be divinely appointed individuals.

The Second [[Mirza Basheer-ud-Din Mahmood Ahmad|Khalifatul Maish]] of the [[Ahmadiyya Muslim Community]] writes:
"According to this teaching there has not been a single people at any time in history or anywhere in the world who have not had a warner from God, a teacher, a prophet. According to the Quran there have been prophets at all times and in all countries. India, China, Russia, Afghanistan, parts of Africa, Europe, America—all had prophets according to the theory of divine guidance taught by the Quran. When, therefore, Muslims hear about prophets of other peoples or other countries, they do not deny them. They do not brand them as liars. Muslims believe that other peoples have had their teachers. If other peoples have had prophets, books, and laws, these constitute no difficulty for Islam."<ref name="Intro to Quran">"Introduction to the Study of the Holy Qur’an" by Mirza Bashir-ud-Din Mahmood Ahmad. Part 2, Argument 4 Section labeled "A Grand Conception"</ref>

[[Mirza Ghulam Ahmad]], founder of the [[Ahmadiyya Muslim Community]] wrote in his book ''[[A Message of Peace]]'':
"Our God has never discriminated between one people and another. This is illustrated by the fact that all the potentials and capabilities (Prophets) which have been granted to the Aryans (Hindus) have also been granted to the races inhabiting Arabia, Persia, Syria, China, Japan, Europe and America."<ref name="Mirza Ghulam Ahmad p. 6">"A Message of Peace" by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, p. 6</ref>

===In modern practice===
Religious pluralism is a contested issue in modern Islamic countries. Twenty-three Islamic countries have laws, as of 2014, which make it a crime, punishable with death penalty or prison, for a Muslim, by birth or conversion, to [[Apostasy|leave Islam]] or convert to another religion.<ref name="LoC Apostasy">[https://www.loc.gov/law/help/apostasy/apostasy.pdf Laws Criminalizing Apostasy in Selected Jurisdictions] Library of Congress, US Government (May 2014)</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=About this Collection {{!}} Legal Reports (Publications of the Law Library of Congress) {{!}} Digital Collections {{!}} Library of Congress |url=https://www.loc.gov/collections/publications-of-the-law-library-of-congress/about-this-collection/ |access-date=2023-05-18 |website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref><ref>Doi, Abdur Rahman (1984), ''Shari`a: The Islamic Law''; Taha Publishers; London UK</ref> In Muslim countries such as [[Algeria]], it is illegal to preach, persuade or attempt to convert a Muslim to another religion.<ref>Law No. 02-06 (bis), al Jarida al Rasmiyya, vol.12, 1 March 2006</ref> [[Saudi Arabia]] and several Islamic nations have strict laws against the construction of Christian churches, Jewish synagogues, Hindu temples and Buddhist stupas anywhere inside the country, by anyone including minorities working there.<ref name="Meister 2010 p23-57" /> [[Brunei]] in southeast Asia adopted [[Sharia]] law in 2013 that prescribes a death penalty for any Muslim who converts from Islam to another religion.<ref name="LoC Apostasy" /> Other Islamic scholars state Sharia does not allow non-Muslim minorities to enjoy religious freedoms in a Muslim-majority nation, but other scholars disagree.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://islamnewsroom.com/news-we-need/329-yusuf-estes-correcting-quran-misquotes|title=Yusuf Estes Corrects QURAN Mis-Quotes|first=Ansar Al|last=Adl|website=Islam News Room|access-date=14 March 2018}}</ref><ref>Mawdudi, S. Abul `Ala (1982), ''The Rights of Non-Muslims in Islamic State'', Islamic Publications, Lahore, Pakistan.</ref><ref>Abdullah, Najih Ibrahim Bin (1988), "The Ordinances of the People of the Covenant and the Minorities in an Islamic State", ''Balagh Magazine'', Cairo, Vol. 944, 29 May 1988; Also see 5 June 1988 article by the same author.</ref>

The Islamic Republic of Pakistan is a multi-racial and multi-religious nation, where Muslims form the majority. Residents of Pakistan follow many of the major religions. Pakistan's diverse cultural and religious heritage is part of its multicultural history, but there is a lack of tolerance towards religious minorities in Pakistan. Minorities are facing exploitation by extremist groups, and some sections of the society show hatred towards them, religious minorities are not allowed to join the mainstream of the society because of their religion.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-07-29 |title=Pakistan: Right to freedom of religion or belief under sustained attack |url=https://www.icj.org/pakistan-right-to-freedom-of-religion-or-belief-under-sustained-attack/ |access-date=2023-09-25 |website=International Commission of Jurists |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mehfooz |first1=Musferah |title=Religious Freedom in Pakistan: A Case Study of Religious Minorities |journal=Religions |date=January 2021 |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=51 |doi=10.3390/rel12010051 |language=en |issn=2077-1444|doi-access=free }}{{Creative Commons text attribution notice|cc=by4|from this source=yes}}</ref>

==Jainism==
{{Main|Anekantavada}}

''Anekāntavāda'', the principle of relative pluralism, is one of the basic principles of [[Jainism]]. In this view, the truth or the reality is perceived differently from different points of view, and no single point of view is the complete truth.<ref>Dundas (2002) p. 231</ref><ref>Koller, John M. (July 2000) pp. 400–407</ref> Jain doctrine states that an object has infinite modes of existence and qualities and they cannot be completely perceived in all its aspects and manifestations, due to inherent limitations of the humans. Only the [[Kevala Jnana|Kevalins]]—the omniscient beings—can comprehend the object in all its aspects and manifestations, and all others are capable of knowing only a part of it.<ref>Jaini, Padmanabh (1998) p. 91</ref> Consequently, no one view can claim to represent the absolute truth—only relative truths. Jains compare all attempts to proclaim absolute truth with ''andhgajnyaya ''or the "[[Blind men and an elephant|maxim of the blind men and elephant]]", wherein all the blind men claimed to explain the true appearance of the elephant, but could only partly succeed due to their narrow perspective.<ref name="Hughes 2005 p590-1">Hughes, Marilynn (2005) pp. 590–591</ref> For Jains, the problem with the blind men is not that they claim to explain the true appearance of the elephant; the problem is doing so to the exclusion of all other claims. Since absolute truth is many-sided, embracing any truth to the exclusion of others is to commit the error of ''ekānta'' (one-sidedness).<ref name="The Metaphysics of Paradox">{{cite book |last1=Schwartz |first1=Wm. Andrew |title=The Metaphysics of Paradox: Jainism, Absolute Relativity, and Religious Pluralism |date=2018 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=978-1-4985-6392-5 |url=https://rowman.com/ISBN/9781498563925/The-Metaphysics-of-Paradox-Jainism-Absolute-Relativity-and-Religious-Pluralism |archive-date=24 August 2018 |access-date=23 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180824002257/https://rowman.com/ISBN/9781498563925/The-Metaphysics-of-Paradox-Jainism-Absolute-Relativity-and-Religious-Pluralism |url-status=dead }}</ref> Openness to the truths of others is one way in which Jainism embodies religious pluralism.

==Sikhism==
{{Further|Islam and Sikhism|Hinduism and Sikhism}}
{{Primary sources section|date=June 2025}}
The [[Sikh gurus]] have propagated the message of "many paths" leading to the [[Ek Onkar|one God]] and ultimate [[salvation]] for all souls who treading on the path of [[righteousness]]. They have supported the view that proponents of all faiths, by doing good and virtuous deeds and by remembering the [[Lord]], can certainly achieve salvation. Sikhs are told to accept all leading faiths as possible vehicles for attaining spiritual enlightenment, provided the faithful study, ponder and practice the teachings of their prophets and leaders. Sikhism had many interactions with [[Sufism]] as well as [[Hinduism]], influenced them and was influenced by them.

The [[Sri Guru Granth Sahib]], the holy book of the [[Sikh]]s, says:
{{blockquote|Do not say that the Vedas, the Bible and the Koran are false. Those who do not contemplate them are false.|  Guru Granth Sahib page 1350<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.srigranth.org/servlet/gurbani.gurbani?Action=Page&Param=1350&english=t&id=57718|title=Sri Granth: Sri Guru Granth Sahib |page=1350 |publisher=Sri Granth}}</ref>}}

As well as:
<blockquote>
Some call the Lord "Ram, Ram", and some "Khuda". Some serve Him as "Gusain", others as "Allah". He is the Cause of causes, and Generous. He showers His Grace and Mercy upon us. Some pilgrims bathe at sacred shrines, others go on Hajj to Mecca. Some do devotional worship, whilst others bow their heads in prayer. Some read the Vedas, and some the Koran. Some wear blue robes, and some wear white. Some call themselves Muslim, and some call themselves Hindu. Some yearn for paradise, and others long for heaven. Says Nanak, one who realizes the Hukam of God's Will, knows the secrets of his Lord Master. (Sri Guru Granth Sahib, page 885)<ref>{{cite web|title=sggs ram khudha people pray to there god|url=http://www.srigranth.org/servlet/gurbani.gurbani?ction=Page&g=1&h=1&r=1&t=1&p=0&k=0&Param=885|access-date=4 September 2011}}</ref> 
</blockquote>

<blockquote>
One who recognizes that all spiritual paths lead to the One shall be emancipated. One who speaks lies shall fall into hell and burn. In all the world, the most blessed and sanctified are those who remain absorbed in Truth. (SGGS Ang 142)<ref>{{cite web|title=pluarism in sggs|url=http://www.srigranth.org/servlet/gurbani.gurbani?Action=Page&g=1&h=1&r=1&t=1&p=0&k=0&Param=142|access-date=4 September 2011}}</ref> 
</blockquote>

<blockquote>
The seconds, minutes, and hours, days, weeks and months and various seasons originate from One Sun; O nanak, in just the same way, the many forms originate from the Creator. (Guru Granth Sahib page 12,13)
</blockquote>

The Guru Granth Sahib also says that [[Bhagat Namdev]] and [[Kabir|Bhagat Kabir]], who were both believed to be [[Hindu]]s, both attained salvation though they were born before [[Sikhism]] took root and were clearly not Sikhs. This highlights and reinforces the Guru's saying that "peoples of other faiths" can join with God as true and also at the same time signify that Sikhism is not the exclusive path for liberation.

Additionally the Guru Granth Sahib says:
<blockquote>
First, Allah (God) created the Light; then, by His Creative Power, He made all mortal beings. From the One Light, the entire universe welled up. So who is good, and who is bad? ||1||<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.srigranth.org/servlet/gurbani.gurbani?Action=Page&Param=1349&english=t&id=57707|title=Sri Granth: Sri Guru Granth Sahib |page=1349 |publisher=Sri Granth}}</ref>
</blockquote>

Again, the Guru Granth Sahib Ji provides this verse:
<blockquote>
[[Bhagat Namdev|Naam Dayv]] the printer, and [[Kabir|Kabeer]] the weaver, obtained salvation through the Perfect Guru. Those who know God and recognize His [[Shabda|Shabad]] ("word") lose their ego and class consciousness. ([[Guru Granth Sahib]] page 67)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.srigranth.org/servlet/gurbani.gurbani?Action=Page&Param=67&english=t&id=2722|title=Sri Granth: Sri Guru Granth Sahib |page=67 |publisher=Sri Granth}}</ref> 
</blockquote>

Most of the 15 [[Sikh Bhagats]] who are mentioned in their holy book were non-Sikhs and belonged to Hindu and Muslim faiths, which were the most prevalent religions of this region.

The pluralistic dialogue of Sikhism began with the founder of Sikhism Guru Nanak after becoming enlightened saying the words ''Na koi hindu na koi musalman'' – "There is no Hindu, there is no Muslim". He recognised that religious labels held no value and it is the deeds of human that will be judged in the hereafter what we call ourselves religiously holds no value.

Sikhs have been considered eager exponents of [[interfaith dialogue]] and not only accept the right of others to practice their faith but have in the past fought and laid down their lives to protect this right for others; the [[Martyrdom of Guru Tegh Bahadar]], who on the pleas of a [[pandit]] of the [[Kashmiris]], agreed to fight against a tyrannic [[Moghul Empire]] (that was forcing them to convert to Islam) in order that they might gain the freedom to practice their religion, which differed from his own.

==Baháʼí Faith==
{{Main|Baháʼí Faith and the unity of religion}}
[[Bahá'u'lláh]], founder of [[Baháʼí Faith]], a religion that developed in Persia, having roots in Islam,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Religions – Bahai: Origins of Bahá'í history |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/bahai/history/origins_1.shtml |access-date=2020-11-04 |publisher=BBC |language=en-GB}}</ref> urged the elimination of religious intolerance. He taught that God is one, and religion has been progressively revealed over time through [[Manifestation of God (Baháʼí Faith)|Manifestations of God]], the founders of religion. Bahá'u'lláh taught that Baháʼís must associate with peoples of all religions, whether this is reciprocated or not.

Baháʼís refer to this concept as [[Progressive revelation (Baháʼí)|Progressive revelation]], meaning that each religion brings a more advanced understanding of divinity and updated social laws as mankind matures. In this view, God's word is revealed through a series of messengers: [[Abraham]], [[Krishna]], [[Moses]], [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]], [[Jesus]], [[Muhammad]], [[Báb]] and Bahá'u'lláh (the founder of the [[Baháʼí Faith]]) among them. According to Baháʼí writings, there will not be another messenger for many hundreds of years.{{Citation needed|date=November 2020}}

There is also a respect for the religious traditions of the native peoples of the planet who may have little other than oral traditions as a record of their religious figures.<ref>{{cite web |title=Celebrating Native Cultures Through Words: Storytelling and Oral Traditions |url=https://americanindian.si.edu/nk360/informational/storytelling-and-oral-traditions |publisher=Smithsonian National Museum of the American Indian |access-date=2025-04-06}}</ref>

==Religious pluralism and human service professions==
The concept of religious pluralism is also relevant to human service professions, such as psychology and social work, as well as medicine and nursing, in which trained professionals may interact with clients from diverse faith traditions.<ref name="Pargament 1997" /><ref name="Zinnbauer Pargament 2000">Brian J. Zinnbauer & Kenneth I. Pargament (2000). [http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=2995869&site=ehost-live Working with the sacred: Four approaches to religious and spiritual issues in counseling]. ''Journal of Counseling & Development'', v. 78 n. 2, pp. 162–171. {{ISSN|0748-9633}}</ref><ref name="Friberg 2001 p177-90" /> For example, [[psychologist]] [[Kenneth Pargament]]<ref name="Pargament 1997">{{Cite book |last=Pargament |first=Kenneth I. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vn5XObcpnd4C&q=pluralism |title=The Psychology of Religion and Coping: Theory, Research, Practice |date=2001 |publisher=Guilford Press |isbn=978-1-57230-664-6 |language=en}}</ref> has described four possible stances toward client religious and spiritual beliefs, which he called ''rejectionist'', ''exclusivist'', ''constructivist'', and ''pluralist''. Unlike the constructivist stance, the pluralist stance:

{{Blockquote | ... recognizes the existence of a religious or spiritual absolute reality but allows for multiple interpretations and paths toward it. In contrast to the exclusivist who maintains that there is a single path "up the mountain of God", the pluralist recognizes many paths as valid. Although both the exclusivist and the pluralist may agree on the existence of religious or spiritual reality, the pluralist recognizes that this reality is expressed in different cultures and by different people in different ways. Because humans are mortal and limited, a single human religious system cannot encompass all of the religious or spiritual absolute reality.... (p. 167)<ref name="Zinnbauer Pargament 2000" />|title=Zinnbauer Pargament 2000}}

Importantly, "the pluralistic therapist can hold personal religious beliefs while appreciating those of a client with different religious beliefs. The pluralist recognizes that religious value differences can and will exist between counselors and clients without adversely affecting therapy" (p.&nbsp;168).<ref name="Zinnbauer Pargament 2000" /> The stances implied by these four helping orientations on several key issues, such as "should religious issues be discussed in counseling?", have also been presented in tabular form (p.&nbsp;362, Table 12.1).<ref name="Pargament 1997" />

The profession of [[chaplain]]cy, a religious profession, must also deal with issues of pluralism and the relevance of a pluralistic stance. For example, Friberg argues: "With growing populations of immigrants and adherents of religions not previously seen in significant numbers in North America, spiritual care must take religion and diversity seriously. Utmost respect for the residents' spiritual and religious histories and orientations is imperative" (p.&nbsp;182).<ref name="Friberg 2001 p177-90">Nils Friberg (2001). [[iarchive:agingspiritualit00davi/page/177|The role of the chaplain in spiritual care]]. In [[David O. Moberg]], ''Aging and spirituality: spiritual dimensions of aging theory, research'' (pp. 177–190). Routledge. {{ISBN|978-0-7890-0939-5}} (NB: The quotation is discussing residents in nursing homes).</ref>

==Skepticism==
===Argument from inconsistent revelations===
The argument from inconsistent revelations is an argument that aims to show that one cannot choose one religion over another since their revelations are inconsistent with each other and that any two religions cannot both be true.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dawkins |first=Richard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yq1xDpicghkC&pg=PP1 |title=The God Delusion |date=16 January 2008 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |isbn=978-0-547-34866-7 |page=25 |language=en |author-link=Richard Dawkins |access-date=28 March 2021}}</ref> The argument appears, among other places, in [[Voltaire]]'s ''[[Candide]]'' and ''[[Philosophical Dictionary]]''. It is also manifested in [[Denis Diderot]]'s statement in response to [[Pascal's wager]] that, whatever proofs are offered for the existence of God in Christianity or any other religion, "an [[Imam]] can reason the same way".<ref name="Diderot 1746">{{Cite book |last=Diderot |first=Denis |title=Pensées philosophiques |number=LIX |volume=1 |year=1875–77 |editor-last=J. Assézar |page=167 |language=fr |author-link=Denis Diderot |orig-year=1746}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/pascal-wager/#ObjePascWage|title=Objections to Pascal's Wager |chapter=Pascal's Wager |year=2018 |publisher=Stanford University}}</ref> Also in response to Pascal's wager, [[J. L. Mackie]] said "the church within which alone salvation is to be found is not necessarily the Church of Rome, but perhaps that of the Anabaptists or the Mormons or the Muslim Sunnis or the worshippers of [[Kali]] or of [[Odin]]".<ref>Mackie, J. L., 1982. ''The Miracle of Theism'', Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 203</ref>

== Religion and globalization in the digital age ==
{{Original research section|date=June 2025}}

The 21st century has seen a profound transformation in the religious landscape due to globalization and digital technologies. These forces have intensified connections across geographic, cultural, and ideological boundaries, significantly reshaping religious identities, expressions, and institutions. Scholars have examined this evolving context through themes such as religious pluralism, digital religion, hybrid identities, migration, secular governance, and commodification of spirituality.

=== Globalization and religious pluralism ===
Globalization has enabled religions and their practitioners to interact closely despite geographical distances. Advances in communication technologies and increased mobility have compressed the world into “a single place,” fostering awareness and accessibility of diverse faiths. This interconnectedness promotes human rights norms, such as religious freedom, empowering individuals to express their beliefs and allowing religious communities to engage more openly in public life.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195323405.001.0001 |title=Religious Pluralism, Globalization, and World Politics |date=2008-12-01 |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195323405.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-532340-5 |editor-last=Banchoff |editor-first=Thomas}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fletcher |first=Jeannine Hill |date=May 2008 |title=Religious Pluralism in an Era of Globalization: The Making of Modern Religious Identity |url=https://doi.org/10.1177/004056390806900209 |journal=Theological Studies |volume=69 |issue=2 |pages=394–411 |doi=10.1177/004056390806900209 |issn=0040-5639|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Transnational religious networks and diasporic communities flourish under globalization, enriching internal religious diversity and facilitating interfaith dialogue aimed at shared ethical frameworks. Yet, globalization also presents challenges. Secular consumerist values may erode traditional identities, prompting defensive fundamentalist movements and inter-religious tensions. Furthermore, increased visibility of multiple faiths in the public sphere can generate competition between religious groups in pluralistic societies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Van Gelder |first=C. |date=1996-09-01 |title=Religion and Globalization. By Peter Beyer. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications, 1994. 250 pp. $19.95 |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/jcs/38.4.906 |journal=Journal of Church and State |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=906–907 |doi=10.1093/jcs/38.4.906 |issn=0021-969X|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

=== Digital religion ===
The emergence of “digital religion” refers to religious practice, identity, and community formation within digital environments. It encompasses both traditional institutions adapting to online platforms and new religious movements native to cyberspace. Originating in the mid-1990s, early studies examined online forums where users shared prayers and theological discussions. Scholars quickly debated whether digital expressions of religion represented authentic spirituality or superficial simulations.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2001-10-01 |title=Give me that online religion |url=https://doi.org/10.5860/choice.39-0876 |journal=Choice Reviews Online |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=39–0876-39-0876 |doi=10.5860/choice.39-0876 |doi-broken-date=1 July 2025 |issn=0009-4978|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=The mediation of religious experience in cyberspace: Lorne L. Dawson |date=2005-09-15 |work=Religion and Cyberspace |pages=22–44 |url=https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203003572-9 |access-date=2025-06-01 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9780203003572-9 |isbn=978-0-203-00357-2|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

By the early 2000s, research expanded to explore how digital spaces reshape rituals, authority, and religious identity. Communities emerged on websites and social media, offering interactive, immersive religious experiences. One notable example is the Church of Fools, launched in 2004, which enables users to participate in services through avatars. Such digital contexts allow for experimentation with religious roles and beliefs, particularly for those excluded from traditional hierarchies.<ref>{{Citation |title=The Language of Religion |date=2006-08-21 |work=Religion in World History |pages=9–24 |url=https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203969588-7 |access-date=2025-06-01 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9780203969588-7 |isbn=978-0-203-96958-8|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Digital religion challenges conventional structures by decentralizing spiritual authority and encouraging peer-to-peer spiritual exchange. Participants can construct personalized expressions of belief through online profiles and interactions. However, debates persist regarding the theological legitimacy of exclusively online religious practices and their influence on offline traditions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Heidi A. |last2=Vitullo |first2=Alessandra |date=January 2016 |title=Assessing changes in the study of religious communities in digital religion studies |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/23753234.2016.1181301 |journal=Church, Communication and Culture |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=73–89 |doi=10.1080/23753234.2016.1181301 |issn=2375-3234|hdl=10281/274930 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Campbell |first1=Heidi A. |last2=Tsuria |first2=Ruth |date=2021-08-18 |title=Digital Religion |url=https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429295683 |doi=10.4324/9780429295683|isbn=978-0-429-29568-3 }}</ref>

=== Hybrid religious identities ===
Globalization has also facilitated the formation of hybrid religious identities. These identities combine elements from diverse traditions, enabled by the free circulation of beliefs through digital and global networks. New religious movements often originate on the margins of established religions, drawing on eclectic influences such as Eastern spirituality, New Age philosophy, and even scientific discourse.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2002-09-01 |title=The encyclopedia of cults, sects, and new religions |url=https://doi.org/10.5860/choice.40-0015 |journal=Choice Reviews Online |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=40–0015-40-0015 |doi=10.5860/choice.40-0015 |doi-broken-date=1 July 2025 |issn=0009-4978|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

This syncretism results in unique combinations—e.g., blending Jewish Kabbalah with transcendental meditation or fusing shamanism with quantum theory. Such hybridity reflects a shift toward subjectivity, autonomy, and conceptual fluidity in spiritual meaning-making. These hybrid forms signify an adaptive response to the complexities of modern life, where the sacred and secular frequently intersect.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fenn |first1=Richard |last2=Geertz |first2=Clifford |date=June 1974 |title=The Interpretation of Cultures |url=https://doi.org/10.2307/1384392 |journal=Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=248 |doi=10.2307/1384392 |jstor=1384392 |issn=0021-8294|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

=== Migration, religious pluralism, and the secular state ===
Migration is a key vector of religious pluralism in contemporary societies. As people move across borders, they bring diverse religious traditions that challenge and enrich host cultures. For instance, migration to Europe from Muslim-majority countries has expanded the region’s religious diversity, prompting debates about cultural identity, secularism, and integration.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bleich |first=Erik |date=2019-10-20 |title=Essays on secularism and multiculturalism |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/09637494.2019.1671069 |journal=Religion, State and Society |volume=47 |issue=4–5 |pages=508–512 |doi=10.1080/09637494.2019.1671069 |issn=0963-7494|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Diasporic communities—such as Sikhs in Canada or Hindus in the UK—establish institutions that transform the cultural landscape, fostering new models of pluralism. In secular states, the coexistence of various faiths demands policy frameworks that balance civic unity with religious freedoms. Tensions often arise when public expressions of faith (e.g., religious attire) intersect with secular norms, illustrating the delicate negotiation required in pluralistic democracies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Vanney |first=Maria Alejandra |date=2018-09-18 |title=TAYLOR, CHARLES, A Secular Age, The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts / London, 2007, 874 pp. |journal=Anuario Filosófico |pages=207–210 |doi=10.15581/009.41.30345 |issn=2173-6111|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |date=2005-09-15 |editor-last=Hojsgaard |editor-first=Morten |editor2-last=Warburg |editor2-first=Margit |title=Religion and Cyberspace |url=https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203003572 |doi=10.4324/9780203003572|isbn=978-0-203-00357-2 }}</ref>

=== Commodification of religion and the New Age movement ===
Global consumer culture has extended into the realm of spirituality, giving rise to the commodification of religion. Traditional religious symbols, rituals, and philosophies are increasingly repackaged as products promising wellness, personal growth, and aesthetic pleasure. This trend reflects broader societal values centered on immediacy and self-optimization.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Carrette |first=Jeremy |date=2004-03-01 |title=Selling Spirituality |url=https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203494875 |doi=10.4324/9780203494875|isbn=978-0-203-49487-5 }}</ref>

The New Age movement exemplifies this commodification. Practices such as energy healing, holistic retreats, and the use of “positive energy” objects are often stripped from their spiritual roots and marketed for consumption. Scholars like Bernardo Nante argue that this process reduces profound spiritual traditions to superficial lifestyle accessories.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=González Montes |first=Adolfo |date=1970-12-01 |title=La vocación humana en Marañón |journal=Seminarios Sobre los Ministerios en la Iglesia |volume=16 |issue=42 |pages=441–472 |doi=10.52039/seminarios.v16i42.4161 |issn=2660-9487|doi-access=free }}</ref> The commercialization of spirituality raises concerns about authenticity and the dilution of religious meaning.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wright |first1=Stuart A. |last2=Heelas |first2=Paul |date=1999 |title=The New Age Movement: The Celebration of the Self and the Sacralization of Modernity |url=https://doi.org/10.2307/3711817 |journal=Sociology of Religion |volume=60 |issue=1 |pages=97 |doi=10.2307/3711817 |jstor=3711817 |issn=1069-4404|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Campbell |first=Heidi |date=2010-04-05 |title=When Religion Meets New Media |url=https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203695371 |doi=10.4324/9780203695371|isbn=978-1-134-27213-6 }}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Religion}}
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|
* [[:Category:Catholic ecumenical and interfaith relations]]
* [[Comparative religion]]
* [[Freedom of religion]]
* [[Gamaliel's principle]]
* [[Global Centre for Pluralism]]
* [[Indifferentism]]
* [[Interreligious organization]]
* [[Institute for Interreligious Dialogue]]
* [[Multiconfessionalism]]
* [[Multifaith space]]
* [[Perennial philosophy]]
* [[Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue]]
* [[Pontifical Council for Promoting Christian Unity]]
* [[Progressive Christianity]]
* [[Projects working for peace among Israelis and Arabs]]
* [[Religious exclusivism]]
* [[Religious harmony in India]]
* [[Religious liberalism]]
* [[Unitarian Universalism]]
* [[United Religions Initiative]]
* [[Universalism]]
* [[World Council of Churches]]
* [[Marshall Vian Summers#Messenger from God|The New Message from God]]
}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

===Works cited===
* {{Cite book |last=Beneke |first=Chris |year=2006 |title=Beyond Toleration: The Religious Origins of American Pluralism |place=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press}}.
* [[Ashk Dahlén]], 2006, [https://books.google.com/books?id=Mm4-G9aWWWEC&pg=PR9 ''Sirat al-mustaqim: One or Many? Religious Pluralism Among Muslim Intellectuals in Iran''] in ''The Blackwell Companion to Contemporary Islamic Thought'', ed. Ibrahim Abu-Rabi, Oxford.
* Eck, Diane (2001) ''A New Religious America: How a "Christian Country" Has Become the World's Most Religiously Diverse Nation'', San Francisco: Harper.
* Robert Gordis, 1962, "Ground Rules for a Christian-Jewish Dialogue" in ''The Root and the Branch'', Univ. of Chicago Press.
* [[Robert Gordis]] et al., 1988, ''Emet Ve-Emunah: Statement of Principles of Conservative Judaism'', Jewish Theological Seminary and the [[Rabbinical Assembly]].
* Kenneth Einar Himma (August 2002), "Finding a High Road: The Moral Case for Salvific Pluralism", ''International Journal for Philosophy of Religion'', vol. 52, no. 1, pp.&nbsp;1–33.
* Hutchison, William R. (2003) ''Religious Pluralism in America: The Contentious History of a Founding Ideal'', New Haven: Yale University Press.
* Kalmin, Richard (1994), ''Christians and Heretics in Rabbinic Literature of Late Antiquity,'' Harvard Theological Review, Volume 87(2), pp.&nbsp;155–169.
* {{cite journal |url=https://www.academia.edu/43891542 |title=Pluralism and Democracy in Islam |journal=Internal Journal of Acpcs |date=January 2017 |last1=Kazemzadeh |first1=Hamed |issue=Winter |volume=5 |pages=62–77 |archive-date=15 February 2022 |access-date=3 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220215134627/https://www.academia.edu/43891542 |url-status=dead }}
* Leon Klenicki ed., 1991, ''Toward a Theological Encounter: Jewish Understandings of Christianity'', Paulist Press / Stimulus.
* {{cite book |first1=Bernard |last1=Lewis |first2=Buntzie Ellis |last2=Churchill 
|title=Islam: The Religion and the People |date=2008 |publisher=Wharton |isbn=9780137154944}}
* Monecal, Maria Rosa (2002),''The Ornament of the World: How Muslims, Jews, and Christians Created a Culture of Tolerance in Medieval Spain'', Boston: Little, Brown, & Co.
* {{Cite book |last=Momen |first=M. |year=1997 |title=A Short Introduction to the Bahá'í Faith |publisher=One World Publications |location=Oxford, UK |isbn=1-85168-209-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/bahaifaith00mooj}}
* [[Hans Ucko]] ed., 1996, ''People of God, Peoples of God'', WCC Publications.
* {{Cite journal |first1=Brian J. |last1=Zinnbauer |first2=Kenneth I. |last2=Pargament |year=2000 |url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6676.2000.tb02574.x |title=Working with the sacred: Four approaches to religious and spiritual issues in counseling |journal=Journal of Counseling & Development |volume=78 |number=2 |pages=162–71 |doi=10.1002/j.1556-6676.2000.tb02574.x |url-access=subscription }}.

==Further reading==
* [[Francis Abdelmassieh|Abdelmassieh, Francis]] (2020). ''Egyptian-Islamic Views on the Comparison of Religions: Positions of Al-Azhar University Scholars on Muslim-Christian Relations.'' Münster: LIT. {{ISBN|978-3-643-91280-0}}
*{{Cite book|last=Ankerl
|first=Guy
|title=Global communication without universal civilization
|orig-year=2000
|series=INU societal research
|volume=1: Coexisting contemporary civilizations : Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western
|publisher=INU Press
|location=Geneva |isbn=2-88155-004-5 |year=2000}}
*Albanese, Catherine, ''America: Religions and Religion''. Belmont: Wadsworth Publishing, 1998, {{ISBN|0-534-50457-4}}
* [[Henning Wrogemann|Wrogemann, Henning]] (2019). ''A Theology of Interreligious Relations.'' Downer's Grove, Illinois: Intervarsity Press. {{ISBN|978-0-8308-5099-0}}

==External links==
{{Library resources box|by=no|onlinebooks=no|about=yes|wikititle=religious pluralism}}
* {{commons category-inline}}
* [https://www.pluralism.ca/ Global Centre for Pluralism]
* [https://www.cfr.org/outreach/religion-and-foreign-policy-program Council on Foreign Relations Religion and Foreign Policy Initiative]
* [https://pluralism.org/ The Pluralism Project: Researching Religious Diversity in the United States]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071010012203/http://www.usembassymalaysia.org.my/eck.html A New Religious America: Managing Religious Diversity in a Democracy: Challenges and Prospects for the 21st Century] by [[Diana Eck]], retrieved 2009-07-16.
* [https://irstudies.org/index.php/jirs The Journal of Inter-Religious Dialogue]
* [https://elijah-interfaith.org/ Elijah Interfaith Institute: Inter Religious Dialogue]
* {{SEP|religious-pluralism|Religious Diversity (Pluralism)|David Basinger}}
* {{IEP|url-id=rel-plur/|title=Religious Pluralism|author=Michael Barnes Norton}}

===Buddhism===
* [http://www.dharmaprotector.org/middleway.html Standing Up for the Middle Way: A Buddhist Perspective on Religious Freedom] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210513184233/http://www.dharmaprotector.org/middleway.html |date=13 May 2021 }}

===Christianity===
* [https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_decl_19651028_nostra-aetate_en.html Nostra Aetate: Declaration on the Relation of the Catholic Church to Non-Christian Religions]
* [http://www.wcc-coe.org/wcc/what/interreligious/publist.html World Council of Churches Bibliography of Works on Religious Pluralism]

===Hinduism===
* [http://www.bigpicture.tv/videos/watch/c16a5320f Big Picture TV] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091016001505/http://www.bigpicture.tv/videos/watch/c16a5320f |date=2009-10-16 }} Video of Ela Gandhi, granddaughter of Mahatma Gandhi, talking about religious pluralism

===Islam===
* [https://www.al-islam.org/islam-and-religious-pluralism-murtadha-mutahhari Islam and Religious Pluralism by Ayatullah Murtadha Mutahhari]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060831224020/http://www.spiritual-education.org/ Spiritual Education Lesson Plans for Children]

===Judaism===
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20030831133820/http://www.vbs.org/rabbi/rabrosen/whospea.htm The imperative of Religious Pluralism: A Conservative Jewish View]
* {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20001210225200/http://www.religioustolerance.org/jud_chrr.htm Darbu Emet: A Jewish Statement About Christianity]}}

{{Religious pluralism}}
{{Religion topics}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Religious pluralism| ]]
[[Category:Religion|plural]]