View source for Relative articulation

{{Short description|Description of producing a sound}}
{{Refimprove|date=July 2018}}

In [[phonetics]] and [[phonology]], '''relative articulation''' is description of the [[manner of articulation|manner]] and [[place of articulation|place]] of [[articulation (phonetics)|articulation]] of a speech sound relative to some reference point. Typically, the comparison is made with a default, [[unmarked]] articulation of the same [[phoneme]] in a neutral sound environment. For example, the English velar consonant {{IPA|/k/}} is ''fronted'' before the vowel {{IPA|/iː/}} (as in ''keep'') compared to articulation of {{IPA|/k/}} before other vowels (as in ''cool''). This fronting is called [[Palatalization (phonetics)|palatalization]].

The relative position of a sound may be described as ''advanced'' (''fronted''), ''retracted'' (''backed''), ''raised'', ''lowered'', ''centralized'', or ''mid-centralized''. The latter two terms are only used with [[vowel]]s, and are marked in the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] with [[diacritic]]s over the vowel letter. The others are used with both [[consonant]]s and vowels, and are marked with [[Iconicity|iconic]] diacritics under the letter. Another dimension of relative articulation that has IPA diacritics is the degree of [[roundedness]], ''more rounded'' and ''less rounded''.

==Advanced and retracted==
{{Infobox IPA
| above = Advanced, retracted
| ipa symbol   = ◌̟ ◌˖ ◌᫈
| ipa symbol2  = ◌̠ ◌˗
}}
{{also|Fronting (phonetics)}}
{{anchor|Advanced}}{{anchor|Retracted}}
An '''advanced''' or '''fronted''' sound is one that is pronounced farther to the front of the [[vocal tract]] than some reference point. The diacritic for this in the IPA is the subscript plus, {{unichar|031F|cwith=◌|COMBINING PLUS SIGN BELOW|html=}}. Conversely, a '''retracted''' or '''backed''' sound is one that is pronounced farther to the back of the vocal tract, and its IPA diacritic is the subscript minus {{unichar|0320|cwith=◌|COMBINING MINUS SIGN BELOW|html=}}. For letters with descenders, {{unichar|02D6|MODIFIER LETTER PLUS SIGN}} and {{unichar|02D7|MODIFIER LETTER MINUS SIGN}} may instead be used after the letter, as in {{IPA|[ɡ˖]}} and {{IPA|[y˗]}}.

Both vowels and consonants may be fronted or backed. In verbal description, the prefix ''pre-'' may be used to indicate fronting, especially in the terms ''[[palatal|prepalatal]]'' and ''[[velar consonant|prevelar]]''. Otherwise phrases like "fronted u" may be used. For retraction, either the prefix ''post-'' may be used to indicate retraction, as above, or phrases like "retracted i" may be used.

In most dialects of [[English language|English]], the [[back vowel]] {{IPA|/u/}} is farther forward than what is normally indicated by the IPA letter {{IPA|‹u›}}. This fronting may be shown explicitly, especially within a [[International Phonetic Alphabet#Usage|narrow transcription]]: {{IPA|[u̟]}}. Whether this is as far front as the [[central vowel]] {{IPA|[ʉ]}}, or somewhere between {{IPA|[u]}} and {{IPA|[ʉ]}}, may need to be clarified verbally, or on a [[vowel diagram]].

The difference between a fronted and non-fronted consonant can be heard in the English words ''key'' {{IPA|[k̟ʰi]}} and ''coo'' {{IPA|[kʰu]}}, where the {{IPA|/k/}} in ''key'' is fronted under the influence of the [[front vowel]] {{IPA|/i/}}. In English, the plosive in the [[affricate]] {{IPA|/tʃ/}}, as in the word ''church'', is farther back than an alveolar {{IPA|/t/}} due to [[assimilation (linguistics)|assimilation]] with the [[Voiceless postalveolar fricative|postalveolar fricative]] {{IPA|/ʃ/}}. In narrow transcription, {{IPA|/tʃ/}} may be transcribed {{IPA|[t̠ʃʰ]}}. In English, the {{IPA|/d/}} in the phrase "I need that" is farther front than normal due to [[assimilation (linguistics)|assimilation]] with the [[interdental consonant]] {{IPA|/ð/}}, and may be transcribed as {{IPA|[aɪ̯ ˈniːd̟ ðæt]}}. 

Languages may have phonemes that are farther back than the nearest IPA symbol. For example, [[Polish language|Polish]] ''sz'' is a postalveolar sibilant. While this is often transcribed as {{IPA|[ʃ]}}, it is not ''domed'' (partially [[Palatalization (phonetics)|palatalized]]) the way a prototypical {{IPA|[ʃ]}} is. A more precise transcription is therefore {{IPA|[s̠]}}.<!--sic, see [[Postalveolar consonant#Examples]]--> Similarly, the [[velar consonant]]s in [[Kwak'wala|Kwakiutl]] are actually ''postvelar''; that is, pronounced farther back than a prototypical velar, between velar {{IPA|[k]}} and [[uvular consonant|uvular]] {{IPA|[q]}}, and is thus transcribed {{IPA|[k̠]}}.

Officially, the IPA symbol {{IPA|[a]}} stands for the [[open front unrounded vowel]]. However, in most languages where it is used, {{IPA|[a]}} actually stands for the [[Open central unrounded vowel|central]], rather than the front vowel. If precision is desired, this may also be indicated with the minus sign {{IPA|[a̠]}}, although a number of other transcriptions are also possible.<ref>They include: centralized {{IPAblink|a}} ({{IPA|[ä]}}), centralized {{IPAblink|ɑ}} ({{IPA|[ɑ̈]}}), lowered {{IPAblink|ɐ}} ({{IPA|[ɐ̞]}}) and advanced {{IPAblink|ɑ}} ({{IPA|[ɑ̟]}}), although the last transcription can also indicate an only somewhat advanced back vowel.</ref>

==Raised and lowered==
{{Infobox IPA
| above = Raised and lowered
| ipa symbol   = ◌̝ ◌˔ ◌᷵
| ipa symbol2  = ◌̞ ◌˕ ◌᫛
}}
{{also|Raising (phonetics)}}
{{anchor|Raised}}{{anchor|Lowered}}A '''raised''' sound is articulated with the tongue or lip raised higher than some reference point. In the IPA this is indicated with the ''uptack'' diacritic {{unichar|031D|COMBINING UP TACK BELOW|cwith=◌}}.

A '''lowered''' sound is articulated with the tongue or lip lowered (the mouth more open) than some reference point. In the IPA this is indicated with the ''downtack'' diacritic {{unichar|031E|COMBINING DOWN TACK BELOW|cwith=◌}}. Both consonants and vowels may be marked as raised or lowered.

When a letter has a descender, the tack may be written after it, using: {{unichar|02D4|MODIFIER LETTER UP TACK}} as in {{IPA|[ɭ˔]}}, or {{unichar|02D5|MODIFIER LETTER DOWN TACK}} as in {{IPA|[ɣ˕]}}.

===Raised and lowered vowels===
In the case of a vowel, raising means that the vowel is ''[[close vowel|closer]],'' toward the top of the vowel chart. For example, {{IPA|[e̝]}} represents a vowel somewhere between [[cardinal vowel|cardinal]] {{IPA|[e]}} and {{IPA|[i]}}, or may even be {{IPA|[i]}}. Lowering, on the other hand, means that the vowel is ''[[Vowel#Height|more open]],'' toward the bottom of the chart. For example, {{IPA|[e̞]}} represents a vowel somewhere between [[cardinal vowel|cardinal]] {{IPA|[e]}} and {{IPA|[ɛ]}}, or may even be {{IPA|[ɛ]}}.

In other non-IPA transcription systems, raised vowels are indicated with the iconic upward-pointing arrowhead {{unichar|02F0|MODIFIER LETTER LOW UP ARROWHEAD|html=}} while lowered vowels have the downward arrowhead {{unichar|02EF|MODIFIER LETTER LOW DOWN ARROWHEAD|html=}}. Thus, IPA {{IPA|[e̝]}} is equivalent to [e˰], IPA {{IPA|[e̞]}} is equivalent to [e˯].

===Raised and lowered consonants===
With consonants, raising and lowering changes the [[manner of articulation]] to have more or less stricture. For example, raised [[Approximant consonant|approximants]] and [[Trill consonant|trills]] are [[fricative consonant|fricatives]], whereas lowered [[fricative consonant|fricatives]] are [[Approximant consonant|approximants]]. The ambiguous symbols for rear approximant/fricatives may be specified as fricatives with the raising diacritic, {{IPA|[ʁ̝, ʕ̝, ʢ̝]}}, or as approximants with the lowering diacritic, {{IPA|[ʁ̞, ʕ̞, ʢ̞]}}. In [[Spanish language|Spanish]], the [[Lenition|lenited]] [[allophone]]s of the voiced stops are generally transcribed as [[fricative]]s even though they are [[approximant]]s, or intermediate between fricative and approximant. This may be partially due to the fact there is only a dedicated IPA symbol for one of them, the [[velar approximant]]. More precise transcription will use the fricative symbols with the lowering diacritic, {{IPA|[β̞, ð̞, ɣ˕]}} (the last symbol may be rendered as {{IPA|[ɣ̞]}}, but that may not display properly in some browsers). [[Czech language|Czech]], on the other hand, requires the opposite: Its fricated trill, which is a separate phoneme, may be transcribed as a raised trill, {{IPA|[r̝]}}. Similarly, the [[Voiced alveolar fricative#Voiced alveolar non-sibilant fricative|non-sibilant coronal fricative]] is written {{IPA|[ɹ̝]}}, and the [[voiceless velar lateral fricative]] as {{IPA|[ʟ̝̊]}}. (A dedicated letter for this sound, {{angbr IPA|𝼄}}, is provided by the [[extIPA]] and may be used in IPA transcription.)

From most open (least [[Manner of articulation#Stricture|stricture]]) to most close (most stricture), there are several independent relationships among speech sounds. ''[[Open vowel]] → [[mid vowel]] → [[close vowel]] → [[approximant]] → [[fricative]] → [[plosive]]'' is one; ''[[flap consonant|flap]] → [[stop consonant|stop]]'' is another; and ''[[Trill consonant|trill]] → trilled [[fricative]]'' yet another. The IPA chart has been organized so that the raising diacritic moves the value of a letter through these series toward the top of the chart, and the lowering diacritic toward the bottom of the chart, but this only works for some of the consonants. While it would be convenient if all consonants could be so ordered, consonants are too diverse for a single dimension to capture their relationships. In addition, many of the points along the series may be [[Nasalization|nasalized]] or [[lateral consonant|lateralized]] as well, and these parameters are independent of stricture.

: {| class=wikitable
|+ Examples of stricture series
! !! Oral !! Nasal !! Flap !! Trill !! Lateral
|-
! Stop
| {{IPA|ɟ}} || {{IPA|ɲ}} || {{IPA|d}} ||  || {{IPA|t͡ɬ}}
|-
! Fricative
| {{IPA|ʝ}} || {{IPA|ʝ̃}} ||  || {{IPA|r̝}} || {{IPA|ɬ}}
|-
! Approximant / Vibrant
| {{IPA|j}} || {{IPA|ȷ̃}} || {{IPA|ɾ}} || {{IPA|r}} || {{IPA|l̥}}
|-
! Close vowel
| {{IPA|i}} || {{IPA|ĩ}}
| colspan="3" rowspan="7" align="center" style="background:#D0D0D0" valign="center" | (N/A)
|-
! Near-close vowel
| {{IPA|e̝}} || {{IPA|ẽ̝}}
|-
! Close-mid vowel
| {{IPA|e}} || {{IPA|ẽ}}
|-
! Mid vowel
| {{IPA|e̞}} || {{IPA|ẽ̞}}
|-
! Open-mid vowel
| {{IPA|ɛ}} || {{IPA|ɛ̃}}
|-
! Near-open vowel
| {{IPA|æ}} || {{IPA|æ̃}}
|-
! Open vowel
| {{IPA|a}} || {{IPA|ã}}
|}

==Centralized==
{{For|non-lateral consonants|Central consonant}}

===Centralized vowels===
{{Infobox IPA
| above = Centralized
| ipa symbol   = ◌̈
}}
A '''centralized vowel''' is a [[vowel]] that is more [[central vowel|central]] than some point of reference, or that has undergone a shift in this direction. The diacritic for this in the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] is the diaeresis, {{unichar|0308|COMBINING DIAERESIS|html=}}.

For example, to transcribe [[Near-close central rounded vowel|rounded]] and [[Near-close central unrounded vowel|unrounded]] near-close central vowels, the symbols {{IPA|[ɪ̈, ʊ̈]}} may be used.

In other (non-IPA) transcription systems, {{angbr IPA|ᵻ, ᵿ}} (or {{angbr IPA|<s>ɪ</s>, <s>ʊ</s>}}) will be seen instead of {{IPA|[ɪ̈, ʊ̈]}} (by analogy with {{IPA|[ɨ, ʉ]}}). Before the letters {{IPA|[ɘ, ɵ, ɜ, ɞ]}} were added to the IPA in 1993, the symbols {{IPA|[ë, ö, ɛ̈, ɔ̈]}} were used for these near-[[schwa]] values. {{IPA|[ë, ö, ɛ̈, ɔ̈]}} would now be assumed to represent articulations intermediate between {{IPA|[e, o, ɛ, ɔ]}} and {{IPA|[ɘ, ɵ, ɜ, ɞ]}}. Similarly, {{IPA|[ï, ÿ, ü, ɯ̈]}} would be intermediate between {{IPA|[i, y, u, ɯ]}} and {{IPA|[ɨ, ʉ]}}.

However, since the IPA does not specify the exact amount of centralization that centralized vowels have, the symbols {{IPA|[ë, ö, ɛ̈, ɔ̈]}} and {{IPA|[ï, ÿ, ü, ɯ̈]}} can in modern transcriptions<ref>See e.g. {{Harvcoltxt|Cruttenden|2014|p=133}}, who transcribes the central realizations of the English {{sc2|GOOSE}} vowel {{IPA|/uː/}} with the symbols {{IPA|[üː, ɯ̈ː]}} instead of {{IPA|[ʉː, ɨː]}}.</ref> be used at times to transcribe fully central vowels, or vowels that have a variable amount of centralization.

In the majority of languages described as having an {{IPA|[a]}} (which denotes a [[Open front unrounded vowel|front]] vowel), the vowel is actually [[Open central unrounded vowel|central]] and therefore a more narrow transcription of it is {{IPA|[ä]}}. However, this symbol is not commonly used mainly because of the common practice of avoiding using diacritics wherever possible, and because very few languages contrast front and central open unrounded vowels.

Instead of the diacritic for centralization, the [[advanced (phonetics)|advanced]] or [[retracted (phonetics)|retracted]] diacritics may be used (an equivalent transcription of {{IPA|[ä]}} is retracted {{IPA|[a̠]}}), but the concept of centralization is convenient in cases where [[front vowel|front]] and [[back vowel]]s move toward each other, rather than all advancing or retracting in the same direction.

When a transcription system uses ''both'' the centralized and the advanced/retracted diacritics, generally the former indicates a more central vowel, so that e.g. {{IPA|[i̠]}} indicates an only slightly centralized (retracted) front vowel {{IPAblink|i}}, whereas {{IPA|[ï]}} indicates a more centralized (retracted) front vowel, or even a fully central vowel {{IPAblink|ɨ}}.{{Citation needed|date=October 2024}}

===Centralized semivowels===

[[Semivowel]]s can be centralized much like vowels; for instance, the semivowels corresponding to the close central vowels {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|ɨ}}, {{IPAplink|ʉ}}]}} can be written as centralized palatal semivowels {{IPA|[j̈, ɥ̈]}}, or centralized velar semivowels {{IPA|[ɰ̈, ẅ]}}. The transcription {{IPA|[ɥ̈]}} vs. {{IPA|[ẅ]}} may also denote a distinction in the [[Roundedness|type of rounding]], with the former symbol denoting a semivowel with compressed rounding typical of front vowels, and the latter symbol denoting a semivowel with protruded rounding typical of central and back vowels, though an additional verbal clarification is usual in such cases, as the IPA does not provide any official means to distinguish sounds with compressed and protruded rounding.

===Mid-centralized vowels===
{{Infobox IPA
| above = Mid-centralized
| ipa symbol   = ◌̽
}}
{{anchor|Mid-centralized|Mid-centralized vowel}}'''Mid-centralized vowels''' are closer to the midpoint of the vowel space than their referent vowels. That is, they are closer to the mid-central vowel schwa {{IPA|[ə]}} not just by means of centralization, but also by [[#Raised|raising]] or [[#Lowered|lowering]]. The diacritic used to mark this in the International Phonetic Alphabet is the over-cross, {{unichar|033D|COMBINING X ABOVE|html=|cwith=◌}}.

In most languages, vowels become mid-centralized when spoken quickly, and in some languages, such as English and Russian, many vowels are also mid-centralized when [[Stress (linguistics)|unstressed]]. This is a general characteristic of [[vowel reduction]].

Mid-centralization of vowels can be a speech impediment. An example from Polish is {{lang|pl|zobaczyłem dziś dwa samochody}} {{IPA|[zɔ̽bɐˈt͡ʂɘwɛ̽m ˈd͡ʑɪʑ ˈdvɐ sɐmɔ̽ˈxɔ̽dɘ]}} ('I saw two cars today'), instead of the standard {{IPA|[zɔbäˈt͡ʂɘwɛm ˈd͡ʑiʑ ˈdvä sämɔˈxɔdɘ]}}. This can severely affect intelligibility.{{sfnp|Wierzchowska|1971|p=131}}

==More and less rounded==
{{Infobox IPA
| above = More or less rounded
| ipa symbol   = ◌̹ ◌˒ ◌͗
| ipa symbol2  = ◌̜ ◌˓ ◌͑
}}
{{anchor|More rounded}}{{anchor|Less rounded}}There are also diacritics, respectively {{unichar|0339|COMBINING RIGHT HALF RING BELOW}} and {{unichar|031C|COMBINING LEFT HALF RING BELOW}}, to indicate greater or lesser degrees of rounding. For example, the English {{IPAslink|ʊ}} often has very little rounding, and may be transcribed {{IPA|[ʊ̜]}}. In [[Assamese language|Assamese]], on the other hand, the [[open back rounded vowel]] is much more rounded than is typical for a low vowel, and may be transcribed {{IPA|[ɒ̹]}}.

These diacritics are sometimes also used with consonants to indicate degrees of [[labialization]]. For example, in the [[Athabaskan languages|Athabaskan language]] [[Hupa language|Hupa]], [[voiceless velar fricative]]s distinguish three degrees of labialization, transcribed either {{IPA|[x x̹ xʷ]}} or {{IPA|[x x̜ʷ xʷ]}}.<ref>A simpler transcription is also possible, and involves putting an additional labialization diacritic next to the last symbol: {{IPA|[x xʷ xʷʷ]}}.</ref>

The [[Extensions to the IPA]] have two additional symbols for degrees of rounding: spread, as in {{IPA|[i͍]}}, and open-rounded {{angbr IPA|ꟹ}} (<sup>œ</sup>), as in English  {{IPA|[ʃ<sup>œ</sup>]}} and {{IPA|[ʒ<sup>œ</sup>]}}.

==Sound changes==
Many [[sound change]]s involve changes in place of articulation:
* [[raising (phonology)]]
** [[imāla]] ({{IPA|/a/}} raising in Arabic)
** [[iotacism]] (vowel raising and partly fronting in Greek)
* [[fronting (phonology)]]
** [[i-mutation]] (vowel fronting or raising, triggered by {{IPA|[i]}} or {{IPA|[j]}})

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Citation
|last1=Clark
|first1=John
|last2=Yallop
|first2=Collin
|last3=Fletcher
|first3=Janet
|year=2007
|title=Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology
|pages=22–26, 264–266
|location=Oxford
|publisher=Blackwell
}}
* {{Citation
|last=Cruttenden
|first=Alan
|year=2014
|title=Gimson's Pronunciation of English
|publisher=Routledge
|edition=8th
|isbn=9781444183092
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M2nMAgAAQBAJ
}}
* {{Citation
|last=Wierzchowska
|first=Bożena
|language=pl
|year=1971
|title=Wymowa polska
|place=Warsaw
|publisher=PZWS
}}
{{Refend}}

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[[Category:Phonetics]]
[[Category:Speech disorders]]