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{{Short description|Era of British history, c. 1795 to 1837}}
{{Redirect|The Regency||Regency (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2023}}
{{Use British English|date=July 2022}}

{{Infobox historical era
| name      = Regency era
| start     = {{circa|1795}}
| end       = 1837
| image     = George IV bust1.jpg
| alt       =
| caption   = [[George IV|Prince George]] by [[Thomas Lawrence]] ({{c.}} 1814)
| before    = [[Georgian era]]
| after     = [[Victorian era]]
| monarch   = [[George III]]<br/>[[George IV]]<br/>[[William IV]]
| leaders   = [[George, Prince Regent]]<ref>{{cite book |last=Pryde |first=E. B. |title=Handbook of British Chronology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zcgxEvGAK_kC&pg=PA47 |year=1996|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-5215-6350-5|page=47}}</ref>{{Collapsible list |title=[[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime ministers]]
 |[[Spencer Perceval]]
 |[[Robert Jenkinson, 2nd Earl of Liverpool|Lord Liverpool]]
 |[[George Canning]]
 |[[F. J. Robinson, 1st Viscount Goderich|Lord Goderich]]
 |[[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington|Duke of Wellington]]
 |[[Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey|Lord Grey]]
 |[[William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne|Lord Melbourne]]
 |[[Robert Peel|Sir Robert Peel]]}}
}}
{{Periods in English History}}
The '''Regency era''' of [[History of the British Isles|British history]] is commonly understood as the years between {{circa|1795}} and 1837, although the official [[regency]] for which it is named only spanned the years 1811 to 1820. King [[George III]] first suffered debilitating illness in the late 1780s, and relapsed into his final mental illness in 1810. By the [[Regency Act 1811]], his eldest son [[George IV|George, Prince of Wales]], was appointed [[Prince Regent]] to discharge royal functions. The Prince had been a major force in [[High society|Society]] for decades. When George III died in 1820, the Prince Regent succeeded him as George IV. In terms of [[periodisation]], the longer timespan is roughly the final third of the [[Georgian era]] (1714–1837), encompassing the last 25 years or so of George III's reign, including the official Regency, and the complete reigns of both George IV and his brother and successor [[William IV]]. It ends with the accession of [[Queen Victoria]] in June 1837 and is followed by the [[Victorian era]] (1837–1901).

Although the Regency era is remembered as a time of refinement and culture, that was the preserve of the wealthy few, especially those in the Prince Regent's own social circle. For the masses, poverty was rampant as urban population density rose due to industrial labour migration. City dwellers lived in increasingly larger [[slum]]s, a state of affairs severely aggravated by the combined impact of war, economic collapse, mass unemployment, a bad harvest in 1816 (the "[[Year Without a Summer]]"), and an ongoing [[population boom]]. Political response to the crisis included the [[Corn Laws]], the [[Peterloo Massacre]], and the [[Representation of the People Act 1832]]. Led by [[William Wilberforce]], there was increasing support for the [[Abolitionism in the United Kingdom|abolitionist cause]] during the Regency era, culminating in passage of the [[Slave Trade Act 1807]] and the [[Slavery Abolition Act 1833]].

The longer timespan recognises the wider social and cultural aspects of the Regency era, characterised by the distinctive [[Regency fashions|fashions]], [[Regency architecture|architecture]] and style of the period. The period began in the midst of the [[French Revolutionary Wars|French Revolutionary]] and
[[Napoleonic Wars]]. Throughout the whole period, the [[Industrial Revolution]] gathered pace and achieved significant progress by the coming of the [[railway]]s and the growth of the [[factory system]]. The Regency era overlapped with [[Romanticism]] and many of the major artists, musicians, novelists and poets of the Romantic movement were prominent Regency figures, such as [[Jane Austen]], [[William Blake]], [[Lord Byron]], [[John Constable]], [[John Keats]], [[John Nash (architect)|John Nash]], [[Ann Radcliffe]], [[Walter Scott]], [[Mary Shelley]], [[Percy Bysshe Shelley]], [[J. M. W. Turner]] and [[William Wordsworth]].

== Legislative background ==

[[George III]] (1738–1820) became [[King of Great Britain]] on 25 October 1760 when he was 22 years old, succeeding his grandfather [[George II of Great Britain|George II]]. George III had himself been the subject of legislation to provide for a [[regency]] when [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]] passed the [[Minority of Successor to Crown Act 1751]] following the death of his father [[Frederick, Prince of Wales]], on 31 March 1751. George became [[heir apparent]] at the age of 12 and he would have succeeded as a minor if his grandfather had died before 4 June 1756, George's 18th birthday. As a contingency, the Act provided for his mother, [[Princess Augusta of Saxe-Gotha|Augusta, Dowager Princess of Wales]], to be appointed regent and discharge most but not all royal functions.{{Citation needed|date=May 2024}}

In 1761, George III married Princess [[Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz]] and over the following years they had 15 children (nine sons and six daughters). The eldest was [[George IV|Prince George]], born on 12 August 1762 as heir apparent. He was named [[Prince of Wales]] soon after his birth. By 1765, three infant children led the order of succession and Parliament again passed a Regency Act as contingency. The [[Minority of Heir to the Crown Act 1765]] provided for either Queen Charlotte or Princess Augusta to act as regent if necessary.{{cn|date=May 2025}} George III had a long episode of mental illness in the summer of 1788. Parliament proposed the [[Regency Bill 1789]] which was passed by the [[House of Commons]]. Before the [[House of Lords]] could debate it, the King recovered and the Bill was withdrawn. Had it been passed into law, the Prince of Wales would have become the regent in 1789.<ref>Herman, N. (2001). Henry Grattan, the Regency Crisis and the Emergence of a Whig Party in Ireland, 1788–9. Irish Historical Studies, 32(128), 478–497. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/30006972].</ref>

The King's mental health continued to be a matter of concern but, whenever he was of sound mind, he opposed any further moves to implement a Regency Act. Finally, following the death on 2 November 1810 of his youngest daughter, [[Princess Amelia of the United Kingdom|Princess Amelia]], he became permanently insane. Parliament passed the [[Care of King During his Illness, etc. Act 1811]], commonly known as the [[Regency Act 1811]]. The King was suspended from his duties as head of state and the Prince of Wales assumed office as Prince Regent on 5 February 1811.<ref>{{London Gazette |issue=16451 |page=227 |date=5 February 1811}}</ref> At first, Parliament restricted some of the Regent's powers, but the constraints expired one year after the passage of the Act.<ref>Innes (1915), p. 50.</ref> The Regency ended when George III died on 29 January 1820 and the Prince Regent succeeded him as George IV.<ref>Innes (1915), p. 81.</ref>

After George IV died in 1830, a further [[Regency Act 1830|Regency Act]] was passed by Parliament. George IV was succeeded by his brother [[William IV]]. His wife, [[Queen Adelaide]], was 37 and there were no surviving legitimate children. The heir presumptive was [[Princess Victoria of Kent]], aged eleven. The new Act provided for her mother, [[Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld|Victoria, Dowager Duchess of Kent]] to become regent in the event of William's death before 24 May 1837, the young Victoria's 18th birthday. The Act made allowance for Adelaide having another child, either before or after William's death. If the latter scenario had arisen, Victoria would have become Queen only temporarily until the new monarch was born. Adelaide had no more children and, as it happened, William died on 20 June 1837, just four weeks after Victoria was 18.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kendall |first=Paul |title=Queen Victoria: Her Life and Legacy |date=2022 |publisher=Pen & Sword Books Limited |isbn=978-1-3990-1834-0 |location=Havertown}}</ref>

== Perceptions ==

=== Periodisation terminology ===

Officially, the Regency began on 5 February 1811 and ended on 29 January 1820 but the "Regency era", as such, is generally perceived to have been much longer. The term is commonly, though loosely, applied to the period from {{circa|1795}} until the accession of [[Queen Victoria]] on 20 June 1837.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dabundo |first1=Laura |last2=Mazzeno |first2=Laurence W. |last3=Norton |first3=Sue |title=Jane Austen: A Companion |date=2021 |publisher=[[McFarland & Company|McFarland]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b5cuEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA177 |pages=177–179 |isbn=978-1-4766-4238-3}}</ref> The Regency Era is a sub-period of the longer [[Georgian era]] (1714–1837), both of which were followed by the [[Victorian era]] (1837–1901). The latter term had contemporaneous usage although some historians give it an earlier startpoint, typically the enactment of the [[Great Reform Act]] on 7 June 1832.<ref name="Plunkett">{{cite book |editor1-last=Plunkett |editor1-first=John |display-editors=etal |title=Victorian Literature: A Sourcebook| date=2012 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |location=Houndmills, Basingstoke |page=2 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Sadleir |first=Michael |author-link=Michael Sadleir |title=Trollope: A Commentary |publisher=Constable & Co. |year=1927 |pages=17–30}}</ref><ref name="hewitt2006">{{cite journal |last=Hewitt |first=Martin |title=Why the Notion of Victorian Britain Does Make Sense |journal=Victorian Studies |date=Spring 2006 |volume=48 |issue=3 |pages=395–438 |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/204106 |access-date=23 May 2017 |doi=10.2979/VIC.2006.48.3.395 |s2cid=143482564 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171030004144/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/204106 |archive-date=30 October 2017 |url-status=live|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

=== Social, economic and political counterpoints ===

The Prince Regent himself was one of the leading patrons of the [[arts]] and [[architecture]]. He ordered the costly building and refurbishing of the exotic [[Brighton Pavilion]], the ornate [[Carlton House]], and many other public works and architecture. This all required considerable expense which neither the Regent himself nor [[HM Treasury]] could afford. The Regent's extravagance was pursued at the expense of the common people.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Parissien |first=Steven |title=George IV: inspiration of the Regency |date=2002 |publisher=St. Martin's Press |isbn=978-0-312-28402-2 |edition=1st |location=New York}}</ref>

While the Regency is noted for its elegance and achievements in the fine arts and architecture, there was a concurrent need for social, political and economic change. The country was enveloped in the [[Napoleonic Wars]] until June 1815 and the conflict heavily impacted commerce at home and internationally. There was mass [[unemployment]] and, [[Year Without a Summer|in 1816]], an exceptionally bad [[harvest]]. In addition, the country underwent a [[population boom]] and the combination of these factors resulted in rampant [[poverty]]. Apart from the [[national unity government]] led by [[William Grenville, 1st Baron Grenville|William Grenville]] from February 1806 to March 1807, all governments from December 1783 to November 1830 were formed and led by [[Tories (British political party)|Tories]]. Their responses to the national crisis included the [[Peterloo Massacre]] in 1819 and the various [[Corn Laws]]. The [[Whigs (British political party)|Whig]] government of [[Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey|Earl Grey]] passed the [[Representation of the People Act 1832|Great Reform Act]] in 1832.<ref name="hewitt2006"/><ref>{{cite book |author-link=Erskine May, 1st Baron Farnborough |last=May |first=Thomas Erskine |title=The Constitutional History of England Since the Accession of George the Third, 1760–1860 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YxYYAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA253 |year=1895 |volume=1 |pages=263–364}}</ref>

Essentially, England during the Regency era was a stratified society in which political power and influence lay in the hands of the landed class. Their fashionable locales were worlds apart from the [[slum]]s in which the majority of people existed. The slum districts were known as [[rookery (slum)|rookeries]], a notorious example being [[St Giles, London#The rookery|St Giles]] in London. These were places where alcoholism, gambling, prostitution, thievery and violence prevailed.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Low |first=Donald A. |title=The Regency underworld |date=2000 |publisher=Sutton |isbn=978-0-7509-2121-3 |edition=Revised |location=Stroud}}</ref> The population boom, comprising an increase from just under a million in 1801 to one and a quarter million by 1820, heightened the crisis.<ref name="Low_x">Low, Donald A. (1999). ''The Regency Underworld'', p. x. Gloucestershire: Sutton. {{ISBN?}}</ref> [[Robert Southey]] drew a comparison between the squalor of the slums and the glamour of the Regent's circle:<ref>Smith, E. A., ''George IV'', p. 14. Yale University Press (1999).</ref>

<blockquote>
The squalor that existed beneath the glamour and gloss of Regency society provided sharp contrast to the Prince Regent's social circle. Poverty was addressed only marginally. The formation of the Regency after the retirement of [[George III]] saw the end of a more pious and reserved society, and gave birth of a more frivolous, ostentatious one. This change was influenced by the Regent himself, who was kept entirely removed from the machinations of politics and military exploits. This did nothing to channel his energies in a more positive direction, thereby leaving him with the pursuit of pleasure as his only outlet, as well as his sole form of rebellion against what he saw as disapproval and censure in the form of his father.
</blockquote>

== Reform laws==
===Great Reform Act of 1832===
{{Main|Reform Act 1832}}

The '''Representation of the People Act 1832''' (known as the '''Great Reform Act''') reformed the electoral system in England and Wales and expanded the list of voters. The measure was brought forward by the [[Whiggism|Whig]] government of Prime Minister [[Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey]] over fierce opposition by the Tory Party, especially in the House of Lords.  It granted the right to vote to a broader segment of the male population by standardizing property qualifications, and extending the franchise to small landowners, tenant farmers, shopkeepers, and all householders who paid a yearly rental of £10 or more. The act for  England and Wales was accompanied by the [[Scottish Reform Act 1832]]  and [[Irish Reform Act 1832]] <ref>{{cite encyclopedia | url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Reform-Bill | title=Reform Bill &#124; British Politics, Social Change & Impact on History |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica }}</ref><ref> Michael Brock, ''The Great Reform Act'' (1973) [https://archive.org/details/greatreformact0000broc/page/n5/mode/1up online]</ref>  

Historians have long grappled with whether it was a radical modernizing movement that introduced democracy or a conservative measure intended to preserve aristocratic rule by making necessary concessions.<ref>John A. Phillips, and Charles Wetherell, "The Great Reform Act of 1832 and the political modernization of England." ''American Historical Review'' 100.2 (1995): 411–436. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2169005 online]</ref>  The terrific battle that produced the 1832 law  encouraged reformers, and Parliament passed a series of important reforms in 1833-1841.<ref>Geoffrey Finlayson, ''Decade of reform; England in the eighteen thirties'' (1970) pp.1–5. [https://archive.org/details/isbn_393099156 online] </ref><ref>Boyd Hilton, ''A Mad, Bad, and Dangerous People?: England 1783-1846'' (Oxford University Press, 2008) pp.493-558 [https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=lJsSDAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PR15&dq=Hilton+mad+bad+dangerous+people.&ots=ojaoan45yv&sig=btcub8Gj-robdzu4WqKSvHc51iA online]</ref>
===Social reforms===
{{Main|Workhouse}}
The [[English Poor laws|Poor laws]] were reformed. By the early 19th century, the existing "Old Poor Law" (1601) was criticised as unworkable and too expensive because it primarily used "outdoor relief"—cash aid given to the poor in their homes. Critics argued this practice was overly generous and promoted idleness.  In 1834 Parliament therefore passed the Poor Law Amendment Act  introducing a radical shift as outdoor relief was largely abolished. The major innovation was the workhouse for full-time confinement. Living conditions within the workhouse were made deliberately worse than the bad conditions faced by paupers.  The decentralised parish system was replaced by a centralised structure run by the new "[[Poor Law Commission]]" in London. Some 15,000 parishes were grouped into 600 new "Poor Law Unions". The new workhouses were designed to be deliberately grim: families were separated, inmates wore uniforms, performed monotonous labour, and lived under strict discipline. The reforms were met with significant unpopularity and opposition, especially among the working poor in industrial areas. Nevertheless this harsh system remained the primary form of welfare until it was gradually modified and eventually replaced by modern, more humane welfare provisions in the 20th century. <ref>Peter Dunkley, "Whigs and paupers: the reform of the English Poor Laws, 1830-1834." ''Journal of British Studies'' 20.2 (1981): 124-149. </ref><ref>Paul Carter, Jeff James, and Steve King. "Punishing paupers? Control, discipline and mental health in the Southwell workhouse (1836–71)." ''Rural History'' 30.2 (2019): 161–180. [https://figshare.le.ac.uk/articles/journal_contribution/Punishing_paupers_Control_discipline_and_mental_health_in_the_Southwell_workhouse_1836_71_/11335634/1/files/20097284.pdf  online]</ref>

The long debate on [[Emancipation of the British West Indies]] was climaxed in 1833 with the abolition of slavery in the West Indies colonies to take effect in 1834. Owners were fully compensated, and freed slaves became paid apprentices.<ref>Izhak Gross,  "The abolition of Negro slavery and British parliamentary politics 1832–3." ''The Historical Journal'' 23.1 (1980): 63–85. </ref>

===Economic reforms===
{{Further|Factory acts}}
The Great Reform Act of 1832, while primarily a political reform, gave industrial towns like Manchester, Birmingham and Leeds representation in Parliament, allowing industrialists and merchants to push for policies favouring economic growth, improved infrastructure, and labour laws.<ref>Asa Briggs,  "The Background of the Parliamentary Reform Movement in Three English Cities (1830–2)." ''Cambridge Historical Journal'' 10.3 (1952): 293–317 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/3021116 online]. </ref>  The [[Factory Acts]] introduced protections for workers, particularly children. <ref> Nob Doran, "From embodied ‘health’ to official ‘accidents’: Class, codification and British factory legislation 1831–1844." ''Social & Legal Studies'' 5.4 (1996): 523–546. [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Nob-Doran/publication/287755724_From_embodied_'health'_to_official_'accidents'_Class_codification_and_British_factory_legislation_1831-1844/links/649c713f95bbbe0c6efd9dec/From-embodied-health-to-official-accidents-Class-codification-and-British-factory-legislation-1831-1844.pdf online]</ref>

The powerful farming community fought hard to keep food prices high. The free trade movement finally triumphed in 1846 with the repeal of the [[Corn Laws]] . It had a dramatic impact on reshaping the economy.<ref>Anna Gambles,  "Rethinking the politics of protection: Conservatism and the corn laws, 1830-52." ''The English Historical Review'' 113.453 (1998): 928–952.  [https://www.jstor.org/stable/578662 online]   </ref>

===Municipal government===
{{Further|Manchester Liberalism}}
Focused on the [[Municipal Corporations Act]] of 1835.

===Chartism===

[[Chartism]]  was a large-scale working-class protest movement for political reform that erupted from 1838 to 1857 and was strongest in 1839, 1842 and 1848. It was based in industrial cities where workers depended on single industries and were subject to wild swings in economic activity. The main activity was canvassing for petitions with thousands--even millions--of signatures that demanded reform.  The petitions demanded six democratic reforms:<ref>Malcolm Chase,  "What did Chartism petition for? Mass petitions in the British movement for democracy." ''Social Science History'' 43.3 (2019): 531-551. [https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/id/eprint/128375/3/What%20Did%20Chartism%20Petition%20BETA%20version.pdf online]</ref>
* A vote for every man aged 21.
* The secret ballot to protect the elector in the exercise of his vote.
* No property qualification for Members of Parliament.
* Payment of Members, enabling tradesmen and working men to serve.
* Equal constituencies --each with the same number of electors.
* Annual parliamentary elections.
The movement was fiercely opposed by the government, which finally suppressed it.  It inspired activists by demonstrating that very large audiences could be mobilized to demand reforms. The first five of its proposals were eventually adopted decades later.<ref>Harry Browne, ''Chartism'' (1999) [https://archive.org/details/chartism0000brow  online]</ref>
===Supporters===

[[Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey]] (1764 – 1845) was a Whig politician who served as prime minister from 1830 to 1834. He had primary responsibility for enacting the Reform Acts of 1832, the 1833 Factory Act, the 1834 Poor Law, and the abolition of slavery.  He steered a middle course, promoting multiple reforms with very thin majorities while sidetracking the radical Whigs.<ref>E.A. Smith, "Charles Grey, second Earl Grey (1764–1845)". ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography '' (2004). doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/11526 </ref><ref>[[G. M. Trevelyan]], ''Lord Grey of the Reform Bill'' (Longman, Green, 1920) [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.208157/page/n11/mode/1up online] </ref>  Second in importance was [[John Russell, 1st Earl Russell|Lord John Russell]] (1792–1878), who was active in many reforms in his long career.<ref>John Prest, ''Lord John Russell'' (1972) pp.38-54. [https://archive.org/details/lordjohnrussell0000pres/page/n7/mode/2up  online]</ref>

The first Anti–Corn Law Association was set up in London in 1836. By 1838 the [[Anti–Corn Law League| nationwide League]], combining all such local associations, was founded, with [[Richard Cobden]] and [[John Bright]] among its leaders.  At the popular level the well-organized Anti-Corn Law League called for lower food prices. After 1845 they emphasized the disastrous potato famine in Ireland.<ref>W. H. Chaloner,  "The Anti-Corn Law League," ''History Today'' (1968) 18#3 pp. 196–204 </ref><ref>A. Paul Pickering,  and Alex Tyrrell, ''The People’s Bread: A History of the Anti-Corn  Law League'' (Leicester University Press, 2000).</ref>

===Opponents===
{{further|Ultra-Tories}}
The opponents of reform were a diverse group, based largely in the Tory Party and traditional landed gentry.  <ref>Nicholas C. Edsall,  ''The anti-poor law movement, 1834-44'' (Manchester University Press, 1971) p. 9 [https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=Hna7AAAAIAAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP12&dq=Poor+law+1830s&ots=-3FV5HX2uY&sig=S2ejdNECt4oVBBDDdSKWNMmt-T8  online] </ref>.  In Parliament the opponents of reform were known as "Ultra-Tories." The Duke of Wellington was personally inclined against reform, but he saw the need to support moderate reforms.  Likewise Robert Peel, the next Tory leader, was highly distrustful of popular agitation. He typically opposed the passage of a new reform, but accepted it after it became law.<ref> K. Theodore Hoppen, ''The Mid-Victorian Generation 1846 to 1886'' (Oxford UP, 1998)p.128.</ref>
== The arts ==

=== Architecture ===
After the Napoleonic wars ended architecture flourished.<ref>Paul Reilly, ''Introduction to Regency Architecture'' (Braunfell Books, 2022).</ref>

==== Regent's Park and London Zoo ====

In the 1810s, the Prince Regent proposed the conversion of Crown land in [[Marylebone]] and [[St Pancras, London|St Pancras]] into a pleasure garden. The design work was initially assigned to the architect [[John Nash (architect)|John Nash]] but it was the father and son partnership of [[James Burton (property developer)|James]] and [[Decimus Burton]] who had the majority of input to the project.<ref>{{cite book |last=Williams |first=Guy |title=Augustus Pugin Versus Decimus Burton: A Victorian Architectural Duel |year=1990 |publisher=Cassell Publishers Ltd |location=London |isbn=978-0-3043-1561-1 |pages=11–12}}</ref> Landscaping continued through the 1820s and [[Regent's Park]] was finally opened to the public in 1841.<ref>[https://library.eb.co.uk/levels/adult/article/Regents-Park/63047 ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'']. Article on Regent's Park. Retrieved 30 June 2022.</ref>

The Zoological Society of London (ZSL) was founded in 1826 by [[Sir Stamford Raffles]] and [[Sir Humphry Davy]]. They obtained land alongside the route of the [[Regent's Canal]] through the northern perimeter of Regent's Park, between the [[City of Westminster]] and the [[London Borough of Camden]]. Following the death of Raffles soon afterwards, the [[Henry Petty-Fitzmaurice, 3rd Marquess of Lansdowne|3rd Marquess of Lansdowne]] assumed responsibility for the project and supervised construction of the first animal houses.<ref name="ZSL-history">{{cite web |url=http://www.zsl.org/info/about-us/zsls-history,129,AR.html |title=ZSL's History |publisher=[[Zoological Society of London]] |access-date=1 July 2022 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080228235326/http://www.zsl.org/info/about-us/zsls-history%2C129%2CAR.html |archive-date=28 February 2008}}</ref> At first, the zoo was used for scientific purposes only with admittance restricted to Fellows of the ZSL which, in 1829, was granted a [[Royal charter]] by George IV. The zoo was not opened to the public until 1847, after it became necessary to raise funds.<ref name="ZSL-history"/>

=== Literature ===

[[Jane Austen]], [[Lord Byron]], [[Walter Scott]] and others were the most prominent writers of the Regency era. Especially popular forms of literature at this time were novels and poetry, such as C. F. Lawler ({{fl.|1812–1819}})'s satirical ''[[Cádiz Memorial#The Regent's Tremendous Thing|The Regent's Bomb]]'' (''The R----t's bomb!'' {{circa|1816}}) (published under Lawler's [[pseudonym]] Peter Pindar{{efn|The pseudonym Peter Pindar had previously been used by the satirist [[John Wolcot]].}}).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Behrendt |first=Stephen C. |date=2012 |title=Was There a Regency Literature? 1816 as a Test Case |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24396032 |journal=Keats-Shelley Journal |volume=61 |pages=25–34 |jstor=24396032 |issn=0453-4387}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Jackson Bibliography of Romantic Poetry |publisher=University of Toronto Libraries |url=https://jacksonbibliography.library.utoronto.ca/author/details/lawler-c-f/8512 |access-date=1 September 2025 |chapter=Lawler, C. F.}}</ref>

=== Music ===

Wealthy households staged their own music events by relying on family members who could sing or play an instrument. For the vast majority of people, street performers provided their sole access to music of any kind. However, the upper class enjoyed music such as Ludwig van Beethoven's Piano Sonata No. 30, Felix Mendelssohn's Violin Sonata in F major, MWV Q 7, and much more.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kerman |first=Joseph |title=Beethoven |date=1983 |publisher=Norton & Company |isbn=978-0-393-30091-8 |series=The new Grove |location=New York London}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Todd |first=Ralph Larry |title=Mendelssohn: a life in music |date=2003 |publisher=Oxford University press |isbn=978-0-19-511043-2 |location=Oxford}}</ref> Especially popular composers of the time included Beethoven, Rossini, Liszt, and Mendelssohn.<ref name="wentworthwoodhouse.org.uk">{{Cite web |title=A Walk Through The Regency Era  |url=https://wentworthwoodhouse.org.uk/discovery/a-walk-through-the-regency-era/ |access-date=2024-03-05 |website=Wentworth Woodhouse |language=en-US}}</ref>

=== Painting ===

The most prominent landscape painters were [[John Constable]] and [[J. M. W. Turner]]. Notable [[portrait painter]]s include [[Thomas Lawrence]] and [[Martin Archer Shee]], both Presidents of the [[Royal Academy]]. The [[National Gallery]] was established in London in 1824.<ref>Stephen Lloyd,  "'Thomas Lawrence: Regency Power & Brilliance'." ''British Art Journal'' 11.2 (2010): 104-109. </ref><ref>Ian Mortimer, ''The Time Traveler's Guide to Regency Britain: A Handbook for Visitors to 1789–1830'' (Simon and Schuster, 2022). </ref>

=== Theatre ===

[[File:Microcosm of London Plate 032 - Drury lane interior 1808.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Interior of [[Theatre Royal, Drury Lane]], 1808]]
The plays of [[William Shakespeare]] were very popular throughout the period. The performers wore modern dress, however, rather than 16th-century costumes.<ref>Tapley, Jane. ''Jane Austen’s Regency World Magazine'', vol. 17, p. 23.</ref>

London had three [[patent theatre]]s at [[Covent Garden Theatre|Covent Garden]], [[Theatre Royal, Drury Lane|Drury Lane]] and the [[Haymarket Theatre|Haymarket]]. Other prominent theatres were the [[Theatre Royal, Bath]] and the [[Crow Street Theatre]] in [[Dublin]]. The playwright and politician [[Richard Brinsley Sheridan]] controlled the Drury Lane Theatre until it burned down in 1809.

== Media ==

Among the popular newspapers, pamphlets and other publications of the era were:<ref>Karl W. Schweizer, "Newspapers, politics and public opinion in the later Hanoverian era." ''Parliamentary History'' 25.1 (2006): 32-48. [https://scholar.google.com/scholar?output=instlink&q=info:NQ2DOWGRvV4J:scholar.google.com/&hl=en&as_sdt=0,27&scillfp=11411462943433694197&oi=lle  online]</ref>

* ''[[Ackermann's Repository]]''
* ''[[The Gentleman's Magazine]]''
* ''[[The Times]]''
* ''[[The Observer]]''
* ''[[Cobbett's Weekly Political Register]]''
* ''[[La Belle Assemblée]]''


In 1814, ''[[The Times]]'' newspaper adopted steam printing. Using this method, it could print 1,100 sheets every hour, five and a half times the prior rate of 200 per hour.<ref>Morgan, Marjorie (1994). ''Manners, Morals, and Class in England, 1774–1859'', p. 34. New York: St. Martin's Press. </ref> The faster speed of printing enabled the rise of daily newspapers.  It also made feasible of the "[[silver fork novel]]s" which depicted the lives of the rich and aristocratic. Publishers used these as a way of spreading gossip and scandal, often clearly hinting at identities. The novels were popular during the later years of the Regency era.<ref>{{cite book |first=Duncan |last=Wu |title=A Companion to Romanticism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kJCHB0tqd1kC&pg=PA338 |year=1999 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-6312-1877-7 |page=338}}</ref>

== Sport and recreation ==

=== Women's activities ===

During the Regency era and well into the succeeding Victorian era, society women were discouraged from exertion although many did take the opportunity to pursue activities such as dancing, riding and walking that were recreational rather than competitive. Depending on a lady's rank, she may be expected to be proficient in reading and writing, mathematics, dancing, music, sewing, and embroidery.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Halsey |first=Katie |date=2015-07-04 |title=The home education of girls in the eighteenth-century novel: 'the pernicious effects of an improper education' |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03054985.2015.1048113 |journal=Oxford Review of Education |language=en |volume=41 |issue=4 |pages=430–446 |doi=10.1080/03054985.2015.1048113 |issn=0305-4985|url-access=subscription }}</ref> In ''[[Pride and Prejudice]]'', the Bennet sisters are frequently out walking and it is at a [[ball (dance party)|ball]] where [[Elizabeth Bennet|Elizabeth]] meets [[Mr Darcy]]. There was a contemporary belief that people had limited energy levels; women, as the "weaker sex", being most at risk of over-exertion because their menstruation cycles caused periodic energy reductions.<ref>[http://thesportjournal.org/article/a-history-of-women-in-sport-prior-to-title-ix/ ''A History of Women in Sport Prior to Title IX'']. Richard C. Bell (2018). ''The Sport Journal''. United States Sports Academy.</ref>

=== Balls ===
One of the most common activities among the upper class was attending and hosting balls, house parties, and more. These often included dancing, food, and gossip. The food generally served included items such as white soup made with veal stock, almonds and cream, cold meats, and salads.<ref name="wentworthwoodhouse.org.uk"/>

=== Bare-knuckle boxing ===

[[File:Cribb vs Molineaux 1811.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|[[Tom Cribb]] vs [[Tom Molineaux]], 1811]]
[[Bare-knuckle boxing]], also known as [[prizefighting]], was a popular sport through the 18th and 19th centuries. The Regency era has been called "the peak of British boxing" because the champion fighter in Britain was also, in effect, the world champion. Britain's only potential rival was the United States, where organised boxing began {{circa|1800}}.<ref name=bke>[https://www.britannica.com/sports/boxing/The-bare-knuckle-era ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'']. The Bare-knuckle Era. Retrieved 3 July 2022.</ref> Boxing was in fact illegal but local authorities, who were often involved on the gambling side of the sport, would turn a blind eye. In any case, the huge crowds that attended championship bouts were almost impossible to police. Like [[cricket]] and [[horse racing]], boxing attracted [[gambling|gamblers]]. The sport needed the investment provided by gambling, but there was a seamier side in that many fights were fixed.<ref name=bke/>

At one time, prizefighting was "anything goes" but the champion boxer [[Jack Broughton]] proposed a set of rules in 1743 that were observed throughout the Regency era until they were superseded by the [[London Prize Ring Rules]] in 1838.<ref name=bke/> Broughton's rules were a reaction to "bar room brawling" as they restricted fighters to use of the fists only. A round ended when a fighter was grounded and the rules prohibited the hitting of a downed opponent. He was helped to his corner and then had thirty seconds in which to "step up to the mark", which was a line drawn for that purpose so that the fighters squared off less than a yard apart. The next round would then begin. A fighter who failed to step up and square off was declared the loser. Contests continued until one fighter could not step up.<ref name=bke/>

There were no weight divisions and so a [[heavyweight]] always had a natural advantage over smaller fighters. Even so, the first British champion of the Regency era was [[Daniel Mendoza]], a [[middleweight]] who had successfully claimed the vacant title in 1792. He held it until he was defeated by the heavyweight [[John Jackson (English boxer)|Gentleman John Jackson]] in April 1795. Other Regency era champions were famous fighters like [[Jem Belcher]], [[Hen Pearce]], [[John Gully]], [[Tom Cribb]], [[Tom Spring]], [[Jem Ward]] and [[James Burke (boxer)|James Burke]].<ref name=Cyber>{{cite web |title=The Cyber Boxing Zone Encyclopedia presents The Bare Knuckle Heavyweight Champions of England |url=http://www.cyberboxingzone.com/boxing/barenuk.htm |publisher=Cyber Boxing Zone |access-date=2 July 2022}}</ref> Gully went on to become a successful [[racehorse]] owner and, representing the [[Pontefract (UK Parliament constituency)|Pontefract constituency]], a [[Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)|Member]] of the first [[Great Reform Act|post-Reform]] Parliament from December 1832 to July 1837.<ref name=hdm>{{cite book |last=Miles |first=Henry Downes |title=Pugilistica: the history of British boxing containing lives of the most celebrated pugilists |date=1906 |publisher=John Grant |location=Edinburgh |pages=182–192 |url=https://archive.org/stream/pugilisticahisto01mileuoft#page/182/mode/2up |access-date=2 July 2017}}</ref> Cribb was the first fighter to be acclaimed world champion after he twice defeated the American [[Tom Molineaux]] in 1811.<ref>[[Pierce Egan]], ''[[Boxiana]]'', Volume I (1813).</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Snowdon |first=David |title=Writing the Prizefight: Pierce Egan's Boxiana World |year=2013}}</ref>

=== Cricket ===

[[Marylebone Cricket Club]], widely known as MCC, was founded in 1787 and became [[cricket]]'s governing body. In 1788, the club drafted and published a revised version of the sport's rules. MCC had considerable influence throughout the Regency era and its ground, [[Lord's]], became cricket's premier venue.<ref>{{cite book |last=Warner |first=Pelham |author-link=Pelham Warner |title=Lord's 1787–1945 |year=1946 |publisher=Harrap |pages=17–18}}</ref> There were in fact three Lord's grounds. The first, opened in 1787 when the club was formed, was on the site of [[Dorset Square]] in [[Marylebone]], hence the name of the club.<ref name=pwl>Warner, p. 18.</ref> The lease was terminated in 1811 because of a rental dispute and the club took temporary lease of a second ground in [[St John's Wood]].<ref name=pwl/> This was in use for only three seasons until the land was requisitioned because it was on the proposed route of the [[Regent's Canal]]. MCC moved to a nearby site on which they established their present ground.<ref>Warner, p. 19.</ref>

[[Lord Byron]] played for [[Harrow School]] in the first [[Eton v Harrow]] match at Lord's in 1805.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://content-uk.cricinfo.com/magazine/content/67/211281.html |title=The oldest fixture of them all: the annual Eton vs Harrow match |journal=[[Cricinfo Magazine]] |publisher=[[Wisden Group]] |location=London |date=18 June 2005 |first=Martin |last=Williamson |access-date=23 July 2008 }}{{Dead link|date=March 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The match became an annual event in the social calendar.{{citation needed|date=July 2022}}

Lord's staged the first [[Gentlemen v Players]] match in 1806.{{citation needed|date=July 2022}} This fixture provides another illustration of the class divide in Regency society as it matched a team of well-to-do amateurs (Gentlemen) against a team of [[working-class]] professionals (Players). The first match featured [[Billy Beldham]] and [[William Lambert (cricketer, born 1779)|William Lambert]], who have been recognised as the outstanding professionals of the period, and [[Lord Frederick Beauclerk]] as the outstanding amateur player.{{citation needed|date=July 2022}} The 1821 match ended prematurely after the Gentlemen team, well behind in the contest, conceded defeat. This had been billed as the "Coronation Match" because it celebrated the accession of the Prince Regent as King George IV and the outcome was described by the sports historian [[Derek Birley|Sir Derek Birley]] as "a suitably murky affair".{{citation needed|date=July 2022}}

=== Football ===

[[File:The foot-ball play by Alexander Carse maybe 1830.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Football being played in Scotland, {{circa|1830}}]]
[[Football]] in Great Britain had long been a no-holds-barred pastime with an unlimited number of players on opposing teams which might comprise whole parishes or villages. The playing area was an undefined stretch of land between the two places. The [[ball (football)|ball]], as such, was often a pig's [[bladder]] that had been inflated and the object of the exercise was to move the ball by any means possible to a distant target such as a church in the opposing village. The contests were typically arranged to take place on feast days like [[Shrove Tuesday]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Dunning |first=Eric |title=Sport Matters: Sociological Studies of Sport, Violence and Civilisation |url=https://archive.org/details/sportmatterssoci00dunn_562 |url-access=limited |publisher=Routledge |year=1999 |page=[https://archive.org/details/sportmatterssoci00dunn_562/page/n99 88–89] |isbn=978-0-415-09378-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Baker |first=William |title=Sports in the Western World |publisher=University of Illinois Press |year=1988 |page=48 |isbn=978-0-252-06042-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rkuAiv3LoR4C}}</ref> By the beginning of the 19th century, efforts were being made in the English [[public school (United Kingdom)|public school]]s to transform this [[mob football]] into an organised team sport. The earliest-known versions of football code rules were written at [[Eton College]] (1815) and [[Aldenham School]] (1825).<ref>{{cite book |title=Encyclopedia of British Football |author=Cox, Richard William |author2=Russell, Dave |author3=Vamplew, Wray |publisher=Routledge |year=2002 |page=243 |isbn=978-0-7146-5249-8}}</ref>

=== Horse racing ===

[[Horse racing]] had been very popular since the years after the [[Stuart Restoration|Restoration]] when [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] was a frequent visitor to [[Newmarket Racecourse]]. In the Regency era, the [[British Classic Races|five classic races]] had all been inaugurated and have been run annually since 1814. These races are the [[St Leger Stakes]] (first run in 1776), [[Epsom Oaks|The Oaks]] (1779), the [[Epsom Derby]] (1780), the [[2,000 Guineas Stakes]] (1809) and the [[1,000 Guineas Stakes]] (1814).<ref>{{cite book |author=Fletcher |first=J. S. |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofstleger0000flet |title=The history of the St Leger stakes, 1776–1901 |publisher=Hutchinson & Co. |year=1902 |isbn=978-0-9516-5281-7}}</ref>

[[National Hunt racing]] began in 18th century Ireland and developed in England through the Regency era. There are tentative references to races held between 1792 and 1810.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Daily Telegraph Chronicle of Horse Racing |editor-last=Barrett |editor-first=Norman |location=Enfield, Middlesex |publisher=Guinness Publishing |year=1995 |pages=9–12}}</ref> The first definitely recorded [[Hurdling (horse race)|hurdle race]] took place on [[Durdham Down]], near [[Bristol]], in 1821.<ref>Barrett, p. 12.</ref> The first officially recognised [[steeplechase (horse racing)|steeplechase]] was over a cross-country route in Bedfordshire on 8 March 1830.<ref>''Sporting Magazine'' (1830), May and July editions.</ref>

[[Aintree Racecourse]] held its first meeting on 7 July 1829.<ref>{{cite web |date=9 April 2019 |title=And they're off – a brief history of Aintree racecourse and the Grand National |url=https://www.ageconcernliverpoolandsefton.org.uk/and-they're-off-a-brief-history-of-aintree |website=Age Concern Liverpool & Sefton }}{{Dead link|date=March 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> On 29 February 1836, a race called the [[1836 Grand Liverpool Steeplechase|Grand Liverpool Steeplechase]] was held. One of its organisers was Captain [[Martin Becher]] who rode [[The Duke (horse)|The Duke]] to victory. The infamous sixth fence at Aintree is called [[Becher's Brook]]. The 1836 race, which became an annual event, is recognised by some as the first [[Grand National]], but there are historical uncertainties about the three races between 1836 and 1838 so they are officially regarded as precursors to the Grand National. Some sources insist they were held on Old Racecourse Farm in nearby [[Maghull]] but this is impossible as that course closed in 1835.<ref>[http://www.tbheritage.com/TurfHallmarks/racecharts/Steeplechase/GrandNationalEarly.html "The Birth of The Grand National: The Real Story".] Mutlow, Mick (15 June 2009). Thoroughbred Heritage. Retrieved 9 July 2020.</ref> The first official Grand National was the [[1839 Grand National|1839 race]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Wright |first=Sally |date=3 April 2020 |title=An early history of Aintree racecourse |url=https://www.timeform.com/horse-racing/features/generic-feature/an-early-history-of-aintree-racecourse-342020 |website=Timeform}}</ref>

=== Rowing and sailing ===

[[Rowing (sport)|Rowing]] and [[sailing (sport)|sailing]] had become popular pastimes among the wealthier citizens. [[The Boat Race]], a rowing event between the [[Cambridge University Boat Club]] and the [[Oxford University Boat Club]], was first held in 1829 at the instigation of [[Charles Merivale]] and [[Charles Wordsworth]], who were students at Cambridge and Oxford, respectively. Wordsworth was a nephew of [[William Wordsworth]]. The first race was at [[Henley-on-Thames]] and the contest later became an annual event on the [[River Thames]] in London.<ref name="The Boat Race origins">{{cite web |url=http://theboatrace.org/men/origins |title=The Boat Race origins |publisher=The Boat Race Limited |access-date=1 July 2022 |archive-date=7 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141007044923/http://theboatrace.org/men/origins |url-status=live }}</ref> In sailing, the first [[Cowes Week]] regatta was held on the [[Solent]] in August 1826.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.icons.org.uk/theicons/icons-timeline/1820-1840 |title=Icons, a portrait of England 1820–1840 |access-date=2 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070922055840/http://www.icons.org.uk/theicons/icons-timeline/1820-1840 |archive-date=22 September 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Track and field athletics ===

[[Track and field]] competitions in the modern sense were first recorded in the early 19th century. They are known to have been held by schools, colleges, army and navy bases, social clubs and the like, often as a challenge to a rival establishment.<ref>[http://www.iaaf.org/aboutiaaf/history/index.html History – Introduction] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100501210531/http://www.iaaf.org/aboutiaaf/history/index.html |date=1 May 2010}}. [[IAAF]]. Retrieved 2 July 2020.</ref> In the public schools, athletics competitions were conceived as human equivalents of horse racing or [[fox hunting]] with runners known as "hounds" and named as if they were racehorses. The [[Shrewsbury School|Royal Shrewsbury School Hunt]], established in 1819, is the world's oldest running club. The school organised [[Paper Chase (game)|paper chase]] races in which the hounds followed a trail of paper shreds left by two "foxes". The oldest running race of the modern era is Shrewsbury's Annual [[Steeplechase (athletics)|Steeplechase]] (cross-country), first definitely recorded in 1834.<ref>{{cite journal |title=On the Scent of History |journal=Running Times |date=December 1998 |page=28 |author=Robinson, Roger}}</ref>

== Events ==

; 1811:George Augustus Frederick, Prince of Wales,<ref>{{cite web|title= George IV (r. 1820–1830) |url=http://www.royal.gov.uk/HistoryoftheMonarchy/KingsandQueensoftheUnitedKingdom/TheHanoverians/GeorgeIV.aspx|publisher=The Royal Household|access-date=12 April 2015}}</ref> began his nine-year tenure as [[Prince regent|regent]] and became known as ''The Prince Regent''. This sub-period of the [[Georgian era]] began the formal Regency. The [[Duke of Wellington]] held off the French at [[Fuentes de Oñoro]] and [[Battle of Albuera|Albuhera]] in the [[Peninsular War]]. The Prince Regent held the [[Carlton House Fête]] at 9:00&nbsp;p.m. 19 June 1811, at [[Carlton House, London|Carlton House]] in celebration of his assumption of the Regency. [[Luddite]] uprisings. Glasgow weavers riot.
; 1812: [[Assassination of Spencer Perceval|Prime Minister Spencer Perceval was assassinated]] in the [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|House of Commons]]. The final shipment of the [[Elgin Marbles]] arrived in England. [[Sarah Siddons]] retired from the stage. Shipping and territory disputes started the [[War of 1812]] between the United Kingdom and the United States. The British were victorious over French armies at the [[Battle of Salamanca]]. Gas company ([[Gas Light and Coke Company]]) founded. Charles Dickens, English writer and social critic of the [[Victorian era]], was born on 7 February 1812.
; 1813: ''[[Pride and Prejudice]]'' by [[Jane Austen]] was published. [[William Hedley]]'s [[Puffing Billy (locomotive)|Puffing Billy]], an early [[steam locomotive]], ran on smooth rails. [[Quakers|Quaker]] prison reformer [[Elizabeth Fry]] started her ministry at [[Newgate Prison]]. [[Robert Southey]] became [[Poet Laureate]].
; 1814: Invasion of France by allies led to the [[Treaty of Paris (1814)|Treaty of Paris]], ended one of the [[Napoleonic Wars]]. Napoleon abdicated and was exiled to [[Elba]]. The Duke of Wellington was honoured at [[Burlington House]] in London. British soldiers [[Burning of Washington|burn the White House]]. Last [[River Thames Frost Fair]] was held, which was the last time the river froze. [[Gas lighting]] introduced in London streets.[[File:De Slag bij Waterloo Rijksmuseum SK-A-1115.jpeg|thumb|upright=1.2|''[[The Battle of Waterloo (Pieneman painting)|The Battle of Waterloo]]'' by [[Jan Willem Pieneman]], 1824. Wellington at the [[Battle of Waterloo]]]]
; 1815:[[Napoleon I of France]] defeated by the [[Hundred Days|Seventh Coalition]] at the [[Battle of Waterloo]]. Napoleon was exiled to [[St. Helena]]. The English [[Corn Laws]] restricted corn imports. [[Sir Humphry Davy]] patented the [[Miner's safety lamp|miners' safety lamp]]. [[John Loudon Macadam]]'s [[Macadam|road construction method]] adopted.
; 1816: Income tax abolished. A "[[year without a summer]]" followed a [[1815 eruption of Mount Tambora|volcanic eruption in Indonesia]]. [[Mary Shelley]] wrote ''[[Frankenstein]]''. [[William Cobbett]] published his newspaper as a pamphlet. The British returned [[Indonesia]] to the Dutch. [[Regent's Canal]], London, phase one of construction. [[Beau Brummell]] escaped his creditors by fleeing to France.
; 1817: [[Antonin Carême]] created a spectacular feast for the Prince Regent at the [[Royal Pavilion]] in Brighton. The death of [[Princess Charlotte of Wales (1796–1817)|Princess Charlotte]], the Prince Regent's daughter, from complications of childbirth changed [[Obstetrics|obstetrical practices]]. Elgin Marbles shown at the [[British Museum]]. [[Captain Bligh]] died.
; 1818: [[Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz|Queen Charlotte]] died at [[Kew]]. Manchester cotton spinners went on strike. Riot in [[Stanhope, County Durham]] between lead miners and the [[Bishop of Durham]]'s men over Weardale game rights. [[Piccadilly Circus]] constructed in London. ''[[Frankenstein]]'' published. [[Emily Brontë]] born.
; 1819:[[Peterloo Massacre]]. Princess Alexandrina Victoria (future [[Queen Victoria]]) was christened in [[Kensington Palace]]. ''[[Ivanhoe]]'' by [[Walter Scott]] was published. [[Sir Stamford Raffles]], a British administrator, founded [[Singapore]]. First steam-propelled vessel (the [[SS Savannah|SS ''Savannah'']]) crossed the Atlantic and arrived in Liverpool from [[Savannah, Georgia]].
; 1820: Death of George III and the accession of ''The Prince Regent'' as George IV. The [[House of Lords]] passed a bill to grant George IV a divorce from [[Caroline of Brunswick|Queen Caroline]], but because of public pressure, the bill was dropped. [[John Constable]] began work on ''[[The Hay Wain]]''. [[Cato Street Conspiracy]] failed. [[Royal Astronomical Society]] founded. ''[[Venus de Milo]]'' discovered.

== Places ==

The following is a list of places associated with the Regency era:<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZhaBz_5OZiUC&pg=PR11 |title=Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714-1837: An Encyclopedia |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-8153-0396-1 |editor=Newman |editor-first=Gerald}}</ref>
[[File:High-Change-in-Bond-Street-Gillray.jpeg|thumb|upright=1.2|Change in Bond Street, [[James Gillray]]]]

{{colbegin}}

* The [[Adelphi Theatre]]<ref>{{cite web|first1=Alfred L.|last1= Nelson |first2=Gilbert B. |last2=Cross|url=http://www.emich.edu/public/english/adelphi_calendar/hist.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070608083109/http://www.emich.edu/public/english/adelphi_calendar/hist.htm |archive-date=8 June 2007 |title= The Adelphi Theatre, 1806–1900}}</ref>
* [[Almack's]]
* Angelo's, a fencing parlor
* [[Apsley House]]
* [[Argyll Rooms]]
* [[Astley's Amphitheatre]]
* [[Attingham Park]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Attingham Park: History |publisher=National Trust| url=http://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/attingham-park/history/|access-date=12 April 2015}}</ref>
* [[Bank of England]]
* [[Bath, Somerset]]<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/734966/Roman-Regency-and-really-nearby.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/734966/Roman-Regency-and-really-nearby.html |archive-date=2022-01-11 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=Roman, Regency and really nearby|date=14 April 2006|work=The Daily Telegraph|location=London}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
* [[Bond Street]]
* [[Brighton Pavilion]]
* [[Brighton and Hove]]
* [[Brooks's]]
* [[Burlington Arcade]]
* [[Bury St Edmunds]]
* [[Carlton House, London]]
*[[Chalk Farm Tavern]]
* [[Chapel Royal]], St. James's
* [[Cheltenham, Gloucestershire]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.visitengland.com/experience/cheltenham-regency-spa-town|title=Explore the Regency spa town of Cheltenham|first=Stephanie |last=Sanders|date=6 December 2013|website=visitengland.com}}</ref>
* Circulating libraries, 1801–1825<ref>{{cite web|title=Circulating Libraries, 1801–1825 |work=Library History Database| url=http://www.r-alston.co.uk/circ2.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080414141837/http://www.r-alston.co.uk/circ2.htm |archive-date=14 April 2008 |access-date=12 April 2015}}</ref>
* [[Covent Garden]]
* Custom Office, [[London Docks]]
* [[Doncaster Racecourse|Doncaster Races]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Jane Austen: Sports |work=Jane's Bureau of Information| url=http://www.printsgeorge.com/Jane_Austen-sports.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509132318/http://www.printsgeorge.com/PrintsGeorge-Prints-First.htm |archive-date=9 May 2008 |access-date=12 April 2015}}</ref>
* [[Drury Lane]]
* [[Floris of London]]
* [[Fortnum & Mason]]
* [[Gretna Green]]<ref name="Jane Austen Places">{{cite web|title=Jane Austen: Places |work=Jane's Bureau of Information| url=http://www.printsgeorge.com/Jane_Austen-places.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080508232035/http://www.printsgeorge.com/Jane_Austen-places.htm |archive-date=8 May 2008 |access-date=12 April 2015}}</ref>
* Gentleman Jackson's Saloon, a pugilist's parlor by bare-knuckle champion [[John Jackson (English boxer)|John Jackson]]
* [[Hatchard's]]
* [[Haymarket Theatre|Little Theatre, Haymarket]]
* [[His Majesty's Theatre, London|His Majesty's Theatre]]
* [[Hertford House]]
* [[Holland House]]
* [[Houses of Parliament]]
* [[Hyde Park, London]]
* [[Jermyn Street]]
* [[Kensington Gardens]]<ref name="Jane Austen Gardens">{{cite web|title=Jane Austen: Gardens |work=Jane's Bureau of Information |url=http://www.printsgeorge.com/Jane_Austen-gardens.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080513113731/http://www.printsgeorge.com/Jane_Austen-gardens.htm |archive-date=13 May 2008 |access-date=12 April 2015}}</ref>
* [[King of Clubs (Whig club)|King of Clubs]]
* [[Lansdowne House]]
* [[List of gentlemen's clubs in London]]
* [[Lloyd's of London]]
* [[London Docks]]
* [[London Institution]]
* London Post Office<ref name="Jane Austen Places"/>
* [[Lyme Regis]]
* [[Marshalsea]], closed in 1811, new site opened in 1811 where White Lion Prison had been. Primarily a debtors' prison, also housed seditionists and political prisoners
* [[Mayfair, London]]
* [[Newgate Prison]]
* [[Newmarket Racecourse]]
* The [[Old Bailey]]
* [[Old Bond Street]]
* Opera House<ref name="Jane Austen Theatre">{{cite web|title=Jane Austen: Theatre |work=Jane's Bureau of Information |url=http://www.printsgeorge.com/Jane_Austen-theater.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080513135107/http://www.printsgeorge.com/Jane_Austen-theater.htm |archive-date=13 May 2008 |access-date=12 April 2015}}</ref>
* [[Pall Mall, London]]
* [[Pantheon, London|The Pantheon]]
* [[Ranelagh Gardens]]
* [[Regent's Park]]
* [[Regent Street]]
* [[Royal Circus]]<ref name="Jane Austen Theatre"/>
* [[Royal Opera House]]
* [[Royal Parks of London]]
* [[Rundell and Bridge]] jewellery firm
* [[Savile Row]]
* [[Somerset House]]
* [[St George's, Hanover Square]]
* [[St. James's]]
* [[Sydney Gardens]], Bath<ref name="Jane Austen Gardens"/>
* Temple of Concord, [[St. James's Park]]
* [[Tattersalls]]
* The [[Thames Tunnel]]
* [[Tunbridge Wells]]
* [[Vauxhall Gardens]]
* [[West End of London]]
*[[West India Docks]]
* [[Watier's]]
* [[White's]]
* [[Waterloo Bridge]]
{{colend}}

== Notable people ==

[[File:Portrait of Frederick, Duke of York - Lawrence 1816.jpg|thumb|''[[Portrait of Prince Frederick, Duke of York|Portrait of the Duke of York]]'' by [[Thomas Lawrence]].]]
[[File:Banks detail.JPG|thumb|upright|[[Joseph Banks]]]]
[[File:Byron 1813 by Phillips.jpg|thumb|upright|''[[Portrait of Lord Byron]]'' by [[Thomas Phillips]] (1814)]]
[[File:Princess Charlotte of Wales by Dawe (1817).jpg|thumb|upright|''[[Portrait of Princess Charlotte of Wales|Princess Charlotte of Wales]]'' by [[George Dawe]] (1817)]]
[[File:Maria Edgeworth by John Downman 1807.jpg|thumb|upright|Maria Edgeworth by John Downman 1807]]
[[File:Edward Jenner by James Northcote.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Edward Jenner]]]]
[[File:Sarah Sophia Child Villiers, Countess of Jersey (née Fane) (1785-1867), by Alfred Edward Chalon.jpg|thumb|upright|Sarah Sophia Child Villiers, Countess of Jersey (née Fane), by Alfred Edward Chalon]]
[[File:John Nash.jpg|thumb|upright|[[John Nash (architect)|John Nash]]]]
[[File:HoratioNelson1.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson|Horatio Nelson]]]]
[[File:Walter Scott (1830).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Walter Scott]]]]
[[File:Lord Arthur Wellesley the Duke of Wellington.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington]], portrait by Sir [[Thomas Lawrence]], 1814]]

For more names see Newman (1997).<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZhaBz_5OZiUC&pg=PR11 |title=Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714-1837: An Encyclopedia |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-8153-0396-1 |editor=Newman |editor-first=Gerald}}</ref>
{{colbegin}}

* [[Rudolph Ackermann]]
* [[Arthur Aikin]]
* [[Henry Addington, 1st Viscount Sidmouth]]
* [[William Arden, 2nd Baron Alvanley]]
* [[Elizabeth Armistead]]
* [[Jane Austen]]
* [[Charles Babbage]]
* [[Joseph Banks]]
* [[Richard Barry, 7th Earl of Barrymore]]
* [[Henry Bathurst, 3rd Earl Bathurst]]
* [[William Beechey]]
* [[William Blake]]
* [[Beau Brummell]]
* [[Mary Brunton]]
* [[Lord Frederick Beauclerk]]
* [[Henrietta Ponsonby, Countess of Bessborough]]
* [[Marguerite Gardiner, Countess of Blessington]]
* [[Junius Brutus Booth]]
* [[Bow Street Runners]]
* [[Marc Isambard Brunel]]
* [[Caroline of Brunswick]]
* [[Frances Burney]]
* [[James Burton (property developer)|James Burton]]
* [[Decimus Burton]]
* [[Lord Byron]]
* [[George Campbell, 6th Duke of Argyll]]
* [[Amelia Stewart, Viscountess Castlereagh]]
* [[Robert Stewart, 2nd Marquess of Londonderry|Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh]]
* [[George Canning]]
* [[George Cayley]]
* [[Georgiana Cavendish, Duchess of Devonshire]]
* [[Francis Leggatt Chantrey]]
* [[Princess Charlotte Augusta of Wales]]
* [[John Clare]]
* [[Mary Anne Clarke]]
* [[William Cobbett]]
* [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]]
* [[Patrick Colquhoun]]
* [[John Constable]]
* [[Elizabeth Conyngham, Marchioness Conyngham]]
* [[Tom Cribb]]
*[[John Wilson Croker]]
* [[George Cruikshank]]
* [[John Dalton]]
* [[Humphry Davy]]
* [[John Disney (archaeologist)|John Disney]]
* [[David Douglas (botanist)|David Douglas]]
* [[Maria Edgeworth]]
* [[Pierce Egan]]
* [[Thomas Bruce, 7th Earl of Elgin]]
* [[Grace Elliott]]
* [[Maria Fitzherbert]]
* [[Elizabeth Fry]]
* [[David Garrick]]
* [[George IV]] of the United Kingdom, Prince of Wales, Prince Regent then King
* [[James Gillray]]
* [[Frederick Robinson, 1st Viscount Goderich]]
* [[William Grenville, 1st Baron Grenville]]
* [[Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey]]
* [[Emma, Lady Hamilton]]
* [[William Harcourt, 3rd Earl Harcourt]]
* [[Ann Hatton]]
* [[William Hazlitt]]
* [[William Hedley]]
* [[James Henry Leigh Hunt|Leigh Hunt]]
* [[Isabella Ingram-Seymour-Conway, Marchioness of Hertford]]
* [[Washington Irving]]
* [[John Jackson (English boxer)|John Jackson]]
* [[Edward Jenner]]
* [[Sarah Villiers, Countess of Jersey|Sarah, Countess of Jersey]]
* [[Dorothea Jordan]]
* [[Edmund Kean]]
* [[Charles Kemble]]
* [[John Philip Kemble]]
* [[Stephen Kemble]]
* [[Michael Kelly (tenor)|Michael Kelly]]
* [[John Keats]]
* [[Lady Caroline Lamb]]
* [[Charles Lamb (writer)|Charles Lamb]]
* [[Emily Lamb, Countess Cowper]]
* [[Thomas Lawrence (painter)|Sir Thomas Lawrence, PRA]]
* [[Dorothea Lieven|Princess Lieven]]
* [[Mary Linwood]]
* [[Robert Jenkinson, 2nd Earl of Liverpool]]
* [[Hudson Lowe]]
* [[Ada Lovelace|Ada Byron Lovelace]]
* [[William Macready]]
* [[John Loudon McAdam]]
* [[Lord Melbourne]]
* [[Thomas Moore]]
* [[Hannah More]]
* [[John Murray (publisher, born 1778)|John Murray]]
* [[John Nash (architect)|John Nash]]
* [[Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson]]
* [[Elizabeth O'Neill (actress)|Elizabeth O'Neill]]
* [[William II of the Netherlands|William, Prince of Orange]]
* [[George Ormerod]]
* [[Henry Paget, 1st Marquess of Anglesey]]
* [[Thomas Paine]]
* [[John Palmer (postal innovator)|John Palmer]], Royal Mail
* [[Sir Robert Peel]]
* [[Spencer Perceval]]
* [[Thomas Phillips]]
* [[William Pitt the Younger]]
* [[Jane Porter]]
* [[Hermann, Fürst von Pückler-Muskau]]
* [[Thomas De Quincey]]
* [[Thomas Raikes (dandy)|Thomas Raikes]]
* [[Humphry Repton]]
* [[Samuel Rogers]]
* [[Thomas Rowlandson]]
* [[James Sadler (balloonist)|James Sadler]]
* [[Sir Walter Scott|Walter Scott]]
* [[Richard Sharp (politician)|Richard "Conversation" Sharp]]
* [[Martin Archer Shee]]
* [[Percy Bysshe Shelley]]
* [[Mary Shelley]]
* [[Richard Brinsley Sheridan]]
* [[Sarah Siddons]]
* [[John Soane]]
* [[Adam Sedgwick]]
* [[Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh]]
* [[John Wedgwood (horticulturist)|John Wedgwood]]
* [[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington]]
*[[Richard Wellesley, 1st Marquess Wellesley]]
* [[Amelia Stewart, Viscountess Castlereagh]]
* [[Thomas Telford]]
* [[Benjamin Thompson]], Count Rumford
* [[Joseph Mallord William Turner]]
* [[Henry Vassall-Fox, 3rd Baron Holland]]
* [[Benjamin West]]
* [[William Wilberforce]]
* [[Harriette Wilson]]
* [[William Hyde Wollaston]]
* [[Mary Wollstonecraft]]
* [[William Wordsworth]]
* [[Jeffry Wyattville]]
* [[Thomas Young (scientist)|Thomas Young]]

{{colend}}

== Gallery ==

<gallery mode="packed" heights="180px">
File:Neckclothitania-1818.gif|"Neckclothitania", 1818
File:Astley's Amphitheatre Microcosm edited.jpg|Astley's Amphitheatre, 1808–1811
File:Brighton Pavilion from Views of the Royal Pavilion (1826) edited.jpg|Brighton Pavilion, 1826
File:CarltonHouseFacade.jpg|Carlton House, Pall Mall, London
File:Microcosm of London Plate 089 - Vauxhall Garden edited.jpg|Vauxhall Gardens, 1808–1811
File:Church of All Souls-2.jpg|Church of All Souls, architect John Nash, 1823
File:Regent's Canal Limehouse1823.jpg|Regent's Canal, Limehouse, 1823
File:Frost Fair of 1814 by Luke Clenell.jpg|Frost Fair, Thames River, 1814
File:Burlington Arcade by Thomas Hosmer Shepherd 1827-28.JPG|The Piccadilly entrance to the Burlington Arcade, 1819
File:Princess Charlotte Augusta of Wales and Leopold I after George Dawe.jpg|Princess Charlotte Augusta of Wales and Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, 1817
File:Morning-dress-Ackermanns-ca1820.png|Morning dress, Ackermann, 1820
File:Humphry Repton01.jpg|Water at Wentworth, Humphry Repton, 1752–1818
File:Hanover Square Horwood 1819.jpg|Hanover Square, Horwood Map, 1819
File:BrummellDighton1805.jpg|Beau Brummell, 1805
File:Battle of Waterloo 1815.PNG|''[[The Battle of Waterloo (painting, Sadler II)|Battle of Waterloo]]'', 1815
File:Almack's Assembly Rooms inside.jpg|Almack's Assembly Room, 1805–1825
File:James Sadler - 12 Aug 1811 ascent.jpg|Balloon ascent, James Sadler, 1811
File:Rowlandson - The Anatomist.JPG|The Anatomist, Thomas Rowlandson, 1811
File:Regent's Park London from 1833 Schmollinger map.jpg|Regent's Park, Schmollinger map, 1833
File:National Gallery at 100 Pall Mall.jpg|100 Pall Mall, former location of National Gallery, 1824–1834
File:Cognocenti-Antique-Gillray.jpeg|Cognocenti, Gillray Cartoon, 1801
File:Custom Office London Dock.jpg|Custom Office, London Docks, 1811–1843
File:London Dock Custom and Excise 1820.jpg|Customs and Excise, London Docks, 1820
File:Mailcoach.jpg|Mail coach, 1827
File:Assassination-of-spencer-perceval.jpg|Assassination of Spencer Perceval, 1812
File:The Trial of Queen Caroline 1820 by Sir George Hayter.jpg|''[[The Trial of Queen Caroline]]'' by [[George Hayter]], 1823
File:Microcosm of London Plate 062 - Pillory, Charing Cross edited.jpg|The pillory at Charing Cross, Ackermann's ''Microcosm of London'', 1808–1811
File:Covent Garden Theatre 1827-28.jpg|Covent Garden Theatre, 1827–1828
</gallery>

== See also ==

* [[Regency architecture]]
* [[1795–1820 in Western fashion|Regency fashions]]
* [[Regency dance]]
* [[Régence]], the period of the early 18th-century regency in France
* [[Society of Dilettanti]]
* [[Era of Good Feelings]], for the United States

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Sources ==
{{refbegin}}

* Bowman, Peter James. ''The Fortune Hunter: A German Prince in Regency England.'' Oxford: Signal Books, 2010. {{ISBN?}}
* David, Saul. ''Prince of Pleasure The Prince of Wales and the Making of the Regency''. New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1998. {{ISBN?}}
* {{Cite book |last=Innes |first=Arthur Donald |title=A History of England and the British Empire |date=1914 |publisher=The MacMillan Company |volume=3}}{{ISBN?}}
* {{Cite book |last=Innes |first=Arthur Donald |title=A History of England and the British Empire |publisher=The MacMillan Company |year=1915 |volume=4}}{{ISBN?}}
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=508kHfewluIC Knafla, David, Crime, punishment, and reform in Europe, Greenwood Publishing, 2003] {{ISBN?}}
* Lapp, Robert Keith. ''Contest for Cultural Authority – Hazlitt, Coleridge, and the Distresses of the Regency''. Detroit: Wayne State UP, 1999. {{ISBN?}}
* [[Marriott, J. A. R.]] ''England Since Waterloo'' (1913) [https://archive.org/stream/englandsincewate00marruoft#page/n7/mode/1up online]
* Morgan, Marjorie. ''Manners, Morals, and Class in England, 1774–1859.'' New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994. {{ISBN?}}
* Morrison, Robert. ''The Regency Years: During Which Jane Austen Writes, Napoleon Fights, Byron Makes Love, and Britain Becomes Modern''. 2019, New York: W. W. Norton, London: Atlantic Books [https://www.economist.com/books-and-arts/2019/05/23/sex-drugs-and-the-birth-of-modernity online review]
* {{cite book |editor=Newman, Gerald |title=Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714–1837: An Encyclopedia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZhaBz_5OZiUC&pg=PR11|year=1997|publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-0-8153-0396-1}} [http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03612759909604247 online review]; 904pp; 1121 short articles on Britain by 250 experts.
* Parissien, Steven. ''George IV Inspiration of the Regency.'' New York: St. Martin's P, 2001. {{ISBN?}}
* Pilcher, Donald. ''The Regency Style: 1800–1830'' (London: Batsford, 1947).
* Rendell, Jane. ''The pursuit of pleasure: gender, space & architecture in Regency London'' (Bloomsbury, 2002). {{ISBN?}}
* [[Joanna Richardson|Richardson, Joanna]]. ''The Regency''. London: Collins, 1973. {{ISBN?}}
* Webb, R.K. ''Modern England: from the 18th century to the present'' (1968) [https://archive.org/details/modernenglandfro00webb online] widely recommended university textbook
* Wellesley, Lord Gerald. "Regency Furniture", ''The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs'' 70, no. 410 (1937): 233–241.
* White, R.J. ''Life in Regency England'' (Batsford, 1963). {{ISBN?}}

==Further reading==
* Adkins, Roy, and Lesley Adkins. ''Jane Austen's England: Daily Life in the Georgian and Regency Periods'' (Penguin, 2013) [https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=wLQAF-9uHakC&oi=fnd&pg=PR15&dq=regency+era+social+class&ots=ZeGBAO274-&sig=IcJGSk1ox_jza6frFzFOW1uT42I  online].

* Arora, Vidusha. "Regency England through the Realistic Lens of Jane Austen." ''Research Journal of English Language and Literature'' (RJELAL) 11.1 (2023): 230-234.  [http://www.rjelal.com/11.1.23/230-234%20VIDUSHA%20ARORA.pdf  online]

* Ashton, John. ''When William IV. Was King: Exploring the Regency Era Through King William IV's Reign'' (Good Press, 2021) [https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=KFEzAAAAIAAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PR1&dq=regency+era+social+class&ots=95gk70UtNJ&sig=6kzJqfrf8EDrXrHzcgsx_g0lWKk  online].
* Behrendt, Stephen C. "Was There a Regency Literature? 1816 as a Test Case." ''Keats-Shelley Journal'' 61 (2012): 25-34. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/24396032  online]

* Bruley, Katherine. "Fashion in the Regency Era." ''The Boller Review'' 6 (2021). [https://bollerreview.tcu.edu/index.php/boller/article/download/152/112  online]

* Carr, Hannah Merryl. "In Revenge He Has Taken the Stays: Dandyism and Social Othering in Regency Newspapers, 1814-1818" (PhD dissertation,  Carleton University, 2024) [https://carleton.scholaris.ca/bitstreams/93a9e47d-4623-4be1-b22d-af2b0fd33169/download online].

* Cohen, Ashley L. "The 'Aristocratic Imperialists' of Late Georgian and Regency Britain." ''Eighteenth-Century Studies'' 50.1 (2016): 5-26. [https://www.academia.edu/download/49856946/05_50.1cohen.pdf online]

* Emsley, Clive. ''Crime and society in England: 1750–1900'' (2013).
* Hobson, James. ''Dark Days of Georgian Britain: Rethinking the Regency'' (Pen and Sword, 2019) [https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=XjdjDwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PT8&dq=regency+era+social+class&ots=G5KgH1Ogl5&sig=P1ov6YlMyWfiw9jSaij4kfcNBCk online].

* Hughes, Kristine. ''The Writer's Guide to Everyday Life in Regency and Victorian England from 1811-1901'' (1997) [https://archive.org/details/writersguidetoev0000hugh online]
* Innes, Joanna and John Styles. "The Crime Wave: Recent Writing on Crime and Criminal Justice in Eighteenth-Century England" ''Journal of British Studies'' 25#4 (1986), pp.&nbsp;380–435 {{JSTOR|175563}}.
* Low, Donald A. ''The Regency Underworld''. Gloucestershire: Sutton, 1999.

* Mitton, Geraldine Edith. ''Jane Austen and Her Times: Exploring Jane Austen's World and Works in Regency England'' (Good Press, 2021) [https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=8xXDDwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA1729&dq=regency+era+social+class&ots=mUYI_5HFT6&sig=wx6biU_pm_T-vW9jkiTfVdmd1rM  online].

* Morgan, Gwenda, and Peter Rushton. ''Rogues, Thieves And the Rule of Law: The Problem of Law Enforcement in North-East England, 1718–1820'' (2005).

* Sari, Yuliana Kartika, and Syahara Dina Amalia. "Representation of Regency Era in 'Emma'(2020) Movie: a Sociological Perspective." ''Proceeding ISETH'' (International Summit on Science, Technology, and Humanity) (2023): 485-497. [https://proceedings.ums.ac.id/index.php/iseth/article/download/3899/3550  online]

=== Primary sources ===
* Evans, Eric J. ed. ''Britain Before the Reform Act: Politics and Society 1815–1832'' (Longman, 1989
* Gash, Norman, ed. ''The Age of Peel'' (1968)  [https://archive.org/details/ageofpeel0000norm/page/n5/mode/2up  online] 
* Revill, P. ed. ''The Age of Lord Liverpool'' (Blackie, 1979) 
* Simond, Louis. ''Journal of a tour and residence in Great Britain, during the years 1810 and 1811'' [https://books.google.com/books?id=4z0JAAAAIAAJ online]

{{refend}}

== External links ==

* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090505074057/http://users.bathspa.ac.uk/greenwood/ Greenwood's Map of London, 1827]
* [http://www.oldlondonmaps.com/horwoodpages/horwoodmain.html Horwood Map of London, 1792–1799]
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=gSsoAAAAYAAJ&dq=census+london+1810+1811&pg=PA50 Results of the 1801 and 1811 Census of London], ''[[The European Magazine and London Review]]'', 1818, p.&nbsp;50
* [http://www.faculty.umb.edu/elizabeth_fay/toc2.htm The Bluestocking Archive]
* [http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?ParagraphID=mxt End of an Era: 1815–1830]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080110101208/http://www.nypl.org/research/chss/spe/art/artarc/empire/england.html New York Public Library, England – The Regency Style]
* [http://www.museumfurniture.com/regency/ Regency Style Furniture] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414070202/http://www.museumfurniture.com/regency/ |date=14 April 2021 }}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Regency era| ]]
[[Category:Regency London|*]]
[[Category:1810s in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:George III]]
[[Category:George IV]]
[[Category:History of the United Kingdom by period]]
[[Category:Historical eras]]
[[Category:Architecture of London]]
[[Category:Regency (government)]]
[[Category:1820 in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:1830s in the United Kingdom]]