View source for Reforms of Russian orthography

{{short description|Orthographic reforms of the Russian alphabet}}
{{More citations needed|date=November 2009}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2019}}
{{IPA notice}}

[[Russian orthography]] has been reformed officially and unofficially by changing the [[Russian alphabet]] over the course of the history of the [[Russian language]]. Several important reforms happened in the 18th–20th centuries.

==Early changes==
[[Old East Slavic]] adopted the [[Cyrillic script]], approximately during the 10th century and at about the same time as the introduction of [[Eastern Christianity]] into the territories inhabited by the Eastern [[Slavs]]. No distinction was drawn between the vernacular language and the liturgical, though the latter was based on [[South Slavic languages|South Slavic]] rather than [[East Slavic languages|Eastern Slavic]] norms.  As the language evolved, several letters, notably the ''[[yus]]es'' (Ѫ, Ѭ, Ѧ, Ѩ) were gradually and unsystematically discarded from both secular and church usage over the next centuries.

The emergence of the centralized Russian state in the 15th and 16th centuries, the consequent rise of the state bureaucracy along with the development of the common economic, political and cultural space necessitated the standardization of the language used in administrative and legal affairs. It was due to that reason that the earliest attempts at standardizing Russian, both in terms of the vocabulary and in terms of the orthography, were made initially based on the so-called Moscow chancery language. From then and on the underlying logic of language reforms in Russia reflected primarily the considerations of standardizing and streamlining language norms and rules in order to ensure the language's role as a practical tool of communication and administration.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.palgrave.com/us/book/9781137325044|title=Languages, Regional Conflicts and Economic Development: Russia. In: Ginsburgh, V., Weber, S. (Eds.). The Palgrave Handbook of Economics and Language.|last=Kadochnikov|first=Denis|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan.|year=2016|location=London|pages=538–580|access-date=11 February 2019|archive-date=7 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200307214655/https://www.palgrave.com/us/book/9781137325044|url-status=live}}</ref>

==18th-century changes==
[[File:Russian alphabet (marks by Peter I), page 5.gif|frame|[[Peter the Great|Peter I]] made the final choices of letter-forms by crossing out the undesirable ones in a set of charts]]
{{commons|Introduction of the civil Russian alphabet by Peter I}}
The printed [[Russian alphabet]] began to assume its modern shape when [[Peter the Great|Peter I]] introduced his "civil script" ({{lang|ru-petr1708|гражданский шрифт}}) type reform in 1708.<ref name="Yefimov" /> The reform was not specifically orthographic in nature. However, with the replacement of [[Yus|Ѧ]] with {{lang|ru-petr1708|[[Ya (Cyrillic)|Я]]}} and the effective elimination of several letters ([[Ѯ]], [[Ѱ]], [[Ѡ]]) and all diacritics and accents (with the exception of '''{{lang|ru-petr1708|й}}''') from secular usage and the use of [[Arabic numerals]] instead of [[Cyrillic numerals]]<ref name="Yefimov">{{citation |last=Yefimov |first=Vladimir |contribution=Civil Type and Kis Cyrillic |title=Language Culture Type: International Type Design in the Age of Unicode |editor-last=Berry |editor-first=John D. |publisher=Graphis Press |place=New York City |year=2002 |isbn=978-1932026016 |contribution-url=http://typejournal.ru/en/articles/Civil-Type |access-date=2 January 2017 |archive-date=8 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161208094455/http://typejournal.ru/en/articles/Civil-Type |url-status=live }}</ref> there appeared for the first time a visual distinction between Russian and [[Church Slavonic language|Church Slavonic]] writing. With the strength of the historic tradition diminishing, Russian spelling in the 18th century became rather inconsistent, both in practice and in theory, as [[Mikhail Lomonosov]] advocated a [[morphophonemic orthography]] and [[Vasily Trediakovsky]] a phonemic one.

==19th-century changes==
[[File:XVIII century Russian font.png|thumb|Civil Russian font from middle 18th and beginning of 19th centuries, without a yo (ё) or short i (й)]]

Throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, miscellaneous adjustments were made ''[[ad hoc]]'', as the Russian [[literary language]] came to assume its modern and highly standardized form. These included the introduction of the letter '''{{lang|ru-petr1708|ё}}''' ([[Yo (Cyrillic)|yo]]) and the gradual loss of '''{{lang|ru-petr1708|ѵ}}''' ([[izhitsa]], corresponding to the Greek ''[[upsilon]]'' '''υ'''  and the Latin '''y'''), in favor of '''{{lang|ru-petr1708|и}}''' or  '''{{lang|ru-petr1708|і}}''' (both of which represented {{IPA|/i/}}); and '''{{lang|ru-petr1708|ѳ}}''' ([[fita]], corresponding to the Greek ''[[theta]]'' '''θ'''), in favor of '''{{lang|ru-petr1708|ф}}''' or '''{{lang|ru-petr1708|т}}'''. (The standard Russian language neither has nor ever had a [[voiceless dental fricative]]. The '''{{lang|ru-petr1708|ѳ}}''' was used only for foreign words, particularly Greek.)

By 1917, the only two words still spelled with '''{{lang|ru-petr1708|ѵ}}''' in common use were {{lang|ru-petr1708|мѵро}} ({{Transliteration|ru|müro}}, {{IPA|[ˈmʲirə]}}, '[[chrism]]') and {{lang|ru-petr1708|сѵнодъ}} ({{Transliteration|ru|sünod}}, {{IPA|[sʲɪˈnot]}}, 'synod'). The '''{{lang|ru-petr1708|ѳ}}''' remained more common, though it became quite rare as a "Western" ([[French language|French]]-like) pronunciation had been adopted for many words; for example, {{lang|ru-petr1708|ѳеатръ}} ({{Transliteration|ru|ḟeatr}}, {{IPA|[fʲɪˈatr]}}, 'theater') became {{lang|ru-petr1708|театръ}} ({{Transliteration|ru|teatr}}, {{IPA|[tʲɪˈatr]}}).

[[File:JIUKEN typewriter.JPG|thumb|left|In early Russian typewriters like this one, there was no key for the digit 1, so the dotted І was used instead. Following the Russian alphabet reform of 1918, a 1 key was added.]]
Attempts to reduce spelling inconsistency culminated in the 1885 standard textbook of [[Yakov Grot|Yakov Karlovich Grot]], which retained its authority through 21 editions until the [[Russian Revolution of 1917]]. His fusion of the morphological, phonetic, and historic principles of [[Russian orthography]] remains valid to this day, though both the [[Russian alphabet]] and the writing of many individual words have been altered through a complicated but extremely consistent [[Russian spelling rules|system of spelling rules]] that tell which of two vowels to use under all conditions.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://godliteratury.ru/articles/2018/01/15/pishi-propalo-sto-let-reforme-russkoy-o|script-title=ru:Пиши пропало. Сто лет реформе русской орфографии|trans-title=It's gone: One hundred years of Russian spelling reform|script-website=ru:Год Литературы|trans-website=Year of Literature}}</ref>
{{Clear}}

==Post-revolution reform==
The most recent major reform of Russian spelling was prepared by [[Aleksey Shakhmatov]] and implemented shortly after the [[Bolshevik]] [[October Revolution|revolution]] of November 1917.

Shakhmatov headed the Assembly for Considering Simplification of the Orthography whose proposals of 11 May 1917 formed the basis of the new rules soon adopted by the Ministry of Popular Education.<ref name="ComrieEtAl1996">{{cite book |last1=Comrie |first1=Bernard |last2=Stone |first2=Gerald |last3=Polinsky |first3=Maria |title=The Russian Language in the Twentieth Century |edition=2nd |location=Wotton-under-Edge, England |publisher=Clarendon Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0198240662 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/russianlanguagei00comr }}</ref>

===Specific changes===
[[File:Cyrillic letter Yat.png|250px|right|thumb|The Old Cyrillic letter 'yat']]
Russian [[orthography]] was made simpler and easier by unifying several adjectival and pronominal inflections, conflating the letter '''{{lang|ru-petr1708|ѣ}}''' ([[Yat]]) with '''{{lang|ru-luna1918|е}}''', '''{{lang|ru-petr1708|ѳ}}''' with '''{{lang|ru-luna1918|ф}}''', and '''{{lang|ru-petr1708|і}}''' and '''{{lang|ru-petr1708|ѵ}}''' with '''{{lang|ru-luna1918|и}}'''.  Additionally, the archaic mute ''yer'' became obsolete, including the '''{{lang|ru-petr1708|ъ}}''' (the "[[hard sign]]") in final position following consonants (thus eliminating practically the last graphical remnant of the Old Slavonic [[Law of open syllables|open-syllable system]]). For instance, {{lang|ru-petr1708|Рыбинскъ}} became {{lang|ru-luna1918|Рыбинск}} ("[[Rybinsk]]").

Examples:
* {{lang|ru-petr1708|дѣти}} to {{lang|ru-luna1918|дети}} ([[child]]ren)
* {{lang|ru-petr1708|Іисусъ Христосъ}} to {{lang|ru-luna1918|Иисус Христос}} ([[Jesus|Jesus Christ]])
* {{lang|ru-petr1708|мараѳонъ}} to {{lang|ru-luna1918|марафон}} ([[marathon]])
* {{lang|ru-petr1708|Петроградъ}} to {{lang|ru-luna1918|Петроград}} ([[Saint Petersburg|Petrograd]])
* {{lang|ru-petr1708|раіонъ}} to {{lang|ru-luna1918|район}} ([[Administrative division|region/district]])
* {{lang|ru-petr1708|Россія}} to {{lang|ru-luna1918|Россия}} ([[Russia]])
* {{lang|ru-petr1708|Сѣверо-Американскіе Соединенные Штаты}} to {{lang|ru-luna1918|Северо-Американские Соединённые Штаты}} – The United States of America ({{lit| North American United States}}, popular pre-revolutionary name of the [[United States]] in Russia)
* {{lang|ru-petr1708|Сѵнодъ}} to {{lang|ru-luna1918|Синод}} ([[synod]])

In a complex system of cases, the genitive adjectival ending {{lang|ru-petr1708|-аго}} was replaced with {{lang|ru-luna1918|-его}} after {{lang|ru-luna1918|ж, ц, ч, ш}}, and {{lang|ru-luna1918|щ}} ({{lang|ru-petr1708|лучшаго}} → {{lang|ru-luna1918|лучшего}}), in other instances {{lang|ru-petr1708|-аго}} was replaced with {{lang|ru-luna1918|-ого}}, and {{lang|ru-petr1708|-яго}} with {{lang|ru-luna1918|-его}} (for example: {{lang|ru-petr1708|новаго}} → {{lang|ru-luna1918|нового}} and {{lang|ru-petr1708|ранняго}} → {{lang|ru-luna1918|раннего}}), respectively.

19th-century spelling prescriptions distinguished feminine and neuter plural adjectival endings {{lang|ru-petr1708|-ыя}}, {{lang|ru-petr1708|-ія}} from masculine plural endings {{lang|ru-petr1708|-ые}}, {{lang|ru-petr1708|-іе}} (with no difference in pronunciation). Although Old East Slavic distinction of genders in the plural (masculine {{lang|orv|-ии}}, feminine {{lang|orv|-ыѣ}}, neuter {{lang|orv|-аꙗ}}) had died in speech long ago, 18th-century writers still tried to distinguish genders in the spelling, and [[Mikhail Lomonosov]]'s variant was chosen as the standard. The reform gave the uniform {{lang|ru-luna1918|-ые}}, {{lang|ru-luna1918|-ие}} for all the three genders ({{lang|ru-petr1708|новыя (книги, изданія)}} → {{lang|ru-luna1918|новые}}).

19th-century spelling prescriptions gave the spellings {{lang|ru-petr1708|онѣ, однѣ, однѣхъ, однѣмъ, однѣми}} for feminine plural forms, but {{lang|ru-petr1708|они, одни, однихъ, однимъ, одними}} for masculine and neuter plural forms. Although these forms were prescribed to be pronounced differently, the difference was not usually observed in everyday speech; pronunciations were used interchangeably, the one with {{lang|ru|и}} being more common.<ref>{{cite journal |script-title=ru:Извлеченiя изъ протоколовъ засѣданiй Академiи |journal=Извѣстія Академіи Наукъ |year=1917 |volume=11 |issue=15 |pages=1179–1230 |url=https://www.mathnet.ru/links/320a620c6bb4332b43ce1c1822ce2049/im6110.pdf }}</ref> The reform gave the uniform spelling {{lang|ru-luna1918|они, одни, одних, одним, одними}} for all genders. However, when {{lang|ru-petr1708|онѣ, однѣ}} were pronounced according to the spelling in poetic rhymes, modern editions write them as {{lang|ru|оне, одне}}.

19th-century spelling prescriptions gave the spelling of the feminine pronoun {{lang|ru-petr1708|ея (нея)}} in the genitive case, but {{lang|ru-petr1708|ее (нее)}} in the accusative case, whereas it was usually pronounced as {{lang|ru-petr1708|её (неё)}} in both cases. The reform gave uniform spelling for both cases: {{lang|ru-luna1918|ее (нее)}} (or {{lang|ru-luna1918|её (неё)}}, with the optional letter Ё). However, sometimes {{lang|ru-luna1918|ея (нея)}} was pronounced according to the spelling in poetic rhymes. In that case, it is not changed in modern editions.<ref>{{Cite web  |url=https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/otnoshenie-tvorcheskoy-intelligentsii-k-reforme-russkogo-yazyka-1918-goda/viewer |script-title=ru:Отношение творческой интеллигенции к реформе русского языка 1918 года |website=cyberleninka.ru }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |journal=Вестник Томского государственного университета. Филология. |year=2016 |last1=Barakhnin |first1=V. B. |last2= Kozhemyakina |first2=O. Yu. |script-title=ru:К проблеме аутентичности фонетического анализа в связи с возможными особенностями авторской орфографии (на примере чередования окончаний -ой/-ый в лирике А. С. Пушкина) |url=https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/k-probleme-autentichnosti-foneticheskogo-analiza-v-svyazi-s-vozmozhnymi-osobennostyami-avtorskoy-orfografii-na-primere-cheredovaniya/viewer |volume=2 |issue=40 |page=5}}</ref>

[[Prefix]]es ending with {{lang|ru-petr1708|-з/с}} underwent a change: now all of them (except {{lang|ru|с-}}) end with {{lang|ru-luna1918|-с}} before voiceless consonants and with {{lang|ru-luna1918|-з}} before voiced consonants or vowels ({{lang|ru|разбить, разораться}}, but {{lang|ru|расступиться}}). Previously, the prefixes showed concurrence between phonetic (as now) and morphological (always {{lang|ru-petr1708|з}}) spellings; at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century the standard rule was: {{lang|ru-petr1708|с-}}, {{lang|ru-petr1708|без-}}, {{lang|ru-petr1708|ч(е)рез-}} were always written in this way; other prefixes ended with {{lang|ru-petr1708|с}} before voiceless consonants except {{lang|ru-petr1708|с}} and with {{lang|ru-petr1708|з}} otherwise ({{lang|ru|разбить, разораться, разступиться}}, but {{lang|ru|распасться}}). Earlier 19th-century works also sometimes used {{lang|ru-petr1708|з}} before {{lang|ru-petr1708|ц, ч, ш, щ}}.
[[File:Ливадийский дворец 224.jpg|thumb|right|A [[blackboard]] with handwritten pre-revolutionary Russian]]

===Practical implementation===
[[File:Старинная печатная машинка Continental.jpg|thumb|left|An old typewriter with the 'banned letters' removed]] 
In December 1917, the [[People's Commissariat for Education|People's Commissariat of Education]], headed by [[A. V. Lunacharsky]], issued a decree stating, "All state and government institutions and schools without exception should carry out the transition to the new orthography without delay. From 1 January 1918, all government and state publications, both periodical and non-periodical {{sic?|reason=should be "are" if this is quoting from the decree. Also check for a missing comma before this word|were}} to be printed in the new style."<ref name="ComrieEtAl1996" /><ref name="Chernyshev1947">{{cite book |last1=Chernyshev |first1=V. I. |url=http://www.ranar.spb.ru/rus/books_8/id/222/ |script-title=ru:А. А. Шахматов (1864–1920): Сборник статей и материалов |trans-title=A. A. Shakhmatov (1864–1920): Collection of Articles and Materials |script-chapter=ru:Ф. Ф. Фортунатов и А.А. Шахматов – Реформаторы русского правописания |trans-chapter=F. F. Fortunatov and [[Aleksey Shakhmatov|A. A. Shakhmatov]] – Reformers of Russian Spelling |editor-last=Oborskogo |editor-first=S. P. |location=Moscow |publisher=Academy of Sciences of the USSR |year=1947 |pages=167–252 |access-date=8 January 2017 |archive-date=9 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171109182824/http://www.ranar.spb.ru/rus/books_8/id/222 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The decree was nearly identical to the proposals put forth by the May Assembly, and with other minor modifications formed the substance of the decree issued by the [[Soviet of People's Commissars]] in October 1918.<ref name="ComrieEtAl1996" /><ref name="Chernyshev1947" />

In this way, private publications could formally be printed using the old (or more generally, any convenient) orthography. The decree forbade the retraining of people previously trained under the old norm. A given spelling was considered incorrect only if it violated both the old and the new norms.

[[File:Совет народных комиссаров ДКР 16.02.1918.jpg|thumb|alt=Early Soviet documents frequently mixed pre- and post-Revolution spelling|Early Soviet documents frequently mixed pre- and post-Revolution spelling]]

[[File:Monasteryrussiansign.jpg|thumb|alt=Pre-revolutionary orthography on signage at a Russian Orthodox monastery in the United States, photographed in 2021. |Pre-revolutionary orthography on signage at a Russian Orthodox monastery in the United States, photographed in 2021.]]

However, in practice, the Soviet government rapidly set up a [[monopoly]] on print production and kept a very close eye on the fulfillment of the edict. A common practice was the forced removal of not just the letters {{lang|ru-petr1708|[[І]]}}, {{lang|ru-petr1708|[[Ѳ]]}}, and {{lang|ru-petr1708|[[Ѣ]]}} from printing offices, but also {{lang|ru-petr1708|[[Ъ]]}}. Because of this, the usage of the [[apostrophe]] as a dividing sign became widespread in place of {{lang|ru-petr1708|ъ}} (e.g., {{lang|ru-luna1918|под’ём}}, {{lang|ru-luna1918|ад’ютант}} instead of {{lang|ru-petr1708|подъём}}, {{lang|ru-petr1708|адъютант}}), and came to be perceived as a part of the reform (even if, from the point of view of the letter of the decree of the [[Council of People's Commissars]], such uses were mistakes). Nonetheless, some academic printings (connected with the publication of old works, documents or printings whose typesettings predated the revolution) came out in the old orthography (except [[title page]]s and, often, [[preface]]s) up until 1929.<ref name="auto1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/3507685|script-title=ru:Грамматический террор|trans-title=Grammar terror|date=4 January 2018|website=Kommersant}}</ref>

Russian – and later Soviet – [[Rail transport in Russia|railroads]] operated [[locomotive]]s with designations of "{{lang|ru-petr1708|І}}", "{{lang|ru-petr1708|Ѵ}}" and "{{lang|ru-petr1708|Ѳ}}". (Although the letter Ѵ was not mentioned in the spelling reform,<ref>{{Cite web|script-title=ru:Декрет Наркомпроса РСФСР от 23.12.1917 года о введении нового правописания |trans-title=Decree of the People's Commissariat of Education of the RSFSR dated 23 December 1917 on the introduction of a new spelling |via=Wikisource |url=https://ru.wikisource.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%82_%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B0_%D0%A0%D0%A1%D0%A4%D0%A1%D0%A0_%D0%BE%D1%82_23.12.1917_%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0_%D0%BE_%D0%B2%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F|access-date=2020-11-19}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|script-title=ru:Декрет Наркомпроса РСФСР, СНК РСФСР от 10.10.1918 «О введении новой орфографии» |trans-title=Decree of the People's Commissariat of Education of the RSFSR, Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR dated 10 October 1918 'On the introduction of a new spelling' |via=Wikisource|url=https://ru.wikisource.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%82_%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B0_%D0%A0%D0%A1%D0%A4%D0%A1%D0%A0,_%D0%A1%D0%9D%D0%9A_%D0%A0%D0%A1%D0%A4%D0%A1%D0%A0_%D0%BE%D1%82_10.10.1918_%C2%AB%D0%9E_%D0%B2%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%84%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B8%C2%BB|access-date=2020-11-19}}</ref> contrary to the statement in the ''[[Great Soviet Encyclopedia]]'',<ref>{{Cite web|script-title=ru:Большая Советская Энциклопедия |trans-title=Great Soviet Encyclopedia |edition=3rd |volume=22 |url=http://www.encyclopedia.ru/cat/books/book/11354/?sphrase_id=2763474|access-date=2020-11-19}}</ref> it had already become very rare prior to the revolution.) Despite the altered orthography, the series names remained unchanged up until these locomotives were discontinued in the 1950s.

Some [[White émigré|Russian émigré]] publications continued to appear in the former orthography until the 1970s.<ref>{{cite book
| last1  = Bermel
| first1  = Neil
| title  = Linguistic Authority, Language Ideology, and Metaphor: The Czech Orthography Wars
| url  = https://books.google.com/books?id=_yr7aUucadEC
| series  = Language, Power and Social Process
| volume  = 17
| location  = Berlin, Germany
| publisher  = Walter de Gruyter
| date  = 2007
| page  = 31
| isbn  = 9783110197662
| quote  = ...&nbsp;the Russian spelling reforms of 1917–1918 were based on proposals drawn up by an imperial commission thirteen years earlier, slightly watered down. However, because they were implemented at time of great social upheaval, these reforms divided Russian literati into two camps. Adherence to the old orthography became a mark of adherence to pre-revolutionary values, and some émigré presses continued to employ the pre-Soviet conventions until the 1970s.
| access-date  = 25 October 2015
| archive-date  = 29 June 2016
| archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20160629173227/https://books.google.com/books?id=_yr7aUucadEC
| url-status  = live
}}</ref>

===Simplification===
The reform reduced the number of orthographic rules having no support in pronunciation—for example, the difference of the genders in the plural and the need to learn a long list of words which were written with yats (the composition of said list was controversial among linguists, and different spelling guides contradicted one another).

The reform resulted in some economy in writing and [[typesetting]], due to the exclusion of {{lang|ru-petr1708|Ъ}} at the end of words—by the reckoning of [[Lev Uspensky]], text in the new orthography was shorter by one-thirtieth.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Uspensky |first1=Lev V. |author-link=Lev Uspensky |script-title=ru:Слово о словах |trans-title=A Word on Words |location=Moscow |publisher=Ripol Klassik |year=1962 }}</ref>

The reform removed pairs of completely [[homophonous]] [[graphemes]] from the Russian alphabet (i.e., {{lang|ru-petr1708|Ѣ}} and {{lang|ru-luna1918|Е}}; {{lang|ru-petr1708|Ѳ}} and {{lang|ru-petr1708|Ф}}; and the trio of {{lang|ru-petr1708|И}}, {{lang|ru-petr1708|І}} and {{lang|ru-petr1708|Ѵ}}), bringing the alphabet closer to [[Russian phonology|the Russian language's actual phonological system]].<ref name="auto"/>

===Criticism===
[[File:Агитационный плакат армии Колчака.jpg|thumb|left|180px|1919 White Army anti-Bolshevik poster encouraging people to enlist as volunteers, featuring continued use of the pre-reform spelling.]]
According to critics, the choice of {{lang|ru|Ии}} as the only letter to represent that side and the removal of {{Lang|ru-petr1708|Іі}} defeated the purpose of 'simplifying' the language, as {{lang|ru|Ии}} occupies more space and, furthermore, is sometimes indistinguishable from {{lang|ru|Шш}}.<ref name="auto1"/>

The reform also created many [[homograph]]s and [[homonym]]s, which used to be spelled differently. Examples: {{lang|ru|есть}}/{{lang|ru-petr1708|ѣсть}} (is/to eat) and {{lang|ru|миръ}}/{{lang|ru-petr1708|міръ}} (peace/world) became {{lang|ru|есть}} and {{lang|ru|мир}} in both instances.

Replacement of {{lang|ru-petr1708|онѣ}}, {{lang|ru-petr1708|однѣ}}, {{lang|ru-petr1708|ея}} by {{lang|ru-luna1918|они}}, {{lang|ru-luna1918|одни}}, {{lang|ru-luna1918|её}} was especially controversial, as these feminine pronouns were deeply rooted in the language and extensively used by writers and poets.{{Citation needed|date=August 2024}}

===Comparison===
The following is the same opening paragraph from ''[[The Bronze Horseman (poem)|The Bronze Horseman]]'' by [[Alexander Pushkin]] in its original version (left) and post-reform version (right):

{{verse translation
|head1=Original text in pre-reform Russian
|lang=ru-petr1708
|head2=Text in post-reform Russian
|lang2=ru-luna1918
|italicsoff=yes
|italicsoff2=yes
|На берегу пустынныхъ волнъ
Стоялъ онъ, думъ великихъ полнъ,
И вдаль глядѣлъ. Предъ нимъ широко
Рѣка неслася; бѣдный челнъ
По ней стремился одиноко.
По мшистымъ, топкимъ берегамъ
Чернѣли избы здѣсь и тамъ,
Пріютъ убогаго чухонца;
И лѣсъ, невѣдомый лучамъ
Въ туманѣ спрятаннаго солнца,
Кругомъ шумѣлъ.

[...]

Прошло сто лѣтъ, и юный градъ,
Полнощныхъ странъ краса и диво,
Изъ тьмы лѣсовъ, изъ топи блатъ
Вознесся пышно, горделиво;
Гдѣ прежде финскій рыболовъ,
Печальный пасынокъ природы,
Одинъ у низкихъ береговъ
Бросалъ въ невѣдомыя воды
Свой ветхой неводъ, нынѣ тамъ
По оживленнымъ берегамъ
Громады стройныя тѣснятся
Дворцовъ и башенъ; корабли
Толпой со всѣхъ концовъ земли
Къ богатымъ пристанямъ стремятся;
Въ гранитъ одѣлася Нева;
Мосты повисли надъ водами;
Темно-зелеными садами
Ея покрылись острова,
И передъ младшею столицей
Померкла старая Москва,
Какъ передъ новою царицей
Порфироносная вдова.

Люблю тебя, Петра творенье,
Люблю твой строгій, стройный видъ,
Невы державное теченье,
Береговой ея гранитъ,
Твоихъ оградъ узоръ чугунный,
Твоихъ задумчивыхъ ночей
Прозрачный сумракъ, блескъ безлунный,
Когда я въ комнатѣ моей
Пишу, читаю безъ лампады,
И ясны спящія громады
Пустынныхъ улицъ, и свѣтла
Адмиралтейская игла[...]

Красуйся, градъ Петровъ, и стой
Неколебимо какъ Россія,
Да умирится же съ тобой
И побѣжденная стихія;
Вражду и плѣнъ старинный свой
Пусть волны финскія забудутъ
И тщетной злобою не будутъ
Тревожить вѣчный сонъ Петра!

|На берегу пустынных волн
Стоял он, дум великих полн,
И вдаль глядел. Пред ним широко
Река неслася; бедный челн
По ней стремился одиноко.
По мшистым, топким берегам
Чернели избы здесь и там,
Приют убогого чухонца;
И лес, неведомый лучам
В тумане спрятанного солнца,
Кругом шумел.

[...]

Прошло сто лет, и юный град,
Полнощных стран краса и диво,
Из тьмы лесов, из топи блат
Вознесся пышно, горделиво;
Где прежде финский рыболов,
Печальный пасынок природы,
Один у низких берегов
Бросал в неведомые воды
Свой ветхой невод, ныне там
По оживленным берегам
Громады стройные теснятся
Дворцов и башен; корабли
Толпой со всех концов земли
К богатым пристаням стремятся;
В гранит оделася Нева;
Мосты повисли над водами;
Темно-зелеными садами
Ее покрылись острова,
И перед младшею столицей
Померкла старая Москва,
Как перед новою царицей
Порфироносная вдова.

Люблю тебя, Петра творенье,
Люблю твой строгий, стройный вид,
Невы державное теченье,
Береговой ее гранит,
Твоих оград узор чугунный,
Твоих задумчивых ночей
Прозрачный сумрак, блеск безлунный,
Когда я в комнате моей
Пишу, читаю без лампады,
И ясны спящие громады
Пустынных улиц, и светла
Адмиралтейская игла[...]

Красуйся, град Петров, и стой
Неколебимо как Россия,
Да умирится же с тобой
И побежденная стихия;
Вражду и плен старинный свой
Пусть волны финские забудут
И тщетной злобою не будут
Тревожить вечный сон Петра!
}}

== Mid-20th-century changes ==
While there have not been any significant changes since the 1918 decree, debates and fluctuations have to some degree continued.

In December 1942, the use of letter [[Yo (Cyrillic)|Ё]] was made mandatory by Decree No. 1825 of the People's Commissariat of Education.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.kaznachey.com/doc/aNN9NLR0BYR/text/|title=ПРИКАЗ Наркомпроса РСФСР от 24.12.1942 N 1825|website=www.kaznachey.com|access-date=2 August 2019|archive-date=27 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190727072928/http://www.kaznachey.com/doc/ann9nlr0byr/text|url-status=live}}</ref> Since then, Ё is taught in schools as the seventh letter of the Russian alphabet (before 1942, it was usually considered a modification of Е and not a separate letter). However, the consistent use of Ё did not consolidate its grip in general publication; the usual typographic practice reverted to selective use of Ё (to show pronunciation of rare words and to distinguish words that are otherwise homographs). By 1952, normatives on checking school works, the ''[[Great Soviet Encyclopedia]]'', and the reference book for typographers by K. I. Bylinsky had declared the letter Ё to be optional.

A codification of the [[Rules of Russian Orthography and Punctuation|rules of Russian orthography and punctuation]]<ref>{{cite book |script-title=ru:Правила русской орфографии и пунктуации |trans-title=Rules of Russian Spelling and Punctuation |location=Leningrad, Soviet Union |publisher=Academy of Sciences of the USSR |year=1956 }}</ref> and the ''Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language''<ref>Орфографический словарь русского языка : 110 000 слов / Акад. наук СССР, Ин-т языкознания; [под ред. С. И. Ожегова и А. Б. Шапиро]. – Москва : ГИС, 1956. – 1259, [2] с.</ref> were published in 1956 but only a few minor orthographic changes were introduced at that time.<ref>These include the changing of "{{lang|ru-luna1918|цы}}" to "{{lang|ru-luna1918|ци}}" in a few words such as "{{lang|ru-luna1918|панцирь}}" and adding a hyphen to the words "{{lang|ru-luna1918|по-видимому}}" and "{{lang|ru-luna1918|по-прежнему}}". [http://www.grammatik.narod.ru/reforma.htm Отбой учебной тревоги] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303193320/http://www.grammatik.narod.ru/reforma.htm |date=3 March 2016 }} {{in lang|ru}}</ref> Those editions gave end to a number of variant spellings that existed in dictionaries and in usage of typographers and best writers at that time.<ref>For example: pre-1956 spellings идти/итти, прийти/придти, пенснэ/пенсне, диета/диэта, танцевать/танцовать, деревенеть/деревянеть, дощатый/досчатый were set in 1956 to be spelled идти, прийти, пенсне, диета, танцевать, деревенеть, дощатый. [https://fb2.top/russkoe-pravopisanie-segodnya-o-laquo-pravilah-russkoy-orfografii-i-punktuacii-raquo-361674/read Русское правописание сегодня: О «Правилах русской орфографии и пунктуации»] {{in lang|ru}}</ref> The 1956 codification additionally included a clarification of new rules for punctuation developed during the 1930s, and which had not been mentioned in the 1918 decree.<ref name="ComrieEtAl1996" />

A notable instance of renewed debate followed A. I. Efimov's 1962 publication of an article in ''[[Izvestia]]''.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Eloquence and Orthography |journal=Izvestia |date=24 March 1962 |last=Efimov |first=A. I. }}{{full citation needed|reason=Use Russian title in addition to English translation. Link to web copy if accessible|date=February 2024}}</ref><ref name="Klein1964">{{cite journal |title=Recent Soviet Discussion on Reform of Russian Orthography |journal=The Slavic and East European Journal |year=1964 |last=Klein |first=Kurt |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=54–61 |doi=10.2307/303976 |jstor=303976 }}</ref> The article proposed extensive reform to move closer to a phonetic representation of the language.<ref>{{cite journal |title=A Note on Russian Orthography |journal=The Slavic and East European Journal |year=1993 |last=Benson |first=Morton |volume=37 |issue=4 |pages=530–532 |jstor=308460 |doi=10.2307/308460 }}</ref> Following the renewed discussion in papers and journals, a new Orthographic Commission began work in 1962, under the [[Russian Language Institute|Russian Language Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR]]. The Commission published its report, {{lang|ru-luna1918|Предложения по усовершенствованию русской орфографии}} (Proposal for the Improvement of Russian Orthography), in 1964.<ref name="Protchenko1964">{{cite journal |last1=Protchenko |first1=Ivan F. |last2=Zhovtobryukh |first2=Mikhail A. |last3=Rusanovski |first3=Vitaliy M. |date=1964 |script-title=ru:Предложения по усовершенствованию русской орфографии |trans-title=Proposal for the Improvement of Russian Orthography |url=https://vja.ruslang.ru/archive/1964-6.pdf |language=ru |script-journal=ru:Вопросы Языкознания |trans-journal=Questions of Linguistics |issue=6 |pages=17–25 |access-date=26 September 2018 |archive-date=5 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180205162412/http://www.ruslang.ru/doc/voprosy/voprosy1964-6.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> The publication resulted in widespread debate in newspapers, journals, and on radio and television, as well as over 10,000 letters, all of which were passed to the institute.<ref name="ComrieEtAl1996" />

Responses to the article pointed to the need to simplify Russian spelling due to the use of Russian as the language of international communication in the Soviet Union and an increased study of Russian in the Eastern Bloc as well as in the West. That instruction for non-native speakers of Russian was one of the central concerns of further reform is indicated in the resistance to Efimov's proposal to drop the terminal "ь" (soft sign) from feminine nouns, as it helps learners identify gender category. Additionally, Efimov claimed that a disproportionate amount of primary school class time was devoted to orthography, rather than phonetics and morphology. Efimov asserted that the existing orthography was essentially unchanged since Grot's codification, and that only by bringing orthography closer to phonetic realization, and eliminating exceptions and variants, could appropriate attention be paid to stylistics and the "development of speech culture". The state's focus on proper instruction in Russian, as the national language of ethnic Russians, as the state language, and as the language of international communication continues to the present day.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Yudina |first1=Natal'ya |script-title=ru:Русский язык в XXI веке: Кризис? Эволюция? Прогресс? |trans-title=Russian Language in the 21st Century: Crisis? Evolution? Progress? |location=Moscow |publisher=Gnozis |year=2010 |isbn=978-5-94244-036-7 }}</ref><ref name="Klein1964" /><ref name="Klein2016">{{cite thesis |type=MA |last=Klein |first=Elena |date=2016 |title=Entwicklung der russischen Orthographie des 20. und 21. Jahrhunderts |trans-title=The Development of Russian Orthography in the 20th and 21st Centuries |language=de |institution=University of Vienna |url=https://ubdata.univie.ac.at/AC13236816 |access-date=26 September 2018 |archive-date=25 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220125062044/https://usearch.univie.ac.at/primo-explore/fulldisplay?docid=UWI_alma21226940910003332&context=L&adaptor=Local%20Search%20Engine&vid=UWI&lang=de_DE&search_scope=UWI_UBBestand&tab=default_tab&query=addsrcrid,exact,AC13236816 |url-status=live }}</ref> Eventually, the 1964 project remained a dead proposal.

==Encoding==
The [[IETF language tag]]s have been registered:<ref name="IANA">{{cite web |title=IETF Language Subtag Registry |url=https://www.iana.org/assignments/language-subtag-registry/language-subtag-registry |website=IANA |access-date=7 October 2021 |language=en |date=2021-08-06 |archive-date=12 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171112063905/http://www.iana.org/assignments/language-subtag-registry/language-subtag-registry |url-status=live }}</ref>
*{{code|ru-petr1708}} for text from the Peter reforms of 1708 until the 1917–18 reforms.
*{{code|ru-luna1918}} for text following the 1917–18 reforms.

==See also==
* [[Yoficator]]

==References and notes==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
* [http://www.russportal.ru/index.php?id=oldorth.iljin Criticism of the 1918 reform] {{in lang|ru}}
* [http://podolak.net/en/transliteration CyrAcademisator] Bi-directional online transliteration for ALA-LC (diacritics), scientific, ISO/R 9, ISO 9, GOST 7.79B and others. Supports pre-reform characters
* [http://russiasgreatwar.org/media/culture/orthography.shtml The Writing on the Wall: The Russian Orthographic Reform of 1918]
* [http://slavenica.com/ Славеница (Slavenitsa): online converter from post-1918 to pre-1918 Russian]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Reforms of Russian Orthography}}
[[Category:Russian orthography]]
[[Category:Orthography reform|Russian]]