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{{Short description|Native American youth movement}}
{{Redirect|Red Power|Bolshevik power|Russian Civil War|Farmall power|Farmall}}
{{Use American English|date = April 2019}}
{{Use mdy dates|date = April 2019}}
{{Infobox civil conflict
| title        = Red Power movement
| side3        =
| partof       = [[Civil rights movements]]
| image        = Flag of the American Indian Movement.svg
| image_size   = frameless
| alt          = Flag depicting four vertical bars with colors black, yellow, white, and red from left to right and red circle-enclosed hand giving peace symbol with profile of person merged in right of hand
| caption      = Flag of the [[American Indian Movement]]
| date         = 1960s – 1970s
| place        = Mainly the [[United States]], also [[Canada]]
| result       = 
| coordinates  = 
| causes       = Oppression of American Indians
| goals        = Recognition by US, American Indian awareness
| methods      = [[Occupation (protest)|Occupation]]s, [[Revolution|Armed Struggle]], [[Protest]]
| status       =
| side1        = '''Red Power Groups''' 
Armed Groups
*[[American Indian Movement]]
Unarmed Groups
*[[Lakota Freedom Movement]]
*[[National Council on Indian Opportunity]]
| side2        = {{flagicon|United States|size=16px}} '''[[US Government|Government of the United States]]'''

*[[United States Congress]]
*[[Bureau of Indian Affairs]]
*[[Law enforcement in the United States|Municipal Police]]
*[[National Congress of American Indians]]

| leadfigures1 = {{bulleted list|[[Dennis Banks]]|[[Clyde Bellecourt]]|[[Vernon Bellecourt]]}}{{Clarify|date=June 2022}}
| leadfigures2 = {{bulleted list|[[President of the United States|Government Leaders]]|[[Chief of police|Police leaders]]|[[Tribe (Native American)|Tribal governments]]}}{{Clarify|date=June 2022}}
}}

The '''Red Power movement''' was a social movement which was led by [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] youth who demanded [[self-determination]] for Native Americans in the United States. Organizations that were part of the Red Power Movement include the [[American Indian Movement]] (AIM) and the [[National Indian Youth Council]] (NIYC).<ref name=":02">{{Cite book|title=Red power : the Native Americans' fight for freedom|last=M.|first=Josephy, Alvin|date=1999-01-01|publisher=Univ. of Nebraska Press|isbn=978-0803276116|oclc=246350552|url=https://archive.org/details/redpoweramerican00jose_0}}</ref> This movement advocated the belief that Native Americans should have the right to implement their own policies and programs along with the belief that Native Americans should maintain and control their own land and resources.<ref name=":02" /> The Red Power movement took a confrontational and civil disobedience approach in an attempt to incite changes in Native American affairs in the United States<ref name=":23">{{Cite book |last=Allen |first=Warrior, Robert |url=https://archive.org/details/likehurricaneind0000smit |title=Like a hurricane : the Native American movement from Alcatraz to Wounded Knee |date=1996-01-01 |publisher=New Press |isbn=9781565844025 |oclc=909325616 |url-access=registration}}</ref> compared to using negotiations and settlements, which national Native American groups such as [[National Congress of American Indians]] had before.<ref name=":02" /> Red Power centered around mass action, militant action, and unified action.<ref name=":32">{{Cite web|url=https://redpowermedia.wordpress.com/2014/01/03/from-the-red-power-movement-to-idle-no-more/|title=From the Red Power Movement to Idle No More|last=Lannon|first=Valerie|date=2014-01-03|website=Red Power Media|access-date=2017-04-10}}</ref>

The phrase "'''Red Power'''", attributed to the author [[Vine Deloria, Jr]], was commonly used by Native Americans who developed a growing sense of pan-Indian identity with other [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|American Indians]] in the United States  in the late 1960s.<ref name=":32" />

Some of the events which the movement was involved in throughout the era included the [[Occupation of Alcatraz]], the [[Trail of Broken Treaties]], the [[Wounded Knee incident|Occupation of Wounded Knee]], and numerous intermittent protests and occupations.<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.cr.nps.gov/museum/exhibits/alca/indian.html | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051029031424/http://www.cr.nps.gov/museum/exhibits/alca/indian.html | url-status=dead | archive-date=October 29, 2005 | title=National Park Service - Museum Management Program}}</ref> The lasting impression of the Red Power movement was the resurrection of American Indian pride, action, and awareness.<ref name=":23"/> Many bills and laws were also enacted in favor of American Indians in response to the Red Power movement, one of the most important being the reversal of tribe recognition termination.<ref name=":1" />

== Early Indigenous Activism and the Roots of Red Power ==
[[File:Representatives of various tribes attending organizational meeting of the National Congress of American Indians... - NARA - 298658.jpg|thumb|1944 Meeting of National Congress of American Indians]]
Although the Red Power movement is commonly associated with the late 1960s and early 1970s, its foundations were laid in earlier decades through Indigenous resistance to federal policies of termination and assimilation. Organizations such as the National Congress of American Indians (NCAI), founded in 1944, and the Association on American Indian Affairs (AAIA) played a crucial role in advocating for Native rights within the political system. These groups pushed back against policies that sought to dissolve tribal governments and assimilate Indigenous peoples into mainstream American society.

While these early efforts were often non-confrontational and reformist in nature, they were instrumental in cultivating a sense of pan-Indian identity and laying the groundwork for more radical forms of activism. During the 1950s and early 1960s, Native leaders participated in national political discourse, lobbying Congress, engaging in legal challenges, and organizing educational initiatives. These activities helped prepare a generation of young Indigenous activists who, inspired by the civil rights and Black Power movements, would later lead direct action campaigns under the banner of Red Power.

Scholars such as Daniel Cobb argue that the activism of this era should be seen not as separate from but as part of a broader continuum that culminated in Red Power. The movement's emergence was not a sudden rupture but rather a shift in strategy and tone, as Indigenous activists increasingly embraced direct action, media-savvy protest, and a more confrontational stance toward the federal government.

From 1953 to 1964, the United States government terminated recognition of more than 100 tribes and bands as sovereign dependent nations with the [[House concurrent resolution 108|House Concurrent Resolution 108]]. This resolution stated that the tribes would be under US law and treated as American citizens instead of having the status as wards of the US.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web|url=http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/vol6/html_files/v6p0614.html|title=INDIAN AFFAIRS: LAWS AND TREATIES. Vol. 6, Laws|last=Library|first=Oklahoma State University|website=digital.library.okstate.edu|access-date=2017-04-17}}</ref> The affected tribes were no longer protected by the government and stripped of their right to govern their own people.

[[Indian Relocation Act of 1956|The Relocation Act of 1956]] resulted in as many as 750,000 American Indians migrating to cities during the period from 1950 to 1980.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/indiancountry/history/relocate.html|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130702172947/http://www.pbs.org/indiancountry/history/relocate.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=July 2, 2013|title=Indian Country Diaries . History . 1950s Relocation Program|website=www.pbs.org|access-date=2017-04-17}}</ref> This Act was implemented to encourage and provide support for American Indians to find jobs in cities and improve their lives from the poverty-ridden reservations. The government offered vocational training, housing, and financial support for those who chose to relocate. These promised amenities were often not provided or inadequately provided, resulting in American Indians distanced from their cultural lands and economically worse off than before.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Walls|first1=Melissa L.|last2=Whitbeck|first2=Les B.|title=The Intergenerational Effects of Relocation Policies on Indigenous Families|journal=Journal of Family Issues|language=en|volume=33|issue=9|pages=1272–1293|doi=10.1177/0192513x12447178|pmid=23024447|pmc=3457652|year=2012}}</ref>

The Relocation and Termination era described above fueled the resistance of American Indians. The oldest recognized National American Indian group was [[National Congress of American Indians]] (NCAI), established in 1944.<ref name=":12">{{Cite book|title=Dictionary of American history / 10 Contributors, Learning Guide, and Index.|last=I.|first=Kutler, Stanley|date=2003-01-01|publisher=Scribner's Sons|isbn=978-0684805337|oclc=163306494}}</ref> NCAI set a precedent by successfully being the first multi-tribal political organization run entirely by Indians. NCAI fought against voting discrimination, against the termination of [[Government-to-government|government to government]] relationship between the US and native tribes, and against US interference in tribal counsels. They aimed to close gaps between Indians who lived on reservations and those who had relocated to cities, elderly and Indian Youth, and different tribes from one another.<ref name=":12" /> NCAI was the main political organization that preceded the Red Power Movement.<ref name=":02"/>

== Main organizations involved ==

=== American Indian Movement ===
{{Main|American Indian Movement}}
At the forefront of the Red Power Movement was American Indian Movement (AIM), which was founded in 1968 in [[Minneapolis, Minnesota]]. Originally a movement that focused on responding to cases of racial profiling and police brutality which was the initial cause of their rise of recognition. Its members belonged to and mainly represented urban Indian communities, and its leaders were young and militant.  Like the [[Black Panther Party|Black Panthers]] and the [[Brown Berets]], AIM was initially organized for the purpose of advocating [[Native American civil rights|Indian civil rights]] in cities.  Its members monitored the practices of law enforcement agencies, and they also attempted to document and prevent acts of police harassment and [[Police brutality in the United States|brutality]].  AIM soon played a major role in building a network of [[urban Indian]] centers, churches, and [[philanthropic organization]]s.  It helped establish the "[[powwow circuit]]," which publicized news about protest activities across the country. It is also working towards coordinating employment programs for people all around the United States. Skillful in attracting attention from the news media, AIM inspired local chapters and writing about American Indian political issues.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aimovement.org/ggc/history.html|title= A Brief History of the American Indian Movement|website=www.aimovement.org|access-date=2017-04-17}}</ref> By late 1972 and early 1973 –the height of its activism– the American Indian Movement had significantly changed and moved away from civil rights and urban issues towards treaty rights and reservation politics. During the 71-day occupation of the tiny hamlet of Wounded Knee, South Dakota, AIM declared the Independent Oglala Nation (ION) and set up a warrior society.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Voigt |first=Matthias André |title=Reinventing the warrior: masculinity and nation-building in the American Indian Movement, 1968-1973 |date=2024 |publisher=University Press of Kansas |isbn=978-0-7006-3698-3 |series= |location=Lawrence}}</ref>

=== National Indian Youth Council ===
{{Main|National Indian Youth Council}}
The National Indian Youth Council (NIYC) was founded in 1961 by young American Indians who were college students or recent college graduates.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/history/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/national-indian-youth-council|title=National Indian Youth Council - Dictionary definition of National Indian Youth Council {{!}} Encyclopedia.com: FREE online dictionary|website=www.encyclopedia.com|language=en|access-date=2017-04-24}}</ref> The goal of these individuals was to protect the rights of Indian treaty, hunting, and fishing. After it was founded, their actions changed to fight for Native American rights, their idea was to go a different direction which was direct action. Direct action meant fish-ins and protest marches also inspiring the American Indian Movement (AIM) to also take this direct action in their movement. They were one of the first militant Indian rights organizations following the conservative ways of the NCAI. NIYC were strong opponents of the Bureau of Indian Affairs and were involved in many of the events in the Red Power Movement.<ref name=":9" /> Like AIM, the council believed in and fought for the recognition of tribes federally and reinstating tribal governance.

=== Women of All Red Nations ===
{{Main|Women of All Red Nations}}
Women of All Red Nations (WARN) emerged in 1974 from the main founders, [[Lorelei DeCora Means]], [[Madonna Thunder Hawk|Madonna Thunderhawk]], [[Phyllis Young]], [[Janet McCloud]], and others.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/redpoweramerican00jose_0|url-access=registration|page=[https://archive.org/details/redpoweramerican00jose_0/page/51 51]|title=Red Power: The American Indians' Fight for Freedom|last1=Josephy|first1=Alvin M.|last2=Nagel|first2=Joane|last3=Johnson|first3=Troy R.|date=1999|publisher=U of Nebraska Press|isbn=978-0803225879|language=en}}</ref> WARN acted as a branch from AIM that focused on American Indian women's reproductive, family rights, and individual civil rights. WARN included millions of women from numerous different tribes. Not only these rights but also treaty rights that was inclusive of social, economic, and environmental. Main issues that WARN fought against were the forced sterilization of Native women and the lack of adequate health services on the reservations.<ref name=":11">{{Cite news|url=http://equalityarchive.com/issues/women-of-all-red-nations/|title=Women of All Red Nations {{!}} Equality Archive|date=2015-11-03|work=Equality Archive|access-date=2017-04-24|language=en-US}}</ref> WARN took action by becoming involved in Indian custody battles, protesting mining companies who were poisoning food and water sources, and collecting data on Indian women who had been sterilized without consent.<ref name=":11" />

=== International Indian Treaty Council ===
{{Main|International Indian Treaty Council}}
The International Indian Treaty Council (IITC) was founded in 1974 in Standing Rock, South Dakota. More than 98 Indigenous tribes were represented by over 5000 people at this first gathering. IITC grew into a voice for Indians internationally—covering North, Central, and South America, the Caribbean, and the Pacific.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.iitc.org/about-iitc/|title=About IITC / Acerca de CITI - iitc.org|website=www.iitc.org|language=en-US|access-date=2017-04-24}}</ref> IITC focuses on the pursuit of sovereignty and self-determination for indigenous peoples through activism, training, and unified gatherings. As the first indigenous organization to be granted Consultive Status by the [[United Nations Economic and Social Council]] (ECOSOC) in 1977, IITC was able to represent the concerns and fight for the acknowledgement of indigenous rights to the UN.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.aimovement.org/iitc/|title=International Indian Treaty Council & AIM Speakers Bureau|website=www.aimovement.org|access-date=2017-04-24}}</ref>

== Events ==
From 1969 to the [[Longest Walk of 1978]], the Red Power Movement highlighted issues through social protest.  Its goals were for the federal government to honor treaty obligations and provide financial "resources, education, housing and healthcare to alleviate poverty."<ref name="Alcatraz Is Not an Island">[https://archive.today/20120527034921/http://www.pbs.org/itvs/alcatrazisnotanisland/activism.html "Alcatraz Is Not an Island"], ''Indian Activism'', pbs.org, accessed 10 Nov 2009</ref>  The RPM wanted to gain Indian participation in social institutions; it was instrumental in supporting the founding of Indian colleges, as well as the creation of [[Indian studies]] programs at existing institutions, and the establishment of museums and cultural centers to celebrate Indian contributions.

The 1960s marked the beginning of a "[[Native American Renaissance]]" in literature.  New books such as [[Vine Deloria, Jr.]]'s ''[[Custer Died for Your Sins]]'' (1969) and the classic ''[[Black Elk Speaks]]'' (1961), reprinted from the 1930s, reached millions of readers inside and outside Indian communities.  A wide variety of [[Native American writers|Indian writers]], historians, and [[essayists]] gained publication following these successes and new authors were widely read.  [[N. Scott Momaday]] won the [[Pulitzer Prize]] for one of his novels and [[Leslie Silko]] received acclaim.  Fiction and nonfiction works about Indian life and lore have continued to attract a large audience. Authors such as [[Louise Erdrich]] and [[Michael Dorris]] have earned continued recognition.  Since the late twentieth century, novels by [[Sherman Alexie]] have been adapted for film as well.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Native American renaissance|last=Kenneth.|first=Lincoln|date=1992-01-01|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=9780520054578|oclc=223155553|url=https://archive.org/details/nativeamericanre00linc}}</ref>

=== Occupation of Alcatraz  ===
The [[Occupation of Alcatraz]] began on November 20, 1969 when more than 80 young, mostly college aged American Indians, who identified themselves as [[United Indians of All Tribes|Indians of All Tribes (IAT)]]<ref name=":32"/> boarded boats to approach and occupy [[Alcatraz Island]] overnight. The young American Indians settled with the legal backing of a [[Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868)|Sioux Treaty]] that named any federal "out of use" land available for Indians. The US federal government had closed the Alcatraz federal prison and the island was no longer in use as of 1962. This treaty was used to send the message that treaties are still relevant and should be honored.<ref name=":23"/>  
[[File:Alcatraz Occupation "Welcome to Indian Land" graffiti.jpeg|thumb|352x352px|Sign in Alcatraz (1969)]]
The occupation had been planned ahead of time by [[Adam Nordwall]], a successful Indian businessman, and [[Richard Oakes (activist)|Richard Oakes]], a [[San Francisco State University|San Francisco State]] student. The two agreed to and told sympathetic media outlets about their plan to take over Alcatraz at a dinner party hosted by ''San Francisco Chronicle'' reporter Tim Findley. They threatened that if there were any leaks of the story early, the plan to occupy Alcatraz would be called off.<ref name=":23"/> Their first attempt, on November 9, 1969—the date the media had been told—resulted in circling the island in a boat with media coverage from all over the Bay Area. Although they did not begin the occupation that night, Oakes jumped off of the circling boat as others followed and swam to Alcatraz. After making it to Alcatraz, the young Indians were removed by Coast Guard that night but would be back in much larger numbers on November 20.<ref name=":23"/>{{Quote box
| title = Excerpt From Alcatraz Proclamation
| quote = We feel that this so-called Alcatraz Island is more than suitable as an Indian Reservation, as determined by the white man's own standards. By this we mean that this place resembles most Indian reservations, in that:
1. It is isolated from modern facilities, and without adequate means of transportation.

2. It has no fresh running water.

3. The sanitation facilities are inadequate.

4. There are no oil or mineral rights.

5. There is no industry and so unemployment is very great.

6. There are no health care facilities.

7. The soil is rocky and non-productive and the land does not support game.

8. There are no educational facilities.

9. The population has always been held as prisoners and kept dependent upon others.
| source = ''Alcatraz Proclamation: To the Great White Father and All His People''
| width = 50%
}}During the occupation, IAT released a statement called the [[Alcatraz Proclamation]] which explained that the Indians had the right to Alcatraz Island due to the right to discovery. The Proclamation went on to describe the deserted prison island as comparable to the conditions of the Indian Reservations.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.foundsf.org/index.php?title=ALCATRAZ_Proclamation|title=ALCATRAZ Proclamation - FoundSF|website=www.foundsf.org|language=en|access-date=2017-04-11}}</ref> IAT was also joined by National Indian Youth Council (NIYC) during the Alcatraz movement and the growing group of young, educated, and passionate American Indians made their presence known in the media.<ref name=":23"/> Richard Oakes became the public figure for the occupation and participated in the press conferences for releases of documents such as the Alcatraz Proclamation and goals for the island which included building cultural centers, educational facilities, and recreational spaces for Indians to be together as Indians.<ref>{{Citation|last=Intelligent Channel|title=Richard Oakes delivering the Alcatraz Proclamation (1969) - from THE EDUCATION ARCHIVE|date=2013-03-21|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7QNfUE7hBUc |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211213/7QNfUE7hBUc |archive-date=2021-12-13 |url-status=live|access-date=2017-04-11}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

The Occupation of Alcatraz ended after a series of disorienting events on the island. The January 1970 death of Richard Oakes' 13-year-old stepdaughter due to falling from a building brought Richard and his wife Anne back to the mainland.<ref name=":23"/> Some of the student occupiers went back to school when the Oakes' left. A problem of drug and alcohol abuse also became prominent on the island, which affected the occupations reputation.<ref name=":23"/> The remaining leaders were [[John Trudell]], [[LaNada Means]], and [[Stella Leach]], who could not end up agreeing on a way to further develop the occupation. Electricity and water being cut off to the island by May, and a suspicious fire that burned three buildings were further factors that led to the dismantling of the occupation.<ref name=":23"/> Protestors continued to depart from the island during the downward spiral. On June 11, 1971 a large number of police officers used force to remove the remaining few protestors.<ref name=":02"/>

Although the protesters ultimately failed to achieve their specific goals, they helped catalyze  the Indian community.  With the occupation of Alcatraz, a participant said, "we got back our worth, our pride, our dignity, our humanity."<ref>{{cite journal |jstor=2096434 |title=American Indian Ethnic Renewal: Politics and the Resurgence of Identity |first=Joane |last=Nagel |journal=[[American Sociological Review]] |volume=60 |number=6 |date=Dec 1995 |pages=947–965 |doi=10.2307/2096434 }}</ref>

=== Occupation of D-Q University ===
With young, college aged students at the center of many Red Power movement protests, the pursuit of higher education, particularly for American Indians became a main initiative. In 1970, while the Alcatraz occupation was still occurring, a group of Indian youth took over US military surplus land near Davis, California. These youth had applied for the land but were denied access after [[University of California, Davis|UC Davis]] was granted access, regardless of UC Davis' legally incomplete application. In retaliation, the Native American and Chicano student activists hopped the fences onto the property leading to the establishment and occupation of [[D–Q University|D-Q University]].<ref name=":04">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AuOXYesYSn0C&q=DQ+university&pg=PA134|title=American Indian Activism: Alcatraz to the Longest Walk|last1=Johnson|first1=Troy R.|last2=Nagel|first2=Joane|last3=Champagne|first3=Duane|date=1997-01-01|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=9780252066535|language=en}}</ref> Named after Deganawidah, a peace-giver of the Iroquois Confederacy, and Quetzalcoatl, a Mesoamerican cultural hero, to symbolize unity between Native American and Chicano communities, D-Q University became the first Native American-controlled Indian-Chicano college in the U.S., embodying the Red Power movement's goals of cultural preservation and educational self-determination.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lutz |first=Hartmut |date=September 1980 |title=D-Q University: Native American Self-Determination in Higher Education |url=https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED209049 |journal=UC-Davis: Department of Applied Behavioral Sciences/Native American Studies |pages=150}}</ref> D-Q University became the first tribal university that was established in California, and the first that was not affiliated with a single reservation. A deed was granted to the student occupation in April 1971.<ref name=":04" /> Since then, D-Q University became part of the [[Tribal colleges and universities|Tribal Colleges and Universities]] and received accreditation in 1977. The curriculum of D-Q University included cultural and traditional focused education in order to educate Indians about Indians.<ref name=":04" /> The university struggled to keep enrollment rates up and secure funding, which resulted in the ultimate loss of accreditation in 2005. However, the occupation that created D-Q University highlighted the importance of higher education for American Indians to the Red Power Movement.

=== Trail of Broken Treaties ===
[[File:Seal of the United States Bureau of Indian Affairs.svg|thumb|BIA seal]]
In August 1972, the Red Power movement continued under the direction of American Indian Movement(AIM) with the [[Trail of Broken Treaties|trail of broken treaties]]. The trail of broken treaties, a play on the "[[Trail of Tears]]," was the migration of seven caravans from areas across the west coast to the [[Bureau of Indian Affairs]] (BIA) in Washington D.C.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|url=http://www.framingredpower.org/narrative/tbt/|title=Framing Red Power|last=Heppler|first=Jason A.|website=www.framingredpower.org|access-date=2017-04-17}}</ref> The BIA had become widely associated with corruption and not acting in the best interest of the American Indians.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|url=https://washingtonspark.wordpress.com/2013/03/26/native-americans-take-over-bureau-of-indian-affairs-1972/|title=Native Americans Take Over Bureau of Indian Affairs: 1972|date=2013-03-26|website=Washington Area Spark|access-date=2017-04-17}}</ref> The protestors started arriving in D.C. on November 1 with the intent of bringing a [[Twenty Points|list of twenty demands]] to the BIA.<ref name=":4" /> Upon arrival, the activists and GSA security had a misunderstanding about the activists being housed in the BIA building. This resulted in the activists overpowering the security and taking over the building. The American Indians then barricaded the doors, with furniture from the BIA they had broken apart, and the occupation began on November 2, 1972.<ref name=":5" /> This occupation of the BIA had started the week before the presidential election, making a D.C. occupation the center of media attention. Threats of police force were used daily against the Indians if they did not come out. Supporters from outside of the occupation would come to the BIA to create a human barricade keeping the police from entering the occupied building.<ref name=":5" /> On November 6, a judge had given an order for the occupiers to vacate the building before 6 pm that day or they would be forcibly evicted.<ref name=":5" /> As the Indians braced for eviction, some exited the building to create a perimeter around it with clubs, spears and other weaponry to resist.  Others inside the building were rumored to have guns and explosives awaiting the invasion of GSA officials.<ref name=":5" /> The spokesman of the occupation, [[Russell Means|Russel Means]], spoke on the front stairs of the BIA explaining that the occupation would end when their demands had been met, and no time sooner. The deadline for the Indians to leave was pushed back yet again to November 8. Before this date, Indian lawyers had discovered evidence that would essentially abolish the BIA with exposure of corruption and misuse of the program.<ref name=":5" /> On November 8, the protestors left the BIA building with paintings, artifacts, and $2 million worth of damage.

=== Wounded Knee ===
The [[Wounded Knee incident|Wounded Knee Incident]] started on February 27, 1973 and lasted 71 days. More than 200 Indians in support of the Oglala Sioux people of Pine Ridge Reservation took over the town of Wounded Knee, South Dakota. The Oglala Sioux Civil Rights Organization (OSCRO), a group of mostly full-Indian women that lived on Pine Ridge Reservation had been unsuccessful in a trial to impeach Dick Wilson, who was the chairman of the Oglala Sioux Tribal Council.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0OEzAiB8U6EC&q=Oglala+Sioux+Civil+Rights+Organization+%28OSCRO%29&pg=PA173|title=Ruling Pine Ridge: Oglala Lakota Politics from the IRA to Wounded Knee|last=Reinhardt|first=Akim D.|date=2007-01-01|publisher=Texas Tech University Press|isbn=9780896726017|language=en}}</ref> Critics of Wilson claimed he was too close to white people, too cozy with the government, and was disrespecting his Oglala Sioux culture.<ref name=":7">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1990/02/04/obituaries/richard-wilson-55-tribal-head-in-occupation-of-wounded-knee.html|title=Richard Wilson, 55, Tribal Head In Occupation of Wounded Knee|last=Foderaro|first=Lisa W.|date=1990-02-04|work=The New York Times|access-date=2017-04-17|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Enraged that Wilson had not been impeached, OSCRO continued to gather and brainstorm a response. They decided to ask AIM for help in reacting to what they felt was an injustice. With AIM in the picture, occupying Wounded Knee was their final decision.<ref name=":6" />

Wounded Knee was chosen as a tribute to the [[Wounded Knee Massacre]] of 1890, where hundreds of Lakota Indians were killed by the 7th US Cavalry Regiment in reported efforts to disarm the Indians.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://plainshumanities.unl.edu/encyclopedia/doc/egp.war.056|title=Encyclopedia of the Great Plains {{!}} WOUNDED KNEE MASSACRE|website=plainshumanities.unl.edu|language=en|access-date=2017-04-17}}</ref> As a historical remembrance of the massacre, the town had visitor trade posts dedicated to the grave sites of the Indians that many Indians thought were disrespectful and used for commercial purposes.<ref name=":23"/> The owners of the trade posts would sell native Indian crafts for more than they had bought them and had a history of racism towards the local Indians. The occupiers attacked the trade posts first to accumulate the ammunitions and weaponry that were held there.<ref name=":23" /> The occupation formed to deliver a message that American Indians would not sit around peacefully as treaties were broken, unfair trials were given, and their land was ceded.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.aics.org/WK/wk011.html|title=American Indian Movement Documents from MSU|last=Movement|first=Mike Wicks of American Indian|website=www.aics.org|access-date=2017-04-17}}</ref> Federal agents gathered around Wounded Knee while the occupiers would host events for the media to cover in order to promote their message.<ref name=":23" /> Throughout the occupation of Wounded Knee, the protestors and federal agents would often have shootouts at night. The Indians would be shooting from inside Wounded Knee and the federal agents from the outside perimeter they had formed.<ref name=":8">{{Cite news|url=https://learning.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/05/08/may-8-1973-standoff-at-wounded-knee-comes-to-an-end/comment-page-1/?_r=0|title=May 8, 1973 {{!}} Standoff at Wounded Knee Comes to an End|last=Network|first=The Learning|work=The Learning Network|date=May 8, 2012 |access-date=2017-04-17|language=en}}</ref> From these shootouts, two Indians were killed and one federal agent was permanently paralyzed. The death of the second Indian, who was from the Pine Ridge Reservation and an Oglala Sioux, Buddy Lamont, led many Indians to seek an end to the violent occupation. On May 8, 1973 the American Indians surrendered to the surrounding federal agents after 10 weeks.<ref name=":8" /> Russell Means, one of the more recognized leaders of the AIM, negotiated with U.S. forces to release the hostages on the premises that the U.S. Senate Foreign Relations Committee hold hearings on the Indian treaties that were broken by the U.S. government as well as investigations of the Bureau of Indian Affairs and its members' attention to the living conditions at Pine Ridge.

On March 11, 1973, the occupiers declared the Independent Oglala Nation (ION) and set up a warrior society. The parallel and overlapping events speak of a nation-building project that was highly gendered.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Voigt |first=Matthias André |title=Reinventing the Warrior: Masculinity in the American Indian Movement, 1968-1973 |date=2024 |publisher=University Press of Kansas |isbn=978-0-7006-3697-6 |series= |location=Lawrence |pages=165-224}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal |last=André Voigt |first=Matthias |date=2021-04-01 |title=Warriors for a Nation: The American Indian Movement, Indigenous Men, and Nation Building at the Takeover of Wounded Knee in 1973 |url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/4w13s47v |journal=American Indian Culture and Research Journal |language=en |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=1–38 |doi=10.17953/AICRJ.45.2.VOIGT |issn=0161-6463|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Voigt |first=Matthias Andre |date=2023-11-06 |title=Warrior Women: Indigenous Women, Gender Relations, and Sexual Politics within the American Indian Movement and at Wounded Knee |url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/33s225n9 |journal=American Indian Culture and Research Journal |volume=46 |issue=3 |doi=10.17953/A3.1910 |issn=0161-6463}}</ref>

This event is not only significant because it was one of the first violent acts initiated first by the Natives, but it also led to generations of Indians getting involved in civil rights and tribal affairs.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Landry|first1=Alysa|title=Wounded Knee is hailed as one of AIM's greatest successes|url=https://indiancountrymedianetwork.com/history/events/native-history-aim-occupation-of-wounded-knee-begins/|website=Indian Country Today|publisher=Indian Country Today Media Network|access-date=17 April 2017}}</ref> The [[Nixon administration]] had earlier declared that it had wanted to end the "revolutionary Indian element", but because so many Natives took notice and began to make changes in the local governments controlling their reservations, the administration failed to end their protests and stopped trying to interfere.

Russell Means and [[Dennis Banks]], the two AIM leaders mostly in charge of Wounded Knee II, were arrested immediately after the hostages were released. However, on September 16, 1973, the charges were dropped, and they were dismissed on the account that the U.S. government had unlawfully influenced witnesses and tampered with evidence. The violence of these types of protests then continued through the rest of the 1970s.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gale - Product Login |url=https://galeapps.gale.com/apps/auth?userGroupName=mlin_oweb&sid=googleScholar&da=true&origURL=https%3A%2F%2Fgo.gale.com%2Fps%2Fi.do%3Fid%3DGALE%257CA351789186%26sid%3DgoogleScholar%26v%3D2.1%26it%3Dr%26linkaccess%3Dabs%26issn%3D00261238%26p%3DAONE%26sw%3Dw%26userGroupName%3Dmlin_oweb&prodId=AONE |access-date=2023-03-03 |website=galeapps.gale.com}}</ref>

=== List of occupations by Red Power activists ===
The following is a list of occupations by Red Power activists:<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timeline.com/photos-native-american-protest-5ca98e4627d6|title=A history of Native Americans standing up to the U.S. government, in photos|date=2016-11-03|work=Timeline|access-date=2017-04-24}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1972/02/10/archives/militancy-of-urban-indians-spurs-hope-for-change-militancy-of.html|title=Militancy of Urban Indians Spurs Hope for Change|last=Times|first=Homer Bigart Special To The New York|date=1972-02-10|work=The New York Times|access-date=2017-04-24|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>
* [[Occupation of Alcatraz]]- [[San Francisco]], CA (1969)
* Occupation of Fort Lawton - Seattle, WA (1970)<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Day the Indians Took Over Seattle's Fort Lawton—and Won Land Back |url=https://www.yesmagazine.org/social-justice/2023/08/31/indians-seattle-fort-lawton-land-back |access-date=2023-08-31 |website=YES! Magazine |language=en-US}}</ref>
* Occupations of [[Argonne National Laboratory]], [[Wrigley Field]], and Belmont Harbor Nike site - [[Chicago]], IL (early 1970s)
* Occupation of Winter Dam- [[Winter, Wisconsin|Winter, WI]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://areachicago.org/native-resurgence/|title=Native Resurgence » AREA Chicago|website=areachicago.org|language=en|access-date=2017-04-24|date=2012-01-08}}</ref> (1971)
* Occupation of abandoned Nike Missile Field- [[Richmond, California|Richmond, CA]] (1971)
* Occupation of abandoned Coast Guard station- [[Milwaukee]], WI (1971) 
* Occupation of [[Alexian Brothers' Novitiate]]- [[Gresham, Wisconsin|Gresham, WI]] (1975)
* [[Trail of Broken Treaties|Occupation of BIA]]- [[Washington, D.C.]] (1972)
* [[Wounded Knee incident|Occupation of Wounded Knee]]- [[Wounded Knee, SD]] (1973)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Voigt |first=Matthias André |title=Reinventing the Warrior: Masculinity in the American Indian Movement, 1968-1973 |date=2024 |publisher=University Press of Kansas |isbn=978-0-7006-3697-6 |series=Lyda Conley series on trailblazing indigenous futures |location=Lawrence |pages=165-224}}</ref>

== Legacy ==
The Red Power movement had accomplished many of its goals by the time direct social activism declined in the late 1970s. "By the early 1980s, over 100,000 Indian studies programs had been created in the United States. Tribal museums opened."<ref name="Alcatraz Is Not an Island" /> "D-Q University (1971) pioneered Indigenous-led education, inspiring tribal colleges and language revitalization programs (Johnson review)."  Among the most prominent of the cultural centers is the [[National Museum of the American Indian]] (NMAI), which was sponsored by Hawaii's senator [[Daniel Inouye]] and authorized by the [[US Congress]] in 1989.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://indiancountrymedianetwork.com/news/alcatraz-occupation-four-decades-ago-led-to-many-benefits-for-american-indians/|title=Alcatraz Occupation Four Decades Ago Led to Many Benefits for American Indians - Indian Country Media Network|website=indiancountrymedianetwork.com|language=en-US|access-date=2017-04-23}}</ref> The NMAI opened on [[National Mall|the Mall]] in [[Washington, DC]] in 2004. It also has a branch at the former US Customs House, on the Bowling Green in [[Lower Manhattan]].

Many laws were passed in response to the Red Power movement, one of the most notable being the [[Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975|Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act]] of 1975, which reversed the termination of federal tribe recognition.<ref name=":1" /> This act restored the recognition and government to government status to tribes, giving them control to govern their own tribes and reservations with funding provided by the government if they followed certain guidelines. Since the termination of Indian tribe recognition was a major catalyst to start the movement,<ref name=":10" /> regaining recognition was considered a huge success for RPM.

The Red Power movement also continues to make an impact on modern day issues and events. The [[Dakota Access Pipeline protests|Dakota Access Pipeline protests - Wikipedia]]<ref>{{Citation |title=Dakota Access Pipeline protests |date=2025-05-06 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dakota_Access_Pipeline_protests |access-date=2025-05-06 |language=en}}</ref> also known as the Standing Rock Protests or [[NODAPL|#NoDAPL]] were Native American protests that wanted to stop the construction of the Dakota Access Pipeline in the North area of the United States. The protest consisted of Indigenous groups, environmentalists, and allies of the cause who all wanted to prevent the construction from happening due to fear of water contamination and disrespecting historically significant lands also including their sacred lands. The protest went from April 2016-February 2017 after the National guard and law enforcement had forced it to an end. The connection between the two is about preserving the sovereignty of Native Americans and protecting the sacred lands from being destroyed by the government's actions while also bringing attention to treaty rights.

=== Laws passed in favor of American Indians during the Red Power movement ===
The following laws were passed during the movement:<ref name=":1" />
* [[Indian Education Act]] of 1972 provided additional funds to school districts with high populations of Indian children
* [[Indian Health Service]] budget doubled from 1970 to 1975, which provided funding for Indian hospitals and clinics.
* [[Northwest Indian Fisheries Commission]] (NWIFC) was established in 1975, as a result of fish-in protests. The NWIFC consists of members from 20 tribes who are recognized as natural resources co-managers with the State of Washington.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://nwifc.org|title=Northwest Indian Fisheries Commission|website=Northwest Indian Fisheries Commission|language=en-US|access-date=2017-04-23}}</ref>  
* [[Indian Health Care Improvement Act]] of 1976 was passed by Congress to improve the health-care system for American Indians. This act includes scholarships for American Indians who are looking to pursue studies in medicine, dentistry, psychiatry, nursing and pharmacy. 
* [[American Indian Religious Freedom Act]] was passed in 1978 and terminated the outlaw of Indian religious practices such as sun dance, bear dance, and the use of sweat lodges.
* [[Branch of Acknowledgement and Research]] (BAR) was created by the BIA in 1978 to process applications from tribes for federal recognition. BAR was never federally approved, but still is in control of recognizing Indian tribes.
* [[Indian Child Welfare Act]] was passed by Congress in 1978. This act was in response to years of the BIA placing Indian children in boarding schools away from their reservations. It allows tribes to have some control over adoption and placement of Indian orphan children. 
* [[Tribally Controlled Community College Assistance Act]]  of 1978 authorized community colleges to exist on reservations

==See also==
*[[American Indian Movement]]
*[[Asian American activism]]
*[[Black Lives Matter]]
*[[Black nationalism]]
*[[Black Power movement]]
*[[Black separatism]]
*[[Chiapas conflict]]
*[[Chicano movement]]
*[[Civil Rights Movement]]
*[[Civil rights movements]], worldwide
*[[Contemporary Native American issues in the United States]]
*[[History of civil rights in the United States]]
*[[Human rights in the United States]]
*[[Native American civil rights]]
*[[Native American genocide in the United States]] – the notion that Native Americans have been subjected to [[genocide]] [[History of Native Americans in the United States|throughout their history]] because of [[Racism against Native Americans in the United States|racism against them]], an aspect of [[racism in the United States]]
*[[Secession in the United States]]

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
*[[Paul Chaat Smith]] & [[Robert Allen Warrior]], ''Like a Hurricane: The Indian Movement from Alcatraz to Wounded Knee'' ([[The New Press]], 1997) {{ISBN|978-1-56584-402-5}}
*[https://kansaspress.ku.edu/9780700636976/# Matthias André Voigt (2024). ''Reinventing the Warrior: Masculinity in the American Indian Movement, 1968-1973''], Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas. ({{ISBN|978-0-70063-697-6}}).

{{American Indian Movement}}
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