View source for Rashidun army

{{Short description|Armed forces of the Muslim Rashidun Caliphate}}
{{Infobox military unit
| unit_name                     = Rashidun army
| image                         = 
| native_name                   = جيش الراشدين
| alt                           = 
| dates                         = 632–661
| allegiance                    = [[Rashidun Caliphate]]
| type                          = [[Army|Land force]]
| command_structure             = 
| garrison                      = [[Medina]] (632–657)<br/>[[Kufa]] (657–661)<br/>[[Jund Hims]] (634–?)<br/>[[Jund Dimashq]] (?–?)<br/>[[Jund al-Urdunn]] (639–?)<br/>[[Basra#Rashidun Caliphate (632–661)|Basra (632–661)]]<br/>[[Jund Filastin]] (660–?)<br/>[[Fustat]] (641–?) <br/> [[Tawakkul|Tawwaj]] (640-?)
| motto                         = 
| patron                        = 
| garrison_label                = [[Amsar|Provincial Headquarters (''Amsar'')]]
| colors_label                  = Colours
| colors                        = 
| march                         = 
| battles                       = {{plainlist|
* [[Ridda wars]]
* [[Early Muslim conquests]]
* [[First Fitna]]
}}
<!-- Commanders -->| commander1_label              = Supreme Commanders
| commander1                    = {{plainlist|
* [[Abu Bakr|Abu Bakr al-Siddiq]]
* [[Umar|Umar ibn al-Khattab]]
* [[Uthman|Uthman ibn Affan]]
* [[Ali|Ali ibn Abi Talib]]
* [[Hasan ibn Ali]]}}
| commander2_label              = Notable Commanders
| commander2                    = {{plainlist|
* [[Khalid ibn Walid]]
* [[Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah]]
* [[Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas]]
* [[Mu'adh ibn Jabal]]
* [[Amr ibn al-'As]]}}<!-- Insignia -->
| identification_symbol         = 
| identification_symbol_label   = 
| identification_symbol_2       = 
| identification_symbol_2_label = 
}}
{{Campaignbox Apostate Wars}}
{{Campaignbox Early Muslim Expansions}}
{{Campaignbox Byzantine-Arab Wars}}
{{Campaignbox Muslim conquest of Persia}}
{{Campaignbox Muslim conquest of Transoxiana}}
{{Campaignbox Wars of Caliph Umar}}

The '''Rashidun army''' ({{Langx|ar|جيش الراشدين}}) was the core of the [[Rashidun Caliphate]]'s armed forces during the [[early Muslim conquests]] in the 7th century. The army is reported to have maintained a high level of discipline, strategic prowess and organization, granting them successive victories in their various campaigns.<ref>Britain and the Arabs: Contributors: JB Glubb - author. Publisher: Hodder and Staughton. Place of Publication: London. Publication Year: 1959. Page Number:34</ref>

In its time, the Rashidun army was a very powerful and effective force. The three most successful generals of the army were [[Khalid ibn al-Walid]], who [[Muslim conquest of Persia|conquered Persian Mesopotamia]] and the [[Muslim conquest of the Levant|Roman Levant]], [[Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah]], who also conquered parts of the Roman Levant, and [[Amr ibn al-As]], who [[Muslim conquest of Egypt|conquered Roman Egypt]]. The army was a key component in the Rashidun Caliphate's territorial expansion and served as a medium for the early spread of [[Islam]] into the territories it conquered.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Team|first=Editorial|date=2018-11-03|title=The Rashidun Caliphate: international spread of Islam|url=https://thinkafrica.net/rashidun-caliphate/|access-date=2021-04-14|website=Think Africa|language=en-US}}</ref>

== Historical overview ==
{{See also|Muhammad in Medina}}

According to Tarikh at Tabari, the nucleus of the early caliphate forces were formed from the Green Division (al-Katibah al-Khadra), a unit that consisted of early converts from [[Muhajirun]] and [[Ansar (Islam)|Ansar]] that marched on to [[Conquest of Mecca|conquer Mecca]].{{sfn|al-Mubarak|1997|p=18}}

=== Ridda wars ===
{{See also|Succession to Muhammad|Abu Bakr|Ridda wars}}

Upon Muhammad's death, the Muslim community was unprepared for the loss of its leader and many experienced a profound shock. Umar was particularly affected, instead declaring that Muhammad had gone to consult with God and would soon return, threatening anyone who would say that Muhammad was dead.<ref name=PhippsP70>{{cite book |first=William E. |last=Phipps |title=Muhammad and Jesus: A Comparison of the Prophets and Their Teachings |year=2016|page=70|isbn=9781474289351 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=DR_mDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA70 }}</ref> Abu Bakr, having returned to Medina,<ref>{{cite book |first1=Muzaffar Husain|last1=Syed |first2=Syed Saud |last2=Akhtar |first3=B. D. |last3=Usmani |title=Concise History of Islam |year=2011|page=27|isbn=9789382573470 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=eACqCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA27}}</ref> calmed Umar by showing him Muhammad's body, convincing him of his death.<ref>{{cite book |first=Ingrid |last=Mattson |author-link=Ingrid Mattson |title=The Story of the Qur'an: Its History and Place in Muslim Life |year=2013|page=185 |isbn=9780470673492 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=_-eUnDh_OWgC&pg=PA185 }}</ref> He then addressed those who had gathered at the mosque, saying, "If anyone worships Muhammad, Muhammad is dead. If anyone worships God, God is alive, immortal", thus putting an end to any idolising impulse in the population. He then concluded with a verse from the [[Quran]]: "Muhammad is no more than an apostle, and many apostles have passed away before him."<ref name=PhippsP70/>{{Cite Quran|3|144}}

Troubles emerged soon after Abu Bakr's succession, with several Arab tribes launching revolts, threatening the unity and stability of the new community and state. These insurgencies and the caliphate's responses to them are collectively referred to as the [[Ridda wars]] ("Wars of Apostasy").{{sfn|Donner|1981|page=86}}

The opposition movements came in two forms. One type challenged the political power of the nascent caliphate as well as the religious authority of Islam with the acclamation of rival ideologies, headed by political leaders who claimed the mantle of prophethood in the manner that Muhammad had done. These rebellions include:
* that of the [[Banu Asad ibn Khuzaymah]] headed by [[Tulayha ibn Khuwaylid ibn Nawfal al-Asadi|Tulayha ibn Khuwaylid]]
* that of the [[Banu Hanifa]] headed by [[Musaylimah]]
* those from among the [[Banu Taghlib]] and the [[Bani Tamim]] headed by [[Sajah]]
* that of the [[Al-Ansi]] headed by [[Al-Aswad Al-Ansi]]
* Omani rebels led by Laqeet bin Malik 
These leaders are all denounced in Islamic histories as "false prophets".{{sfn|Donner|1981|page=86}}

The second form of opposition movement was more strictly political in character. Some of the revolts of this type took the form of tax rebellions in [[Najd]] among tribes such as the [[Banu Fazara]] and [[Banu Tamim]]. Other dissenters, while initially allied with the Muslims, used Muhammad's death as an opportunity to attempt to restrict the growth of the new Islamic state. They include some of the [[Rabīʿa]] in [[Bahrayn]], the [[Azd]] in [[Oman proper|Oman]], as well as among the [[Kinda (tribe)|Kinda]] and Khawlan in [[Greater Yemen|Yemen]].{{sfn|Donner|1981|page=86}}

At their heart, the Ridda movements were challenges to the political and religious supremacy of the Islamic state. Through his success in suppressing the insurrections, Abu Bakr had in effect continued the political consolidation which had begun under Muhammad's leadership with relatively little interruption. By the wars' end, he had established Islamic hegemony over the entire [[Arabian Peninsula]].{{sfn|Donner|1981|page=86}}

=== Military expansions ===
{{See also|Arab-Byzantine wars|Muslim conquest of Persia}}

After the [[Treaty of Hudaybiyyah]] in 628, Islamic tradition holds that [[Muhammad]] sent many letters to the princes, kings, and chiefs of the various tribes and kingdoms of the time, exhorting them to convert to Islam and bow to the order of God. These letters were carried by ambassadors to [[Persia]], [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantium]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Egypt]], [[Yemen]], and [[Al-Hirah|Hira]] (Iraq) on the same day.<ref name="seventhyear">{{cite web | url=http://www.al-islam.org/message/43.htm | title=The Events of the Seventh Year of Migration | publisher=[[Ahlul Bayt Digital Islamic Library Project]] | access-date=3 April 2007 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120805184742/http://www.al-islam.org/message/43.htm | archive-date=5 August 2012 | url-status=dead }}</ref> This assertion has been brought under scrutiny by some modern historians of Islam—notably Grimme and Caetani.<ref>Leone Caetani, Annali dell' Islam, vol. 4, p. 74</ref> Particularly in dispute is the assertion that Khosrau II received a letter from Muhammad, as the Sassanid court ceremony was notoriously intricate, and it is unlikely that a letter from what at the time was a minor regional power would have reached the hands of the Shahanshah.<ref>Leone Caetani, ''Annali dell'Islam'', vol. 2, chapter 1, paragraph 45–46</ref>

With regards to Persia, Muslim histories further recount that at the beginning of the seventh year of migration, Muhammad appointed one of his officers, Abdullah Huzafah Sahmi Qarashi, to carry his letter to [[Khosrau II]] inviting him to convert:

{{blockquote|In the name of God, the Beneficent, the Merciful.

From Muhammad, the Messenger of God, to the great Kisra of Persia. Peace be upon him, who seeks truth and expresses belief in God and in His Prophet and testifies that there are no gods but one God whom has no partners, and who believes that Muhammad is His servant and Prophet. Under the Command of God, I invite you to Him. He has sent me for the guidance of all people so that I may warn them all of His wrath and may present the unbelievers with an ultimatum. Embrace Islam so that you may remain safe. And if you refuse to accept Islam, you will be responsible for the sins of the Magi.<ref>''Tabaqat-i Kubra, vol. I, page 360; Tarikh-i Tabari, vol. II, pp. 295, 296; Tarikh-i Kamil, vol. II, page 81 and Biharul Anwar, vol. XX, page 389''</ref>|author=|title=|source=}}

There are differing accounts of the reaction of [[Khosrau II]].<ref>"Kisra", M. Morony, ''The Encyclopaedia of Islam'', Vol. V, ed.C.E. Bosworth, E.van Donzel, B. Lewis and C. Pellat, (E.J.Brill, 1980), 185.[https://books.google.com/books?id=xJY3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA185]</ref>

By span from the ascensions of Abu Bakar as caliph until his death, the Rashidun Caliphate expanded steadily; within the span of 24 years, a vast territory was conquered comprising Mesopotamia, the Levant, parts of Anatolia, and most of the Sasanian Empire.

==== Expansions during Abu Bakr's reign ====
{{Campaignbox Campaigns of Khalid ibn Walid}}

[[Arab Muslims]] first attacked Sassanid territory in 633, when [[Khalid ibn al-Walid]] invaded [[Mesopotamia]] (then known as the Sassanid province of ''[[Asoristan|Asōristān]]''; roughly corresponding to modern-day [[Iraq]]), which was the political and economic centre of the Sassanid state.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/betweenmemorydes1999hump |url-access=registration |page=[https://archive.org/details/betweenmemorydes1999hump/page/180 180] |title=Between Memory and Desire|via=[[Internet Archive]] |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=9780520214118|last1=Stephen Humphreys|first1=R.|date=January 1999}}</ref>

==== Expansions during Umar's reign ====
{{Main|Military conquests of Umar's era|Umar}}
{{Campaignbox Wars of Caliph Umar}}

Abu Bakr was aware of Umar's power and ability to succeed him. His was perhaps one of the smoothest transitions of power from one authority to another in the Muslim lands.{{sfn|Tabari|2015|p=145-153}}
Before his death, Abu Bakr called [[Uthman]] to write his will in which he declared Umar his successor. In his will he instructed Umar to continue the conquests on the [[Iraq]]i and [[Syria]]n fronts.{{Citation needed|date= October 2021}}

Following the transfer of Khalid to the Byzantine front in the [[Levant]], the Muslims eventually lost their holdings to Sassanid counterattacks. The second Muslim invasion began in 636, under [[Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas]], when a key victory at the [[Battle of al-Qadisiyyah]] led to the permanent end of Sassanid control west of modern-day [[Iran]]. For the next six years, the [[Zagros Mountains]], a natural barrier, marked the border between the Rashidun Caliphate and the Sassanid Empire. In 642, Umar ordered a full-scale invasion of Persia by the Rashidun army, which led to the complete conquest of the Sassanid Empire by 651. Directing from [[Medina]], a few thousand kilometres away, Umar's quick conquest of Persia in a series of well-coordinated, multi-pronged attacks became his greatest triumph, contributing to his reputation as a great military and political strategist.{{Citation needed|date= October 2021}}

The military conquests were partially terminated between 638 and 639 during the years of great famine in Arabia and plague in the [[Levant]]. During his reign the Levant, Egypt, [[Cyrenaica]], [[Tripolitania]], [[Fezzan]], eastern [[Anatolia]], almost the whole of the [[Sassanid Empire|Sassanid Persian Empire]] including [[Bactria]], Persia, Azerbaijan, Armenia, [[Caucasus]] and [[Makran]] were annexed to the Rashidun Caliphate. Prior to his death in 644, Umar had ceased all military expeditions apparently to consolidate his rule in recently conquered [[Egypt (Roman province)|Roman Egypt]] and the newly conquered Sassanid Empire (642–644). At his death in November 644, his rule extended from present day [[Libya]] in the west to the [[Indus river]] in the east and the [[Oxus river]] in the north.{{sfn|Meri|Bacharach|2006|p=844}}

Historians estimate more than 4,050 cities were conquered during the reign of Umar.{{sfn|Meri|Bacharach|2006|p=844}}

==== Expansions during Uthman's reign ====
{{Further|Election of Uthman|Military campaigns under Caliph Uthman}}

In 644, prior to the complete annexation of Persia by the Arab Muslims, [[Umar#Assassination|Umar was assassinated]] by [[Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz]], a Persian craftsman who was captured in battle and brought to Arabia as a slave.

[[Uthman ibn Affan]], the third [[caliph]], was chosen by a committee in [[Medina]], in northwestern [[Arabia]], in{{AH|23|644}}. The second caliph, [[Umar ibn al-Khattab]], was stabbed by [[Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz]], a [[Persian people|Persian]] slave.<ref>{{harvnb|Pellat|2011}}; {{harvnb|Madelung|1997|pp=68–75}}.</ref> On his deathbed, Umar tasked a committee of six with choosing the next caliph among themselves.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Jafri|first=S.H.M.|url=https://archive.org/details/cambridge-studies-in-islamic-civilization-najam-haider-the-origins-of-the-shia-i|title=The origins and early development of Shia Islam|publisher=Longman|year=1979|location=London|pages=50}}</ref> These six men from the [[Quraysh]], all early [[Companions of the Prophet|companions]] of the [[Islam]]ic prophet [[Muhammad]], were

* [[Ali ibn Abi Talib]]
* [[Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf]]
* [[Sad ibn Abi Waqqas|Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas]]
* [[Uthman ibn Affan]]
* [[Zubayr ibn al-Awwam]]
* [[Talhah ibn Ubaydullah]]

Where they unanimously selected Uthman as the successor. During his rule, Uthman's military style was less centralised as he delegated much military authority to his trusted kinsmen—e.g., [[Abdullah ibn Aamir]], [[Muawiyah I]] and [[Abdullah ibn Saad|Abdullāh ibn Sa'ad ibn Abī as-Sarâḥ]]—unlike [[Umar]]'s more centralized policy. Consequently, this more independent policy allowed more expansion until Sindh, in modern [[Pakistan]], which had not been touched during the tenure of Umar.<ref name="Tabri">''History of the Prophets and Kings'' (''Tarikh al-Tabari'') Vol. 04 ''The Ancient Kingdoms'': pg:183.</ref>

[[Muawiyah I]] had been appointed the governor of Syria by [[Umar]] in 639 to stop Byzantine harassment from the sea during the [[Arab-Byzantine Wars]]. He succeeded his elder brother [[Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan]], who died in a plague, along with [[Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah]]. Now under Uthman's rule in 649, Muawiyah was allowed to establish a navy, manned by [[Monophysitism|Monophysitic Christians]], [[Copts]], and [[Jacobite Syrian Christian Church|Jacobite Syrian Christian]] sailors and Muslim troops, which defeated the Byzantine navy at the [[Battle of the Masts]] in 655, opening up the Mediterranean.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OzIRDbARyWIC&q=Muawiyah%20set%20up%20navy&pg=PA24|title=European Naval and Maritime History, 300–1500 |first1=Archibald Ross |last1=Lewis |first2=Timothy J. |last2=Runyan |date=1 January 1990 |publisher=Indiana University Press |via=Google Books|isbn=9780253205735 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aAPc3mYwZpIC&q=Muawiyah%20Battle%20of%20the%20Masts&pg=PA123|title=History of the Jihad: Islam Versus Civilization|first=Leonard Michael|last=Kroll|date=16 March 2005|publisher=AuthorHouse|via=Google Books|isbn=9781463457303}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KIFJiOCSYc8C&q=Muawiyah%20Battle%20of%20the%20Masts&pg=PA183|title=A History of Byzantium|first=Timothy E.|last=Gregory|date=26 August 2011|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|via=Google Books|isbn=9781444359978}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EEEFsVYLko4C&q=Muawiyah%20Battle%20of%20the%20Masts&pg=PA61|title=Prophets and Princes: Saudi Arabia from Muhammad to the Present |first=Mark |last=Weston |date=28 July 2008 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |via=Google Books|isbn=9780470182574 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fKFRvUiLEQYC&q=Muawiyah%20Battle%20of%20the%20Masts&pg=PA11|title=The Medieval Siege|first=Jim|last=Bradbury|date=1 January 1992|publisher=Boydell & Brewer|via=Google Books|isbn=9780851153575}}</ref>

In [[Hijri year]] 31 (c. 651), Uthman sent [[Abdullah ibn Zubayr]] and [[Abdullah ibn Saad]] to [[Muslim conquest of the Maghreb#First invasion|reconquer the Maghreb]], where he met the army of [[Gregory the Patrician]], [[Exarch of Africa]] and relative of [[Heraclius]], which is recorded to have numbered between 120,000 or 200,000 soldiers.<ref name="Google474iHr4bQJUC">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=474iHr4bQJUC&q=abdullah+ibn+aamir+khurasan&pg=PA64|year=1990 |title=Kisah Hidup Utsman ibn Affan citing Tarikh at Thabari and al Bidayah wal Nihayah (71/158)|page=87|isbn=978-9790241374|last1=Murrad |first1=Mustafa }}</ref> The opposing forces clashed at Sabuthilag (or Sufetula), which became the name of [[Battle of Sufetula (647)|this battle]]. Records from al-Bidayah wal Nihayah state that Abdullah's troops were completely surrounded by Gregory's army. However, Abdullah ibn Zubayr spotted Gregory in his chariot and asked Abdullah ibn Sa'd to lead a small detachment to intercept him. The interception was successful, and Gregory was slain by Zubayr's ambush party. Consequently, the morale of Byzantine army crumbled and soon they were routed.<ref name="Google474iHr4bQJUC" />

Some Muslim sources claim that after the conquest of northern Africa was completed by [[Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari]],<ref>See: ''[[History of the Prophets and Kings]]'' (''Tarikh al-Tabari)''</ref> Abdullah ibn Sa'd continued to [[Spain]]. Spain had first been invaded some sixty years earlier during the caliphate of Uthman. Other prominent Muslim [[historian]]s, like [[Ibn Kathir]],<ref>See: ''[[Al-Bidayah wa al-Nihayah]]'' (''Tarikh ibn Kathir'')</ref> have quoted the same narration. In the description of this campaign, two of Abdullah ibn Saad's generals, Abdullah ibn Nafiah ibn Husain, and Abdullah ibn Nafi' ibn Abdul Qais, were ordered to invade the coastal areas of Spain by [[sea]], aided by a Berber force. They succeeded in conquering the coastal areas of Al-Andalus. It is not known where the Muslim force landed, what resistance they met, and what parts of Spain they actually conquered. However, it is clear that the Muslims did conquer some portions of Spain during the caliphate of Uthman, presumably establishing colonies on its coast. On this occasion, Uthman is reported to have addressed a letter to the invading force:

{{blockquote|[[Constantinople]] will be conquered from the side of [[Al-Andalus]]. Thus, if you conquer it, you will have the honor of taking the first step towards the conquest of Constantinople. You will have your reward in this behalf both in this world and the next.}}

Although raids by Berbers and Muslims were conducted against the Visigothic Kingdom in Spain during the late 7th century, there is no evidence that Spain was invaded nor that parts of it were conquered or settled by Muslims prior to the 711 campaign by Tariq.

Abdullah ibn Saad also achieved success in the Caliphate's first decisive naval battle against the [[Byzantine Empire]], the [[Battle of the Masts]].<ref>''Ridpath's Universal History'', Merrill & Baker, Vol. 12, New York, p. 483.</ref>

[[File:Mohammad adil rais-rashidun empire-at-its peak.PNG|left|thumb|Rashidun Caliphate at its peak under Uthman (654)]]
To the east, [[Ahnaf ibn Qais]], chief of [[Banu Tamim]] and a veteran commander who conquered [[Shustar]] earlier, launched a series of further military expansions by [[Battle of Oxus River|further mauling Yazdegerd III]] near the [[Oxus River]] in [[Turkmenistan]]<ref name="ReferenceB">''The Muslim Conquest of Persia'' by A.I. Akram. Ch:17 {{ISBN|0-19-597713-0}},</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at War, By Kaveh Farrokh, Published by Osprey Publishing, 2007 {{ISBN|1-84603-108-7}}</ref> and later crushing a military coalition of [[Sassanid Empire|Sassanid]] loyalists and the [[Hephthalite Empire]] in the [[Siege of Herat (652)|Siege of Herat]].<ref name="ReferenceB" /> Later, the governor of [[Basra]], [[Abdullah ibn Aamir]] also led a number of successful campaigns, ranging from the suppression of revolts in Fars, Kerman, Sistan, and Khorasan, to the opening of new fronts for conquest in [[Transoxiana]] and [[Afghanistan]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uhjSiRAwGuEC&q=abdullah%20ibn%20aamir%20persia%20conquest&pg=PA207|title=Iraq After the Muslim Conquest|first=Michael G.|last=Morony|date=1 January 2005|publisher=Gorgias Press|via=Google Books|isbn=9781593333157}}</ref>

In the next year, 652 AD, Futh Al-Buldan of Baladhuri writes that [[Balochistan]] was re-conquered during the campaign against the revolt in Kermān, under the command of Majasha ibn Mas'ud. It was the first time that western Balochistan had come directly under the laws of the Caliphate and it paid an agricultural tribute.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=16yHq5v3QZAC&q=kirman+mas%27ud&pg=PA117 |last=Boyle |first=John Andrew |title=The Cambridge History of Iran |publisher=Cambridge University Press|volume=5 |page=87|year=1968|isbn=9780521069366 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VINCAAAAYAAJ&q=Majasha+ibn+Masood|last=Daryaee |first=Touraj |title=The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History |publisher=Bookland |page=117|year=1977}}</ref>

The military campaigns under Uthman's rule were generally successful. Regarding the fate of their adversaries, unlike the Sasanian Persians, the Byzantines, after losing Syria, retreated back to Anatolia. As a result, they also lost Egypt to the invading Rashidun army, although the civil wars among the Muslims halted the war of conquest for many years, and this gave time for the Byzantine Empire to recover.

=== Transition into Umayyad caliphate ===
After Uthman's assassination, Ali was recognized as caliph in Medina, though his support stemmed from the Ansar and the Iraqis, while the bulk of the Quraysh was wary of his rule.{{sfn|Kennedy|2004|p=75}}{{sfn|Madelung|1997|p=141}} The first challenge to his authority came from the Qurayshite leaders al-Zubayr and Talha. Backed by one of Muhammad's wives, [[A'isha]], they attempted to rally support against Ali among the troops of Basra, prompting the caliph to leave for Iraq's other garrison town, Kufa, where he could better confront his challengers.{{sfn|Kennedy|2004|p=76}} Ali defeated them at the [[Battle of the Camel]], in which al-Zubayr and Talha were slain and A'isha consequently entered self-imposed seclusion.{{sfn|Kennedy|2004|p=76}}{{sfn|Wellhausen|1927|p=53}} Ali's sovereignty was thereafter recognized in Basra and Egypt and he established Kufa as the Caliphate's new capital.{{sfn|Wellhausen|1927|p=53}}

Although Ali was able to replace Uthman's governors in Egypt and Iraq with relative ease, Mu'awiya had developed a solid power-base and an effective military against the Byzantines from the Arab tribes of Syria.{{sfn|Kennedy|2004|p=76}} Mu'awiya did not claim the caliphate but was determined to retain control of Syria and opposed Ali in the name of avenging his kinsman Uthman, accusing the caliph of culpability in his death.{{sfn|Kennedy|2004|pp=76, 78}}{{sfn|Wellhausen|1927|pp=55–56}}{{sfn|Madelung|1997|p=190}} Ali and Mu'awiya fought to a stalemate at the [[Battle of Siffin]] in early 657. Ali agreed to settle the matter with Mu'awiya by arbitration.{{sfn|Hinds|1993|p=265}} The decision to arbitrate fundamentally weakened Ali's political position as he was forced to negotiate with Mu'awiya on equal terms, while it drove a significant number of his supporters, who became known as the [[Kharijites]], to revolt.{{sfn|Kennedy|2004|p=79}} Ali's coalition steadily disintegrated and many Iraqi tribal nobles secretly defected to Mu'awiya, while the latter's ally [[Amr ibn al-As]] ousted Ali's governor from Egypt in July 658.{{sfn|Hinds|1993|p=265}}{{sfn|Kennedy|2004|p=80}} Ali was assassinated by a Kharijite in January 661.{{sfn|Hinds|1993|p=59}} His son [[Hasan ibn Ali|Hasan]] succeeded him but abdicated in return for compensation upon Mu'awiya's arrival to Iraq with his Syrian army in the summer.{{sfn|Hinds|1993|p=265}} At that point, Mu'awiya entered Kufa and received the allegiance of the Iraqis.{{sfn|Wellhausen|1927|p=59}}

Later Mu'awiya was formally recognized as caliph in [[Jerusalem]] by his Syrian tribal allies, thus starting the long string of [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad]] dynastic rulers.{{sfn|Hinds|1993|p=265-266}}

== Units ==
The first requirement to join the Rashidun caliphate army was to be Muslim.{{sfn|al-Mubarak|1997|p=33}} Earlier caliphs such as Abu Bakar and Umar were even stricter in terms of army recruitment as they did not allow any ex-rebels in [[Ridda wars|Ridda Wars]]. According to [[Claude Cahen]], this strict policy was maintained at least until the [[Siege of Babylon Fortress|Siege of Babylon fortress in Egypt]]{{#tag:ref|[[Claude Cahen]] stated the reinforcements from Medina for Amr ibn al As who were still fighting in Egypt only consisted of soldiers who never [[Apostasy in Islam|Apostated]] during Ridda Wars{{sfn|Shaban|1976||p=34}}|group="Notes"}}. However, other sources noted the eastern theater of conquest in Persia are more lenient for recruitment as the caliphate employed former rebels such as [[Tulayha]] and [[Amr ibn Ma'adi Yakrib]]. Tulayha even played a significant role during a raid against the Persian army during Sa'd's campaign, which was codenamed ''Yaum Armath''(يوم أرماث or "''The Day of Disorder''") by early Muslim historians.{{sfn|Ali|2015}}{{sfn|Brill|1993|p=34}}{{sfn|Adil|2002|}}{{#tag:ref|classical Hadith scholars expressed their skepticism regarding historical narration of [[Sayf ibn Umar]] although non narrative historical informations of him was not criticized. al-Hakim (d. 405 AH) wrote: "''Sayf is accused of being a heretic. His narrations are abandoned''.". Abu Dawud (d. 316 AH) wrote: "''Sayf is nothing. He was a liar. Some of his Hadiths were conveyed and the majority of them are denied''"{{sfn|The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica }}|group="Notes"}} The policy of not employing ex-rebels and apostates (''Ahl ar Riddah'' according to Tabari) were retracted by 'Umar during his second half reign.<ref name="Mahayuddin">{{cite journal |last1=Yahya |first1=Mahayuddin Hj. |title=The people of al-ayyam in the Arab conquest of Iraq |date=1979 |publisher=Politics and Strategic Studies |pages=78–79 |url=http://www.ukm.my/jebat|journal=Jebat: Malaysian Journal of History, Politics and Strategic Studies |volume=9 |access-date=22 November 2021}}</ref>

===Infantry===
[[File:Mohammad Adil Rais-Muslim warrior during rashidun caliphate.PNG|thumb|right|140px|Rashidun soldier wearing an iron-bronze helmet, a chain mail [[hauberk]], and leather [[lamellar]] armor. His sword hung from a baldric, and he carries leather shield.]]
The standing infantry lines formed the majority of the Rashidun army.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Christon I. Archer |title=World History of Warfare |date=2002 |publisher=University of Nebraska |isbn=0803244231 |page=129}}</ref> They would make repeated charges and withdrawals known as ''karr wa farr'', using spears and swords combined with arrow volleys to weaken the enemies and wear them out. However, the main energy had to still be conserved for a counterattack, supported by a cavalry charge, that would make flanking or encircling movements.

Defensively, the [[Muslim]] [[spear]]man with their two and a half meter long spears would close ranks, forming a protective wall (''Tabi'a'') for [[archery|archers]] to continue their fire. This close formation stood its ground remarkably well in the first four days of defence in the [[Battle of Yarmouk]].<ref>[http://www.militaryhistoryonline.com/muslimwars/articles/yarmuk.aspx Military History Online<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>

Jandora noted the merit of individual skills, bravery, and discipline of Rashidun infantry as the main reason they won battle of Yarmouk. Jandora pointed out their quality to remain steadfast even against the onslaught of Byzantine cavalry charge,{{sfn|Saifuz Zaman|2015|pp=8-20}} or even when facing the elephant corps of Sassanid.{{sfn|Jandora|1986|pp=101-113}}

==== Infantry horses and camels ====
Aside from Donner's report that each caliphate's soldiers possessed camels,{{sfn|Donner|1981|p=185}} Dr Lee Eysturlid noted the [[Jund|Diwan al Jund]] around 640 AD has recorded that each caliphate's soldiers already possessed horses.{{sfn|Coetzee|Eysturlid|2013|p=34}} The camels mainly supplied from [[Al-Rabadha]] and [[Diriyah]].{{sfn|Idllalène |2021|p=51; See Llewellyn; ''The basis for a Discipline of Islamic environmentally law''; page.212}}{{sfn|Al-Rashid|1978|p=88-89 primary sources from Abu Ali al-Hajari book compilations (3rd [[Hijri year|AH]]), Abu Ubaid al-Bakri book: Mu'jam M Ista'jam (5th AH), Al-Samhudi book Wafa' al-Wafa' bi Akhbar Dar al-Mustafa (6th AH)}}

====Armour====
Reconstructing the military equipment of early Muslim armies is problematic relative to contemporary neighbouring armies such as Byzantium's as the visual representation of the early caliphate armaments was very limited physical material and difficult to date.<ref>The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State. Contributors: Hugh Kennedy - author. Publisher: Routledge. Place of Publication: London. Publication Year: 2001. Page Number:168</ref> However, Nicolle theorized the Muslim army used hardened leather scale or lamellar armour produced in Yemen, Iraq and along the Persian Gulf coast. Mail armour was preferred and became more common later during the conquest of neighbouring empires, often being captured as part of the [[war loot|booty]]. It was known as ''Dir,'' and was opened part-way down the chest. To avoid rusting it was polished and stored in a mixture of dust and oil.<ref>Yarmouk 636, Conquest of Syria by David Nicolle</ref>

[[Chain mail|Mail shirts]] were recorded already used by the Arabs before the advent of Islam.{{sfn|Mayer |1943|p=2}} During the Battle of Uhud, Jami'at Tirmidhi recorded [[Zubayr ibn al-Awwam]]'s testimony that Muhammad wearing two layers of mail coat.{{sfn|Al-Khudair|2015}}{{sfn|Abdul-jabbar|2013|p=370}} However, there is still not yet archaeological founding of Arabic armor in such time.{{sfn|Mayer |1943|p=2}} [[David Nicolle]] are certain the prevalence of leather armour among Arabs since the pre-Islamic era, due to the fact that the leather was one of important commodities which made the Meccan traders rich, which correlated with the  war between the Byzantine and Sassanian Empires during 6th century as there was increased demand for such military goods that Nicolle  called ''“military leatherwork"''.<ref name="Leather Armour in the Islamic World: a Classic Problem">{{cite book |author1=David Nicolle |author1-link=David Nicolle |title=Leather Armour in the Islamic World: a Classic Problem |date=2020 |pages=90, 92, 110, 116 |url= http://millitarch.ru/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/David_Nikol_Kozhanye_dospekhi_v_islamskom_mire.pdf |access-date=5 March 2022 |language=en}}</ref>

====Helmets====
Muslim headgear included gilded helmets—both pointed and rounded—similar to that of the silver helmets of the Sassanid Empire. The rounded helmet, referred to as "Baidah" ("Egg"), was a standard early Byzantine type composed of two pieces. The pointed helmet was a segmented Central Asian type known as "Tarikah". [[Mail (armour)|Mail armour]] was commonly used to protect the face and neck, either as an [[aventail]] from the helmet or as a mail coif the way it had been used by Romano-Byzantine armies since the 5th century. The face was often half covered with the tail of a turban that also served as protection against the strong desert winds.{{Citation needed|date=October 2021}}

Another type of helmet used by the Rashidun army were the Mighfars.{{sfn|Kennedy|2013|p=171}}

====Swords====
[[Arab sword|Sayf]] was a broad sword with a peculiar hooked pomel used by the Rashidun army.{{sfn|Zaky|1961|page=21}} Early Arab chroniclers mentioned two types of swords: 
* ''Saif Anith'', which was made of iron 
* ''Saif Fulath'' or ''Muzakka'', which was made of steel material.{{sfn|Zaky|1961|page=21}} 
These broad swords came to Arabia through [[Yemen]] port during the pre-Islamic [[ʿĀd]] and [[Jurhum]] era{{#tag:ref|[[Al-Kindi]] called it "''Indian sword''" which originated from pre-Islamic Jurhum tribe{{sfn|Alexander|2001|page=200}}|group="Notes"}}. These Indian-made swords were forged from ''[[wootz]]'' steel.{{sfn|Alexander|2001|page=200}} Aside from Yemen, high-quality ''Indian swords'' also introduced to pre-Islamic Arab through port of [[Al-Ubulla|Ubulla]], [[Persian Gulf]].{{sfn|'Ali|2018|p=3}} The Arabs in Medina during the time of Muhammad were able to manufacture Sayf swords independently.{{sfn|Alexander|2001|page=200}} There are records that some nobles made their sword with silver materials, such as Muhammad's sword and [[Zubayr ibn al-Awwam]] sword used which reported by from [[Anas ibn Malik]] and Hisham are made of silver or contain inscription of silver material.{{sfn|Pramono|2021|p=44}}{{sfn|Mutawalli|Rahman|Kamil|2019|p=131}} However, there is no archeological trace that such sword found yet.{{sfn|Pramono|2021|p=44}}

Curved saber or [[Shamshir]] also existed during the early years of the caliphate.{{sfn|Nicolle|1982|page=36-37}} This type of saber allegedly belonged to Muhammad and is now in the [[Topkapı Palace|Topkapi Museum]].{{sfn|Nicolle|1982|page=36-37}} David Nicolle theorized that this type of saber is probably of central Asian, [[Avars (Caucasus)|Avar]] or [[Hungarians|Magyar]] origin. Nicolle theorized it reached the early Muslim Arabs through the contact with Byzantium before the 6th century.{{sfn|Nicolle|1982|page=36-37}}

====Shields====
Large wooden or [[wickerwork]] [[shield]]s were in use, but most shields were made of leather. For this purpose, the hides of camels and cows were used and it would be anointed, a practice since ancient Hebrew times. During the invasion of the Levant, Byzantine soldiers extensively used elephant-hide shields, which were probably captured and used by the Rashidun army.{{Citation needed|date=October 2021}}

====Spears====
Long spears which were used by infantry were locally made with the reeds of the Persian Gulf coast. The reeds were similar to that of bamboo.{{sfn|Walker|1917|p=631-697}} These Arab blacksmiths manufactured infantry spears called ''al-Ramh''.{{sfn|Rasheed|p=431 Quoting al-Zubaidi;6; p.6265 & Al-Jawhari; 1987;part 2;p.498}} There are two types of this spear:
* Arab blacksmiths used sharpened animal horns for the tip of the blade
* Usual iron which was sharpened and hammered first until it forms the blade.{{sfn|Rasheed|p=431 Quoting al-Zubaidi;6; p.6265 & Al-Jawhari; 1987;part 2;p.498}}

During the Battle of Badr, Muhammad commanded his companions to use spears for middle-range combat. The raw material for making spears was available in Arabia.{{sfn|Rasheed|p=431 Quoting al-Zubaidi;6; p.6265 & Al-Jawhari; 1987;part 2;p.498}}

==== Maces ====
The early caliphate army also used blunt weapon such as [[Mace (bludgeon)|Mace]], which named ''al-Dabbus''.{{sfn|al-Mubarak|1997|p=34}} A round-headed, [[Mace (bludgeon)#Asia|Persian style mace]]{{sfn|Nicolle|1982}}

==== Javelins ====
[[Wahshi ibn Harb]], was a renowned javelineer who fought for pagan Quraish during the [[battle of Uhud]] and killed [[Hamza ibn Abdul-Muttalib]] with a javelin.{{sfn|Ibn Hisham|2019|p=444-446}} After his conversion to Islam, he fought for the caliphate during the [[Battle of Yamama]] and personally killed apostate leader [[Musaylimah]] with a javelin throw.{{sfn|Ibn Hisham|2019|p=444-446}}

=== Archer ===
{{See also|Arab archery}}
[[Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya|Ibn al-Qayyim]] concludes that Caliph Umar put special emphasis regarding his soldiers to practice extensively archery as the caliph wanted to implement the archery tradition according to the teaching of Muhammad to the military of Rashidun.{{sfn|Mappaseng|2018|p=183}} Rashidun archers were noted for their sharpshooting skill to aim at the eyes of the enemy, such as in the [[Battle of al-Anbar|Battle of al Anbar]], where the Rashidun archers shooting the eyes of Sassanid catapult engineer corps, blinding hundreds of engineers and left the siege engine unused during the battle.{{sfn|Akram|2006|p=275-279}}

Rashidun archers were typically precise and power shooters, akin to Byzantine archers in the [[Battle of Callinicum]].{{sfn|Jandora|1986|pp=101-113}} This powerful style allowed Rashidun archers to easily overcome [[Sasanian Empire|Sassanid]] archers who preferred the rapid, showering [[Panjagan]] archery technique, as the former packed more punch and range than the latter during the [[Muslim conquest of Persia]].{{sfn|Jandora|1986|pp=101-113}} Another particular case highlighted by Baladhuri regarding account from a grandson of the survivor of Sassanid Army who witnessed the [[Battle of Qadisiyya]] how the Sassanid arrows failed to pierce Rashidun armors or shields, while in return the arrows of Muslim archers able to penetrate [[mail|mail coats]] and double [[cuirass]] of Sassanid warriors.{{sfn|Shoshan|2015|p=139}}{{sfn|Jandora|1986|pp=101-113}} The archers of Rashidun army also recorded for their accuracy, as they can aim the eyes of Sassanid horses with their arrows during [[Siege of Ctesiphon (637)|Siege of Ctesiphon]].<ref name="Tartib wa Tahdzib Al-Kkitab bidayah wan Nihayah">{{cite book |last1=bin Shamil as-Sulami |first1=Muhammad |translator=Abu Ihsan al-Atsari |last2=Ibn Kathir |first2=Abu Fida|author-link1=Ibn Kathir |title=Tartib wa Tahdzib Al-Kkitab bidayah wan Nihayah |date=2004 |publisher=Dar al Wathan |location=Riyadh, Saudi Arabia |pages=249–278 |url=http://opac.iain-jember.ac.id/index.php?p=show_detail&id=9777 |access-date=3 December 2021 |language=id}}</ref>

James Hardy theorized based on his quote from [[John Haldon]] and [[Romilly Jenkins]], one of the decisive main factor for the Rashidun historical victory in battle of Yarmuk were due to their superb cavalry archers.<ref name="Battle of Yarmouk: An Analysis of Byzantine Military Failure">{{cite web |last1=Hardy |first1=James |title=Battle of Yarmouk: An Analysis of Byzantine Military Failure |url=https://historycooperative.org/the-battle-of-yarmouk-river/amp/ |website=History Coperative |publisher=History Coperative |access-date=15 December 2021 |date=2016 |quote=''In addition, the Arab army was able to use their foot and cavalry archers to great effect, placing them in prepared positions, and were thus able to halt the initial Byzantine advance'', John Haldon, Warfare, State, and Society in the Byzantine World: 565-1204. Warfare and History. (London: University College London Press, 1999), 215-216; The skill of the Arab cavalry, particularly the horse archers, also gave the Arab army a distinct advantage in terms of their ability to outmaneuver their Byzantine counterparts. The delay between May and August was disastrous for two reasons; first it provided the Arabs with an invaluable respite to regroup and gather reinforcements. Second, the delay wreaked havoc on the overall moral and discipline of the Byzantine troops; the Armenian contingents in particular grew increasingly agitated and mutinous, Jenkins, Romilly. Byzantium: The Imperial Centuries AD 610-1071. Medieval Academy Reprints for Teaching. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1987. p 33}}</ref> While James Francis LePree, assistant professor for Medieval History at the City College of New York, wrote that the factor of "unquestionably great cavalry skill of the Arabs' horse archers" during the battle of Yarmuk.<ref name="Unquestionably Arabs horsemen archers">{{cite book |last1=Francis Lepree |first1=James |last2=Djukic |first2=Ljudmila |title=The Byzantine Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia [2 volumes] |type=PhD. |date=2019 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1440851476 |page=70 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q6KsDwAAQBAJ |access-date=15 December 2021}}</ref>

====Bows====
[[File:قوس سعد بن أبي وقاص.jpg|thumb|Bow of [[Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas|Sa'd ibn abi-Waqqas]] at Medina railway museum]]
{{See also|Composite bow#Technical changes in classical times}}
According to an ancient arabic manuscript of archery, Bows used by people of Arabs were locally made in various parts of Arabia; the most typical were the Hijazi bows. There are three types of Hijazi bows:
* ''Qadib'' variant is basically made from single stave of wood
* ''Masnu'ah'' variant are composite bows designed from a stave or two staves divided lengthwise with four composite materials of wood, horn, glue, and sinew
* ''Mu'aqabbah'' variant are bows designed with horn of goats placed in the belly of the bow and sinew placed on the back of the bow.{{sfn|Faris|Elmer|2019|p=4-5}}

Arabs were able to master the art of [[Bowyer|Bowery]] and use it so effectively to even matched the qualities of Byzantines and Persians made. The most famous place for manufacturing bows was Za s r in al-Sham. which became the name renowned Zed bows (al-Kanä t in al-Zas riyyah). The Muslims continued to improve the manufacturing of bows and were able at one point to manufacture sophisticated machines (''al Ma'arrah'', a large crossbow).{{sfn|al-Mubarak|1997|p=34}} According to Latham in his work, ''Saracen archery'',  Muslim archers of early era has two types of arrows. The first were shorter darts called ''Nabl'' and ''Nushshab'', which were shot using either a crossbow or a bow equipped with arrow guide, while the second type were longer arrows which were shot with standard handbows.<ref name="The History of Al-Tabari Vol. 13 The Conquest of Iraq, Southwestern Persia, and Egypt: The Middle Years of 'Umar's Caliphate A.D. 636-642/A.H. 15-21; bow">{{cite book |author1=Tabari |author1-link=Tabari |translator= Gautier H. A. Juynboll |title=The History of Al-Tabari Vol. 13 The Conquest of Iraq, Southwestern Persia, and Egypt: The Middle Years of 'Umar's Caliphate A.D. 636-642/A.H. 15-21 |date=2015|type=Religion / General, History / Middle East / General, Electronic books, Islamic Empire -- History -- 622-661 |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=9781438408125 |page=41 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6yinTzHCtPMC |access-date=27 March 2022 |language=en |format=ebook |ref=none}}</ref>  The maximum useful range of the traditional Arabian bow was about 150 meters.{{Citation needed|date=October 2021}}

===Cavalry===
[[Rashidun cavalry]] were highly regarded by the military rulers of early [[Medina]], the theocracy and the Caliphates' successor states who gave the cavalry troopers got at least two portions of spoils and booty from the defeated enemies, while regular infantry only received only a single portion.{{sfn|Mubarakpuri|2005}}

The core of the caliphate's mounted division was an elite unit which early Muslim historians named '''Tulai'a Mutaharrika''' (طليعة متحركة), or the ''[[mobile guard]]''.{{sfn|Akram|2006|p=359-417}} Initially, the nucleus of the mobile guard was formed from veterans of the cavalry corps under Khalid during the conquest of Iraq. They consisted half of the forces brought by Khalid from Iraq to Syria 4.000 soldiers out of 8.000 soldiers.{{sfn|Akram|2006|p=359-417}} This shock cavalry division played important roles to the victories in [[Battle of Chains]], [[Battle of Walaja]], [[Battle of Ajnadayn]], [[Battle of Firaz]], [[Battle of Maraj-al-Debaj]], [[Siege of Damascus (634)|Siege of Damascus]], [[Battle of Yarmouk]], [[Battle of Hazir]] and the [[Battle of the Iron Bridge|Battle of Iron Bridge]] against the [[Byzantine]] and the [[Sasanian Empire|Sassanid]].{{sfn|Akram|2006|p=359-417 }} Later, the splinter of this cavalry division under [[Al-Qa'qa' ibn Amr al-Tamimi|Al-Qa'qa ibn Amr at-Tamimi]] also involved in the [[Battle of al-Qadisiyyah]], [[Battle of Jalula]], and the [[Siege of Emesa (638)|Second siege of Emesa]].{{sfn|Akram|2006|p=359-417}}

Modern historians and genealogists concluded that the stocks of early caliphate cavalry army that [[Muslim conquest of the Maghreb|conquered from the western Maghreb of Africa]], [[Umayyad conquest of Hispania|Spain]] to the [[Muslim conquest of Transoxiana|east of Central Asia]] are drawn from the stock of fierce [[Bedouin]] [[pastoral]] [[nomad]]s who take pride of their well-guarded mares genealogy,{{sfn|Bacon|1954|p=44}}{{sfn|Hutton|Bagehot|1858|p=438; Kabail, Nomadic, pastoral; Quoting Pultzky book page 386}}{{sfn|Greene|Stager|Coogan|2018|p=371, Quoting [[Richard Bulliet]]}}{{sfn|Khazanov|Wink|2012|p=225}} and called themselves the "People of the lance".{{#tag:ref|"People of the lance" as quoted by Elizabeth E. Bacon{{sfn|Bacon|1954|p=44}}|group="Notes"}}

==== Horse ====
[[File:Gatsby.jpg|thumb|right|A purebred Arabian stallion, showing dished profile, arched neck, level croup and high-carried tail |alt=A light gray horse moving at a trot through an arena with all four feet off the ground. The tail is carried high and the neck is arched.]]
{{See also|Arabian horse#Desert roots}}
Caliphate Arabian noble cavalry{{#tag:ref|The nobility of the Nomad Arabs were based on tribal militaristic meritocracy and genealogical (both their own and their horses') supremacy, according to Elizabeth E. Bacon{{sfn|Bacon|1954|p=44;}}|group="Notes"}} mostly rode the legendary [[Purebred#Purebred horses|purebred]] [[Arabian horse]], by fact the quality breeding of horses were held so dearly by the early caliphates who integrated traditions of Islam with their military practice.{{sfn|Schiettecatte|Zouache|2017|p=51-59}}<ref>Bennett, ''Conquerors,'' p. 130</ref><ref name=James>{{cite magazine |url=https://archive.aramcoworld.com/issue/198602/the.arabian.horse-at.war.htm|title=The Arabian Horse: At War |magazine=Saudi Aramco World |access-date=March 14, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120507173157/http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/198602/the.arabian.horse-at.war.htm |archive-date=May 7, 2012}}</ref> The phenomenal speed, stamina, [[animal cognition]], along with very well documented pedigrees quality even for modern era standard,<ref name="Archer3">{{cite book |author= Archer, Rosemary|title= The Arabian Horse |series=Allen Breed Series |year=1992 |publisher=J. A. Allen |location=London |isbn=978-0-85131-549-2}}</ref><ref name="Expert4">{{cite web |url= http://www.arabianhorses.org/home/faq/AskExpert4.asp |title= Arabian Type, Color and Conformation |access-date= May 28, 2008 |author= Arabian Horse Association |work= FAQ |publisher= Arabian Horse Association |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080612161108/http://www.arabianhorses.org/home/faq/AskExpert4.asp |archive-date= June 12, 2008 |url-status = dead|df= mdy-all }}</ref> caused the Rashidun leaders to initiate a formal programs to distinguish them from inferior hybrids with unknown pedigrees including horses recently captured from the defeated Byzantines and Persians.{{sfn|al-Mubarak|1997|p=31-34}} Long withstanding periods of Arabian nomadic society closeness with the horses also contributed to fertility of equestrian masters which produced best class horse breed in Arabia.{{sfn|Upton|2006}} This breed are known as a [[Thoroughbred|hot-blooded]] breed that are known for their competitiveness. Mounts quality was monitored carefully since the beginning of the caliphate. Ibn Hisham recorded in his chronicle the earliest mention of such effort were after the [[Battle of Khaybar|Siege series of Khaybar fotresses]] the Muslims acquired massive booties of horses. In response Muhammad personally instructed the separation between purebred Arabian and the hybrid-class steeds.{{sfn|Ibn Hisham|2019|p=583}}

This was practiced on a larger scale during the reign of caliph [[Umar]]. The caliph instructed [[Salman Ibn Rabi'ah al-Bahili]] to establish systematic military program to maintain the quality of caliphate mounts. Salman enlisted most of the steeds within realm of caliphate to undergo such steps:

# Recording number and quality of horses available
# Differences between the [[Arabian horse#Historic development|Arabian purebreed]] and the hybrid breeds was to be carefully noted.
# [[Furusiyya|Arabic structural Medical examination]] and [[Hippiatrica]] on each horses in regular basis including isolation and quarantine of sick horses
# Regular training between horses and their masters to achieve the disciplined communication between them
# Collective response training of the horses done in general routine
# Individual response training of the horses on advanced level
# Endurance and temperament training to perform in crowded and noisy place.{{sfn|Ibn Hisham|2019|p=583}}

At the end of the program, both riders and horses obligated to enlisted in formal competition sponsored by [[Jund|Diwan al-Jund]] which consisted into two category:

# Racing competition to measure the speed and stamina of each hybrids
# Acrobat competition to measure the ability of the horses for difficult maneuvers during war.{{sfn|al-Mubarak|1997|p=31-34}}

Additionally, the already established cavalry divisions were obliged to undertook simulated combat operation raids during the winter and summer seasons, known as [[Ribat|Tadrib al-Shawati wa al-Sawd'if]], which were intended to maintain the quality of each cavalry forces, while also maintain the pressures towards the Byzantines, Persians, and other caliphate enemies while there is no major military campaign.{{sfn|al-Mubarak|1997|p=31-34}}

This profound tradition of breeding exaltation even became a basis for scholars of later era such as by Shafi'i jurist, Al-Mawardi, to establish the ruling of regular military share that the owner of noble purebreed Arabian (''al‑khayl al‑ʿitāq'') should be rewarded a share of booty three times of regular infantry soldiers, while owners of inferior mixed breeds received only twice infantry soldiers' share.{{sfn|Schiettecatte|Zouache|2017|p=51-59}}

===== Training =====
The technical training method of each horsemen in this cavalry was recorded in ''al-Fann al-Harbi In- Sadr al-Islam'' and [[Tarikh-e-Tabari|Tarikh Tabari]]:

# Riding horses with saddles
# Riding horses without saddles
# Swordfighting without horses
# Horse charging with stabbing weapons
# Fighting with swords from the back of a moving horse
# [[Archery]]
# [[Mounted archery]] while the horse running
# Close combat while changing their seat position on the back of moving horse, facing backwards{{sfn|al-Mubarak|1997|p=31}}

==== Equipment ====
Arabian caliphate cavalry wearing heavy armors as according to Eduard Alofs, contrary to the popular beliefs, the Arabian, both the Rashidun cavalry or the cavalry of [[Ghassanids|Ghassanid]] and the [[Lakhmids|Lakhmid kingdom]] were not lightly armored scout horsemen. In fact, classic chroniclers such as [[Al-Tabari|Tabari]], [[Procopius]], and the Manual of [[Strategikon of Maurice|Strategikon]] implied that the Arabian cavalry during the 5th century onwards were well armored heavy mounted troopers, Arabians usually covered their armors with dull-colored coats to prevent the sunburn on their metallic armor caused by hot climate of desert climate.{{sfn|Alofs|2015|p=1-24}} Such Arabian knights were named ''Mujaffafa'' by early historians, which according to Martin Hinds were technically "Arabian [[Cataphract]]s" as they are fully armored both riders and horses".{{sfn|Kennedy|2013|p=170}}

The early caliphate armies generally neglected the use of stirrups despite long knowing of stirrups. al-Jahiz commented that the Arabs spurned double iron stirrups as it is viewed as a weakness, while also provided hindrance for skillful riders to maneuver during battles and can be a disadvantage if the rider falls but his legs are stuck in the stirrups.{{sfn|Alofs|2014|p=430-443}}

Caliphate horsemen used the following weapons in battle:
* [[Mounted archery]] with flying gallop was practiced by the early caliphate regular Arab cavalry from Rashidun era onwards.{{sfn|al-Mubarak|1997|p=31-34}}{{sfn|Alofs|2014|p=429-430}}{{sfn|Alofs|2015|p=1-24}} Alof theorized "Mubarizun" elite division also used archery in close-combat duels for maximum arrow penetration against opponent armor.{{sfn|Alofs|2015|p=22-24}}
* Caliphate horsemen also used thrown [[javelin]]s as their weapon. [[Zubayr ibn al-Awwam]], a seasoned Muhajir and early convert, who almost always brought horses during battle,{{sfn|Masih|2019}} is recorded to have killed his opponents at least in two occasions during his life. He killed Quraish nobleman Ubaydah ibn Sa'id from [[Umayyad dynasty|Umayyad clan]] during the [[Battle of Badr]], who was wearing a full set of armor and [[Aventail]] that protected his entire body and face. Zubayr hurled his javelin aiming at the unprotected eye of Ubaydah and killed him immediately.{{sfn|Mubarakpuri|2005}} The second occasion is during the [[Battle of Khaybar]], Zubayr fought in a duel against a Jewish nobleman [[Yassir]] which Zubayr killed with a powerful javelin strike.{{sfn|Mubarakpuri|2005}} Firsthand witnesses reported that Zubayr brandishing himself across the battlefield during the [[Battle of Hunayn]] while hung two javelins in his back.{{sfn|Mubarakpuri|2005}}
* Early caliphate cavalry held their [[Kontos (weapon)|lance]] overhead posture with both hands.{{sfn|Alofs|2015|p=1-24}}

==== Mubarizun ====
A select few apparatus of mounted soldiers who particularly skilled in duel using swords and various weapons were formed a commando unit called known as [[Mubarizun]]s.{{sfn|Alofs|2014|p=430-443}}

Their main task was charging with their horses until they find the enemy generals or field officers, in order to kidnap or slay them in close combat, so the enemy will lose their commanding figure amidst of battle.{{sfn|Nicolle|1994|p=36}}

Historical reconstructors like [[Marcus Junkelmann]] has practiced in [[historical reenactment]] that mounted close combat specialists like Mubarizuns could fight effectively on top of their mounts even without [[stirrup]]s.{{sfn|Alofs|2014|p=430-443}} This is used by Alofs as an argument to debuff the majority historian beliefs that horsemen cannot fight effectively in close combat if they rode their horse without stirrups.{{sfn|Alofs|2014|p=430-443}}

Aside from fighting with swords, lance, or mace, Mubarizuns also possessed a unique ability to use archery in close combat, where Alofs theorized that in mid range about five meters from the adversary, the duelists will exchange his lance with his bow and shoot the enemy from close range to achieve maximum penetration, while the duelist held the lance strapped between right leg and saddle.{{sfn|Alofs|2015|p=22-24}}

==== Mahranite cavalry ====
[[File:Al Mahrah in Yemen.svg|thumb|250px|Map of contemporary Yemen showing [[Al Mahrah Governorate]] from where Mahri tribes hailed.]]
{{See also|Mahra Sultanate#The military legacy of al-Mahra}}
Caliphate cavalry recruited from [[Mehri people|Al-Mahra tribe]] were known for their military prowess and skilled horsemen that often won battles with minimal or no casualties at all, which Amr ibn al As in his own words praised them as "''peoples who kill without being killed''"{{#tag:ref|The derived narrations from Amr ibn al As seems original text from him which preserved by [[Ibn Abd al-Hakam]] chains of narrator source{{sfn|Ibn Abd al-Hakam|1922}}|group="Notes"}}. Amr was amazed by these proud warriors for their ruthless fighting skill and efficiency During [[Early Muslim conquests|Muslim conquest]] where they spearheaded Muslim army during the [[Battle of Heliopolis]], the [[Battle of Nikiou]], and [[Siege of Alexandria (641)|Siege Alexandria]].{{sfn|Ibn Abd al-Hakam|1922}} Their commanders, Abd al-sallam ibn Habira al-Mahri were entrusted by 'Amr ibn al-'As to lead the entire Muslim army during the Arab conquest of north Africa. Abd al-sallam defeated the Byzantine imperial army in Libya, and throughout these campaigns Al-Mahra were awarded much land in Africa as recognition of their bravery.{{sfn|Ibn Abd al-Hakam|1922}} When Amr established the town of Fustat, he further rewarded Al-Mahri members additional land in Fustat which then became known as ''Khittat Mahra'' or the Mahra quarter.{{sfn|Ibn Abd al-Hakam|1922}} This land was used by the Al-Mahra tribes as a garrison.{{sfn|Ibn Abd al-Hakam|1922}}

During the turmoil of [[Second Fitna]], more than 600 Mahranites were sent to North Africa to fight Byzantines and the Berber revolts.{{sfn|Ibn Abd al-Hakam|1922}}

==== Kharijite rebels ====
The 8th century chronicler [[Al-Jahiz]] noted the ferociousness of [[Kharijites]] horsemen, who spent parts of their early career in [[Kufa]] as Rashidun garrison troops during the [[Muslim conquest of Persia]] before their rebellion against the caliphate.{{sfn|Walker|1917|p=631-697}} Al-Jahiz pointed out Kharijites steeds' speed could not intercepted by most rival cavalrymen in the medieval era, save for the [[Turks (ethnic group)|Turkish]] [[Mamluk]]s.{{sfn|Ali|2018}} Notable seditionist warriors included [[Abd Allah ibn Wahb al-Rasibi]] from [[Bajila|Bajila tribe]], who participated in the early conquests of Persia under Sa'd ibn abi Waqqas.{{sfnp|Kenney|2006|p=41|ps=, calls him "the first ‘Kharijite’ caliph".}}

Al-Jahiz also added that the Kharijites were feared for their cavalry charge with their lances which could break any defensive line, and almost never lose when pitted against an equal number of opponents.{{sfn|Ali|2018}} Dr. Adam Ali MA, PhD. postulated that Al-Jahiz assessment of the quality Kharijites quality are synonymous with the regular Arab cavalry as general in term of speed and [[Charge (warfare)|charging maneuver]].{{sfn|Ali|2018}} Their common ground with the caliphate military was even highlighted further by Professor Jeffrey Kenney, who said the early Kharijites existed in the time of Muhammad, in the form of figure named Dhu'l Khuwaisira at-Tamim,{{sfn|Kenney|2006|p=28}} one of [[Banu Tamim]] chieftain who appeared after the [[Battle of Hunayn]] who protested the war spoils distribution.{{sfn|Kenney|2006|p=26}} In fact, ʿAbd al-Malik ibn Ḥabīb, a jurist and historian in the 9th century described the [[Berber Revolt|Berber Kharijites]] as a mirror match which resembles the Arabic caliphate martial tradition, except the loyalty to authority.{{sfn|Clarke|2013|p=510}}

Ibn Nujaym al-Hanafi, [[Hanafi]] scholar said about Kharijites: ''"... kharijites are a folk possessing strength and zealotry, who revolt against the government due to a self-styled interpretation. They believe that government is upon falsehood, disbelief or disobedience that necessitates it being fought against, and they declare lawful the blood and wealth of the Muslims...”''.<ref name="fatwa Dar al Ifta">{{cite web |last1=al- Qadri |first1=Muhammad Tahir |title=The Kharijites of the past & QSIS of today: two faces of the same coin? |url=https://www.dar-alifta.org/foreign/ViewArticle.aspx?ID=614&text=caliph |website=Dar al Ifta Missriyyah Fatwa on Terrorism and Suicide Bombings by Dr. Muhammad Tahir al- Qadri |publisher=Dar al Ifta Missriyyah |access-date=23 November 2021 |date=2021}}</ref>

===Siege engineers===
The Rashidun caliphate employed siege engines during their military campaigns.

==== Catapults ====
Catapults, called ''Manjaniq'', were evident in the history of the early caliphates. There is a long history of the Muslim armies from the battle of Khaybar. Muhammad breached a Jewish fortress with catapults. Later on, [[Urwah ibn Masʽud]] and Ghaylan ibn Salamah also reportedly travelled to Jurash, near Abha in southwestern of Asir region in order to learn how to construct various Manjaniq catapults and Dabbabah siege ram as the city of Jurash were known for its siege workshops industry.{{sfn|Ibn Jurais|2018}} Christides highlighted the high learning curves of the Arabs during the early caliphates that they could catch up with more established civilizations such as Byzantine in making complex war machines such as the ''Manjaniq'' catapult.{{sfn|Christides|1988|p=321-322}}

In the era of the caliphate, [[Catapult]]s were used extensively in siege operations whenever the Muslim armies were expected to remain entrenched in one area for a long duration. Examples include Abu Ubaydah and Khalid's [[Siege of Damascus (634)|besieged Damascus]], and furious artillery bombardments by [[Amr ibn al-As]] during the [[Siege of Alexandria (641)#Byzantine counterattack|second siege of Alexandria]] which immediately caused the Christian garrison to surrender.{{sfn|Ibn Kathir|2016}} Another record of such siege engines operations came from [[Abdallah ibn Sa'd]]'s attack on the capital of Makuria, where the catapult engine of Abdallah caused the main cathedral structure of Makuria to crumble, compelling King [[Qalidurut]] to agree to ratify a ceasefire agreement with the former.{{sfn|Spaulding|1995|p=557}} The forces of Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas were also reported to able to quickly construct at least twenty siege engines during the [[Battle of Babylon (636)|Second siege of Babylon]], despite their relatively short stints in the area after the battle of Qadisiyyah.{{sfn|Ibn Kathir|2016}} According to an obscure record from [[Sebeos]], Mu'awiyah's fleet which was led by [[Busr ibn Abi Artat|Bisr ibn abi Artha'ah]] is also reported to carry unspecified artillery engines that can throw "''balls of [[Greek fire]]''" within his ships during the [[Siege of Constantinople (674–678)|siege of Constantinople]].{{sfn|Sebeos|Howard-Johnston|Greenwood|1999|p=L}}

==== Siege towers ====
[[Siege tower]]s with scaling ladders are named ''al-Dabbdbah'' or ''al-dabr''.{{sfn|al-Mubarak|1997|p=33}} These wooden towers moved on wheels and were several stories tall. They were driven up to the foot of the besieged fortification and then the walls were pierced with a battering ram. [[Archery|Archers]] guarded the ram and the soldiers who moved it.{{sfn|Kennedy|2013|p=183}}

==== Other engines ====
Regular Muslim infantries also qualified on the battlefield construction and engineering such as when they were able to perfect the art of building pontoon bridges which allowed them to gain the upper hand during the [[Battle of the Bridge]].{{sfn|al-Mubarak|1997|p=28-29}} Their expertise on this field also helped during the last phase of the Siege of Damascus, when the Muslim army built water rafts and dinghies to cross the trench.{{sfn|al-Mubarak|1997|p=28-29}}

=== Irregular conscripts ===
During the Islamic conquest of Sassanid Persia (633-656), some 12,000 elite [[Persian people|Persian]] soldiers converted to Islam and served later on during the invasion of the empire.{{Citation needed|date=October 2021}} During the Muslim conquest of [[Roman Syria]] (633-638), some 4,000 [[Greek people|Greek]] Byzantine soldiers under their commander Joachim (later Abdullah Joachim) converted to Islam and served as regular troops in the conquest of both [[Anatolia]] and [[Egypt]]. During the conquest of Egypt (641-644), [[Copts|Coptic]] converts to Islam were recruited. During the conquest of [[North Africa]], [[Berber people|Berber]] converts to Islam were recruited as regular troops, who later made the bulk of the Rashidun army and later the Umayyad army in Africa.{{Citation needed|date=October 2021}}

==== Al-Abna' ====
Al-Abnāʾ was the descendants of Sasanian officers and soldiers of Persian and [[Daylamites|Daylam]] origins who intermarried with local Yemeni Arabs after they taken over Yemen from the Aksumite in the [[Aksumite–Persian wars]].{{sfn|Bosworth|1983|pp=226–228}} The Abnas had been garrisoned in Sanaa and their surrounding Their leaders converted to Islam and were active in the early Muslim conquests. They were gradually absorbed into the local population.{{sfn|Bosworth|1983|pp=226–228}} They are considered siege-warfare experts.{{sfn|Ali|2018}} However, al-Jahiz outlined al-Abna lacked medieval era standard mobility.{{sfn|Ali|2018}}

Notable figures hailed from al-Abna was [[Fayruz al-Daylami]], hero of caliphate who defended Yemen for a decade during Apostate wars, and [[Wahb ibn Munabbih]], a prolific [[Rāwī]] of [[Hadith]] who later became a judge during the rule of caliph [[Umar II|Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz]].

==== Greeks ====
Some Greeks joined the caliphate army after they defected from Byzantine army. One example is Joachim, garrison commander of [[Aleppo]], who defected along with his 4,000 garrison troops and fought loyally under the caliphate later.{{sfn|Akram|2006|p=359-417}}

==== Persian Asawir ====
As the conquest of Persia progressed, some [[Sassanid]] gentry converted into Islam and joined the [[Rashidun]]; these "[[Asawira]]"

Al-Jahiz outlined the quality of these Persians, which he identified as ''Khurasaniyyah'', as powerful heavy cavalry with considerable frontal charge power, although they lacked speed.{{sfn|Ali|2018}} Al-Jahiz also claims the downside of the Persians was if their charge failed to break the enemy, they tended to give up fighting and were easily routed.{{sfn|Ali|2018}}

They continued service under the caliphate until [[Abd al-Rahman ibn Muhammad ibn al-Ash'ath]]'s rebellion. This heavily armored cavalry crushed by regular Arab cavalry led by [[Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf]] which possess more skill and discipline in [[Battle of Dayr al-Jamajim]].{{sfn|Hawting|2000|p=67}}{{sfn|Kennedy|2004|p=101}}{{sfn|Hawting|2000|pp=68–69}}{{sfn|Bosworth|1987|pp=706-707}}{{sfn|Zakeri|1995|p=335}} As Hawting highlighted the different performance between caliphate cavalry and those of Abd al-Rahman al-Ash'ath's army including those of [[Persians|Persian]] Asawir, that "between the discipline and organisation of the Umayyads and their largely Syrian support and the lack of these qualities among their opponents in spite of, or perhaps rather because of, the more righteous and religious flavour of the opposition" is a recurring pattern in the civil wars of the period.{{sfn|Hawting|2000|pp=68–69}}

==== Jats ====
As the territory of caliphate [[Arab Sind#Conquest of Sind|has reached Sindh]], there were reports that the local [[Jat people|Jats]] had converted to Islam and even entered the military service.{{sfn|Maclean|1989|p=126}} A notable local named Ziyad al-Hindi recorded has been entered the service under caliph Ali.{{sfn|Rezavi|2006}}

==== Arabic Christian levy ====
Chronicler Faraj recorded in his ''Fann 'Idarat al-Ma'arakah fi al-Islam'' that for certain situations, caliph Umar allowed a distinct unit which had not yet embraced Islam to be enlisted for military service. Prior to the [[Battle of Buwaib]], Umar allowed [[al-Muthanna ibn Haritha]] to recruit Arab members of banu Taghlib and banu Nimr who had not yet embraced Islam for his service.{{sfn|al-Mubarak|1997|p=109}}

=== Field medics ===
Since the time of Muhammad, field medic roles were usually filled by wives or female relatives of the soldiers while during the period of Umar he extensively improved this role by changing it to make sure that every force being sent there had a team of medics, judges, and translators.{{sfn|al-Mubarak|1997|p=33}}

== Camels ==
[[File:Dromadaire4478.jpg|thumbnail|Arabian camel (dromedary) has a long, curved neck, single hump and hairy throat, shoulders and hump]]
The Rashidun caliphate employed camels in various military roles since they respected the beasts' legendary endurance and were more numerous than horses in the Middle East, especially in dry areas. Extensive use of camels occurred during the initial campaigns of Muhammad,{{sfn|Mubarakpuri|2005}} which continued onwards the existence of Rashidun caliphate and it successor states. The abundant availability of camel herds within caliphate enabled even infantries also mounted with camels during the caliphate military campaigns.{{sfn|Kennedy|2007|p=104}}{{full citation needed|date=July 2022}}

[[Al-Baghawi]] recorded an example that found from long narration of tradition, that a wealthy Arab soldier like [[Dhiraar ibn al-Azwar]] possessed 1,000 camels even before converting to Islam.{{#tag:ref|Baghawi transmit the long narrative chains which came from Dhiraar himself which recorded by [[Al-Tabarani]]. However [[Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani]] rejected the authenticity of the dialogue contained in the narration, although he did not criticize regarding the case that Dhiraar's possession of thousand camels which came in the background of the dialogue narration.<ref>{{cite web |last1=al-Asqalani |first1=Ibn Hajar |title=Dhiraar ibn Azwar |url=http://hadithtransmitters.hawramani.com/%D8%B6%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B1-%D8%A8%D9%86-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B2%D9%88%D8%B1-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AF%D9%8A/?_x_tr_sch=http&_x_tr_sl=ar&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=nui,sc |website=Hawramani |publisher=Ikram Hawramani |access-date=18 October 2021}}</ref>|group="Notes"}}

Furthermore, the development of Diwan al-Jund by caliph Umar ensured each caliphate soldiers possessed camels,{{sfn|Donner|1981|p=185}} despite their difficult tempers and expensive price. Both the camel riders and infantry of the Caliphate armies are known to have ridden camels during long-march campaigns.{{sfn|Donner|1981|p=185}}{{sfn|Alofs|2015|p=1-24}}

Historians have generally agreed that the early caliphate's rapid conquests were facilitated by their large-scale utilization of [[Dromedary|dromedaries]].{{sfn|Khazanov|Wink|2012|p=225}}{{sfn|Hutton|Bagehot|1858|p=438; quoting Kuhnen's book, 1991}}

Rashidun army camels also bore offspring while marching to the battle. Tabari, a firsthand witness of Rashidun vanguard commander [[Aqra' ibn Habis]], recorded that before the Battle of Anbar, the camels belonging to his soldiers were about to gave birth. However, since the Aqra' would not halt the operation, he instructed his soldiers to carry the newborn camels on the rumps of adult camels.{{sfn|Tabari|2015|p=50}}

=== War-camel breeding ===
[[File:Camels near Riyadh River (3343854799).jpg|thumb|right|280px|Arabian Camel herd grazing near the [[Riyadh]] River, southeast Diriyah]]
According to classical Muslim sources, caliph Umar acquired some fertile land in Arabia which were deemed fit for large-scale camel breeding to be established as ''Hima'', government-reserved land property used as [[pasture]] to raise camels that were being prepared to be sent to the front line for Jihad conquests.{{sfn|Al-Rashid|1978|p=88-89 primary sources from Abu Ali al-Hajari's book compilations (3rd [[Hijri year|AH]]), Abu Ubaid al-Bakri book: Mu'jam M Ista'jam (5th AH), Al-Samhudi's book Wafa' al-Wafa' bi Akhbar Dar al-Mustafa (6th AH)}}

Early sources recorded that the ''Hima'' of Rabadha and Diriyah produced 4,000 war camels annually during the reign of Umar, while during the reign of Uthman, both ''Hima'' lands further expanded until al-Rabadha Hima alone could produce 4,000 war camels.{{sfn|Al-Rashid|1978|p=88-89 primary sources from Abu Ali al-Hajari book compilations (3rd [[Hijri year|AH]]), Abu Ubaid al-Bakri book: Mu'jam M Ista'jam (5th AH), Al-Samhudi book Wafa' al-Wafa' bi Akhbar Dar al-Mustafa (6th AH)}}

At the time of Uthman death, there were said to be around 1,000 war camels already prepared in al-Rabadhah.{{sfn|Al-Rashid|1978|p=88-89 primary sources from Abu Ali al-Hajari book compilations (3rd [[Hijri year|AH]]), Abu Ubaid al-Bakri book: Mu'jam M Ista'jam (5th AH), Al-Samhudi book Wafa' al-Wafa' bi Akhbar Dar al-Mustafa (6th AH)}}

Modern [[Islamic studies]] researchers theorized institution of ''Hima'' by caliph Umar, was inspired by the earliest ''Hima'' established in Medina during the time of Muhammad.{{sfn|Idllalène |2021|p=51; See Llewellyn; ''The basis for a Discipline of Islamic environmentally law''; page.212}} Muhammad himself instructed that some of private property at the outskirts of Medina was transformed into ''Hima''.{{sfn|Idllalène |2021|p=51; see Gary Lutfallah; ''A History of Hima Conservation system''; 2006}} Another reason the caliph Umar moved ''Hima'' from Medina was the increasing military demand for camels for which the lands near Medina no longer sufficed.{{sfn|Idllalène |2021|p=51; See Llewellyn; ''The basis for a Discipline of Islamic environmentally law''; page.212}}

===Use in combat ===
David Nicolle also mentioned the use of distinct camel cavalry during the battle of Qadisiyyah.{{sfn|Nicolle|1998|}} It is known that horses can be scared by the stench of camels.<ref name="Sandiegozoo">{{cite web | publisher = History Group of the New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage | title = Cameliers and camels at war | work = New Zealand History online | access-date = 5 December 2012 | date = 30 August 2009 | url = http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/war/camel-corps | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120316110701/http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/war/camel-corps | archive-date = 16 March 2012 }}</ref><ref name=sandiegozoo>{{cite web | publisher = San Diego Zoo Global Library | title = Bactrian & Dromedary Camels | work = Factsheets | access-date = 4 December 2012 | date = March 2009 | url = http://library.sandiegozoo.org/factsheets/camel/camel.htm | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120922092103/http://library.sandiegozoo.org/factsheets/camel/camel.htm | archive-date = 22 September 2012 }}</ref>{{anchor|Eco-behavioral adaptations}}

Caliphate archers rode camels inside or outside battle, and only dismounted when they were taking position to shoot volleys.{{sfn|Donner|1981|p=185}}{{sfn|Alofs|2015|p=1-24}}

==== Camel defensive lines ====
According to John Walter Jandora in his Yarmouk reconstruction study, for the open-battle scenario, the abundance of camels brought by the army during their campaigns were used to form a line of camels positioned on the rear of Muslim battle lines, between the infantry lines and the camp perimeter which were positioned behind them,{{sfn|Saifuz Zaman|2015|pp=8-20}} where reserve troops (''al-Saqah''), supplies and camp followers were located. Jandora argued it is used as a fail-safe, in case of breaches by enemy cavalry charges, which act as a deterrent that even stopped the powerful charge of the [[Byzantine cataphracts|Byzantine Cataphract]] due to the beasts' large frames and foul tempers.{{sfn|Saifuz Zaman|2015|pp=8-20}}{{sfn|Jandora|1986}}

==== Mahranite camelier corps ====
Amr ibn al-As led a ruthless cavalry corps from tribes of Al-Mahra who were famous for their "invincible battle skills on top of their mounts", during the conquests of Egypt and north Africa{{#tag:ref|The derived narrations from Amr ibn al As were attributed to the traditions of [[Ibn Abd al-Hakam]] chains of narrators{{sfn|Ibn Abd al-Hakam|1922}}|group="Notes"}}. Al-Mahra tribes were experts in camelry and famed for their high-class Mehri camel breed which were renowned for their speed, agility and toughness.{{sfn|Ibn Abd al-Hakam|1922}}

==== Camel corpse bridge in al-Anbar ====
During the [[Battle of al-Anbar]], Khalid instructed his soldiers to slaughter many sickly camels and throw them into the trench dug by the Persian defenders in front of the wall of Anbar fortress. The heap of dead camels served as a bridge for Khalid cavalry to cross the trench and breach the fortress.{{#tag:ref|Salabi and [[Khalid Yahya Blankinship|Blankinship]] Notes from primary sources{{sfn|Salabi|p=527}}{{sfn|Tabari|2015|p=50}}|group="Notes"}}

===Use for transport and logistics ===
Similar to the infantry, the archer corps of the Rashidun caliphate were mounted during their movements during their marches.{{sfn|Donner|1981|p=185}}{{sfn|Alofs|2015|p=1-24}} The stamina and strength of camels along with their abundant availability across the caliphate realm by the army enabled their famous fast mass mobilization.{{sfn|Nicolle|1998|}}{{sfn|Natziger|Walton|2003}} Even the horsemen preferred riding camels during a march as they wanted to save their steed's energy for battles and raids.{{sfn|Donner|1981|p=185}}{{sfn|Alofs|2015|p=1-24}}

=== Use as emergency rations ===
{{further|Camel urine}}
Desperate caravaners are known to have consumed camels' urine and to have slaughtered them when their resources were exhausted.{{sfn|Lydon|2009|p=211}}

==== Khalid's legendary camels' desert crossing ====
[[File:Mohammad adil-Khalid's(r.a) route to Syria.PNG|thumb|250px|alt=Geographical Map detailing the route of Khalid ibn al-Walid's invasion of Syria|A map showing one of a series of possible itineraries of Khalid's march to Syria from Iraq]]
{{further|Khalid ibn al-Walid#March to Syria}}
Around 634, after the clash at the [[Battle of Firaz]] against intercepting Byzantine forces, caliph Abu Bakr immediately instructed Khalid to reinforce the contingents of Abu Ubaydah, Amr ibn al-As, and Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan which started to invade Syria. Khalid immediately started his nearly impossible journey with his elite forces after leaving Muthanna ibn Haritha as his deputy in Iraq and instructed his soldiers to make each camel drink as much as possible before they started the six-day nonstop march without resupply.{{sfn|Davis|2010|p=23}}{{#tag:ref|Professor Ross Burns stated in his book, ''Damascus, A History'', that the arduous march of Khalid from Iraq to Syria lasted eighteen days, not six days, as the other historians mentioned.{{sfn|Burns|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=poCBAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA99 99]}}|group="Notes"}} In the end, Khalid managed to reach Suwa spring and immediately defeated the Byzantine garrison in [[Arak, Syria]],<ref name="le Strange">le Strange, 1890, p. [https://archive.org/stream/palestineundermo00lestuoft#page/395/mode/1up 395]</ref> who were surprised by Khalid's force's sudden emergence from the desert.{{sfn|Akram|2006|p=275-279}}

According to Hugh Kennedy, historians across the ages assessed this daring journey with various expressions of amazement. Classical Muslim historians praised the marching force's perseverance as a miracle and work of god, while most western modern historians regard this as solely the genius of Khalid.{{sfn|Kennedy|2007|p=92}} It is Khalid, whose, in [[Hugh N. Kennedy|Hugh Kennedy]]'s opinion, imaginative thinking effected this legendary feat.{{sfn|Kennedy|2007|p=92}} The historian [[Moshe Gil]] calls the march "a feat which has no parallel" and a testament to "Khalid's qualities as an outstanding commander".,{{sfn|Gil|1997|pp=47–48, note 50}} while [[Laura Veccia Vaglieri]] and Patricia Crone{{sfn|Crone|1978|p=928}} dismissed the adventure of Khalid as never having happened as they thought it logically impossible.{{sfn|Vaglieri|1965|p=625}} Nevertheless, military historian Richard G. Davis explained that Khalid imaginatively employed camel supply trains to make this journey possible.{{sfn|Davis|2010|p=23}} Those well hydrated camels that accompanied his journey were proven before in the [[Battle of Ullais]] for such a risky journey.{{sfn|Natziger|Walton|2003}} Khalid resorted to slaughtering many camels for provisions for his desperate army.{{sfn|Davis|2010|p=23}}

==Strategy and tactics==
===Field formation===
When the army was on the march, it always halted on Fridays. When on march, the day's march was never allowed to be so long as to exhaust the troops. The stages were selected with reference to the availability of water and other provisions. The advance was led by an advance guard consisting of a regiment or more. Then came the main body of the army, and this was followed by the women and children and the baggage loaded on camels. At the end of the column moved the rear guard. On long marches the horses were led; but if there was any danger of enemy interference on the march, the horses were mounted, and the cavalry thus formed would act either as the advance guard or the rear guard or move wide on a [[Flanking maneuver|flank]], depending on the direction from which the greatest danger loomed.

When on march the army was divided into:

*''Muqaddima'' (مقدمة) - "the vanguard"
*''Qalb'' (قلب) - "the center"
*''Al-khalf'' (الخلف) - "the rear"
*''Al-mu'akhira'' (المؤخرة) - "the rear guard".{{sfn|al-Mubarak|1997|p=33}}

===Divisions in battle===
The army was organized on the [[Decimal|decimal system]].{{sfn|al-Mubarak|1997|p=33}}

On the battlefield the army was divided into sections. These sections were:
*''Qalb'' (قلب) - the center
*''Maymana'' (ميمنه) - the right wing
*''Maysara'' (ميسرة) - the left wing{{sfn|al-Mubarak|1997|p=33}}

Each section was under a commander and was at a distance of about 150 meters from the others. Every tribal unit had its leader called an ''arif''. In such units, there were commanders for each 10, 100 and 1,000 men, the latter-most corresponding to [[regiment]]s. The grouping of regiments to form larger forces was flexible, varying with the situation. ''Arifs'' were grouped and each group was under a commander called ''amir al-ashar'' and ''amir al-ashars'' were under the command of a section commander, who were under the command of the commander in chief, ''amir al-jaysh''.{{sfn|al-Mubarak|1997|p=33}}

Other components of the army were:
*''Rijal'' (رجال) - infantry
*''Fursan'' (فرسان) - cavalry
*''Rumat'' (رماة) - archers
*''Tali'ah'' (طليعة) - patrols, who monitored enemy movements
# '''Rukban'' (ركبان) - camel corps
# '''Nuhhab al-mu'an'' (نهّاب المؤن) - foraging parties, Rukban (ركبان){{Citation needed|date=October 2021}}

=== Cavalry ===
{{further|topic=Mubarizun|Mobile guard}}
The general strategy of early Muslim cavalry was to utilize their speed to outpace their adversaries. Muslim generals such as Khalid ibn Walid and Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas are known to have employed this advantage against both the [[Sassanid army]] and the Byzantine army as the main drawback of the armies of Sassanid Persian Empire and the [[Eastern Roman Empire]] was their lack of mobility.<ref name="I. Akram 1970">A. I. Akram (1970). The Sword of Allah: Khalid bin al-Waleed, His Life and Campaigns. National Publishing House, Rawalpindi. {{ISBN|0-7101-0104-X}}</ref>

Another remarkable strategy developed by Al-Muthanna and later followed by other Muslim generals was not moving far from the desert so long as there were opposing forces within striking distance of its rear. The idea was to fight the battles close to the desert, with safe escape routes open in case of defeat.<ref>Tabari: Vol: 2, page no: 560.</ref>

==== Cavalry usage during siege warfare ====
The tactics used by Iyad in his Mesopotamian campaign were similar to those employed by the Muslims in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], though in Iyad's case the contemporary accounts reveal his specific ''modus operandi'', particularly in Raqqa.{{sfn|Petersen|2013|p=435}} The operation to capture that city entailed positioning cavalry forces near its entrances, preventing its defenders and residents from leaving or rural refugees from entering.{{sfn|Petersen|2013|p=435}} Concurrently, the remainder of Iyad's forces cleared the surrounding countryside of supplies and took captives.{{sfn|Petersen|2013|p=435}} These dual tactics were employed in several other cities in al-Jazira.{{sfn|Petersen|2013|p=435}} They proved effective in gaining surrenders from targeted cities running low on supplies and whose satellite villages were trapped by hostile troops.{{sfn|Petersen|2013|p=435}}  
	  
Ubadah ibn al-Samit, another Rashidun commander, is also recorded to have developed his own distinct strategy which involved the use of cavalry during siege warfare. During a siege, Ubadah would dig a large hole, deep enough to hide a considerable number of horsemen near an enemy garrison, and hid his cavalry there during the night. When the sun rose and the enemy city opened their gates for the civilians in the morning, Ubadah and his hidden cavalry then emerged from the hole and stormed the gates as the unsuspecting enemy could not close the gate before Ubadah's horsemen entered. This strategy was used by Ubadah during the [[Siege of Laodicea (636)|Siege of Laodicea]]{{sfn|Baladhuri|2011}}{{sfn|Ghadanfar|Al-Khaiat|2001}} and [[Siege of Alexandria (641)|Siege of Alexandria]].{{sfn|Baladhuri|2011}}

===Intelligence and espionage===
It was one of the most highly developed departments of the army which proved helpful in most of the campaigns. The [[espionage]] ('''جاسوسية''') and [[intelligence service]]s were first organised by Muslim general [[Khalid ibn Walid]] during his [[Islamic conquest of Persia|campaign to Iraq]].{{sfn|Ibn Kathir|2016}} Later, when he was transferred to the [[Syria]]n front, he organized the [[espionage]] department there as well.<ref>al-Waqdi ''Fatuh-al-sham'' page 61</ref> As the term of military rulings during Rashidun caliphate were intertwined with Sharia ruling, the concept of espionage also became subject in jurisprudential term, as in the modern era, [[Permanent Committee for Scholarly Research and Ifta|Islamic official committee of Saudi Arabia Scholars]] also used the practice of az-Zubayr as one of their source of fatawa, such as an act of government to [[Espionage|spying]] any endangering act from [[enemy of the state]], such as criminal behavior, alleged terrorism, and other illegal conduct, were allowed in Islam jurisprudence.<ref name="Saudi scholars about espionage" /> The committee based this ruling of espionage by legitimate government from the act of az-Zubayr for spying [[Banu Qurayza]] for their alleged betrayal during the Battle of the Trench on the instruction of Muhammad.<ref name="Saudi scholars about espionage">{{harvtxt|Burhanuddin|2013}}</ref>

=== Border raids and expansions ===
{{further|topic=Ghazwah|Ghazi (warrior)#Historical development}}
During the tenure of Khalid ibn al-Walid in the [[Muslim conquest of Persia|Muslim conquest of Iraq]], he formed ''Ummal'', military units that act as his deputy personnel to govern, watch, and collect [[Kharaj]] and [[Jizya]] in the occupied areas, or as raiding parties in uncaptured cities or settlements.<ref name="Tabari; Blankinship">{{cite book |last1=Yahya Blankinship |first1=Khalid |last2=Ibn Jarir at-Tabari |first2=Muhammad |title=The History of Al-Tabari Vol. 11 The Challenge to the Empires A.D. 633-635/A.H. 12-13 |date=15 June 2015 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=9780791496848 |pages=42–43 |edition=Khalid Yahya Blankinship translation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xbwtJ2mJ5zsC |access-date=15 October 2021}}</ref> At one time, Khalid appointed [[Dhiraar ibn al-Azwar]], [[Al-Qa'qa' ibn Amr al-Tamimi|Al-Qa'qa' ibn Amr at-Tamimi]], [[Dhiraar ibn al-Khattab]], [[al-Muthanna ibn Haritha]], Dhiraar ibn Muqrin, and Busr ibn Abi Ruhm as ''Ummal'' raiding force to raid Sib, a district located near the city of [[Qasr Ibn Hubayrah|Qasr ibn Hubayrah]] and north of [[Hillah]].<ref name="Tabari; Blankinship" /> These raiding detachment forces made repeated, casual raids until it was subdued.<ref name="Tabari; Blankinship" />

==Military organizations within the state department==
=== Military governorship ===
{{further|topic=Jund|Jund}}
The caliphs of Rashidun founded an administrative body which was based on military governorship, known as [[Jund]]. Jund were garrisoned in a capital which became the military headquarters named [[Amsar]]. Border military posts' fortifications of Jund were also established and named [[Ribat]].

Baladhuri estimates that around 636 AD, the number of caliphate regular soldiers in Basra totalled 80.000.{{#tag:ref|According to Baladhuri, ''Muqatila'' were caliphate troops who received payment, pension, and enrolled in Diwan as members of the regular army.{{sfn|Kennedy|Baladhuri|2011|p=177}}|group="Notes"}}

==== Diwan al-Jund ====
[[Caliph]] [[Umar]] was the first ruler to organize the army state department in the name of Diwan al-Jund to oversee the needs of soldiers regarding equipment. This reform was introduced in 637 AD. A beginning was made with the [[Quraysh (tribe)|Quraish]] and the [[Ansar (Islam)|Ansars]] and the system was gradually extended to the whole of [[Arabia]] and to Muslims of conquered lands. All adults who could be called to war were prepared, and a scale of salaries was fixed.{{sfn|al-Mubarak|1997|p=31-34}} All registered men were liable for military service. They were divided into two categories, namely:
# Regular soldiers
# Muslim civilians who could be enlisted for the compulsory call of [[Jihad]] in case of state emergency.{{sfn|al-Mubarak|1997|p=31-34}}

The pay was given in the beginning of the month of [[Muharram]].

The armies of the Caliphs were mostly paid in cash salaries. In contrast to many post-Roman polities in Europe, grants of land, or rights to collect taxes directly from the people within one's grant of land, were of only minor importance. A major consequence of this was that the army directly depended on the state for its subsistence which, in turn, meant that the military had to control the state apparatus.<ref>The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State. Contributors: [[Hugh N. Kennedy|Hugh Kennedy]] - author. Publisher: Routledge. Place of Publication: London. Publication Year: 2001. Page Number:59</ref>

=== Capital guard ===
{{further|topic=Haras and Shurta|Haras (unit)}}
Before the caliphate, the Caliphal guards or Haras and Shurta were volunteers yet consistent practice where at most around fifty persons were enlisted to guard Muhammad wherever he went. In Muhammad's era they were usually those early [[Companions of the Prophet|Companions]] generally known for martial prowess such as [[Talhah|Talhah ibn Ubaydillah]], [[Sa'd ibn Mu'adh]], Zubayr ibn al-Awwam, [[Saʽd ibn ʽUbadah|Sa'd ibn Ubadah]], [[Muhammad ibn Maslamah]], Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas, [[Abu Ayyub al-Ansari|Abu Ayyub al Ansari]], [[Usaid Bin Hudair|Usayd ibn Hudayr]], [[Miqdad ibn Aswad]] and others.{{sfn|Rashid|1983}} However, these units were disbanded after the [[Asbab al-Nuzul|Asbabun Nuzul]] during the [[Raid on Dhu Amarr]].{{Cite quran|5|11}}<ref name="Strauch 2006 472">{{citation|title=Biography of the Prophet|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i8bbHTcRV5kC&pg=PA472|first=Sameh|last=Strauch|year=2006|publisher=Darussalam Publications|isbn=978-9960-9803-2-4|page=472}}</ref>

==== Roles within caliphate ====
Although they seem similar and interchangeable in duty, Haras and Shurta were different. Shurta mainly guarded and policed important state sites, such as [[Al-Masjid an-Nabawi|Masjid Nabawi]] Caliphate citadel, the capital district of the Emirate governor, or Sultanate palaces, while also patrolling around the city to maintain law and punish any violations. Meanwhile, Haras served as bodyguards, whether to Muhammad himself, Caliphs, Sultans, Governors, or Amirs.{{sfn|Perlman|2015|p=323}}

They were also tasked to assist the regular forces in battle to repel enemy advances toward the capital.{{sfn|Rashid|1983}} This role was recorded by [[Ibn Kathir]] after the [[Ridda wars|rebellion break out across Arabia]] after the death of Muhammad, Abu Bakr immediately revived the organised elite guard unit [[Haras (unit)|al-Ḥaras wa al-Shurṭa]], which had earlier been disbanded by Muhammad after the [[Raid on Dhu Amarr]]. Abu Bakr raised these units again to defend Medina as a massive coalition of tribes had gathered around Medina while the main army of Medina had accompanied [[Usama ibn Zayd]] to conquer the border of northern Arabia and Jordan.{{sfn|Perlman|2015|p=323}} Veteran companions such as [[Ali ibn Abi Talib]], [[Talha ibn Ubayd Allah]], [[Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf]], [[Abdullah ibn Masud|Abdullah ibn Mas'ud]] and [[Zubair ibn al-Awwam]] were appointed as commanders of these units before the battle.{{sfn|Tabari|2015|p=46}} This unit defeated the huge rebel tribes gathering during the [[Battle of Zhu Qissa|defense of Medina]], by only using transport camels as mounts, since warhorses and trained camels were brought by the main army led by Usama, who was still fighting the Ghassanid in the north.{{sfn|Tabari|2015|p=46}}

After Abu Bakr, Haras and Shurta practice of [[Retinue|retinual]] bodyguards seems absent or minimal during the reign of Umar, Uthman, Ali, and Hasan.{{sfn|Perlman|2015|p=323}}{{sfn|Rashid|1983}} However, after [[Mu'awiya I|Mu'awiyah]] ascension he revived this practice drastically after the bloody ends of Umar, Uthman, Ali, and [[Hasan ibn Ali]]. Haras and Shurta broadened the role to not only guard caliph, but also Amirs or military governors which continued onwards of successive caliphates, both Umayyad and [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid]], and their localized successor states.{{sfn|Perlman|2015|p=323}} According to the tradition of Imam [[Al-Suyuti|Suyuti]], the first person to implement Shurta police forces on the governor level was Amr ibn al-'As.{{sfn|Rashid|1983}}

==== Strength ====
Shurta bodyguard numbers varied from around 30-50 at the time of Muhammad, or 500-600 at the time of Mu'awiyah. For Umayyad governors such as [[Khalid al-Qasri]] even possessed 4,000 members or higher for later era{{sfn|Rashid|1983}} which practically became private armies of each governor.

==== Equipment ====
Shurta during Umayyad usually patrolled on horseback.{{sfn|Rashid|1983}} [[Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf|Hajjaj ibn Yusuf]] prescribed that Shurta members must ride the best horses and forbade Shurta to ride inferior animals such as mules.{{sfn|Rashid|1983}} The Shurta often wore heavy armor of Mujaffafa ([[scale armor]]) during their duty.{{sfn|Rashid|1983}}

According to various early Muslim historians, aside from protecting the sovereign and capital, the Haras unit also acted as security police to maintain the safety of the city where they were assigned. During Umayyad rule they were armed with javelin-sized short spears called ''Hirba'', a mace, along with whips and chains as disciplining weapon.{{sfn|Perlman|2015|p=323}} They also usually carried Sayf long swords in order to immediately executes someone on the order of their superiors.{{sfn|Rashid|1983}} The Shurta during the Umayyad period also carried a weapon called ''Kafr Kubat'', a slingshot-type weapon{{sfn|Rashid|1983}}

==Conduct and ethics==
{{Main|Islamic military jurisprudence}}
The basic principle in the [[Qur'an]] for fighting is that other communities should be treated as one's own. Fighting is justified for legitimate [[self-defense]], to aid other Muslims and after a violation of the terms of a treaty, but should be stopped if these circumstances cease to exist.<ref name="Crone">Patricia Crone, [[Encyclopedia of the Qur'an]], War article, p.456. [[Brill Publishers]]</ref><ref>Micheline R. Ishay, ''The History of Human Rights: From Ancient Times to the Globalization Era'', [[University of California Press]], p.45</ref><ref name="Boundries_Princeton">Sohail H. Hashmi, David Miller, ''Boundaries and Justice: diverse ethical perspectives'', [[Princeton University Press]], p.197</ref><ref>Douglas M. Johnston, ''Faith-Based Diplomacy: Trumping Realpolitik'', [[Oxford University Press]], p.48</ref> During his life, [[Muhammad]] gave various injunctions to his forces and adopted practices toward the [[Laws of war|conduct of war]]. The most important of these were summarized by Muhammad's companion, [[Abu Bakr]], in the form of ten rules for the Rashidun army:<ref name="Zuhur">Aboul-Enein, H. Yousuf and Zuhur, Sherifa, ''Islamic Rulings on Warfare'', p. 22, Strategic Studies Institute, US Army War College, Diane Publishing Co., Darby PA, {{ISBN|1-4289-1039-5}}</ref>

{{blockquote|Stop, O people, that I may give you ten rules for your guidance in the battlefield. Do not commit treachery or deviate from the right path. You must not mutilate dead bodies. Neither kill a child, nor a woman, nor an aged man. Bring no harm to the trees, nor burn them with fire, especially those which are fruitful. Slay not any of the enemy's flock, save for your food. You are likely to pass by people who have devoted their lives to monastic services; leave them alone.}}

These injunctions were honored by the second [[caliph]], [[Umar]], during whose reign (634–644) important [[Early Muslim conquests|Muslim conquests]] took place.<ref>Nadvi (2000), pg. 519</ref> In addition, during the [[Battle of Siffin]], the caliph [[Ali]] stated that Islam does not permit Muslims to stop the supply of water to their enemy.<ref>E{{cite encyclopedia | editor= M. Mukarram Ahmed, Muzaffar Husain Syed | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam | publisher=Anmol Publications PVT. LTD. | year=2005 | isbn=81-261-2339-7| title= Encyclopaedia of Islam: Introduction to Islam|page = 204 }}</ref> In addition to the [[Rashidun Caliphate|Rashidun Caliphs]], [[hadith]]s attributed to Muhammad himself suggest that he stated the following regarding the [[Muslim conquest of Egypt]]:<ref name=Daly-18>{{citation|title=Egyptology: The Missing Millennium : Ancient Egypt in Medieval Arabic Writings|first=Okasha|last=El Daly|publisher=[[Routledge]]|year=2004|isbn=1-84472-063-2|page=18}}</ref>

{{blockquote|"You are going to enter [[Egypt]], a land where ''qirat'' (a money unit) is used. Be extremely good to them as they have with us close ties and marriage relationships."}}

{{blockquote|"Be Righteous to [[Allah]] about the Copts."}}

The caliphate army also emphasised discipline. The fourth caliph, [[Ali]], put an emphasis on the discipline of archers and cavalry, as he disliked unnecessary talks and noisiness during the motion of battle.{{sfn|Alofs|2015|p=1-24}}

The major compendium codex of Shafiite scholars ruling, [[Kitab al-Umm]], has mentioned regarding the duels of Zubayr, Ali, and [[Muhammad ibn Maslamah]] against Jewish champions during the siege of Khaybar fortresses as part of ''Taharruf'', or [[military deception]] chapter based on Islamic law.<ref name="Kitab al Umm Shafiie">{{cite book |last1=Ibn Idris |first1=Muhammad|translator=Fuad Syaifuddin Nur |author1-link=Al-Shafi'i |editor1-last=Iqbal Santosa |editor1-first=Muhammad |title=Al-Umm #9: Kitab Induk Fiqih Islam |date=2020 |publisher=Republika Penerbit |location=Jagakarsa, Jakarta, Indonesia |isbn=9786232790087 |page=57 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Aq3mDwAAQBAJ |access-date= |language=id}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Arab conquest of Armenia]]
* [[Byzantine-Arab Wars]]
* [[Fall of Sassanids]]
* [[Islamic conquest of Afghanistan]]
* [[Islamic conquest of Persia]]
* [[Mobile guard]]
* [[Early Muslim conquests|Muslim conquests]]
* [[Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent]]
* [[Muslim conquest of Egypt]]
* [[Muslim conquest of Syria]]
* [[Rashidun|Rashidun caliphs]]
* [[Rashidun Caliphate]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group="Notes"}}

== External links ==
* [https://www.medievalists.net/2018/12/the-turks-the-medieval-worlds-most-martial-people/ The Turks: The Medieval World’s Most Martial People]; [https://www.nmc.utoronto.ca/people/directories/all-faculty/adam-ali Dr. Adam Ali M.A. Phd.] {{sfn|Ali|2018}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Sources ==
=== Primary sources ===
* Recorded traditional oral narration of historical events during the early time of Islam of [[Urwah ibn Zubayr]], an historian during Rashidun era.
* Earliest records of ''Maghazi'' (historical records regarding Islamic conquests) of Muhammad by [[Tabi'un|Tabi'in]] historian [[Aban ibn Uthman]]
* Recorded narrations of Maghazi [[Ibn Shihab al-Zuhri#Influence on hadith and maghazi-sirah literature|classifications]] by [[Ibn Shihab al-Zuhri]]
* historical manuscript compilations about ''Hima'' (war-camel breeding grounds) (3rd AH) authored by Abu Ali al-Hajari 
* ''Mu'jam M Ista'jam'' (5th AH), an early caliphate history about war camel breeding authored by Abu Ubaid al-Bakri  
* ''Wafa' al-Wafa' bi Akhbar Dar al-Mustafa'' (6th AH), an early caliphate historical manuscript mentioning ''Hima'' breeding grounds Al-Samhudi 
* ''[[Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal]]'', which contains many scarces of historical account regarding military activity during the time of Muhammad and four righteous guided caliphate
* ''[[Sahih Bukhari]] Chapter 57: Book of Jihad'', regarding ethics and basics of warfare according to Islamic tradition
* ''[[Sahih Muslim]] Chapter 19: KITAB AL-JIHAD WA'L-SIYAR (The Book of Jihad And Expedition)'', regarding ethics and conduct during wartime
* ''[[Bulugh al-Maram]] Chapter 10. The book of Jihad''. treatise regarding basis of military conducts and treatise attributed to [[Shafiʽi school|Shafiʽite]] scholar [[Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani]].
* ''Sīrat Rasūl Allāh'' (Biography of the prophet of Allah) by [[Ibn Hisham]]
* ''[[Masabih al-Sunnah]]'' contained narrations of the peoples who lived during the Rashidun conquests, including those directly involved in the conquest. Authored by [[Al-Baghawi]]
* ''[[Al-Sirah al-Nabawiyyah (Ibn Hisham)|Al-Sirah al-Nabawiyyah]] (The Life of the Prophet)''', an edited recension by [[Ibn Ishaq|Ibn Isḥāq]]
* ''[[History of the Prophets and Kings]]'' ({{langx|ar|تاريخ الرسل والملوك}} ''Tārīkh al-Rusul wa al-Mulūk''), more commonly known as ''Tarikh al-Tabari'' ({{lang|ar|تاريخ الطبري}}) or ''Tarikh-i Tabari'' or '''''The History of al-Tabari ''''' ({{langx|fa|تاریخ طبری}})
* Historical excerpts from [[Abu Bakr al-Zubaydi]], scholar and historian from the [[Caliphate of Córdoba]]
* ''Kitāb al-Furūsiyya wa 'l-Bayṭara'' ("Book of Horsemanship and Hippiatry"), regarding horsemanship and proficiency in handling all types of weapons, and bravery, by '''Ibn Akhī Ḥizām''' ({{Lang|ar|ابن أخي حزام|rtl=yes}})
* ''Al-Furūsiyya'' (Equestrian martial exercise) of four basic principles of horsemanship, archery, cavalry charging, and swordsmanship, authored by [[Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya]]
* ''[[Futuh al-Buldan]], The Conquest of (the) countries'', a work regarding early Islamic conquest 9th century historian [[Al-Baladhuri|Ahmad Ibn Yahya al-Baladhuri]] of Abbasid-era Baghdad
* ''Futūḥ mișr wa akhbārahā'' ({{langx|ar|فتح مصر و أخبارها}}, Conquest of Egypt and some account of it, i.e. of the country) authored by [[Ibn Abd al-Hakam]]
* ''[[Furusiyya#List of Furusiyyah treatises|Kitāb al-Furūsiyya wa-al-Bayṭarah]]'', regarding military tactics around cavalry, Hippiatry, and archery warfare
* ''[[al-Waqidi|Kitab al-Tarikh wa al-Maghazi]]'' ([[Arabic]]: كتاب التاريخ والمغازي, "Book of History and Campaigns") by al-Waqidi
* ''Kitāb aṭ-Tabaqāt al-Kabīr'' ({{Translation|''The Book of the Major Classes''}}), eight-volume work contains the lives of Muhammad, his Companions and Helpers, including those who fought at the Battle of Badr as a special class, and of the following generation, the Followers, who received their traditions from the Companions, authored by [[Ibn Sa'd]]
* ''[[Usd al-ghabah fi marifat al-Saḥabah]] (The Lions of the Forest and the knowledge about the Companions)'', biographies of Muhammad and 7,554 of his [[Companions of the Prophet|companions]], by [[Ali ibn al-Athir]]
* ''The [[Strategikon of Maurice|Strategikon]]'', a military handbook of the late 6th century, attributed to the Emperor [[Maurice (emperor)|Maurice]]
* Social commentary regarding military and social developments during the times of caliphates found in the [[Al-Jahiz bibliography|books]] of [[Al-Jahiz]]
* ''Arab archery'', a translated classical treatise of traditional Arabic archery written by an unknown author
* ''A History of Heraclius'', historical accounts regarding the events of mid to late 7th century with full biblical allegory, written by [[Sebeos]]

===Secondary sources===
{{refbegin|30em}}
<!-- Order sources alphabetically by the first author's surname -->
<!-- A -->
* {{cite book |last1=Abdul-jabbar |first1=Suhaib |title=The predicate objective of the combined ten books - Comprehensive |date=2013 |publisher=modern comprehensive library |page=370 |edition=Arabic |url=https://al-maktaba.org/book/32866/17348&usg=AOvVaw2ssS21dPEFtYJOeOxi9mVU |access-date=7 November 2021}}
* {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=31tscfPF4tkC |title=Muhammad, the Messenger of Islam: His Life & Prophecy |last=Adil| first=Hajjah Amina |date=2002|publisher=ISCA |isbn=9781930409118|language=en}}
* {{cite book |last1=Akram |first1=Agha Ibrahim |author-link=Agha Ibrahim Akram|title=The Sword of Allah Khalid Bin Al-Waleed, His Life and Campaigns |date=2006 |publisher=Mr. Books |pages=359–417 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LzVtAAAAMAAJ&q=mobile%20guard%20khalid |access-date=16 October 2021}}
* {{cite thesis |last1=al-Mubarak |first1=Malik Abdulazeez |title=Warfare in early Islam |type=PhD |publisher=University of Glasgow |date=1997|page=18|url=http://theses.gla.ac.uk/id/eprint/794 |access-date=15 October 2021}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Al-Rashid |first1=Saad A. |title=Lights on the History and Archaeology of Al-Rabadhah (Locally Called Abu Salim) |journal=Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies |date=1978 |volume=9 |pages=88–101 |jstor=41223222 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41223222 |access-date=23 October 2021}}
* {{cite book|last=Alexander |first=David |title=Swords and Sabers during the Early Islamic Period |publisher=Gladius XXI |year=2001|page=200|url= http://gladius.revistas.csic.es/index.php/gladius/article/viewFile/86/86}}
* {{cite book |last1='Ali |first1=Abdul |title=The Image of Mahatma Gandhi in Modern Arabic Literature |date=2018 |publisher=Educreation Publishing |edition=English |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NcR-DwAAQBAJ |access-date=24 October 2021}}
* {{cite book |last1=Ali |first1=Maulana Muhammad |author-link=Maulana Muhammad Ali|title=The Early Caliphate |date=2015 |isbn= 9781934271254|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=flg-UX6fOdkC |access-date=23 October 2021}}
* {{cite web |last1=Ali |first1=Adam |title=The Turks: The Medieval World's Most Martial People |url=https://www.medievalists.net/2018/12/the-turks-the-medieval-worlds-most-martial-people/ |website=Medievalists.net |date=2018 |publisher=Medievalists |access-date=16 October 2021}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Alofs |first1=Eduard |title=Studies on Mounted Warfare in Asia I: Continuity and Change in Middle Eastern Warfare, c. CE 550-1350 — What Happened to the Horse Archer? |journal=War in History |date=2014 |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=423–444 |doi=10.1177/0968344513517664 |jstor=26098617 |s2cid=163010878 |url= https://www.jstor.org/stable/26098617 |access-date=17 October 2021|url-access=subscription }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Alofs |first1=Eduard |title=Studies on Mounted Warfare in Asia II: The Iranian Tradition — The Armoured Horse Archer in the Middle East, c. CE 550–1350 |journal=War in History |date=2015 |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=18–24 |jstor=26098221 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26098221 |access-date=16 October 2021}}
* {{cite book |author= Archer, Rosemary|title= The Arabian Horse |series=Allen Breed Series |year=1992 |publisher=J. A. Allen |location=London |isbn=978-0-85131-549-2}}
* {{cite book |last1=Archer |first1=Rosemary |first2=Colin |last2=Pearson |first3=Cecil |last3=Covey |title=The Crabbet Arabian Stud: Its History and Influence |publisher=Alexander Heriot & Co. Ltd.|location=Northleach. Gloucestershire |year=1978 |isbn=978-0-906382-00-4}}
<!-- B -->
* {{cite journal |last1=Bacon |first1=Elizabeth E. |title=Types of Pastoral Nomadism in Central and Southwest Asia |journal=Southwestern Journal of Anthropology |date=1954 |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=44–68 |doi=10.1086/soutjanth.10.1.3629075 |jstor=3629075 |s2cid=155878499 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3629075 |access-date=23 October 2021|url-access=subscription }}
* {{cite book |last1=Baladhuri |first1=Ahmad ibn Yahya ibn Jabir |title=The Origins of the Islamic State: Being a Translation from the Arabic Accompanied With Annotations, Geographic and Historic Notes of the Kitab Futuh Al-buldan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bcWtttJL3WEC&q=yarmouk+ubadah+samit&pg=PA216 |publisher=Cosimo, Inc |access-date=26 January 2020|isbn=9781616405342 |date=March 2011 }}
* {{cite book |last=Bennett |first=Deb. |title=Conquerors: The Roots of New World Horsemanship | edition= 1st|publisher=Amigo Publications Inc |location=Lincoln |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-9658533-0-9}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title = Abnāʾ | last = Bosworth | first = C. E. | authorlink = | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/abna-term | editor-last = | editor-first = | editor-link = | encyclopedia = Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. I, Fasc. 3 | pages = 226–228 | location = | publisher = | year = 1983 | isbn =}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title = ASĀWERA | last = Bosworth | first = C. E. | author-link = C. E. Bosworth | encyclopedia = [[Encyclopaedia Iranica]], Vol. II, Fasc. 7 | pages = 706–707 | year = 1987 | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/asawera-arabic-broken-plural-form-the-variant-asawirat-also-occurs-in-yaqubi-p }}
* {{cite book |last1=Brill |first1=E.J |title=E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam: 1913-1936. Ṭāʻif - Zūrkhāna, Volume 8 |date=1993 |publisher=Brill Publishers |isbn=9004097945 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ro--tXw_hxMC&q=tulaiha |access-date=23 October 2021}}
* {{cite web |last1=Burhanuddin |first1=Anas |language=id |title=Bolehkah Memata-Matai Suami? |trans-title=Is it allowed to spying on husband? |url=https://almanhaj.or.id/4516-bolehkah-mematamatai-suami.html#_ftn3 |website=Almanhaj |publisher=Lajnah Istiqomah Surakarta |access-date=22 November 2021 |location=Indonesia; Java Island; Purwodadi |date=2013 }}
* {{cite book|title=Damascus: A History|first=Ross|last=Burns|publisher=Routledge|year=2007|orig-year=2005|isbn=978-1-134-48849-0}}
<!-- C -->
* {{cite web | publisher = History Group of the New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage | title = Cameliers and camels at war | work = New Zealand History online | access-date = 5 December 2012 | date = 30 August 2009 | url = http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/war/camel-corps | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120316110701/http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/war/camel-corps | archive-date = 16 March 2012 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Christides |first1=Vasilios |title=Naval History and Naval Technology in Medieval Times the Need for Interdisciplinary Studies |journal=Byzantion |date=1988 |volume=58 |issue=2 |pages=309–332 |jstor=44171055 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44171055 |access-date=22 October 2021}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Clarke |first1=Nicola |title='They are the most treacherous of people': religious difference in Arabic accounts of three early medieval Berber revolts |journal=EHumanista |date=2013 |volume=24 |pages=510–525 |url=http://www.ehumanista.ucsb.edu/volumes/volume_24/Regular/ehum24.clarke.pdf |access-date=18 October 2021}}
* {{cite book |last1=Coetzee |first1=Daniel |last2=Eysturlid |first2=Lee W. |title=Philosophers of War: The Evolution of History's Greatest Military Thinkers [2 Volumes] The Evolution of History's Greatest Military Thinkers |date=2013 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=9780313070334 |url=http://www.ehumanista.ucsb.edu/volumes/volume_24/Regular/ehum24.clarke.pdf |access-date=21 October 2021}}
* {{EI2 |article=Khālid b. al-Walīd |last=Crone |first=P. |author-link=Patricia Crone |volume=4 |pages=928–929}}
<!-- D -->
* {{cite book |last1=Davis |first1=Richard G. |title=U.S. Army and Irregular Warfare 1775-2007: Selected Papers From the 2007 Conference of Army Historians: Selected Papers From the 2007 Conference of Army Historians |date=2010 |publisher=Government Printing Office |isbn=978-0160867309 |page=23 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=61MrZB6qJVMC&q=camel+desert+endurance+khalid+walid |access-date=17 October 2021}}
*{{cite book |last1=Donner |first1=Fred M. |author-link=Fred M. Donner |title=The Early Islamic Conquests |year=1981 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton |isbn=0-691-05327-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l5__AwAAQBAJ }}
<!-- E -->
<!-- F -->
* {{cite book |last1=Faris |first1=Nabih Amnin |last2=Elmer |first2=Robert Potter |title=Arab archery |date=2019 |publisher=David De Angelis |isbn=9788834138182 |pages=4–5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x-jEDwAAQBAJ |access-date=16 October 2021}}
<!-- G -->
* {{cite book |last1=Ghadanfar |last2=Al-Khaiat |first1=Mahmood Ahmad |first2=Abdul-Latif |title=The Commanders of Muslim Army |date=2001 |publisher=Darussalam Publishers |pages=392 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TmWTBQAAQBAJ&q=ubadah+samit+&pg=PT210 |access-date=28 January 2020}}
* {{cite book |last=Gil |first=Moshe |author-link=Moshe Gil |translator=Ethel Broido |title=A History of Palestine, 634–1099 |date=1997 |orig-year=1992 |location=Cambridge and New York |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-40437-1 |edition=Revised |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M0wUKoMJeccC}}
* {{cite book |last1=Greene |first1=Joseph A. |last2=Stager |first2=Lawrence E. |last3=Coogan |first3=Michael D. |title=The Archaeology of Jordan and Beyond Essays in Memory of James A. Sauer |date=2018 |publisher=Brill |isbn=9789004369801 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=st6mDwAAQBAJ |access-date=23 October 2021}}
<!-- H -->
* {{cite book | title = The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661–750 | last = Hawting | first = G. R. | authorlink = G. R. Hawting | location = London and New York | publisher = Routledge | year = 2000 | isbn = 0-415-24072-7 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=KNczPUUdTbsC | pages = 68–69| edition = 2nd }}
*{{The History of al-Tabari |volume=26 |url=}}
*{{EI2 |article=Muʿāwiya I b. Abī Sufyān |last=Hinds |first=M. |volume=7 |pages=263–268}}
* {{cite book |last1=Holt |first1=Andrew |last2=Curta |first2=Florin |title=Great Events in Religion: An Encyclopedia of Pivotal Events in Religious History [3 Volumes] |date=28 November 2016 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=9781610695664 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dgF9DQAAQBAJ |access-date=23 October 2021}}
* {{cite book |last1=Hutton |first1=Richard Holt |last2=Bagehot |first2=Walter |title=National Review Volume 7 |date=1858 |publisher=Oxford University |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=erQEAAAAQAAJ |access-date=23 October 2021}}
<!-- I -->
* {{cite book |last1=Ibn Abd al-Hakam |first1=Abu'l Qāsim ʿAbd ar-Raḥman bin ʿAbdullah |title=The History of the Conquest of Egypt, North Africa, and Spainfutuḥ misr wa akbārahā |date=1922 |publisher=New Haven : Yale University Press |edition=Charles Torey |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofconques00ibnauoft/page/n6/mode/2up |access-date=20 October 2021}}
* {{cite book |last1=Ibn Hisham |first1=Abu Muhammad 'Abd al-Malik bin Hisham ibn Ayyub |title=Seerah Nabawi |date=2019|publisher=Qisthi Press |page=583|edition=Ali Nurdin Indonesian Translation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sBizDwAAQBAJ |access-date=16 October 2021}}
* {{cite book |last1=al Shafi'i |first1=Muhammad ibn Idris |language=id |title=Ar-Risalah |date=2018 |publisher=Pustaka al Kautsar |isbn=9789795925842 |page=54 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ErFlDwAAQBAJ |access-date=20 November 2021 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Ibn Jarir at-Tabari |first1=Muhammad |title=The History of Al-Tabari Vol. 10 The Conquest of Arabia: The Riddah Wars A.D. 632-633/A.H. 11 |date=June 15, 2015|publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=9781438401409 |page=46 |edition=Fred Donner Translation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MP_oI6wuyOcC |access-date=14 October 2021}}
* {{cite news |last1=Ibn Jurais |first1=Ghaythan ibn Ali |title=Jurash: Secrets of one of Saudi Arabia's most important archaeological sites revealed |url=https://www.arabnews.com/node/1418156/saudi-arabia |access-date=16 October 2021 |agency=Saudi Press Agency |date=2018}}
* {{cite book |last1=Ibn Kathir |first1=Abu al-Fiḍā ‘Imād Ad-Din Ismā‘īl ibn ‘Umar |title=AI-Bidayah WAN-Nihayah |date=2016 |url=https://archive.org/details/BookOfTheEnd_ibnkathir|access-date=16 October 2021}}
* {{cite book |last1=Idllalène |first1=Samira |title=Rediscovery and Revival in Islamic Environmental Law Back to the Future of Nature's Trust |date=2021 |isbn=9781108488785 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6XUfEAAAQBAJ |access-date=24 October 2021}}
<!-- J -->
* {{cite journal |last1=Jandora |first1=John Walter |title=Developments in Islamic Warfare: The Early Conquests |journal=Studia Islamica |date=1986 |issue=64 |pages=101–113 |doi=10.2307/1596048 |jstor=1596048 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1596048 |access-date=15 October 2021|url-access=subscription }}
<!-- K -->
* {{The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates |edition=Second}} <!-- Kennedy 2004 -->
* {{cite book |last1=Kennedy |first1=Hugh |title=The Great Arab Conquests: How the Spread of Islam Changed the World We Live In |date=2007 |publisher=Da Capo Press |location=Philadelphia |isbn=978-0-306-81585-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/greatarabconques00kenn_0}}
* {{cite book |last1=Kennedy|first1=Hugh |title=The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-53113-4 |pages=171|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HCH5e8smjggC|language=en}}
* * {{cite journal |last1=Kennedy |first1=Hugh |last2=Baladhuri |first2=ʾAḥmad ibn Yaḥyā ibn Jabir |title=The Feeding of the Five Hundred Thousand: Cities and Agriculture in Early Islamic Mesopotamia |journal=Iraq |date=2011 |volume=73 |pages=177–199 |doi=10.1017/S0021088900000152 |jstor=23350021 |s2cid=128901895 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last1=Kenner |first1=Jeffrey T. |title=Muslim Rebels Kharijites and the Politics of Extremism in Egypt |date=2006 |publisher=Oxford University Press, USA |isbn=9780198030188 |page=28 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mNY_wwpx-6MC |access-date=18 October 2021}}
* {{cite book |first=Jeffrey T. |last=Kenney |title=Muslim Rebels: Kharijites and the Politics of Extremism in Egypt |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2006 | isbn=9780195131697}}
* {{cite book |last1=Khazanov |first1=Anatoly M. |last2=Wink |first2=Andre |title=Nomads in the Sedentary World |date=2012 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=9781136121944 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-v_RORENFbMC |access-date=23 October 2021}}
* {{cite web |last1=Al-Khudair |first1=Abdul Karim bin Abdullah |title=الشمائل النبوية (17) |trans-title=Prophetic merits (17) |url=https://shkhudheir.com/scientific-lesson/860275141 |date=2015 |website=Sheykh-el-Khudeyr |publisher=Department of Sunnah and its Sciences, Faculty of Theology, Imam Muhammad bin Saud University in Riyadh |access-date=7 November 2021}}
<!-- L -->
* {{cite book |last1=Lydon |first1=Ghyslaine |title=On Trans-Saharan Trails Islamic Law, Trade Networks, and Cross-Cultural Exchange in Nineteenth-Century Western Africa |date=2009 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521887243 |page=211 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wYM9HGe2PD0C |access-date=17 October 2021}}
<!-- M -->
* {{cite book |last1=Maclean |first1=Derryl Nicolas |title=Religion and Society in Arab Sind |date=1989 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-08551-0 |page=126 |url=https://brill.com/view/title/2198 |access-date=17 October 2021}}
* {{cite book |last1=Madelung |first1=Wilfred |title=The Succession to Muhammad A Study of the Early Caliphate |date=1997 |publisher=Cambridge university Press |isbn=9780521561815 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1RtingEACAAJ |access-date=23 October 2021}}
* {{cite book |last1=Mappaseng |first1=Irvan Setiawan |title=SENI MEMANAH: DARI ZAMAN NABI MUHAMMAD HINGGA DINASTI UTSMANIYYAH |date=2018 |publisher=Republika Publishing |isbn=9786025734755 |page=183 |edition=Indonesia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ISvdDwAAQBAJ |access-date=21 October 2021}}
* {{cite web |last1=Masih |first1=Khalifatul |title=Men of Excellence friday sermon; quoting Al-Tabaqaat-ul-Kubra li ibn Sa'd, Vol. 3, p. 86, Dar-e-Ihyaa Al-Turath, Beirut, Lebanon, 1996; Dalail-ul-Nabuwwat Li Al-Behqi, Vol. 3, p. 39, Dar-ul-Kutub Al-Ilmiyyah, Beirut, Lebanon, 2002; (Al-Sirat al-Nabawiyyah li Ibn Hisham, p. 452, Dar-ul-Kutub al-Ilmiyyah, Beirut, Lebanon, 2001 |website=al Hakam |date=19 December 2019 |publisher=Al Fazl International |url=https://www.alhakam.org/men-of-excellence-48/ |access-date=7 October 2021}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Mayer |first1=L. A. |title=Saracenic Arms and Armor |journal=Ars Islamica |date=1943 |volume=10 |page=2 |jstor=4515613 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4515613 |access-date=7 November 2021}}
* {{cite book |last1=Meri |first1=Josef W. |last2=Bacharach |first2=Jere L. |title=Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia |date=2006 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=0203957601 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w30qnwEACAAJ |access-date=23 October 2021}}
* {{cite book |last1=Montefiore |first1=Simon Sebag |title=Jerusalem: The Biography |date=2012 |publisher=Alvabet press |isbn=978-6029193022 |page=219 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vy-SCwAAQBAJ}}
*{{citation|title=The sealed nectar: biography of the Noble Prophet|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r_80rJHIaOMC&pg=PA246|first=Saifur Rahman Al|last=Mubarakpuri|year=2005|publisher=Darussalam Publications|isbn=978-9960-899-55-8|page=246}}
* {{cite book |last1=Mutawalli |first1=Ahmad Mustafa |last2=Rahman |first2=Hadi |last3=Kamil |first3=Muflih |title=Syama'il Rasulullah |date=2019 |publisher=Qisthi Press |isbn=9789791303392 |edition=Indonesia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jpeUDwAAQBAJ |access-date=7 November 2021}}
<!-- N -->
* {{cite thesis |last1=Nicolle |first1=David |title=The military technology of classical Islam. |journal=Thesis (Ph.D.) |date=1982 |url=https://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.331246 |access-date=22 October 2021|type=Ph.D }}
* {{cite book |last1=Natziger |first1=George F. |last2=Walton |first2=Mark W. |title=Islam at War: A History |date=2003 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=0275981010 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7U0hY3wtXe4C&q=Battle+of+Ullais |access-date=17 October 2021}}
* {{cite book|first=David|last=Nicolle|title=Yarmuk AD 636: The Muslim conquest of Syria|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6ZlsmwEACAAJ|publisher=Osprey Publishing|year=1994|isbn=1855324148}}
* {{cite book|first=David|last=Nicolle|title=Armies of the Caliphates 862-1098|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wc06vgAACAAJ|publisher=Osprey Publishing|year=1998|isbn=1855327708}}
<!-- O -->
* {{cite book |last1=O'shea |first1=Stephen |title=Sea of Faith Islam and Christianity in the Medieval Mediterranean World |date=June 24, 2008 |location=University of Michigan |isbn=9780802714985 |page=36 |edition=Digitized |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QkpoAAAAMAAJ&q=stephen%20o%27shea%20sea%20faith |access-date=15 October 2021}}
<!-- P -->
*{{cite encyclopedia |last=Pellat |first=Charles |author-link=Charles Pellat |date=2011 |title=Abū Loʾloʾa |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica |editor1-last=Yarshater |editor1-first=Ehsan |editor1-link=Ehsan Yarshater |url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/abu-loloa-a-persian-slave-of-mogira-b}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Perlman|first1=Yaara|title=The Bodyguard of the Caliphs During the Umayyad and the Early Abbasid Periods|url=http://al-qantara.revistas.csic.es/index.php/al-qantara/article/view/348/340|journal=Al-Qanṭara|volume=36|issue=2|year=2015|pages=315–340|issn=1988-2955|doi=10.3989/alqantara.2015.009|doi-access=free}}
* {{cite book|last1=Petersen|first1=Leif Inge Ree|title=Siege Warfare and Military Organization in the Successor States (400-800 AD): Byzantium, the West and Islam|date=2013|publisher=Brill|location=Leiden|isbn=978-90-04-25199-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BRGaAAAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite book |last1=Pramono |first1=Agus |title=Buku Perkembangan Ilmu Pengetahuan & Teknologi Dalam Perspektif Islam |trans-title=Book on the Development of Science & Technology in Islamic Perspective |date=2021 |publisher=DeePublish |isbn=978-6230232282 |page=44 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GaA9EAAAQBAJ |access-date=7 November 2021}}
<!-- Q -->
<!-- R -->
* {{cite web |last1=Rasheed |first1=Mahmud |title=al silah mawaridah, wa dhawaaith asta'malah, waltadriba 'Alaihi fii al hadii al nabiyyu (Weapons, their resources, controls for their use, and training in the Prophet's guidance) |url=http://hdl.handle.net/123456789/1253 |access-date=22 October 2021}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Rashid |first1=Aressa Mussa |title=The role of the Shurta in early Islam. |journal=Literatures, Languages, and Cultures PhD Thesis Collection |date=1983 |url=https://era.ed.ac.uk/handle/1842/7435 |access-date=17 October 2021}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Rezavi |first1=Syed Ali Nadeem |title=The Shia Muslims |journal=History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization |date=2006 |volume=2 |issue=2 }}
<!-- S -->
* {{cite journal |last1=Saifuz Zaman|first1=MD |title=Yarmouk – The Necessity of Studying the Battle in Early Medieval Military Historiography |journal=Journal of Military and Strategic Studies |date=2015|volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=8–20 |url=https://jmss.org/article/view/58167 |access-date=15 October 2021}}
* {{cite book |last1=Sebeos |first1=Unknown first name |last2=Howard-Johnston |first2=James |last3=Greenwood |first3=Tim |title=The Armenian history attributed to Sebeos Part 1 |date=1999 |publisher=Liverpool University Press |isbn=9780853235644 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YzsVvsMsuBUC |access-date=23 October 2021}}
* {{cite book |last1=Salabi |first1=Ali Muhammad |title=Biografi Abu Bakar Ash-Shiddiq |publisher=Pustaka Al Kautsar press |page=527 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u-vbDwAAQBAJ |access-date=21 October 2021}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Schiettecatte |first1=Jérémie |last2=Zouache |first2=Abbès |title=The Horse in Arabia and the Arabian Horse: Origins, Myths and Realities |journal=Chroniques Yéménites |date=2017 |issue=8 |doi=10.4000/cy.3280 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last1=Shaban |first1=M.A. |title=Islamic History: Volume 1, AD 600-750 (AH 132) A New Interpretation |date=1976 |publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521291316 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TEFMYRxteB4C |access-date=14 October 2021}}
* {{cite book |last1=Shoshan |first1=Boaz |title=The Arabic Historical Tradition and the Early Islamic Conquests: Folklore, Tribal Lore, Holy War |date=7 Sep 2015|publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1317420262 |page=139|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=USoftAEACAAJ |access-date=15 October 2021}}
*{{cite journal |last=Spaulding |first=Jay |year=1995 |title=Medieval Christian Nubia and the Islamic World: A Reconsideration of the ''Baqt'' Treaty |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=577–594|doi=10.2307/221175|jstor=221175 }}
<!-- T -->
* {{cite book |last1=Tabari |first1=Muhammad Ibn Jarir |title=The History of Al-Tabari Vol. 11 The Challenge to the Empires A.D. 633-635/A.H. 12-13|date=2015|publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=9781438401409 |page=46 |edition=Blankinship translation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MP_oI6wuyOcC |access-date=14 October 2021}}
* {{cite web |last1=The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica |title=Al-Yaʿqūbī Arab historian and geographer |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/al-Yaqubi |access-date=23 October 2021}}
<!-- U -->
* {{cite book |last=Upton |first=Peter |editor-last=Amirsadeghi |editor-first=Hossein |others=Rik van Lent, photographer |title=Arabians |publisher=First Chronicle Books |location=Lincoln |orig-year=1998 |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-8118-5401-6}}
<!-- V -->
* {{EI2 |article=Dūmat al-Djandal |last=Vaglieri |first=L. V. |author-link=Laura Veccia Vaglieri |volume=2 |page=624–626}}
<!-- W -->
* {{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=C.T. Harley |title=Jahiz of Basra to Al-Fath Ibn Khaqan on the "Exploits of the Turks and the Army of the Khalifate in General" |journal=The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland |date=1917 |pages=631–697 |jstor=25189369 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25189369 |access-date=16 October 2021}}
* {{The Arab Kingdom and its Fall}} <!-- Wellhausen 1927 -->
<!-- X -->
<!-- Y -->
<!-- Z -->
*{{cite book|last=Zakeri|first=Mohsen|title=Sasanid Soldiers in Early Muslim Society: The Origins of 'Ayyārān and Futuwwa|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|year=1995|isbn=3447036524|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VfYnu5F20coC&q=false|pages=1–391}}
* {{cite book|last=Zaky |first=A. Rahman |title=Introduction to the Study of Islamic Swords and Armour |publisher=Gladius I |page=21|year=1961|url= http://gladius.revistas.csic.es/index.php/gladius/article/viewFile/211/213}}
{{refend}}

{{Districts of Islamic Syria}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Rashidun Army}}
[[Category:Military units and formations established in the 7th century]]
[[Category:661 disestablishments]]
[[Category:Military units and formations of the medieval Islamic world]]
[[Category:Military history of the Rashidun Caliphate|Army]]