View source for Radiographer

{{Short description| Healthcare professional}}
{{Distinguish|text=[[radiology|a radiologist]]}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}
{{Infobox occupation
| name           = Radiographer
| image          = [[File:USMC-120301-M-CH233-012.jpg|225px|USMC-120301-M-CH233-012]]
| caption        = A radiographer with a radiographic examination table and X-Ray tube
| official_names = Radiographer,<br />Diagnostic Radiographer,<br />Radiologic Technologist
<!------------Details------------------->
| type               = Professional
| activity_sector    = [[Allied health profession]]
| competencies       = The use of technology to produce diagnostically useful radiographic media
| formation          = Usually an [[undergraduate degree]] (BSc, BSc or [[Associate degree|A.Sc.]]), or diploma in less developed countries; see [[Radiographer#Education and role variation|Education and Role Variation]] for more information.
| employment_field   = Healthcare, Military, [[Medical Imaging]], [[Radiology]]
| related_occupation = [[Radiologist]]<br />[[radiation therapist]]
}}
'''Radiographers''', also known as '''radiology technologists''', '''radiologic technologists''', '''diagnostic radiographers''' and '''medical radiation technologists''',<ref>[http://www.camrt.ca/ CAMRT home page]. Camrt.ca. Retrieved on 2012-01-27.</ref> are [[healthcare professionals]] who specialise in the [[Medical imaging|imaging]] of [[human anatomy]] for the [[diagnosis]] and [[medical treatment|treatment]] of [[pathology]]. Radiographers are sometimes popularly known as '''x-ray technologists,''' though this is misleading because while [[x-rays]] were the earliest form of medical imaging, the field also includes [[magnetic resonance imaging]] and other technologies that do not use x-rays. In countries that use the title ''radiologic technologist'', these professionals are often informally referred to as ''techs'' in the clinical environment; this phrase has emerged in popular culture such as television programmes.<ref name="Popular Culture Rad Tech">{{cite web | url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0413573/epcast | title="Grey's Anatomy" (2205) – Episodes Cast | publisher=IMDB | access-date=1 December 2015 | author=IMDB}}</ref> The term ''radiographer'' can also refer to a ''therapeutic radiographer'', also known as a [[radiation therapist]].

Radiographers are [[allied health professions|allied health professionals]] who work in both [[public healthcare]] and private healthcare and can be physically located in any setting where appropriate diagnostic equipment is located, most frequently in [[hospitals]]. The practice varies from country to country and can even vary between hospitals in the same country.<ref name="globalrole">[https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.radi.2008.06.001] A global overview of the changing roles of radiographers, Cynthia Cowling, International Society of Radiographers and Radiological Technologists (ISRRT), 143 Bryn Pinwydden, Pentwyn, Cardiff, Wales CF23 7DG, UK, Retrieved on 28 October 2014.</ref>

Radiographers are represented by a variety of organizations worldwide, including the [[International Society of Radiographers and Radiological Technologists]] which aims to give direction to the profession as a whole through collaboration with national representative bodies.<ref>[http://www.isrrt.org/images/isrrt/documents/ISRRT%20Statutes.doc] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141029032732/http://www.isrrt.org/images/isrrt/documents/ISRRT%20Statutes.doc|date=29 October 2014}} ISRRT: Statutes word document. Retrieved on 28 October 2014.</ref>
{{Further|GXMO}}

== History ==
{{See also|Radiography#History}}
[[File:Crookes tube xray experiment.jpg|thumb|left|230px|Taking an X-ray image with early [[Crookes tube]] apparatus, late 1800s.]]

For the first three decades of [[medical imaging]]'s existence (1897 to the 1930s), there was no standardized differentiation between the roles that we now differentiate as radiologic technologist (a technician in an [[allied health professions|allied health profession]] who obtains the images) versus [[radiologist]] (a [[physician]] who interprets them).<!--cite Holtzmann Kevles 1997 here--> By the 1930s and 1940s, as it became increasingly apparent that proper interpretation of the images required not only a physician but also one who was specifically trained and experienced in doing so, the differentiation between the roles was formalized.<!--cite Holtzmann Kevles 1997 here--> Simultaneously, it also became increasingly true that just as a radiologic technologist cannot do the radiologist's job, the radiologist also cannot do the radiologic technologist's job, as it requires some knowledge, skills, experience, and [[certification]]s that are specific to it.

<!--The rest of this section in its current state inappropriately [[Wikipedia:Content forking|forks tons of content]] from the history of the imaging modes themselves (e.g., [[Radiography#History|Radiography § History]]). That will need to be fixed sometime. For now, covered the basics at top of section.-->

Radiography's origins and [[fluoroscopy#History|fluoroscopy's origins]] can both be traced to 8 November 1895, when German physics professor [[Wilhelm Röntgen]] discovered the X-ray and noted that, while it could pass through human tissue, it could not pass through bone or metal.<ref name=ndt-history>{{cite web|url=http://www.ndt-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Radiography/Introduction/history.htm|access-date=27 April 2013|title=History of Radiography|work=NDT Resource Center|publisher=Iowa State University}}</ref> Röntgen referred to the radiation as "X", to indicate that it was an unknown type of radiation. He received the first [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] for his discovery.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/articles/karlsson/|title=The Nobel Prizes in Physics 1901–2000|last=Karlsson|first=Erik B.|date=9 February 2000|publisher=The Nobel Foundation|access-date=24 November 2011|location=Stockholm}}</ref>

There are conflicting accounts of his discovery because Röntgen had his lab notes burned after his death, but this is a likely reconstruction by his biographers:<ref>{{cite web |title= 5 unbelievable things about X-rays you can't miss |url= https://www.vix.com/en/ovs/curiosities/8709/5-unbelievable-things-about-x-rays-you-cant-miss |website= vix.com |access-date= 23 October 2017 |archive-date= 24 December 2020 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20201224113106/https://www.vix.com/en/ovs/curiosities/8709/5-unbelievable-things-about-x-rays-you-cant-miss |url-status= dead }}</ref><ref name="Glasser">{{cite book | last = Glasser| first = Otto | title = Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen and the early history of the roentgen rays| publisher = Norman Publishing| date = 1993| pages = 10–15| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=5GJs4tyb7wEC&pg=PA10| isbn = 978-0930405229}}</ref> Röntgen was investigating [[cathode rays]] using a [[fluorescent]] screen painted with barium [[platinocyanide]] and a [[Crookes tube]] which he had wrapped in black cardboard to shield its fluorescent glow. He noticed a faint green glow from the screen, about 1 metre away. Röntgen realized some invisible rays coming from the tube were passing through the cardboard to make the screen glow: they were passing through an opaque object to affect the film behind it.<ref name=pbs>{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/rundown/2012/12/i-have-seen-my-death-how-the-world-discovered-the-x-ray.html|title='I Have Seen My Death': How the World Discovered the X-Ray|first=Howard|last=Markel|date=20 December 2012|access-date=27 April 2013|work=PBS NewsHour|publisher=PBS|archive-date=20 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200820120013/https://www.pbs.org/newshour/tag/newsdesk/2012/12/i-have-seen-my-death-how-the-world-discovered-the-x-ray.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

[[File:First medical X-ray by Wilhelm Röntgen of his wife Anna Bertha Ludwig's hand - 18951222.jpg|thumb|right|150px|The first radiograph]]
Röntgen discovered X-rays' medical use when he made a picture of his wife's hand on a photographic plate formed due to X-rays. The photograph of his wife's hand was the first ever photograph of a human body part using X-rays. When she saw the picture, she said, "I have seen my death."<ref name=pbs />

The first use of X-rays under clinical conditions was by [[John Hall-Edwards]] in [[Birmingham|Birmingham, England]] on 11 January 1896, when he radiographed a needle stuck in the hand of an associate.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meggitt|first=Geoff|title=Taming the Rays: a history of radiation and protection|year=2008|publisher=lulu.com|isbn=978-1409246671|page=3 }}{{self-published source|date=June 2020}}</ref>{{self-published inline|date=February 2020}} On 14 February 1896, Hall-Edwards also became the first to use X-rays in a surgical operation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.birmingham.gov.uk/xray |title=Major John Hall-Edwards |access-date=2012-05-17 |publisher=Birmingham City Council |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120928204852/http://www.birmingham.gov.uk/xray |archive-date=28 September 2012}}</ref>

The United States saw its first medical X-ray obtained using a [[discharge tube]] of [[Ivan Puluj|Ivan Pulyui]]'s design. In January 1896, on reading of Röntgen's discovery, Frank Austin of [[Dartmouth College]] tested all of the discharge tubes in the physics laboratory and found that only the Pulyui tube produced X-rays. This was a result of Pulyui's inclusion of an oblique "target" of [[mica]], used for holding samples of [[fluorescent]] material, within the tube. On 3 February 1896 Gilman Frost, professor of medicine at the college, and his brother Edwin Frost, professor of physics, exposed the wrist of Eddie McCarthy, whom Gilman had treated some weeks earlier for a fracture, to the X-rays and collected the resulting image of the broken bone on [[Photographic plate|gelatin photographic plates]] obtained from Howard Langill, a local photographer also interested in Röntgen's work.<ref name=PKS>{{cite journal |last = Spiegel |first = Peter K. |title = The first clinical X-ray made in America—100 years |journal = American Journal of Roentgenology |volume = 164 |issue = 1 |pages = 241–243 |year = 1995 |doi = 10.2214/ajr.164.1.7998549 |pmid = 7998549 |issn = 1546-3141|doi-access = free }}</ref>

X-rays were put to diagnostic use very early; for example, [[Alan Archibald Campbell-Swinton]] opened a radiographic laboratory in the United Kingdom in 1896, before the dangers of ionizing radiation were discovered. Indeed, [[Marie Curie]] pushed for radiography to be used to treat wounded soldiers in World War I. Initially, many kinds of staff conducted radiography in hospitals, including physicists, photographers, physicians, nurses, and engineers. The medical speciality of radiology grew up over many years around the new technology. When new diagnostic tests were developed, it was natural for the radiographers to be trained in and to adopt this new technology. Radiographers now perform [[fluoroscopy]], [[computed tomography]], [[mammography]], [[ultrasound]], [[nuclear medicine]] and [[magnetic resonance imaging]] as well. Although a nonspecialist dictionary might define radiography quite narrowly as "taking X-ray images", this has long been only part of the work of "X-ray Departments", Radiographers, and Radiologists. Initially, radiographs were known as roentgenograms,<ref>Ritchey, B; Orban, B: "The Crests of the Interdental Alveolar Septa," ''J Perio'' April 1953</ref> while ''Skiagrapher'' (from the [[Ancient Greek]] words for "shadow" and "writer") was used until about 1918 to mean ''Radiographer''.<ref name="The Electrical world">{{cite book|title=The Electrical world|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yglRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA372|year=1896|publisher=Electrical World.|page=372}}</ref>

The history of [[magnetic resonance imaging]] includes many researchers who have discovered [[Nuclear magnetic resonance#History|NMR]] and described [[Physics of magnetic resonance imaging|its underlying physics]], but it is regarded to be invented by [[Paul C. Lauterbur]] in September 1971; he published the theory behind it in March 1973.<ref name=lauterbur>{{cite journal |author=Lauterbur PC |date=1973 |title=Image Formation by Induced Local Interactions: Examples of Employing Nuclear Magnetic Resonance |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=242 |pages=190–1 |doi=10.1038/242190a0 |issue=5394 |bibcode=1973Natur.242..190L|s2cid=4176060 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Rinck PA |date=2014 |title=The history of MRI |journal=Magnetic Resonance in Medicine |url=http://magnetic-resonance.org/ch/20-04.html  |edition=8th }}</ref> The factors leading to image contrast (differences in tissue relaxation time values) had been described nearly 20 years earlier by Erik Odeblad (doctor and scientist) and Gunnar Lindström.<ref>{{cite journal | author=Odeblad E | author2=Lindström G | date=1955 | title=Some preliminary observations on the proton magnetic resonance in biological samples | pages=469–76  |journal=[[Acta Radiologica]] |volume=43 | issue=6 |doi=10.3109/00016925509172514| pmid=14398444 | doi-access= }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author=Erik Odeblad | author2=Baidya Nath Bhar | author3=Gunnar Lindström | date=July 1956 | title=Proton magnetic resonance of human red blood cells in heavy water exchange experiments | pages=221–225 |journal=[[Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics]] |volume=63 |issue=1 |doi=10.1016/0003-9861(56)90025-X| pmid=13341059 }}</ref><ref name="History of MRI"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.auntminnieeurope.com/index.aspx?sec=sup&sub=mri&pag=dis&ItemID=606754|title=Europe celebrates the forgotten pioneer of MRI: Dr.&nbsp;Erik Odeblad|website=AuntMinnieEurope.com}}</ref>

In 1950, [[spin echoes]] and [[free induction decay]] were first detected by [[Erwin Hahn]]<ref name=hahn>{{cite journal| author = Hahn, E.L.| title = Spin echoes| journal = Physical Review| date = 1950| volume = 80| issue = 4| pages = 580–594| doi = 10.1103/PhysRev.80.580|bibcode = 1950PhRv...80..580H | s2cid = 46554313| url = https://semanticscholar.org/paper/0cdb1c90059c70cfb19cee5a247bc095b7577031}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hahn|first=E. L.|date=1950|title=Nuclear Induction Due to Free Larmor Precession|journal=Physical Review|volume=77|issue=2|pages=297–298|doi=10.1103/physrev.77.297.2|bibcode=1950PhRv...77..297H|s2cid=92995835}}</ref> and in 1952, [[Herman Carr]] produced a one-dimensional NMR spectrum as reported in his Harvard PhD thesis.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Carr |first1=Herman |title=Free Precession Techniques in Nuclear Magnetic Resonance |type=PhD thesis |publisher=Harvard University |location=Cambridge, MA |date=1952 |oclc=76980558}}{{page needed|date=July 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first=Herman Y. |last=Carr |date=July 2004 |title=Field Gradients in Early MRI |journal=Physics Today |volume=57 |issue=7 |doi=10.1063/1.1784322 |bibcode=2004PhT....57g..83C |page=83|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia  | title = Encyclopedia of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance  | volume = 1  | page = 253  | publisher = Wiley and Sons  | location = Hoboken, NJ  | date = 1996  | isbn = 9780471958390 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=_PDcyAEACAAJ&q=Encyclopedia+of+Nuclear+Magnetic+Resonance+volume+1 }}</ref> In the [[Soviet Union]], [[Vladislav Ivanov (physicist)|Vladislav Ivanov]] filed (in 1960) a document with the USSR State Committee for Inventions and Discovery at Leningrad for a Magnetic Resonance Imaging device,<ref>{{cite journal | author = MacWilliams B | title = Russian claims first in magnetic imaging | journal = Nature | volume = 426 | issue = 6965 | page = 375 | date = November 2003 | pmid = 14647349 | doi = 10.1038/426375a | bibcode = 2003Natur.426..375M | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.inauka.ru/science/article36826|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050817144026/http://www.inauka.ru/science/article36826|archive-date=2005-08-17|title=Известия Науки – Научная жизнь|date=17 August 2005}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.findpatent.ru/byauthors/849010/|title=Патенты автора ИВАНОВ ВЛАДИСЛАВ АЛЕКСАНДРОВИЧ|website=www.findpatent.ru}}</ref> although this was not approved until the 1970s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.inauka.ru/english/article36919.html |title=Best Regards to Alfred Nobel |access-date=2009-10-16 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091213045234/http://www.inauka.ru/english/article36919.html |archive-date=2009-12-13 }}</ref>

By 1959, Jay Singer had studied blood flow by NMR relaxation time measurements of blood in living humans.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Singer RJ | title = Blood-flow rates by NMR measurements | journal = Science | volume = 130 | issue = 3389| pages = 1652–1653 | date = 1959 |pmid=17781388| doi =  10.1126/science.130.3389.1652| bibcode =1959Sci...130.1652S  | s2cid = 42127984 }}</ref><ref name="emrf">{{cite web|url=http://www.emrf.org/FAQs%20MRI%20History.html |title=A SHORT HISTORY OF MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING FROM A EUROPEAN POINT OF VIEW |publisher=emrf.org |access-date=2016-08-08 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070413032705/http://www.emrf.org/FAQs%20MRI%20History.html |archive-date=2007-04-13 }}</ref> Such measurements were not introduced into common medical practice until the mid-1980s, although a patent for a whole-body NMR machine to measure blood flow in the human body was already filed by Alexander Ganssen in early 1967.<ref name="History of MRI">{{cite web|url=http://magnetic-resonance.org/ch/20-03.html|title=20-03 – The history of MR imaging – MRI NMR Magnetic Resonance • Essentials, introduction, basic principles, facts, history – The primer of EMRF/TRTF.|website=magnetic-resonance.org}}</ref><ref name="emrf" /><ref>{{Patent|de|1566148}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.siemens.com/history/en/news/1204_magnetom.htm|title=In Focus – First MAGNETOM scanner in the USA in 1983|website=www.siemens.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pro-physik.de/details/articlePdf/1492009/issue.html|title=Nachruf auf Alexander Ganssen|access-date=28 April 2018|archive-date=10 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170510102806/http://www.pro-physik.de/details/articlePdf/1492009/issue.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In the 1960s and 1970s the results of a very large amount of work on relaxation, diffusion, and chemical exchange of water in cells and tissues of various types appeared in the scientific literature.<ref name="History of MRI"/> In 1967, Ligon reported the measurement of NMR relaxation of water in the arms of living human subjects.<ref name="History of MRI"/> In 1968, Jackson and Langham published the first NMR signals from a living animal.<ref name="History of MRI"/><ref>{{cite journal | author =Jackson JA | author2=Langham WH | title = Whole-body NMR spectrometer | journal =[[Review of Scientific Instruments]] | volume =39 | issue =4 | pages = 510–513 | date =April 1968 | pmid =5641806   | doi =  10.1063/1.1683420| bibcode =1968RScI...39..510J  | url=https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc1032131/ }}</ref>

== Role in healthcare ==
A radiographer uses their expertise and knowledge of [[patient care]], [[physics]], [[human anatomy]], [[physiology]], [[pathology]] and [[radiology]] to assess patients, develop optimum radiological techniques and evaluate the resulting radiographic media.<ref>[http://www.prospects.ac.uk/diagnostic_radiographer_job_description.htm Diagnostic Radiographer: Job description], prospects.ac.uk. Retrieved on 29 October 2014.</ref>

This branch of healthcare is extremely varied, especially between different countries, and as a result radiographers in one country often have a completely different role to that of radiographers in another. However, the base responsibilities of the radiographer are summarised below:<ref>{{cite web|title=17. Professional responsibilities of the radiographer|publisher=The Society of Radiographers|url=https://www.sor.org/learning/document-library/safety-magnetic-resonance-imaging/17-professional-responsibilities-radiographer|access-date=20 October 2020}}</ref>
* Autonomy as a professional
* Accountability as a professional
* Contribute to and participate in continuing professional development
* Enforcement of radiation protection (There is a duty of care to patients, colleagues and any lay persons that may be irradiated.)
* Justification of radiographic examinations
* Patient care
* Production of diagnostic media
* Safe, efficient and correct use of diagnostic equipment
* Supervise students and assistants

On a basic level, radiographers do not generally interpret diagnostic media, rather they evaluate media and make a decision about its diagnostic effectiveness. In order to make this evaluation radiographers must have a comprehensive but not necessarily exhaustive knowledge of pathology and radiographic appearances; it is for this reason that radiographers often do not interpret or diagnose without further training. Notwithstanding, it is now becoming more common that radiographers have an extended and expanded clinical role, this includes a role in initial radiological diagnosis, diagnosis consultation and what subsequent investigations to conduct.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Murphy|first1=Andrew|last2=Neep|first2=Michael|date=2018-04-29|title=An investigation into the use of radiographer abnormality detection systems by Queensland public hospitals|journal=Journal of Medical Radiation Sciences|volume=65|issue=2|pages=80–85|doi=10.1002/jmrs.278|issn=2051-3909|pmid=29707911|pmc=5986036}}</ref> It is not uncommon for radiographers to now conduct procedures which would have previously been undertaken by a cardiologist, urologist, radiologist or oncologist autonomously.<ref>[https://www.rcr.ac.uk/docs/radiology/pdf/2nd_2009_Bleehen.pdf Royal College of Radiologists: Radiographer performed Hysterosalpingogram] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141030093229/https://www.rcr.ac.uk/docs/radiology/pdf/2nd_2009_Bleehen.pdf |date=30 October 2014 }}. Retrieved on 29 October 2014.</ref>

Contrary to what could be inferred, radiographers conduct and contribute to investigations which are not necessarily radiological in nature, e.g. [[sonography]] and [[magnetic resonance imaging]].

Radiographers often have opportunities to enter military service due to their role in healthcare. As with most other occupations in the medical field many radiographers have rotating shifts that include night duties.

=== Career pathways ===
Radiography is a deeply diverse profession with many different modalities and specialities. It is not uncommon for radiographers to be specialised in more than one modality and even have expertise of interventional procedures themselves; however this depends on the country in which they operate. As a result of this the typical career pathway for a radiographer is hard to summarise. Upon qualifying it is common for radiographers to focus solely on plain film radiography before specialising in any one chosen modality. After a number of years in the profession, non-imaging based roles often become open and radiographers may then move into these positions.<ref name="globalrole" />

==== Imaging modalities ====
Generally, imaging modalities are all diagnostic, all have the potential to be used therapeutically in order to deliver an intervention. Modalities (or specialities) include but are not limited to:
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!Name!!Examples of Professional Titles<sup>1</sup>!!Technology<sup>2</sup>!! Ionizing!!class="unsortable"|Description
|-
|[[Angiography|Angiography/Venography]]||Angiographer, Angiography Technologist, Angigographic Technologist||Fluoroscopy and/or Image Intensification Radiography mostly with [[intravascular]] contrast||[[File:Green tick.svg|20 px]]||Imaging of the cardiovascular system, may be diagnostic or therapeutic in nature. Is utilised under the specialities of [[Interventional radiology]] and/or [[cardiology]] within a Cath Lab (Catheterisation Laboratory).
|-
|[[Computed Tomography]]||CT Radiographer, CT Technologist, Neuroradiographer||Computed Tomography (CT) (incl. MDCT/MSCT, EBCT, Sequential CT, etc.)||[[File:Green tick.svg|20 px]]||Provides cross-sectional views (slices) of the body; can also reconstruct additional images from those taken to provide more information in either 2D or pseudo-3D.
|-
|[[Medical radiography|Diagnostic Radiography]]||Diagnostic Radiographer, Radiographer, Radiologic Technologist||Plain Film Radiography (PFD)||[[File:Green tick.svg|20 px]]||Utilises ionising radiation in the examination of internal organs, bones, cavities and foreign objects.
|-
|[[Echocardiography]]||Sonographer, Ultrasound Radiographer, Ultrasound Technologist, Ultrasonographer||2D, 3D and Doppler Sonography||[[File:Red x.svg|20 px]]||Utilises 2D, 3D and Doppler Sonography to image the heart.
|-
|[[Fluoroscopy]]||Fluoroscoper, Fluoroscopy Radiographer, Fluoroscopy Technologist, Fluoroscopic Radiographer, Fluoroscopic Technologist||Fluoroscopy||[[File:Green tick.svg|20 px]]||Utilises continuous and/or pulses of ionising radiation to visualise the various systems of in the body over period of time. Often used in monitoring a bolus or contrast agent in order to highlight vessels and organs, or to position devices within the body (such as pacemakers, guidewires, stents, etc.).
|-
|[[Mammography|Mammography/Breast Radiography]]||Mammographer, Mammography Radiographer, Mammography Technologist, Mammographic Radiographer, Mammographic Technologist||Mammographic Plain Film Radiography||[[File:Green tick.svg|20 px]]||Uses low dose ionising radiation systems to produce images for the diagnosis and/or staging of breast disease, primarily breast cancer.
|-
|[[Magnetic Resonance Imaging]]||MR Radiographer, MR Technologist, Neuroradiographer||Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)||[[File:Red x.svg|20 px]]||Uses magnetic resonance and radiofrequency pulses for static, dynamic and function imaging.<ref>[http://www.angiomaalliance.org/pages.aspx?content=67] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304062706/http://www.angiomaalliance.org/pages.aspx?content=67#.VE7vjR2sUfY|date=4 March 2016}} Angiom Alliance. Retrieved on 29 October 2014.</ref>
|-
|[[Nuclear Medicine|Nuclear Medicine (NM)/Radionuclide Imaging (RNI)]]||Nuclear Medicine Radiographer, Nuclear Medicine Technologist, RNI Radiographer, RNI Technologist||[[Single-photon emission computed tomography|Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT)]], [[Positron emission tomography|Positron Emission Tomography]], [[PET-CT|Positron Emission Tomography Computed Tomography(PET-CT)]] (all with or without the involvement of Radioactive Tracers)||[[File:Green tick.svg|20 px]]||Uses radioactive tracers which can be administered to examine how the body and organs function. Certain radioisotopes can also be administered to treat certain cancers, such as [[thyroid cancer]].
|-
|[[Sonography|Sonography/Ultrasonography]]||Sonographer, Ultrasound Radiographer, Ultrasound Technologist, Ultrasonographer||2D, 3D and Doppler Sonography||[[File:Red x.svg|20 px]]||Images anatomy and related pathology (such as cancer or cardiopulmonary diseases) using [[ultrasound]] waves. [[Obstetric ultrasonography]] is the use of ultrasonography to track the course of a pregnancy and detect certain embryonic or fetal malformations or diseases, which may be genetic and/or hereditary in nature. [[Gynecologic ultrasonography]] deals with imaging diseases or defects or abnormalities of the female genital and reproductive organs (ovaries, fallopian tubes, vagina, uterus, cervix, clitoris, labia, and breasts). 
|-
|[[Surgery|Surgical/Theatre Radiography]]||Surgical Radiographer, Surgical Technologist, Theatre Radiographer, Theatre Technologist, Trauma & Orthopaedics (T&O) Radiographer||[[X-ray image intensifier]], varies||[[File:Green tick.svg|20 px]]||Images anatomy and related pathology during surgical procedures.
|}
: <sup>1</sup>Prefixes such as pediatric, geriatric, trauma are routinely placed used in conjunction with professional titles.
: <sup>2</sup>This list of technologies is not exhaustive.

==== Non-imaging modalities ====
Non-imaging modalities vary, and are often undertaken in addition to imaging modalities. They commonly include:
* [[Academia]] – Education role.
* [[Management|Clinical Management]] – Clinical managerial role which can be varied; may include managing audits, rotas, department budgets, etc.
* [[Clinical Research]] – Research role.
* [[Medical Physics]] – Multidisciplinary role ensuring the correct calibration of and most efficient use of diagnostic equipment.
* [[Picture archiving and communication system|PACS Management]] – Managerial role concerned with maintaining and supervising appropriate and correct use of the [[Radiology information system|RIS]] and [[Picture Archiving and Communication System|PACS]] systems.
* [[Radiation Protection]] – A managerial role concerned with monitoring the level of ionising radiation absorbed by anyone who comes into contact with ionising radiation at their site.
* [[Radiology|Reporting Radiography]] – A clinical role involved with interpretation of radiographs and various other radiological media for diagnosis.

== Education and role variation ==
{{Missing information|country specific radiographer roles and educational requirements|date=October 2014}}
Education varies worldwide due to legal limitations on scope of practice.
{{Further|Limited radiology technician}}

=== Belgium ===
The profession of diagnostic radiographer is called "medical imaging technologist", it is a regulated healthcare profession. A diploma of a specific professional Bachelor is a requirement for registration and recognition.<ref>[https://www.health.belgium.be/en/health] Regulated healthcare professions in Belgium, retrieved on 7/2/2018</ref>

Since 2 December 2014, everyone who works at a Medical Imaging department, is obliged to be in possession of the recognition and the visa issued by the Ministry of Health (a professional identity card that is considered a license)<ref>[https://vmbv.org/vereniging/] Geschiedenis, retrieved on 7/2/2018</ref>

To practice a health care profession with a foreign diploma from within the EEA or equivalent in the EEA, it is necessary to request the recognition for the profession from Government of Flanders (Agency of Care and Health).<ref>[https://www.zorg-en-gezondheid.be/] Formulier om met een buitenlands diploma een erkenning aan the vragen voor een paramedish beroep, retrieved on 7/02/2018</ref>

It is possible to request the recognition if:
* The person have a diploma of their healthcare profession and want to practice their profession in Belgium.
* The person have obtained their degree in one of the countries of the European Economic Area (EEA) or Switzerland.
* Or the person's diploma is equivalent in a country of the EEA and they are a European national.

=== Germany ===
In Germany radiographers either take a 3-year full-time professional training or a 5-year part-time professional training before they qualify as a '[[:de:Medizinischer_Technologe#Radiologie|Medizinischer Technologe für Radiologie (MTR)]]' (eng. medical technologist for radiology). <ref>{{Cite web |title=MTBG - Gesetz über die Berufe in der medizinischen Technologie |url=https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/mtbg/BJNR027410021.html |access-date=2025-02-25 |website=www.gesetze-im-internet.de}}</ref>

Similar to other countries, they work within the areas of radiography diagnostics ([[CT scans]], [[magnetic resonance imaging]], [[radiography]], [[digital subtraction angiography]]), [[radiation therapy]], [[radiation dosimeter]]s and [[nuclear medicine]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://berufenet.arbeitsagentur.de/berufenet/faces/index;BERUFENETJSESSIONID=fwrFxgX8ESs_NFQjVcI_j59SdLf3lZdNLiqh5MdQMIyCK8-UMgz4!-1129999543?path=null/kurzbeschreibung&dkz=8981|title=BERUFENET – Berufsinformationen einfach finden|website=berufenet.arbeitsagentur.de}}</ref>

The job profile is in high demand, with almost half of hospitals struggling to fill MTR positions in 2019. <ref>{{Cite web |last=Blum |first=Karl |date=2019-05-31 |title=Fachkräftemangel und Fachkräftebedarf in MTA-Berufen |url=https://dvta.de/sites/default/files/2019_05_Fachkr%C3%A4ftemangel%20und%20Fachkr%C3%A4ftebedarf%20in%20MTA-Berufen_final.pdf |url-status=live |access-date=2025-02-25 |website=Deutsches Krankenhausinsitut e.V.}}</ref> MTR trainees primarily aim for positions in diagnostic and interventional radiology.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zippel |first=Claus |last2=Wirth |first2=Pauline |last3=Biedenstein |first3=Stephanie |last4=Weismüller |first4=Ariane |last5=Weigen-Schauer |first5=Helena |last6=Moustafa |first6=Sali |last7=Bohnet-Joschko |first7=Sabine |last8=Schreckenberger |first8=Mathias |last9=Giesel |first9=Frederik Lars |last10=Antoch |first10=Gerald |date=2024 |title=What is important to young medical technologists for radiology when choosing a job?: Results of a survey on job attractiveness among MTR trainees |url=http://www.thieme-connect.de/DOI/DOI?10.1055/a-2221-3971 |journal=RöFo - Fortschritte auf dem Gebiet der Röntgenstrahlen und der bildgebenden Verfahren |language=de |volume=196 |issue=08 |pages=828–833 |doi=10.1055/a-2221-3971 |issn=1438-9029}}</ref>

=== Ireland ===
{{em|Radiographers}} in the [[Republic of Ireland]] (ROI) must be registered with [[Radiographer#External links|CORU]] before they can practice in the Republic of Ireland. Student radiographers training in the ROI will typically study for 4 years on an approved bachelor's degree program; currently degree programs only exist at [[University College Dublin]].<ref>[http://www.ucd.ie/medicine/studywithus/graduatestudies/diagnostic%20imaging/] UCD: Graduate studies in diagnostic imaging. Retrieved on 28 October 2014.</ref><ref>[http://www.nuigalway.ie/careers/students/faq/radiography.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141029015004/http://www.nuigalway.ie/careers/students/faq/radiography.html|date=29 October 2014}} NUIG: Your path to Radiography. Retrieved on 28 October 2014.</ref>

Applicants must have either an approved qualification, a schedule 3 qualification, an appropriate letter of recommendation/accreditation or another qualification which is deemed 'suitably relevant' by registration board in order to successfully fulfil the vocational education requirements to become a Radiographer in the ROI. Applications for registration with qualifications outside of this are considered on an individual basis; typically this includes most international applicants.<ref>[http://www.coru.ie/uploads/documents/Final_Online_Guidance_Notes.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141029001959/http://www.coru.ie/uploads/documents/Final_Online_Guidance_Notes.pdf|date=29 October 2014}} CORU, Radiographer Guidance Notes. Retrieved on 28 October 2014.</ref>

The professional body representing Radiographers in the ROI is the [[Radiographer#External links|Irish Institute of Radiography and Radiation Therapy (IIRRT)]].<ref>[http://www.iirrt.ie/about-us] IIRRT: About us. Retrieved on 28 October 2014.</ref>

To practice as a Radiographer or Radiation Therapist in Ireland, one must register with CORU as of 31 October 2015.<ref name="ttm">[https://www.ttmhealthcare.ie/registering-as-a-radiographer-in-Ireland], Registering as a Radiographer in Ireland, retrieved on 7 February 2018</ref> CORU is Ireland's multi-profession health regulator. Set up under the Health and Social Care Professionals Act 2005, CORU is used to protect the public by promoting high standards of professional conduct, education, training and competence through statutory registration of health and social care professionals.<ref name="CORU">[http://www.coru.ie/en/registration/registration_requirements], CORU registration requirements, retrieved on 7 February 2018</ref> If a radiographer commences clinical practice without registration then they may be prosecuted with a fine or an imprisonment of up to six months.<ref name="ttm" />

=== Malta ===

Radiography is a regulated profession in Malta and anyone wanting to practice Diagnostic or Therapeutic Radiography would need to obtain state registration in order to be licensed as a Radiographer, obtained from the Council for Professions Complementary to Medicine (CPCM).<ref>[http://radiographersmalta.com/pages/vacancies.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180321134328/http://radiographersmalta.com/pages/vacancies.html|date=21 March 2018}} Working as a Radiographer in Malta – The Council for the Professions Complementary to Medicine</ref>

In Malta, in order for an individual to become a Radiographer he/she first has to follow a course offered by the University of Malta. The course is BSc (Hons) Radiography and its duration is of four years. On completion of the course, the graduate will have the conditions to be eligible for registration with the council for professions complementary to Medicine<ref>[https://www.um.edu.mt/healthsciences/radiography] Radiography, Retrieved on 7 February 2018</ref>

A foreign radiographer can work in Malta should the necessary documentation and competencies have been obtained and presented. Radiographers working on Malta should abide by the rules of the host country and title of radiographer will be used.<ref name="req">[https://deputyprimeminister.gov.mt/en/regcounc/cpcm/Documents/REQUIREMENTS%20FOR%20REGISTRATION%20WITH%20THE%20CPCM.pdf] REQUIREMENTS FOR REGISTRATION WITH THE COUNCIL FOR THE PROFESSIONS COMPLEMENTARY TO MEDICINE], Retrieved on 7 February 2018</ref>

An application form has to be filled along with the necessary authenticated copies of several documents. The application form includes the insertion of personal details of the individual along with the description of qualifications and the university which granted the qualifications. The individual has to declare whether he or she is registered with another Health Care Profession Register in Malta.<ref name="req" />

Below is a list of the documents needed for a professional to register with the council:
* Application Form
* Original or authenticated copies of the following documents (English versions): a. Birth and marriage (if applicable) certificates.
* Identification document such as ID or Passport.
* Recent Police Conduct certificate.
* Professional Document Diploma/Degree.
* Letters of Reference in English.
* A detailed transcript of Theoretical and Practical Training and Studies in hours associated with the Profession and in relation with the profession syllabus performed by their Institution being the university/College. This has to be endorsed in the original format by the Head/Registrar of their Institution being the university/College.
* A recent (six months) verification certificate of current registration and good standing with the council the person are registered with.
* A secure English Language test (SELT) for foreign applicants.
* Curriculum Vitae in English.

In cases where the professional qualification acquired was not obtained from an Accredited Institution in Malta, a letter is to be submitted, issued from the Malta Qualifications Recognition Information Centre ([https://ncfhe.gov.mt/en/services/Pages/All%20Services/mqric.aspx MQRIC]), certifying that the Institution from where the qualification was obtained is equivalently accredited and indicate the level of qualification in accordance to the Malta Qualifications Framework.<ref name="req" />

For applicants from the [[European Economic Area]] countries, once the application is submitted, it will follow the regulations established on the [[Directive 2005/36/EC]] on the recognition of qualifications between member states.<ref>[http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LEXUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2005:255:0022:0142:EN:PDF] DIRECTIVE 2005/36/EC OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL of 7 September 2005 on the recognition of professional qualifications (Text with EEA relevance), Retrieved on 7 February 2018</ref> In these cases, the professional document and theoretical and practical training are required to be equivalent to the requirements of Malta, i.e. An EQF Level 6 Bachelor's Degree with an equivalent syllabus to that of the University of Malta and their course is no more than one year shorter. Should the radiographer have a substantial difference between their professional qualifications and those required by CPCM, the radiographer has the right to provide further evidence of competence (including professional experience or CPD), otherwise, the CPCM board should offer the applicant the possibility to do an aptitude test or adaptation period (as chosen by the applicant). A [https://deputyprimeminister.gov.mt/en/regcounc/cpcm/Documents/flowchart_gensystem_portrait.pdf Flow chart] explaining this procedure for EEA applicants can be found on the government's website.<ref>[https://deputyprimeminister.gov.mt/en/regcounc/cpcm/Documents/flowchart_gensystem_portrait.pdf] Flow Chart Recognition of Qualifications Establishment, professions ex TITLE III, CH. I 'GENERAL SYSTEM PROFESSIONS' – Directive 2005/36/EC, Retrieved on 7 January 2018</ref>

=== Nepal ===
As a developing country, the health care sector in [[Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal]] has very limited resources meaning radiological services are rather limited.
Nepal is still struggling to improve and manage conventional radiological examinations. Radiological Services in Nepal commenced in 1923 at Military Hospital by Dr. Rana and Dr Asta Bahadur Shrestha. The first health related training program began in 1933 at the Nepal Rajkiya Ayurved School; the Civil Medical School was later established in 1934. Radiological education in Nepal started in 1923 in a 64 bedded Military Hospital, Tri-ChandraElectro-Medical Institute. The post graduate (MSc) program in physics at TU began in 1965 with only Nuclear Physics specialization. In 1972, the Institute of Medicine (IOM) which is affiliated with TU started the Proficiency Certificate Level (PCL) Radiography course however this has since stopped.

Radiotherapy was first introduced at Maternity Hospital in 1976 utilising radium needle treatment. CT and Nuclear Medicine was introduced in 1988 at Bir Hospital. The Radiotherapy unit with Tele Cobalt-60 machine was established at Bir Hospital in 1991.

Nepal became a member of IAEA in 2008. Since 2008 onwards diploma level radiography courses have been conducted across the country by the Council for Technical Education and Vocational Training (CTEVT) and other affiliated institutions.

In Nepal there are 125 vocational health training institutes however only 15 are conducting radiological technological education. Bachelor level radiography education is taught in two universities & one college whereas master level radiography course is taught
in one where another university is in pipeline. Until recently, therapeutic radiography courses have not been taught in Nepal;
radiation therapists are predominantly trained abroad.

The Nepal Health Professional Council (NHPC) is the legislative body for registering, accrediting, developing & enforcing quality assurance of Health Professionals, including Radiographers, in Nepal. {{citation needed|date=November 2014|reason=Nepal's Perspective on visiting Radiation Protection Meeting in Bonn Thakur Psd Lamsal 2014}}

=== The Netherlands ===

==== The Quality Register Paramedics ====
Until 1997, radiographers were required to register the Evidence of Competence at the Chief of Medical Inspections. This was mandatory under the Law on Paramedic professions. After innovate the law of Individual Health Care Professions (BIG), the registration requirements for radiographers were cancelled. A voluntary register has been set up in consultation with the Health Care Inspectorate: the Paramedics Quality Register.{{citation needed|date=March 2018}}

The Paramedics Quality Register comes from the BIG. The purpose of the Paramedics Quality Register is to guarantee the quality of professional practice. Through the registration and re-registration (once in five years) it becomes visible for patients, health insurers etc. that the registered radiographer professional is and remains competent in the field of professional practice. Despite the fact that the quality register is not compulsory according to the law, many hospitals are obliged to do it. The hospitals are obliged to provide good quality care. Health insurers also attach great value to the Paramedics Quality Register because they are also required to provide good care.

==== Enrollment ====
Radiographers who are in possession of a valid Certificate of Competence, diploma of certificate and endorse the code of professional conduct of the professional association, can be enroll in the Paramedics historical register.

The official registration of the radiographer satisfies the educational requirements in the General Administrative Order (AMvB) ex. art. 34 BIG and the quality requirements of the professional group. On the basis of which is carried out radiographer is mentioned in the Diplomaregister Paramedici and / or the Quality Register Paramedics. By registration, the radiographer continues to be traced by, for example, the Health Care Inspectorate (IGZ) and the professional associations. Other organizations also intend the Quality Register Paramedics.

==== Re-enrollment ====
To be in the Paramedics Quality Register the radiographer need to request re-registration every five years. The first period of five years is determined on the basis of the diploma date. In case of re-registration, the radiographer must meet the requirements for that period. The start date of the period station local quality criteria. The quality criteria are set every five years by the Paramedics Quality Register, paramedical professional associations. To ensure that the requirements for the patient and the client-oriented exercises and expertise-enhancing activities are safeguarded for the quality of the professional practice. The quality criteria are set up in such a way that paramedics can meet the quality requirements with the set range of expertise-enhancing activities.

=== Nigeria ===
In [[Nigeria]], these professionals are generally referred to as ''Radiographers'' or ''Medical Radiographers'' to differentiate them from Industrial Radiographers. Radiographers must complete a 5-year undergraduate BSc and a compulsory one year paid internship program in a hospital after graduation before attaining a full licensing by the [[Radiographers Registration Board of Nigeria]]. The board also registers [[Radiotherapists]] who have undergone the initial 5-year Radiography program before proceeding to the Radiotherapy training. {{Citation needed|date=February 2016}}

Radiographers in Nigeria have been striving to extend their practice to include radiographic interpretation and Ultrasound services. They are also on the verge of adopting an official professional title of "Radr" or "Rr" {{as of|2015}}.
Radiographers in Nigeria normally proceed for a Masters programme and a PhD programme in the profession.
There is a recent rise in the number of radiographers available in the country unlike the situation of shortage between 2000 – 2010.{{Citation needed|date=February 2016}}

In a typical Nigerian Teaching Hospital, radiographers do not undertake sonography examinations, this is left for the radiologists, who, in some areas, have gradually improved their relationship with the radiographers in providing services in other radiographic units. The radiologist is also in charge of specific Fluoroscopic cases where the radiographer assists only with positioning and image acquisition.
{{Citation needed|date=February 2016}}

Allied Health Unions (such as 'JOHESU' and 'NUAHP') that Radiographers are members of (with Nurses, Pharmacists, Physiotherapists, Laboratory Scientists, etc.), have over the years gone on strike actions to force the Nigerian government to improve their allowances/salaries in the government owned hospitals. These strikes (when it is not a response on its own) often trigger a response from the Nigerian Medical Association who will also table some requests for the medical doctors.{{Citation needed|date=February 2016}}

Apart from monetary issues, these professional bodies are also in loggerheads over non-doctors requesting to be given top administrative roles in government owned hospitals. Many radiographers, however, do not particularly involve themselves in these movements as working in a private establishment is more lucrative.{{Citation needed|date=February 2016}}

Some Radiographers in Nigeria are also keen on setting up a "Department of Radiography" in the government owned hospitals which will not be under the Head of the Radiology Department. Some hospitals however have an understanding between the Radiology head (a Radiologist) and the Chief Radiographer where all radiographers are directly answerable to their Chief, and not the HOD.{{Citation needed|date=February 2016}}

=== Saudi Arabia ===
{{em|X-Ray Technicians}} (فني اشعة) in [[Saudi Arabia]] must successfully undertake a degree level program at a recognised higher-level education institution in Nursing before undertaking further study in radiographic imaging at university for typically 2 to 3 years; this must include a year's experience in a hospital. Upon completion, graduates are qualified X-Ray Technicians and can commence clinical practice.<ref>[http://cat.hrdf.org.sa/cat_occupation.php?cap=4&occ_id=4&pway=0&occgroup_id=0&letter=0&edu_id=9&stage=2] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141028214126/http://cat.hrdf.org.sa/cat_occupation.php?cap=4&occ_id=4&pway=0&occgroup_id=0&letter=0&edu_id=9&stage=2|date=28 October 2014}} CAT – Career Advisory Tool</ref>

=== United Kingdom ===
The [[Society and College of Radiographers|SCoR]] is the professional body and union for UK radiographers. In the United Kingdom, there is ambiguity in the use of the term {{em|Radiographer}} as this does not differentiate between Therapeutic Radiographers (also known as Radiotherapists) and {{em|Diagnostic Radiographers}}. As a result, all of these titles are protected titles within the United Kingdom and can not be used by any persons who has not undertaken formal study and registered with the [[Health and Care Professions Council]] (HCPC). In order to practise Radiography in the United Kingdom candidates must now successfully obtain a pass in a degree level programme from an accredited institution. Degrees are offered by universities across the UK and last for at least 3 years in England, Wales and Northern Ireland; and 4 years in Scotland.<ref>[http://www.sor.org/learning/education-accreditation/education-approval-and-accreditation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141026002139/http://www.sor.org/learning/education-accreditation/education-approval-and-accreditation|date=26 October 2014}} SCoR: Education approval and accreditation. Retrieved on 2014-10-25.</ref><ref>[http://www.sor.org/about-radiography/career-radiography] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150316000000/http://www.sor.org/about-radiography/career-radiography|date=16 March 2015}} SCoR: A Career in Radiography. Retrieved on 2014-10-25.</ref> Student Diagnostic Radiographers spend a significant amount of time working at various hospitals affiliated with their university during their studies to meet the requirement for registration with the HCPC.

They specialise in the acquisition of radiographs of General Practitioner referred (GP) patients, Outpatients, Emergency Department (ED) referred patients and Inpatients. They conduct mobile X-rays on wards and in other departments where patients are too critical to be moved and work as part of the operating team in mainly Orthopaedic and Urology cases, offering surgeons live radiographic imaging. Once qualified, Diagnostic Radiographers are able to acquire X-rays without supervision and work as part of the imaging team. They will have basic head examination qualifications in CT and even basic experience of MRI, Ultrasound and Nuclear Medicine.

Diagnostic Radiographers can specialise in-house or through a university course as a postgraduate in CT, MRI, Ultrasound or Nuclear Medicine with opportunities to gain an MSc or PhD in their field. Diagnostic Radiographers in the UK are also taking on roles that were typically only undertaken by the Radiologist (a medical doctor who specialised in interpreting X-rays), Urologist or Cardiologist in the past.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.radiographyonline.com/article/S1078-8174(14)00014-5/abstract|title=Optimizing patient care in radiology through team-working: A case study from the United Kingdom|first1=N.|last1=Woznitza|first2=K.|last2=Piper|first3=S.|last3=Rowe|first4=C.|last4=West|date=1 August 2014|journal=Radiography|volume=20|issue=3|pages=258–263|doi=10.1016/j.radi.2014.02.007|url-access=subscription}}</ref> This extended practice includes various interventional procedures not excluding barium enemas, barium meals/swallows, peripheral angioplasties, nerve root injections, central line insertions and many other procedures.

The professional body and workers union for Radiographers in the United Kingdom is the [[Society and College of Radiographers|Society and College of Radiographers (SCoR)]]. The union has been heavily involved in extending practice of Radiographers in the United Kingdom and has helped expand the role of the Radiographer greatly.

==== Expanded practice ====
Radiographers are now able to write reports and diagnose pathologies and/or conditions seen on differing diagnostic media after completing a HCPC and SCoR accredited university course;<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.radiographyonline.com/article/S1078-8174(09)00111-4/abstract|title=MRI reporting by radiographers: Findings of an accredited postgraduate programme|first1=Keith|last1=Piper|first2=Kaie|last2=Buscall|first3=Nigel|last3=Thomas|date=1 May 2010|journal=Radiography|volume=16|issue=2|pages=136–142|doi=10.1016/j.radi.2009.10.017|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.radiographyonline.com/article/S1078-8174(14)00004-2/abstract|title=Chest reporting by radiographers: Findings of an accredited postgraduate programme|first1=K.|last1=Piper|first2=S.|last2=Cox|first3=A.|last3=Paterson|first4=A.|last4=Thomas|first5=N.|last5=Thomas|first6=N.|last6=Jeyagopal|first7=N.|last7=Woznitza|date=1 May 2014|journal=Radiography|volume=20|issue=2|pages=94–99|doi=10.1016/j.radi.2014.01.003|url-access=subscription}}</ref> completing a course in this modality allows the Radiographer to become a reporting Radiographer in their chosen specialty.<ref>[http://www.sor.org/practice/reporting] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140726203724/http://www.sor.org/practice/reporting|date=26 July 2014}} SCoR: Reporting. Retrieved on 2014-10-25.</ref>

Diagnostic Radiographers are able to become supplementary prescribers which allows them the capacity to prescribe medications in partnership with an independent prescriber (a doctor or a dentist); the supplementary prescriber is to implement an agreed Clinical Management Plan for an individual patient with that patient's agreement.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nice.org.uk/bnf-uk-only|title=BNF is only available in the UK|website=NICE|access-date=2019-07-12}}</ref> An accredited university course must be undertaken before this role extension is annotated onto a HCPC registrant's record.<ref>[http://www.hcpc-uk.org.uk/aboutregistration/medicinesandprescribing/] HCPC: Medicine and Prescribing. Retrieved on 2014-10-25.</ref> It is thought that in the future Diagnostic Radiographers in will gain independent prescribing rights, however this is currently limited by their restricted and varied scope of practice. In 2016, the introduction of independent prescribing right was agreed for Therapeutic Radiographers after a consultation by the [[Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency|Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA)]]<ref>[https://www.england.nhs.uk/2016/02/medicines-legislation/] NHS England: Changes in medicines legislation for Dietitians, Orthoptists and Therapeutic Radiographers. Retrieved on 2016-10-29.</ref>

=== United States ===
In the United States, these professionals are known as {{em|Radiologic Technologists}}. Formal training programs in radiography range in length that leads to a certificate, an associate or a bachelor's degree. The American Registry of Radiologic Technologists (ARRT), the primary credentialing organisation for Radiologic Technologists in the United States, requires that candidates for ARRT Certification Exams must have an associate degree at minimum as of January, 2015, effectively ending non-degree granting diploma programs.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.arrt.org/Education|title=Education Requirements|website=www.arrt.org|access-date=19 August 2014|archive-date=19 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140819161353/https://www.arrt.org/Education/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Accreditation is primarily through The Joint Review Committee on Education in Radiologic Technology (JRCERT), the only agency recognised by the United States Department of Education and the Council for Higher Education Accreditation to grant accreditation to both traditional and online programs in Radiography, Radiation Therapy, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, and Medical Dosimetry. An online page where prospective students can check the accreditation of programs is maintained by JRCERT.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://portal.jrcertaccreditation.org/summary/accreditedprogramsearch.aspx |title=Archived copy |access-date=19 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140819085006/https://portal.jrcertaccreditation.org/summary/accreditedprogramsearch.aspx |archive-date=19 August 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

Radiologic Technology students study [[anatomy]], [[physiology]], [[physics]], [[radiopharmacology]], [[pathology]], [[biology]], research, [[nursing]], [[medical imaging]], [[diagnosis]], [[instrumentation|radiologic instrumentation]], [[medical emergency|emergency medical procedures]], [[medical imaging|medical imaging techniques]], [[patient care]], [[medical ethics]] and [[general chemistry]]. Schooling also includes significant amounts of documented practicum supervised by Registered Technologists in various clinical settings where the classroom theory is translated to practical knowledge and real world experience. The change from Film to Digital imaging has changed training as film quality assurance and quality control is largely obsolete. The role of computer workstations to produce synthetic images for Radiologists has steadily increased the need for computer skills as has electronic medical record software.

After primary training and licensure, continuing education is required to maintain licensure and certification with the ARRT, who sets the accepted national guidelines. The ARRT requires 24 Units of accredited continuing education every two years and the laws and the regulations of most states accept this standard. Continuing formal education or the passing of an advanced practice speciality exam may also be accepted for continuing education credit. The [[American Society of Radiologic Technologists]] (ASRT),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.asrt.org/main/about-asrt|title=About ASRT|website=www.asrt.org}}</ref> a professional association for people in Medical Imaging and Therapy, offers members and others continuing education materials in various media that meet the requirements of the ARRT for continuing education.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.asrt.org/main/continuing-education/earn-ce|title=Earn CE Credits – American Society of Radiologic Technologists (ASRT)|website=www.asrt.org}}</ref> Additional requirements are set forth for technologists who specialise in mammography by the US FDA.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.xraycert.com/rad-tech-talk/arrt-ce-credits |title=ARRT CE Credits |access-date=18 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140518210002/https://www.xraycert.com/rad-tech-talk/arrt-ce-credits |archive-date=18 May 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

==== Expanded practice ====
A new and evolving career for Radiologic Technologists is that of the Registered Radiologist Assistant (RRA)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.acr.org/quality-safety/resources/radiologist-assistant|title=Radiologist Assistant|website=www.acr.org|access-date=19 August 2014|archive-date=19 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140819130452/http://www.acr.org/quality-safety/resources/radiologist-assistant|url-status=dead}}</ref> who is an experienced technologist (a type of Physician Assistant) who has completed additional education, training, and has passed exams to function as radiologist extenders.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.asrt.org/main/careers/radiologist-assistant|title=Radiologist Assistant|website=www.asrt.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.arrt.org/FAQ/RRA |title=R.R.A. FAQs &#124; ARRT - the American Registry of Radiologic Technologists |access-date=19 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140819083709/https://www.arrt.org/FAQ/RRA |archive-date=19 August 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref> A list of the 9 currently accredited RRA programs is maintained by the ARRT and can be accessed online.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.arrt.org/RRA/Educational-Programs|title=ARRT Authentication|website=www.arrt.org|access-date=19 August 2014|archive-date=19 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140819085644/https://www.arrt.org/RRA/Educational-Programs|url-status=dead}}</ref> Candidates for the RRA certification must possess a bachelor's degree at minimum.<ref>{{cite web | title = Become a Radiologist Assistant: Education and Career Roadmap | publisher = Study.com | date = 28 April 2020 | url = https://study.com/become_a_radiologist_assistant.html | access-date = 15 May 2020}}</ref> {{citation needed|date=February 2019}}

Registered Radiologist Assistant (RRA), a new advanced practice radiographer career path in the United States for experienced technologists. RRAs do not interpret studies in the manner of the reporting radiographer.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.acr.org/~/media/ACR/Documents/PDF/QualitySafety/Resources/Radiologist%20Assistant/DevelopmentOfRA.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=19 August 2014 |archive-date=4 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130404015343/http://www.acr.org/~/media/ACR/Documents/PDF/QualitySafety/Resources/Radiologist%20Assistant/DevelopmentOfRA.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> The role has been accepted by the [[American College of Radiology]] (ACR).<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.acr.org/~/media/ACR/Documents/PDF/QualitySafety/Resources/Radiologist%20Assistant/JointPolicyStatement.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=19 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130404030702/http://www.acr.org/~/media/ACR/Documents/PDF/QualitySafety/Resources/Radiologist%20Assistant/JointPolicyStatement.pdf |archive-date=4 April 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

== Risks ==
* Epidemiological studies indicate that Radiographers employed before 1950 are at increased risk of [[leukemia]] and [[skin cancer]], most likely due to the lack of use of [[radiation monitoring]] and shielding.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1148/radiol.2332031119 |title=Cancer Risks among Radiologists and Radiologic Technologists|year=2004|last1=Yoshinaga|first1=S.|last2=Mabuchi|first2=K.|last3=Sigurdson|first3=A. J.|last4=Doody|first4=M. M.|last5=Ron|first5=E.|journal=Radiology|volume=233|issue=2|pages=313–21|pmid=15375227|s2cid=20643232}}</ref> The relationship between radiation and cancer was found to correlate with women who were in the menopausal stages of their lives.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Preston|first1=D. L.|last2=Kitahara|first2=C. M.|last3=Freedman|first3=D. M.|last4=Sigurdson|first4=A. J.|last5=Simon|first5=S. L.|last6=Little|first6=M. P.|last7=Cahoon|first7=E. K.|last8=Rajaraman|first8=P.|last9=Miller|first9=J. S.|last10=Alexander|first10=B. H.|last11=Doody|first11=M. M.|date=October 2016|title=Breast cancer risk and protracted low-to-moderate dose occupational radiation exposure in the US Radiologic Technologists Cohort, 1983–2008|journal=British Journal of Cancer|language=en|volume=115|issue=9|pages=1105–1112|doi=10.1038/bjc.2016.292|pmid=27623235|issn=1532-1827|pmc=5117787}}</ref> In today's workplace, radiation exposure is monitored very closely  and cancer cases in technologists has been found to have decreased tremendously due to the current prevention methods.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Preston|first1=D. L.|last2=Kitahara|first2=C. M.|last3=Freedman|first3=D. M.|last4=Sigurdson|first4=A. J.|last5=Simon|first5=S. L.|last6=Little|first6=M. P.|last7=Cahoon|first7=E. K.|last8=Rajaraman|first8=P.|last9=Miller|first9=J. S.|last10=Alexander|first10=B. H.|last11=Doody|first11=M. M.|date=October 2016|title=Breast cancer risk and protracted low-to-moderate dose occupational radiation exposure in the US Radiologic Technologists Cohort, 1983–2008|journal=British Journal of Cancer|language=en|volume=115|issue=9|pages=1105–1112|doi=10.1038/bjc.2016.292|pmid=27623235|issn=1532-1827|pmc=5117787}}</ref>
* [[Ionising radiation]], used in a variety of imaging procedures, can damage cells. Lead shields are used on the patient and by the Radiographer to reduce exposure by shielding areas that do not need to be imaged from the radiation source. While lead is [[Lead poisoning|highly toxic]], the shields used in medical imaging are coated to prevent lead exposure and are regularly tested for integrity.<ref>[http://www.hps.org/publicinformation/ate/faqs/leadgarmentsfaq.html Lead Garments (Aprons, Gloves, etc.)]. Hps.org (2011-08-27). Retrieved on 2012-01-27.</ref>
* Radiographers who develop x-ray films are exposed to the various [[chemical hazards]] such as [[sulfur dioxide]], [[glutaraldehyde]], and [[acetic acid]]. These agents can cause [[asthma]] and other health issues.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1183/09031936.05.00024304 |pmid=15684307|title=Metabisulphite-induced occupational asthma in a radiographer|journal=European Respiratory Journal|volume=25|issue=2|pages=386–388|year=2005|last1=Merget|first1=R.|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/LegIssBus/2003/3.pdf |volume = 5 |year=2003 |title=Legal Issues in Radiography: Darkroom Disease |author1=Batch, James |author2=Nowlan, Patrick |journal=Legal Issues in Business}}</ref>
* Theoretically, the strong static magnetic fields of [[MRI|MRI scanners]] can cause physiological changes. After a human neural cell culture was exposed to a static magnetic field for 15 minutes, changes in cell [[morphology (biology)|morphology]] occurred along with some modifications in the physiological functions of those cells. However, these effects have not yet been independently replicated or confirmed, and this particular study was performed [[in vitro]].<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1186/1475-925X-3-11 |title= Biological effects of exposure to magnetic resonance imaging: an overview|year=2004|last1=Formica|first1=Domenico|last2=Silvestri|first2=Sergio|journal=BioMedical Engineering OnLine|volume=3|page=11|pmid=15104797|pmc=419710|doi-access= free}}</ref>
* [[Ultrasound|Ultrasound imaging]] can deform cells in the imaging field, if those cells are in a fluid. However, this effect is not sufficient to damage the cells.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1103/PhysRevE.79.021910 |pmid=19391781|title=Deformation of biological cells in the acoustic field of an oscillating bubble|year=2009|last1=Zinin|first1=Pavel|last2=Allen|first2=John|journal=Physical Review E|volume=79|issue=2|pages=021910|pmc=3069351|bibcode=2009PhRvE..79b1910Z}}</ref>
* As with any allied health professional, exposure to [[infectious diseases]] is likely, and use of [[personal protective equipment|Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)]] and [[infection control]] precautions must be employed to reduce the risk of infection. Those with family health histories reported feeling increased amount of stress due to concern of bringing infectious diseases home.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Zhang|first1=Zhe|last2=Lu|first2=Yaoqin|last3=Yong|first3=Xianting|last4=Li|first4=Jianwen|last5=Liu|first5=Jiwen|date=2020-12-24|title=Effects of Occupational Radiation Exposure on Job Stress and Job Burnout of Medical Staff in Xinjiang, China: A Cross-Sectional Study|journal=Medical Science Monitor|volume=26|pages=e927848–1–e927848-13|doi=10.12659/MSM.927848|issn=1234-1010|pmc=7771202|pmid=33361745}}</ref>
* In 2016, 59% of technologists surveyed reported that being overworked lead to risking medical error and threatening patient safety.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kasner|first=Sydney|date=2020-05-01|title=Technologist Stressors and Supportive Responses|url=http://www.radiologictechnology.org/content/91/5/477|journal=Radiologic Technology|language=en|volume=91|issue=5|pages=477–479|issn=0033-8397|pmid=32381665}}</ref> Being overworked also led to depersonalization due to the emotional drain it takes on technologists' mental health, also putting patients at risk.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Shields|first1=Melissa|last2=James|first2=Daphne|last3=McCormack|first3=Lynne|last4=Warren-Forward|first4=Helen|date=June 2021|title=Burnout in the disciplines of medical radiation science: A systematic review|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33965349/|journal=Journal of Medical Imaging and Radiation Sciences|volume=52|issue=2|pages=295–304|doi=10.1016/j.jmir.2021.04.001|issn=1876-7982|pmid=33965349|s2cid=234348024}}</ref>
* Due to constantly maneuvering heavy patients, technologists are at risk for work related injuries from the strain it puts on their bodies.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Time to Combat Radiologic Technologist Burnout is Now|url=https://www.diagnosticimaging.com/view/the-time-to-combat-radiologic-technologist-burnout-is-now|access-date=2021-09-21|website=Diagnostic Imaging}}</ref> Most technologists who develop a work related injury, later report having more work related injuries.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Reducing Injuries in Radiology Technologists|url=https://www.chcp.edu/blog/reducing-injuries-radiology-technologists/|access-date=2021-09-28|website=www.chcp.edu}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.coru.ie/ CORU]
* [http://www.iirrt.ie/ Irish Institute of Radiography and Radiation Therapy (IIRRT)]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20141208075030/http://www.isrrt.org/isrrt/default.asp International Society of Radiographers and Radiologic Technologists (ISRRT)]

{{Medical imaging|autocollapse}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Radiographer}}
[[Category:Radiology]]
[[Category:Radiography]]
[[Category:Allied health professions]]
[[Category:Hospital staff]]