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{{Short description|Shia militant groups}}
{{About||the surname|Qizilbash (name) |the related Sufi order that led to the Safavid dynasty|Safavid order|the related Sufi order in Turkey|Alevism|the suburb of Nicosia, Cyprus|Kizilbash (suburb)}}
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[[File:Qizilbash troops of Shah Ismail I. Circa 1647 painting, Chehel Sotoun.jpg|thumb|Qizilbash troops of [[Shah Ismail I]]. Circa 1647 painting, [[Chehel Sotoun]]]]
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2025}}
'''Qizilbash''' or '''Kizilbash'''<ref group=Note>{{langx|az|قیزیلباش|italic=no}} (Latin script: {{lang|az|qızılbaş}}) {{IPA|az|ɡɯzɯɫˈbɑʃ}}; {{langx|ota|قزيل باش}}; {{langx|fa|قزلباش|qizilbāš}} (modern Iranian reading: {{lang|fa-Latn|qezelbāš}}); {{langx|tr|kızılbaş|lit=red head}} {{IPA|tr|kɯzɯɫbaʃ}}</ref> were a diverse array of mainly [[Turkoman (ethnonym)|Turkoman]]<ref name=":1">{{cite book |last1=Babayan |first1=Kathryn |author-link1=Kathryn Babayan |title=The Waning of the Qizilbash: The Spiritual and the Temporal in Seventeenth Century Iran |date=1993 |publisher=Princeton University |pages=1–6, 41–47}} "The '''Qizilbash''', composed mainly of '''Turkman tribesmen''', were the military force introduced by the conquering Safavis to the Iranian domains in the sixteenth century."</ref> [[Shia Islam|Shia]] [[militant]] groups that flourished in [[Azerbaijan (Iran)|Azerbaijan]],<ref>{{cite book|last1=Cornell|first1=Vincent J.|title=Voices of Islam (Praeger perspectives)|date=2007|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0275987329|page=225 vol.1|oclc=230345942}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Parker|first1=Charles H.|title=Global Interactions in the Early Modern Age, 1400–1800|date=2010|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1139491419|page=53|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SKgs8-pj4_YC}}</ref> [[Anatolia]], the [[Armenian highlands]], the [[Caucasus]] from the late 15th century onwards, and contributed to the foundation of the [[Safavid dynasty]] in [[History of Iran#Safavid Empire (1501–1736)|early modern Iran]].<ref name="S-G">[[Roger Savory|Roger M. Savory]]: "''Kizil-Bash''{{-"}}. In ''[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]]'', Vol. 5, pp. 243–245.</ref><ref>Savory, EI2, Vol. 5, p. 243: "Kizilbāsh (T. "Red-head"). [...] In general, it is used loosely to denote a wide variety of extremist Shi'i sects [see Ghulāt], which flourished in [V:243b] Anatolia and Kurdistān from the late 7th/13th century onwards, including such groups as the [[Alevism|Alevis]] (see A. S. Tritton, ''Islam: belief and practices'', London 1951, 83)."</ref>

By the 18th-century, anyone involved with the Safavid state—militarily, diplomatically, or administratively—came to be broadly referred to as "Qizilbash". It was eventually applied to some inhabitants of Iran.{{sfn|Kia|2020|pp=147–149}} In the early 19th-century, Shia Muslims from Iran could be referred as "Qizilbash", thus highlighting the influence of the distinctive traits of the Safavids, despite the Iranian [[shah]] (king) [[Fath-Ali Shah Qajar]] ({{reign|1797|1834}}) simultaneously creating a [[Qajar dynasty|Qajar]] dynastic identity grounded in the pre-Islamic past.{{sfn|Kia|2020|p=151}}

==Etymology==
[[File:Taj-i Haydari, with and without turban, Dastan-i Jamal u Jalal. 1502-1505, Tabriz (Uppsala University Library, O Nova 2).jpg|thumb|''[[Taj-i Haydari]]'', with and without turban. ''Dastan-i Jamal u Jalal'', 1502-1505, [[Tabriz]] (Uppsala University Library, O Nova 2)]]
The word Qizilbash derives from Turkish ''Kızılbaş'', meaning "red head". The expression is derived from their distinctive twelve-[[Gore (fabrics)|gored]] crimson headwear ({{Lang|fa-Latn|tāj}} or {{Lang|fa-Latn|tark}} in Persian; sometimes specifically titled "Haydar's Crown" {{lang|fa|تاج حیدر}} / {{lang|fa-Latn|[[Tāj-e Ḥaydar]]}}),<ref group=Note>{{lang|fa-Latn|Tāj}}, meaning ''crown'' in Persian, is also a term for hats used to delineate one's affiliation to a particular [[Sufism|Sufi]] order.</ref> indicating their adherence to the [[Twelve Imams]] and to [[Shaykh Haydar]], the spiritual leader ([[sheikh]]) of the [[Safavid order]] in accordance with the [[Imamate in Twelver doctrine]].<ref name="Momen">Moojan Momen, "An Introduction to Shi'i Islam", Yale Univ. Press, 1985, ''{{ISBN|0-300-03499-7}}'', pp. 101–107.</ref> The name was originally a pejorative label given to them by their [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] Ottoman foes, but soon it was adopted as a mark of pride.{{sfn|Savory|Karamustafa|1998|pp=628–636}}{{sfn|Amanat|2017|p=43}}

==Origins==
The origin of the Qizilbash can be dated from the 15th century onward, when the spiritual grandmaster of the movement, Shaykh Haydar (the head of the Safaviyya Sufi order), organized his followers into militant troops. The Qizilbash were originally composed of seven [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]]-speaking [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] tribes: Rumlu, [[Shamlu]], Ustajlu, [[Afshar people|Afshar]], [[Qajars (tribe)|Qajar]], Tekelu, and Zulkadar.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Grigoriev |first1=Sergei |title=Об этнической принадлежности шиитов Афганистана |journal=Восток: история и культура |date=2000 |pages=32–46 |trans-title=On the ethnicity of the Shiites of Afghanistan |location=Saint Petersburg |language=ru |quote=Кызылбаши, первоначально состоявшие из представителей семи малоазиатских тюркоязычных племен румлу, шамлу, устаджлу, афшар, каджар, текелю и зулкадар, говоривших на азербайджанском языке, были с XV в. одной из главных военно-политических опор Сефевидского государства.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Floor |first1=Willem |last2=Javadi |first2=Hasan |title=The Role of Azerbaijani Turkish in Safavid Iran |journal=Iranian Studies |date=2013 |volume=46 |issue=4 |page=569 |doi=10.1080/00210862.2013.784516 |jstor=24482868 |s2cid=161700244 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24482868 |issn=0021-0862|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>David Blow: Shah Abbas: The Ruthless King Who Became an Iranian Legend. S. 165. The primary court language remained Turkish. But it was not the Turkish of Istambul. It was a Turkish dialect, the dialect of the Qizilbash Turkomans, which is still spoken today in the province of Azerbaijan, in north-western Iran.</ref>

Connections between the Qizilbash and other religious groups and [[secret society|secret societies]], such as the [[Mazdak]]i movement in the [[Sasanian Empire]], or its more radical offspring, the [[Khurramites]], and [[Shamanism in Siberia|Turkic shamanism]], have been suggested.<ref>[[Martin van Bruinessen]], ‘''Between Dersim and Dâlahû: Reflections on Kurdish Alevism and the Ahl-i Haqq religion''’ Published in: Shahrokh Raei (ed.), Islamic Alternatives: Non-Mainstream Religion in Persianate Societies [Göttinger Orientforschungen, III. Reihe: Iranica, N.F. 16]. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2017, pp. 65-93. ([https://dspace.library.uu.nl/bitstream/handle/1874/370756/Bruinessen_Dersim_and_Dalahu_2.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y PDF])</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Bruinessen |first1=Martin van |author1-link=Martin van Bruinessen |editor1-last=Öz |editor1-first=Mehmet |editor2-last=Yeşil |editor2-first=Fatih |title=Ötekilerin Pesinde - Ahmet Yasar Ocak'a Armagan /In pursuit of the Others: Festschrift in honor of Ahmet Yaşar Ocak |date=2015 |publisher=Timaş |location=Istanbul |pages=613–30 |url=https://www.academia.edu/13125948 |chapter=Dersim and Dalahu: Some Reflections on Kurdish Alevism and the Ahl-i Haqq religion}}</ref><ref>''[[Harvard]] Religion and Public Life'' - [https://rpl.hds.harvard.edu/faq/alevism "Alevism"]</ref> Of these, the Khurramites were, like the Qizilbash, an early [[ghulat]] group<ref name="S-G" /> and dressed in red, for which they were termed "the red ones" ({{langx|fa|سرخ‌ جامگان |sarkh jāmegān|links=no}}, {{langx|ar|محمرة|muḥammirah|links=no}}) by medieval sources.<ref>H. Anetshofer/H.T. Karateke, ''Traktat über die Derwischmützen (ri̇sāle-i̇ Tāciyye) des Müstaqīm-zāde Süleymān Sāʻdeddīn''; Brill, 2001; {{ISBN|90-04-12048-3}} (German original)</ref> In this context, Turkish scholar [[Abdülbaki Gölpınarlı]] sees the Qizilbash as "spiritual descendants of the Khurramites".<ref name="S-G" />

==Organization==
The Qizilbash were a coalition of many different tribes of predominantly (but not exclusively) [[Turkic languages|Turkic]]-speaking background united in their adherence to the [[Safavid order]]. Apart from [[Turkoman (ethnonym)|Turkomans]], the Qizilbash also included [[Kurds]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mawṣilī |first=Mundhir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PyRIAAAAMAAJ&q=%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%87%D9%8A%D9%85+%D9%86%D8%A8%D9%8A+%D9%83%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%8A |title=عرب وأكراد: رؤية عربية-- للقضية الكردية : الأكراد في وطنهم القومي وفي الجوار العراقي-التركي‌-الإيراني-- وفي سورية ولبنان |date=1995 |publisher=دار الغصون، |pages=292 |language=ar}}</ref> [[Lurs]], [[Persians]], and [[Talysh people|Talysh]] after Shah Abbas's military reform in the beginning of the 17th century.

As [[murid]]s (sworn students) of the Safavi [[Pir (Sufism)|pir]]s, the Qizilbash owed implicit obedience to their leader in his capacity as their ''murshid-e kāmil'' "supreme spiritual director" and, after the establishment of the kingdom, as their [[padishah]] (great king). The kingdom's establishment thus changed the purely religious ''pir–murid'' relationship into a political one. As a consequence, any act of disobedience of the Qizilbash Sufis against the order of the spiritual grandmaster (Persian: ''nāsufigari'' "conduct unbecoming of a Sufi") became "an act of treason against the king and a crime against the state", as was the case in 1614 when Abbas the Great put some followers to death.<ref>Roger M. Savory, "The office of ''khalifat al-khulafa'' under the Safawids", in JOAS, lxxxv, 1965, p. 501</ref>

==Beliefs==
{{Twelvers}}
The Qizilbash adhered to [[heterodoxy|heterodox]] Shi’i doctrines encouraged by the early Safavi sheikhs Haydar and his son [[Ismail I]]. They regarded their rulers as divine figures, and so were classified as ''[[ghulat]]'' "extremists" by orthodox [[Twelver]]s.<ref>Momen, 1985</ref>

When [[Tabriz]] was taken, there was not a single book on Twelverism among the Qizilbash leaders. The book of the well known Iraqi scholar [[Allamah Al-Hilli|al-Hilli]] (1250–1325) was procured in the town library to provide religious guidance to the state.<ref>Moojan Momen, "An Introduction to Shi'i Islam", Yale Univ. Press, 1985, ''{{ISBN|0-300-03499-7}}'', p. 397</ref> The Qizilbash battle cry was "qurban oldiğim, sadaqa oldiğim, pirüm mürşidim" (قربان اولدیغم، صدقه اولدیغم، پیروم مرشدم), meaning "may I be sacrificed for you, my spiritual guide" in [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]], and referring to Shah Ismail.<ref>Ṣarrāf, M. Ḥ. (1991), ‫معركة چالداران,  H:920/M:1514: أولى صفحات الصراع العثماني الفارسي: الأسباب و النتائج, pp. 99, مكتبة النهضة المصرية, University of Michigan</ref><ref>دنبله جستجو در تصوف ایران، عبدالحسین زرین‌کوب, pp. 229, 1978</ref><ref>A Literary History of Persia: Volume 4, Edward Granville Browne, 1924, pp. 14-15, The University Press</ref><ref>Akademisyenlerle Alevîlik-Bektaşîlik Söyleşileri, Ayhan Aydın, 2006, pp. 238, {{ISBN|9789759806583}}</ref>

The imported Shi'i ''[[ulama]]'' did not participate in the formation of Safavid religious policies during the early formation of the state. However, ''ghulat'' doctrines were later forsaken and Arab Twelver ''ulama'' from [[Lebanon]], [[Iraq]], and [[Bahrain]] were imported in increasing numbers to bolster orthodox Twelver practice and belief.

===Qizilbash aqidah in Anatolia===
{{Main|Qalandariyya|Imadaddin Nasimi|Hurufism|Bektashism and folk religion}}
{{Further|Mansur Al-Hallaj|Sevener|Qarmatians|Baba Ishak|Babai revolt|Hassan II of Alamut |Muhammad II of Alamut}}

In Turkey, orthodox Twelvers following [[Ja'fari jurisprudence]] are called Ja'faris. Although the Qizilbash are also Twelvers, their practices do not adhere to Ja'fari jurisprudence.
* The Qizilbash have a unique and complex conviction tracing back to the [[Kaysanites]] and [[Khurramites]], who are considered [[ghulat]] (extremist) Shia. According to Turkish scholar {{lang|tr|Abdülbaki Gölpinarli}}, the Qizilbash of the 16th century – a religious and political movement in [[Iranian Azerbaijan]] that helped to establish the Safavid dynasty – were "spiritual descendants of the Khurramites".<ref>Roger M. Savory (ref. [[:tr:Abdülbaki Gölpınarlı|Abdülbaki Gölpınarlı]]), [[Encyclopaedia of Islam]], "Kizil-Bash", Online Edition 2005</ref>
* Among the individual revered by [[Alevism|Alevis]], two figures, firstly [[Abu Muslim]] who assisted the [[Abbasid Caliphate]] to beat [[Umayyad Caliphate]], but who was later eliminated and murdered by Caliph [[al-Mansur]], and secondly [[Babak Khorramdin]], who incited a rebellion against the [[Abbasid Caliphate]] and consequently was killed by Caliph [[al-Mu'tasim]], are highly respected. In addition, the Safavid leader [[Ismail I]] is highly regarded.
* The Qizilbash ''[[aqidah]]'', or creed,  is based upon a syncretic [[fiqh]] (jurisprudence tradition) called [[batiniyya]],<ref name="BĀṬENĪYA">{{cite web|last=Halm|first=H|title=Bāṭenīya|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bateniya|publisher=Encyclopedia Iranica|access-date=4 August 2014}}</ref> referring to an inner or hidden meaning in holy texts. It incorporates some [[Qarmatian]] thoughts, originally introduced by Abu’l-Khāttāb Muhammad ibn Abu Zaynab al-Asadī,<ref name="ABU’L-ḴAṬṬĀB ASADĪ">{{cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/abul-kattab-mohammad-b|title=Abu'l-Ḵaṭṭāb Asadī|access-date=15 February 2015}}</ref><ref name="ḴAṬṬĀBIYA">{{cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/kattabiya|title=Ḵaṭṭābiya|access-date=15 February 2015}}</ref> and later developed by Maymun al-Qāddāh and his son ʿAbd Allāh ibn Maymun,<ref name="MAYMŪN AL-QADDĀḤ">{{cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/abdallah-b-maymun-al-qaddah-legendary-founder-of-the-qarmatian-ismaili-doctrine|title=ʿAbdallāh B. Maymūn Al-Qaddāḥ|access-date=15 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180516235417/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/abdallah-b-maymun-al-qaddah-legendary-founder-of-the-qarmatian-ismaili-doctrine|archive-date=16 May 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> and [[Muʿtazila]] with a strong belief in [[The Twelve Imams]].
* Not all of the members believe that the fasting in [[Ramadan]] is obligatory although some Alevi Turks perform their fasting duties partially in Ramadan.
* Some beliefs of [[shamanism]] still are common among the Qizilbash in villages.
* [[File:Qezelbash.JPG|thumb|Mannequin of a Safavid Qizilbash soldier, exhibited in the [[Sa'dabad Complex]], Iran]]The Qizilbash are not a part of Ja'fari jurisprudence, even though they can be considered as members of different tariqa of Shia Islam all looks like sub-classes of [[Twelver]]. Their conviction includes [[Batiniyya]]-[[Hurufism]] and "[[Sevener]]-[[Qarmatians]]-[[Isma'ilism]]" sentiments.<ref name="BĀṬENĪYA"/><ref>[[Yaşar Nuri Öztürk|Öztürk, Yaşar Nuri]], ''[[Anal Haq|En-el Hak]] [[Rebellion|İsyan]]ı (The [[Anal Haq]] [[Rebellion]]) – [[Mansur Al-Hallaj|Hallâc-ı Mansûr]] ([[Gallows|Darağacı]]nda [[Mi'raj|Miraç]] – [[Mi'raj|Miraç]] on [[Gallows]]),'' Vol 1 and 2, Yeni Boyut, 2011.</ref>
* They all may be considered as special groups not following the [[Ja'fari jurisprudence]], like [[Alawites]] who are in the class of ghulat Twelver Shia Islam, but a special [[Batiniyya]] belief somewhat similar to [[Isma'ilism]] in their conviction.

==Composition==
Among the Qizilbash, [[Turkoman (ethnonym)|Turcoman tribes]] from Eastern Anatolia and [[Azerbaijan (Iran)|Iranian Azerbaijan]] who had helped [[Ismail I]] defeat the [[Aq Qoyunlu]] tribe were by far the most important in both number and influence and the name ''Qizilbash'' is usually applied exclusively to them.<ref name="Minorsky">Minorsky, Vladimir (1943) "Tadhkirat al-muluk", London, pp. 16–18, 188</ref> Some of these greater Turcoman tribes were subdivided into as many as eight or nine clans, including:
* Ustādjlu (Its origins reach back to the [[Begdili]])<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bigdeli-or-begdeli-also-bagdilu-a-former-turkish-tribe|title=BĪGDELĪ – Encyclopaedia Iranica|website=www.iranicaonline.org|access-date=25 May 2020}}</ref>
* Rūmlu (Its name means the one who originates from the Roman land i.e. Anatolia.)
* [[Shamlu|Shāmlu]] (The most powerful clan during the reign of Shah Ismail I. Its name means the one who originates from [[Syria (region)|Sham]] i.e. the Levant.)
* [[Beylik of Dulkadir|Dulkadir]] (Arabic: Dhu 'l-Kadar)
* [[Afshar people|Afshār]]
* [[Qajars (tribe)|Qājār]]
* Takkalu (Persian rendition of Täkälü or Tekelü which means the one who originates from the [[Teke Peninsula]] of Anatolia. The region was named after the [[Beylik of Teke]] which might have a connection with the [[Teke (tribe)|Teke tribe]] of Turkmenistan.)

Other tribes – such as the Turkman, [[Baharlu (ethnic group)|Bahārlu]], Qaramānlu, Warsāk, and [[Bayat (tribe)|Bayāt]] – were occasionally listed among these "seven great uymaqs". Today, the remnants of the Qizilbash confederacy are found among the [[Afshar people|Afshar]], the [[Qashqai people|Qashqai]], [[Turkmens|Turkmen]], [[Shahsevan]], and others.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Tapper |first=Richard |year=2011 |chapter=Introduction |title=Tribe and State in Iran and Afghanistan |location=London |publisher=Routledge |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=LCj8dzn0KIMC&pg=PA11 11] |isbn=978-0-415-61056-8}}</ref>

Some of these names consist of a place-name with the addition of the Turkish suffix ''-lu'', such as Shāmlu or Bahārlu. Other names are those of old [[Oghuz Turks|Oghuz]] tribes such as the Afshār, Dulghadir, or Bayāt, as mentioned by the medieval [[Karakhanid]] historian [[Mahmud al-Kashgari]].

The non-Turkic Iranian tribes among the Qizilbash were called [[Persian people|Tājīks]] by the Turcomans and included:<ref name="Minorsky" /><ref>{{Cite journal|first=Roger M. |last=Savory |year=1965 |title=The consolidation of Safawid power in Persia |journal=Der Islam |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=71–94 |doi=10.1515/islm.1965.41.1.71|s2cid=161679360 }}</ref>
* [[Talysh people|Tālish]]
* The [[Lurs]]
* Siāh-Kuh (Karādja-Dagh)
* certain [[Kurdish people|Kurdish]] tribes
* certain [[Persian people|Persian]] families and clans

==History==
[[File:Battle Scene (left) (f. 26a detail), Dastan-i Jamal u Jalal. 1502-1505, Tabriz (Uppsala University Library, O Nova 2).jpg|thumb|Cavalry charge with Qizilbash horseman. ''[[:Commons:Category:Dastan-i Jamal u Jalal. 1502-1505, Tabriz (Uppsala University Library, O Nova 2)|Dastan-i Jamal u Jalal]]'', commissioned under [[Shah Ismail]] in 1502-1505, [[Tabriz]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Titley |first1=Norah M. |title=Persian miniature painting and its influence on the art of Turkey and India : the British Library collections |date=1984 |publisher=Austin : University of Texas Press |isbn=978-0-292-76484-2 |page=80 |url=https://archive.org/details/persianminiature0000titl/page/80/mode/1up}}</ref>]]

===Beginnings===
[[File:"Shah Ismail holds an audience", from Bijan’s Tarikh-i Jahangusha-yi Khaqan Sahibqiran, Iran, Isfahan; end of the 1680s.jpg|thumb|[[Persian miniature]] created by [[Mo'en Mosavver]], depicting Shah Ismail I at an audience receiving the Qizilbash after they defeated the [[Shirvanshah]] [[Farrukh Yasar]]. Album leaf from a copy of Bijan’s ''Tarikh-i Jahangusha-yi Khaqan Sahibqiran'' (A History of Shah Ismail I), produced in [[Isfahan]], end of the 1680s]]

The main followers of the Safavids were the Qizilbash from Azerbaijan and Anatolia.<ref name=":3">M. Kunt, «Ottomans and Safavids. States, Statecraft and Societies, 1500-1800», p. 195</ref> In 1501, 7,000 Qizilbash defeated the 30,000-strong army of Sultan Alvand Ak-Koyunlu, and after the coronation in Tabriz, the young Sheikh Ismail became the first Shahanshah of Azerbaijan from the Safavid dynasty.<ref>Richard Trapper. Shahsevid in Sevefid Persia // Bulletin of the Schopol of Oriental and African studies. — University of London, 1974. — Вып. 37 (2). — P. 324</ref><ref>Laurence Lockhart, «The Fall of the Safavi Dynasty and the Afghan Occupation of Persia», p. 19</ref> Ismail received the main support for his accession to the throne from the Qizilbash,<ref>Aurélie Chabrier, ''«''La monarchie safavide et la modernité européenne (XVIe-XVIIe siècles)», p. 210</ref> but did not enjoy the same support in Iran and even faced resentment and hatred from the majority of Sunni Iranians.<ref>F. Zarinebaf, «Azerbaijan between Two Empires», p. 311{{blockquote|His aim was to consolidate his hold over Iran, Mesopotamia and eastern Anatolia. Faruk Sümer is right to emphasize that without the help of thousands of Qizilbash followers from Anatolia, Shah Ismaʿil would not have been able to defeat Aqquyunlu leaders and achieve these momentous victories. He did not enjoy that kind of support in Iran and even faced the resentment and hatred of the majority Sunni Iranians.}}</ref> He had to ensure the speedy arrival of the Qizilbash from Asia Minor, since in the eyes of the Persians of Iran he and his supporters were strangers whom they hated.<ref>Faruk Sümer, «Safevi devletinin kuruluşunda Anadolu Türklerinin rolu», s. 25</ref> Ismail's success was greatly influenced by his detachment of seven close Qizilbash advisers.,<ref>Aurélie Chabrier, ''«''La monarchie safavide et la modernité européenne (XVIe-XVIIe siècles)», p. 218</ref>

The rise of the Ottomans put a great strain on the Turkmen tribes living in the area, which eventually led them to join the Safavids, who transformed them into a militant organisation, called the Qizilbash (meaning "red heads" in [[Turkish language|Turkish]]), initially a pejorative label given to them by the Ottomans, but later adopted as a mark of pride.{{sfn|Savory|Karamustafa|1998|pp=628–636}}{{sfn|Amanat|2017|p=43}} The religion of the Qizilbash resembled much more the heterodox beliefs of northwestern Iran and eastern Anatolia, rather than the traditional [[Twelver Shia Islam]]. The beliefs of the Qizilbash consisted of non-Islamic aspects, varying from crypto-[[Zoroastrian]] beliefs to [[Shamanism|shamanistic]] practises, the latter which had been practised by their [[Central Asia]]n ancestors.{{sfn|Amanat|2017|p=43}}

However, a common aspect that all these heterodox beliefs shared was a form of [[messianism]], devoid of the restrictions of the Islam practiced in [[urban area]]s. Concepts of [[divine inspiration]] and [[reincarnation]] were common, with the Qizilbash viewing their Safavid leader (whom they called ''morshed-e kamel'', "the Perfect Guide") as the reincarnation of [[Ali]] and a manifestation of the [[divine]] in human form.{{sfn|Amanat|2017|pp=43–44}} There were a total of seven major Qizilbash "tribes", each named after an area they identified themselves with; the Rumlu presumably came from [[Rûm|Rum]] (Anatolia); the [[Shamlu]] from Sham ([[Syria (region)|Syria]]); the Takkalu from the Takkeh in southeastern Anatolia; the Ostajlu from Ostaj in the southern [[Caucasus]]. It is uncertain if the [[Afshar (tribe)|Afshar]] and [[Qajars (tribe)|Qajar]] were named after an area in Azerbaijan, or after their ancestors. All these tribes shared a common lifestyle, language, faith, and animosity towards the Ottomans.{{sfn|Amanat|2017|pp=44–45}}

In the 15th century, [[Ardabil]] was the center of an organization designed to keep the Safavi leadership in close touch with its murids in Azerbaijan, Iraq, Eastern Anatolia, and elsewhere. The organization was controlled through the office of ''khalīfāt al-khulafā'ī'' who appointed representatives (''khalīfa'') in regions where Safavi propaganda was active. The ''khalīfa'', in turn, had subordinates termed ''pira''. The Safavi presence in eastern Anatolia posed a serious threat to the [[Ottoman Empire]] because they encouraged the Shi'i population of Asia Minor to revolt against the sultan.

In 1499, Ismail, the young leader of the Safavi order, left Lahijan for Ardabil to make a bid for power. By the summer of 1500, about 7,000 supporters from the local Turcoman tribes of [[Asia Minor]] (Anatolia), [[Syria]], and the [[Caucasus]] – collectively called "Qizilbash" by their enemies – rallied to his support in [[Erzincan]].<ref>Faruk Sümer, ''Safevi Devletinin Kuruluşu ve Gelişmesinde Anadolu Türklerinin Rolü'', Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayınları, Ankara, 1992, p. 15. {{in lang|tr}}</ref> Leading his troops on a punitive campaign against the Shīrvanshāh (ruler of [[Shirvan]]), he sought revenge for the death of his father and his grandfather in Shīrvan. After defeating the Shīrvanshāh [[Farrukh Yassar]] and incorporating his kingdom, he moved south into Azarbaijan, where his 7,000 Qizilbash warriors defeated a force of 30,000 [[Aq Qoyunlu]] under Alwand Mirzā<ref name="EoI">Roger M. Savory, Encyclopaedia of Islam, "Safawids", Online Edition, 2005</ref> and conquered [[Tabriz]]. This was the beginning of the Safavid state.

By 1510, Ismail and his Qizilbash had conquered the whole of Iran and the [[Republic of Azerbaijan]],<ref>BBC, ([http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/safavidempire_1.shtml Link])</ref> southern [[Dagestan]] (with its important city of [[Derbent]]), [[Mesopotamia]], [[Armenia]], [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]], [[Eastern Anatolia]], and had made the [[Georgia (country)|Georgian]] kingdoms of [[Kingdom of Kartli (1484–1762)|Kartli]] and [[Kingdom of Kakheti|Kakheti]] his vassals.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iranchamber.com/history/safavids/safavids.php|title=History of Iran: Safavid Empire 1502–1736|access-date=16 December 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Rayfield|first=Donald|title=Edge of Empires: A History of Georgia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PxQpmg_JIpwC&pg=PA165|year=2013|publisher=Reaktion Books|isbn=978-1-78023-070-2|page=165}}</ref> Many of these areas were priorly under the control of the [[Ak Koyunlu]].

The rivalry between the Turkic clans and the Persian nobles was a major problem in the Safavid kingdom. As [[Vladimir Minorsky|V. Minorsky]] put it, friction between these two groups was inevitable, because the Turcomans ''"were no party to the national Persian tradition"''. Shah Ismail tried to solve the problem by appointing Persian ''wakil''s as commanders of Qizilbash tribes. The Turcomans considered this an insult and brought about the death of 3 of the 5 Persians appointed to this office – an act that later inspired the deprivation of the Turcomans by Shah Abbas I.<ref>{{Cite journal|first=Roger M. |last=Savory |year=1964 |title=The significance of the political murder of Mirza Salman |journal=Islamic Studies |volume=3 |pages=181–191 |location=Karachi }}</ref>

In 1510 Shah Ismail sent a large force of the Qizilbash to [[Transoxiania]] to fight the [[Uzbeks]]. The Qizilbash defeated the Uzbeks and secured [[Samarkand]] at the [[Battle of Marv]]. However, in 1512, an entire Qizilbash army was annihilated by the Uzbeks after Turcoman Qizilbash had mutinied against their Persian ''wakil'' and commander [[Najm-e Thani]] at the [[Battle of Ghazdewan]].<ref>Roger M. Savory, "The significance of the political murder of Mirza Salman", in ''"Studies on the history of Safawid Iran"'', xv, pp. 186–187</ref> This defeat put an end to Safavid expansion and influence in Transoxania and left the northeastern frontiers of the kingdom vulnerable to nomad invasions, until some decades later.

===Battle of Chaldiran===
{{Main|Battle of Chaldiran}}
Meanwhile, the Safavid [[dawah]] continued in Ottoman areas – with great success. Even more alarming for the Ottomans was the successful conversion of Turcoman tribes in Eastern Anatolia, and the recruitment of these well-experienced and feared fighters into the growing Safavid army. To stop Safavid propaganda, [[Bayezid II|Sultan Bayezid II]] deported large numbers of the Shi'i population of [[Asia Minor]] to [[Morea]]. However, in 1507, Shah Ismail and the Qizilbash overran large areas of [[Kurdistan]], defeating regional Ottoman forces. Two years later, the Qizilbash defeated the [[Uzbeks]] at [[Merv]] in Central Asia, killing their leader [[Muhammad Shaybani]] and destroying his dynasty. His head was sent to the Ottoman sultan as a warning.

[[File:QIZILBASH.jpg|thumb|upright|A Safavid Qizilbash cavalryman.]]

In 1511, a pro-Safavid revolt known as the [[Şahkulu rebellion]] broke out in [[Teke Peninsula|Teke]]. An imperial army that was sent to suppress it was defeated. Ismail sought to turn the chaos within the Ottoman Empire to his advantage and moved the border westwards in Asia Minor. The Qizilbash defeated a large Ottoman army under [[Koca Sinan Pasha]]. Shocked by this heavy defeat, [[Selim I|Sultan Selim I]], the new ruler, decided to invade with a force of 200,000 Ottomans. In addition, he ordered the persecution of [[Alevis]]<ref name="bloomberg">{{cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-05-30/turkey-s-alevis-outraged-by-executioner-name-for-bridge.html |title=Turkey's Alevis Outraged by 'Executioner' Name for Bridge|newspaper=bloomberg.com|date=31 May 2013|access-date=10 December 2014}}</ref><ref name="todayszaman">{{cite web|url=http://www.todayszaman.com/national_alevis-protest-plans-to-name-third-bridge-after-ottoman-sultan_317231.html|title=Alevis protest plans to name third bridge after Ottoman Sultan|publisher=todayszaman.com|access-date=10 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141214192729/http://www.todayszaman.com/national_alevis-protest-plans-to-name-third-bridge-after-ottoman-sultan_317231.html|archive-date=14 December 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> and massacred its adherents in the Ottoman Empire.<ref>H.A.R. Gibb & H. Bowen, "Islamic society and the West", i/2, Oxford, 1957, p. 189</ref>

On 20 August 1514 (1st [[Rajab]] 920 A.H.), the two armies met at Chaldiran in northwestern Iran. The Ottomans, who were equipped with both firearms and cannon, were reported to outnumber the Qizilbash as much as three to one. The Qizilbash were badly defeated;<ref>M.J. McCaffrey, [[Encyclopaedia Iranica]], "Čālderān", v, pp. 656–8, ({{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20080929004601/http://www.iranica.com/newsite/search/searchpdf.isc?ReqStrPDFPath=%2Fhome%2Firanica%2Fpublic_html%2Fnewsite%2Fpdfarticles%2Fv4_articles%2Fcalderan&OptStrLogFile=%2Fhome%2Firanica%2Fpublic_html%2Fnewsite%2Flogs%2Fpdfdownload.html Link]}})</ref> casualties included many high-ranking Qizilbash [[amir]]s as well as three influential [[ulamā]].

This defeat destroyed Shah Ismail's belief in his own invincibility and divine status. It also fundamentally altered the relationship between the ''murshid-e kāmil'' and his ''[[murid]]s'' (followers).

===The deprivation of the Turcomans===
[[Ismail I]] tried to reduce the power of the [[Turkoman (ethnonym)|Turcomans]] by appointing [[Iranian peoples|Iranians]] to the vakil office. However, the Turcomans did not like having an Iranian to the most powerful office of the [[Safavid Empire]] and kept murdering many Iranians who were appointed to that office.<ref name="google">{{cite book|title=Iran Under the Safavids|author=Savory, R.|date=2007|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521042512|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v4Yr4foWFFgC|page=43|access-date=10 December 2014}}</ref> After the death of Ismail, the Turkomans managed to seize power from the Iranians, they were however, defeated by [[Tahmasp I]], the son of Ismail who got rid of the Turcomans.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://archive.org/details/ShahIsmailPoems |title=The Poetry Of Shah Ismail I Valdimir Minorsky (1942)}}</ref>

For almost ten years after the Battle of Chaldiran, rival Qizilbash factions fought for control of the kingdom. In 1524, 10-year-old Shah [[Tahmasp I]], the governor of [[Herat]], succeeded his father Ismail. He was the [[Ward (law)|ward]] of the powerful Qizilbash ''amir'' Ali Beg Rūmlū (titled "''Div Soltān''{{-"}}) who was the ''de facto'' ruler of the Safavid kingdom.<ref>Roger M. Savory in ''[[Encyclopædia Iranica]]'', "Dīv Soltān", Online Edition, 2005, ({{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20080929004459/http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v7f4/v7f474.html Link]}})</ref> However, Tahmasp managed to reassert his authority over the state and over the Qizilbash.

[[File:Battle of Prince Hamzeh Mirza against rebellious Qizilbash emirs.jpg|thumb|left|Battle of Prince [[Hamzeh Mirza]] against rebellious Qizilbash emirs. [[:Commons:Category:Ḫulāṣat at-tawārīḫ (SBB Ms. or. fol. 2202)|''Ḫulāṣat at-tawārīḫ'', circa 1595]]]]
During the reign of Shah Tahmasp, the Qizilbash fought a series of wars on two fronts and – with the poor resources available to them – successfully defended their kingdom against the [[Uzbeks]] in the east, and against the arch-rivals of the Safavids – the [[Ottoman Turks|Ottomans]] – in the west.{{sfn|Rothman|2015|page=236}} With the [[Peace of Amasya]] (1555), peace between Safavids and Ottomans remained for the rest of Tahmasp's reign.<ref>M. Köhbach in ''[[Encyclopædia Iranica]]'', "Peace of Amasya", v, p. 928, Online Edition, ({{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20071215185602/http://www.iranica.com/newsite/search/searchpdf.isc?ReqStrPDFPath=/home1/iranica/articles/v1_articles/amasya_peace_of&OptStrLogFile=/home/iranica/public_html/logs/pdfdownload.html Link]}})</ref> During Tahmasp' reign, he carried out multiple invasions in the [[Caucasus]] which had been incorporated in the [[Safavid]] empire since Shah Ismail I and for many centuries afterward, and started with the trend of deporting and moving hundreds of thousands of [[Circassians]], [[Georgians]], and [[Armenians]] to Iran's heartlands. Initially only solely put in the royal harems, royal guards, and several other specific posts of the Empire, Tahmasp believed he could eventually reduce the power of the Qizilbash, by creating and fully integrating a new layer in Iranian society with these Caucasian elements and who would question the power and hegemony of the tribal Qizilbash. This included the formation of a military slave system,<ref name="Streusand, p. 148">Streusand, p. 148.</ref> similar to that of the neighboring [[Ottoman Empire]] – the [[Janissary|Janissaries]].<ref name="iranicaonline.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/barda-v|title=Barda and Barda-Dāri v. Military slavery in Islamic Iran|access-date=15 April 2014}}</ref> Tahmasp's successors, and most importantly Shah [[Abbas I of Persia|Abbas I]] (r. 1588–1629), would significantly expand this policy when during the reign of Abbas I alone some 200,000 Georgians, 300,000 Armenians and many tens of thousands of Circassians were relocated to Iran's heartlands.{{sfn|Blow|2009|page=66}}{{sfn|Aslanian|2011|page=1}}{{sfn|Bournoutian|2002|page=208}}{{sfn|Mikaberidze|2015|pages=291, 536}}{{sfn|Floor|Herzig|2012|page=479}} By this creation of a so-called "third layer" or "third force" in Iranian society composed of ethnic Caucasians, and the complete systematic disorganisation of the Qizilbash by his personal orders, Abbas I eventually fully succeeded in replacing the power of the Qizilbash, with that of the Caucasian ghulams. These new Caucasian elements (the so-called ''[[ghilman]]'' / غِلْمَان / ''"servants"''), almost always after conversion to Shi'ism depending on given function would be, unlike the Qizilbash, fully loyal only to the Shah. This system of mass usage of Caucasian subjects continued to exist until the fall of the [[Qajar dynasty]].

The inter-tribal rivalry of the Turcomans, the attempt of Persian nobles to end the Turcoman dominance, and constant succession conflicts went on for another 10 years after Tahmasp's death. This heavily weakened the Safavid state and made the kingdom vulnerable to external enemies: the Ottomans [[Ottoman–Safavid War (1578–1590)|attacked]] in the west, whereas the Uzbeks attacked the east.

[[Image:Daud Khan Undiladze.jpg|thumb|right|[[Daud Khan Undiladze]], Safavid ''ghulam'', military commander, and the governor of [[Karabakh]] and [[Ganja, Azerbaijan|Ganja]] between 1627 and 1633.]]

In 1588, [[Shah Abbas I]] came to power. He appointed the Governor of [[Herat]] and his former guardian and tutor, Alī Quli Khān Shāmlū (also known as ''Hājī Alī Qizilbāsh Mazandarānī'') the chief of all the armed forces. Later on, events of the past, including the role of the Turcomans in the succession struggles after the death of his father, and the counterbalancing influence of traditional [[Shia|Ithnāʻashari Shia]] [[Sayed]]s, made him determined to end the dominance of the untrustworthy Turcoman chiefs in Persia which Tahmasp had already started decades before him. In order to weaken the Turcomans – the important militant elite of the Safavid kingdom – Shah Abbas further raised a standing army, personal guard, Queen-Mothers, [[Harem]]s and full civil administration from the ranks of these ''ghilman'' who were usually ethnic [[Circassians]], [[Georgians]], and [[Armenians]], both men and women, whom he and his predecessors had taken captive en masse during their wars in the Caucasus, and would systematically replace the Qizilbash from their functions with converted Circassians and Georgians. The new army and civil administration would be fully loyal to the king personally and not to the clan-chiefs anymore.<ref name="EoI" />

The reorganisation of the army also ended the independent rule of Turcoman chiefs in the Safavid provinces, and instead centralized the administration of those provinces.

''Ghulams'' were appointed to high positions within the royal household, and by the end of Shah Abbas' reign, one-fifth of the high-ranking [[amir]]s were ghulams.<ref name="Minorsky" /> By 1598 already an ethnic [[Georgians|Georgian]] from Safavid-ruled Georgia, well known by his adopted Muslim name after conversion, [[Allahverdi Khan]], had risen to the position of commander-in-chief of all Safavid armed forces.<ref>C. Fleischer, ''[[Encyclopædia Iranica]]'', "Allāhverdi Khān", v, pp. 891–892, Online Edition, 2005, ({{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20071006080819/http://www.iranica.com/newsite/search/searchpdf.isc?ReqStrPDFPath=/home1/iranica/articles/v1_articles/allahverdi_khan&OptStrLogFile=/home/iranica/public_html/logs/pdfdownload.html Link]}})</ref> and by that became one of the most powerful men in the empire. The offices of ''wakil'' and ''[[amir al-umara|amir al-umarā]]'' fell in disuse and were replaced by the office of a ''[[Ispahsalar|Sipahsālār]]'' ({{langx|fa|سپهسالار|lit=master of the army}}), commander-in-chief of all armed forces – Turcoman and Non-Turcoman – and usually held by a Persian (''Tādjik'') noble.

The Turcoman Qizilbash nevertheless remained an important part of the Safavid executive apparatus, even though ethnic Caucasians came to largely replace them. For example, even in the 1690s, when ethnic [[Georgians]] formed the mainstay of the Safavid military, the Qizilbash still played a significant role in the army.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Matthee|first1=Rudi|title=Persia in Crisis: Safavid Decline and the Fall of Isfahan|date=2012|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=978-1845117450|page=114}}</ref> The [[Afsharid dynasty|Afshār]] and [[Qajar dynasty|Qājār]] rulers of Persia who succeeded the Safavids, stemmed from a Qizilbash background. Many other Qizilbash – Turcoman and Non-Turcoman – were settled in far eastern cities such as [[Kabul]] and [[Kandahar]] during the conquests of [[Nader Shah]], and remained there as consultants to the new [[Durrani Empire|Afghan crown]] after the Shah's death. Others joined the [[Mughal dynasty|Mughal emperors]] of India and became one of the most influential groups of the Mughal court until the [[British Raj|British conquest of India]].{{citation needed|date=October 2016}}

==Legacy==
[[File:Afghan_lady_in_Kabul.jpg|thumb|[[Afghan Qizilbash]] lady in Kabul]]

===Afghanistan===
Qizilbash in [[Afghanistan]] primarily live in urban areas, such as [[Kabul]], [[Kandahar]] or [[Herat]]. Some of them are descendants of the troops left behind by [[Nadir Shah]].<ref name="af-mil-his-ale-124">5. The Rise of Afghanistan, page 124 // [https://books.google.com/books?id=8BVIKsDbdKYC&q=qizilbash+afghanistan Afghanistan: A Military History from Alexander the Great to the War Against the Taliban]. Author: [[Stephen Tanner]]. First published in 2002 by Da Capo Press; (revised edition) reprinted in 2009. [[Philadelphia]]: [[Da Capo Press]], 2009, 375 pages. {{ISBN|9780306818264}} {{pull quote|The Qizilbash, or "Red Heads," were Turkic warriors-turned-Persian who had arrived in Afghanistan in numbers after Nadir Shah's and other Persian debacles.}}</ref><ref>The Dictionary. — N. — Nadir Shah Afshar, page 305 – 306. // [https://books.google.com/books?id=AAHna6aqtX4C&q=qizilbash+afghanistan Historical Dictionary of Afghanistan]. Fourth edition. Author: Ludwig W. Adamec. [[Lanham, Maryland|Lanham]]: Scarecrow Press, 2012, XCV+569 pages. {{ISBN|9780810878150}} {{pull quote|Some of Nadir's Qizilbash soldiers settled in Afghanistan where their descendants had successful careers in the army (until the end of Dost Muhammad's rule), government, the trades, and crafts.}}</ref> Others however were brought to the country during the [[Durrani Empire|Durrani rule]],<ref>{{Cite book|last=Noelle-Karimi|first=Christine|url=|title=The Interaction Between State and Tribe in Nineteenth-century Afghanistan: The Reign of Amir Dost Muhammad Khan (1826-1863)|date=1995|publisher=University of California, Berkeley|language=en}}</ref> [[Zaman Shah Durrani]] had over 100,000 cavalry, consisting mostly of Qizilbash<ref>{{Cite book|last=Noelle|first=Christine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ylTi-e2C_0IC&q=Zaman+Shah+cavalry+Qizilbash&pg=PA26|title=State and Tribe in Nineteenth-Century Afghanistan: The Reign of Amir Dost Muhammad Khan (1826-1863)|date=25 June 2012|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-60317-4|language=en|quote=According to Husaini, the "gholam Khana" furnished 15,000 out of Shah Zaman's total cavalry of 100,000 and consisted mostly of Qizilbash. Burnes reports that the Qizilbash retained a great degree of their autonomous organization and only pledged direct allegiance to their individual khans, who were in turn answerable to the king. This statement is borne out by the fact that the command of the entire bodyguard rested with the Qizilbash leader Mahmud Khan Bayat during 'Timur Shah's time. Up to Shah Zaman's reign the Khorasani contingents were listed according to tribal allegiance.}}</ref> Afghanistan's Qizilbash held important posts in government offices in the past, and today engage in trade or are craftsmen. Since the creation of [[Afghanistan]], they constitute an important and politically influential element of society. Estimates of their population vary from 30,000 to 200,000.<ref name="Countries and Their Cultures : Qizilbash">[http://www.everyculture.com/Africa-Middle-East/Qizilbash.html Countries and Their Cultures: Qizilbash]:..Obtaining accurate population figures for the Qizilbash in Afghanistan and Pakistan is virtually impossible because they claim to be Sunni, Tajik, Farsiwan, or Pashtun, or they identify themselves according to their place of origin in India. Population estimates for Afghanistan range from 30,000 to 200,000, but some suggest the figure is closer to one million. The story is similar in Pakistan. Few influential Qizilbash live in Iran, their original home...</ref><ref>Social Structure. — Ethnic Groups, page 104. // [https://books.google.com/books?id=X0CLyC39MEgC&q=qizilbash+afghanistan Afghanistan: A Country Study]. Editors: Richard F. Nyrop, Donald M. Seekins. [[Baton Rouge, Louisiana|Baton Rouge]]: Claitor's Law Books and Publishing Division, 2001, 226 pages. {{ISBN|9781579807443}}{{pull quote|In 1996, approximately 40 percent of Afghans were Pashtun, 11.4 of whom are of the Durrani tribal group and 13.8 percent of the Ghilzai group. Tajiks make up the second-largest ethnic group with 25.3 percent of the population, followed by Hazaras, 18 percent; Uzbeks, 6.3 percent; Turkmen, 2.5 percent; Qizilbash, 1.0; 6.9 percent other. The usual caveat regarding statistics is particularly appropriate here.}}</ref>

Sir [[Mountstuart Elphinstone]] described the Qizilbash of Kabul in the beginning of the 19th century as ''"a colony of Turks,"'' who spoke ''"Persian, and among themselves Turkish."''<ref>Mountstuart Elphinstone, An Account of the Kingdom of Caubul, pp. 320–321</ref> Described as learned, affluent, and influential, they appear to have abandoned their native Turkish language in favour of Persian, and became ''"in fact Persianized Turks"''.<ref>[[Henry Yule]], "[[Hobson-Jobson]]", London, 1886, p. 380</ref> Lady [[Florentia Sale]] (wife of Sir [[Robert Henry Sale]]) and [[Vincent Eyre]] – both companions of Sir Mountstuart Elphinstone – described the Qizilbash of Afghanistan also as ''"Persians, of Persian descent, or descendant of the Persians, wearing a red cap"''.<ref>Lady Sale, "A Journal of the Disasters in Afghanistan 1841–42", [[London]], Murray 1843, p. IX</ref><ref>Vincent Eyre, "The Military Operations at Cabul", London, Murray, MDCCCXLIII, p. XXXI.</ref>

The influence of the Qizilbash in the government created resentment among the ruling [[Pushtuns|Pashtun]] clans, especially after the Qizilbash openly allied themselves with the British during the [[First Anglo-Afghan War]] (1839–1842). During [[Abdur Rahman Khan]]'s massacre of the Shi'i minorities in Afghanistan, the Qizilbash were declared "''enemies of the state''{{-"}} and were persecuted and hunted by the government and by the [[Sunni]] majority.<ref>''U.S. [[Library of Congress]]'', "Afghanistan: The society and its environment", index s.v. ''Qizilbash'', ([http://countrystudies.us/afghanistan/50.htm Link])</ref>

The [[National anthem of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan|former national anthem]] (2006-2021) of Afghanistan mentioned Qizilbash as an ethnic group in the third line of third stanza.

=== Diyabakir-Southeast Anatolia ===
The ''[[Diyarbekir vilayet|Vilayet of Diyarbekir]]'' — an administrative division of the [[Ottoman Empire]] encompassing parts of modern-day Diyarbakır, Mardin, Elazığ, and sometimes Şanlıurfa — was historically home to numerous Turkmen tribes affiliated with the Qizilbash movement from the 15th century onward. These tribes, often stemming from the [[Qara Qoyunlu]] and [[Aq Qoyunlu]] confederations, were among the first to align with the religious and political ideals of the early Safavids in their conflict with the Ottomans. After the pivotal [[Battle of Chaldiran]] (1514), which marked the Safavids’ defeat at the hands of the Ottomans, many Qizilbash tribes were forcibly relocated, marginalized, or subjected to repression. Those who remained in the southeast — particularly in the mountainous areas of Diyarbakır, Mardin, Siverek, Tunceli, and Elazığ — developed a unique form of heterodox [[Shia Islam|Shi’a]] Islam. This belief system blended elements of popular Safavid spirituality, Turkish Sufism (notably Bektashism), and various pre-Islamic or syncretic practices.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Azad |first=Md. Abul Kalam |date=31 January 2023 |title=The Battle of Chaldiran: Causes and Consequences |url=https://doi.org/10.62296/afj20221217001 |journal=The Arts Faculty Journal |volume=12 |issue=17 |pages=1–28 |doi=10.62296/afj20221217001|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Linguistically, these communities spoke an eastern Oghuz dialect heavily influenced by Azerbaijani Turkish — often referred to as an “Azeroid” or [[Ajem-Turkic|''Agamic'' Turkish]]. This dialect was notably distinct from the standardized Ottoman Turkish spoken by the urban elite or used in state administration. It shared phonetic and lexical features with the Shi’a [[Turkmens|Turkmen]] dialects of Iraq and the northwestern regions of [[Iran]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Samedova |first=Konul |date=2020 |title=Vowel transitions in the Northern dialect of North accent of the Azerbaijani language and "kipchak" language elements in them |journal=Turkic Studies Journal |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=53–63 |doi=10.32523/2664-5157-2020-2-2-52 |issn=2664-5157|doi-access=free }}</ref>
Today, while assimilation and the dominance of standard Turkish have taken hold, certain Alevi villages in Diyarbakır, Mardin, Şanlıurfa, and Elazığ still retain a memory of this dialect. Transmitted orally, it carries a rich poetic and musical tradition linked to the [[Seven Great Poets|seven great aşık]] or [[ozan]] figures of Alevi-Qizilbash culture — among them [[Pir Sultan Abdal]], [[Ismail I|Şah Hatayi]] (Shah Ismail), and [[Kul Himmet]]. Over the centuries, especially from the late Ottoman period into the Republican era, many of these Qizilbash-Alevi communities gradually experienced cultural and linguistic assimilation. Faced with political marginalization, religious discrimination, and economic pressure — particularly from dominant Sunni Kurdish and Turkish populations — several [[Alevism|Alevi]] villages either adopted the majority language or integrated into broader ethnic and national identities. This process intensified following migrations in the 19th and 20th centuries, as many families moved northward to join other Alevi communities in Erzincan, Erzurum, or Sivas, while others settled in urban centers. As a result, the distinct Azeroid-Turkmen dialects and customs of [[Southeastern Anatolia region|southeastern Anatolia]] have declined in daily usage, though traces persist in oral literature, religious practice, and family memory.<ref>{{Citation |title=Editor's Preface: Being an Alevi, Living Aleviness, Learning Alevism |date=31 December 2010 |work=Alevis and Alevism |pages=7–9 |url=https://doi.org/10.31826/9781463225728-001 |access-date=13 April 2025 |publisher=Gorgias Press|doi=10.31826/9781463225728-001 |isbn=978-1-4632-2572-8 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

=== Iran ===
[[File:Qizilbash horseman in 1666, according to the travels of Chardin, Jean (1643-1713).jpg|thumb|In [[Jean Chardin]]'s book, 1666.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Chardin |first1=Jean (1643-1713) |title=Voyages de Monsieur le chevalier Chardin en Perse et autres lieux de l'Orient.... Tome 2 |date=1711 |page=Plate XXIX |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gal_ark_12148_bpt6k1050392t/page/n155/mode/1up?q=XXiX |language=French}}</ref>]]
Following [[Shah Abbas I|Shah Abbas]]'s gradual replacement of the Qizilbash in the Safavid military and administrative ranks, and the persecution they faced at the hands of his and [[Safi of Persia|Shah Safi]]'s policies, the Qizilbash started to turn and rebel against the Safavids. This then led to the empire adopting more classical Twelver beliefs and cooperating with Shi'i scholars in combatting Qizilbash doctrines, eventually causing their decline in favour of a more orthodox interpretation of Twelver Shi'ism.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Arjomand |first=Said Amir |date=1994 |title=Introduction: Religion and Statecraft in Pre-Modern Iran |journal=Iranian Studies |volume=27 |issue=1/4 |pages=5–8 |doi=10.1080/00210869408701817 |jstor=4310883 |issn=0021-0862|doi-access=free }}</ref>

===Bulgaria, Greece and Romania===
A strip of land from [[Babadag]] in Romania until [[Dimetoka]] in Greece is the land of Qizilbash nowadays. This strip includes a part of eastern Bulgaria.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Canbakal |first1=Hülya |title=The Ottoman State and Descendants of the Prophet in Anatolia and the Balkans (c. 1500-1700) |journal=Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient |date=November 2009 |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=542–578 |doi=10.1163/156852009X458241 |jstor=25651184 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25651184 |access-date=6 May 2023|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
Most of the Qizilbash settled in [[Dobruja]] in large numbers, either voluntarily or by being deported there from Anatolia by the Ottoman authorities between the 15th and 17th centuries.<ref name=eminov /> Qizilbash communities are also present in [[Ludogorie]] (Deliorman).<ref name=deliorman>{{cite book|title=Islam in the Balkans: Religion and Society Between Europe and the Arab World|author=H. T. Norris|year=1993|page=98}}</ref><ref>{{TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/kizilbas|title=KIZILBAŞ|author=İlyas Üzüm}}</ref>

The Qizilbash conceal their real identity, outwardly professing to be orthodox Sunnis to their Turkish or Bulgarian neighbours, or alternatively claim to be [[Bektashi Order|Bektashis]], depending who is addressing them.<ref name=deliorman /> According to the 1992 census, there were 85,773 Shiites in Bulgaria.<ref name=eminov>Eminov, A. (2000). Turks and Tatars in Bulgaria and the Balkans. Nationalities Papers, 28(1), 129-164.</ref>

===Syria/Lebanon===
Between the late seventeenth century and 1822, the term "Qizilbash" was also used in Ottoman administrative documents to identify Twelver (Imami) Shiites in what is today Lebanon. The Ottomans were aware they had no link to the Anatolian or Iranian Qizilbash, employing the term only as a means to delegitimize them or justify punitive campaigns against them. In the early eighteenth century, a part of northern Lebanon is even described as the "Kızılbaş mukataa" tax district.<ref>Stefan Winter, "The Kızılbaş of Syria and Ottoman Shiism" in Christine Woodhead, ed., The Ottoman World (London: Routledge, 2012), 171–183.</ref>

===Turkey===
{{Further|Alevism}}

In Turkey, there is a community of so-called ''Alevis'', which were formed out of Qizilbash groups in Anatolia in the 16<small>th</small> century.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yıldırım |first1=Rıza |title=The Safavid-Qizilbash Ecumene and the Formation of the Qizilbash-Alevi Community in the Ottoman Empire, c. 1500–c. 1700 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/iranian-studies/article/abs/safavidqizilbash-ecumene-and-the-formation-of-the-qizilbashalevi-community-in-the-ottoman-empire-c-1500c-1700/23E2C81B4BAD0DFAAADD54A25EEB5896 |journal=Iranian Studies |year=2019 |volume=52 |issue=3–4 |pages=449–483 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1080/00210862.2019.1646120 |hdl=11693/53335 |s2cid=204476564 |access-date=5 May 2023|hdl-access=free |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Historically, however, it wouldn't be appropriate to use the term ''Alevi'' to describe these groups, seeing as it was originally used for descendants of Ali, the fourth [[Rashidun]] Caliph.<ref name="Melikoff">{{cite book |last1=Mélikoff |first1=Irène |title=Sur les traces du soufisme turc: Recherches sur l'Islam populaire en Anatolie |date=2011 |publisher=Gorgias Press |location=Piscataway, NJ, USA |page=35 |doi=10.31826/9781463233389-004 |url=https://doi.org/10.31826/9781463233389-004|access-date=17 May 2023}}</ref> In the 19<small>th</small> century, the term was also used in Turkey to refer to the Qizilbash, who were seen as heretics by the Sunni majority.<ref name="Melikoff" /> Alevism in Turkey is present among the Turkish, Kurdish, as well as the [[Zazas|Zaza]] population. Yet, despite speaking Kurdish and Zaza natively, many of the Alevi tribes still use Turkish as a liturgical language.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |url=https://brill.com/view/title/469 |title=Syncretistic Religious Communities in the Near East: Collected Papers of the International Symposium "Alevism in Turkey and Comparable Syncretistic Religious Communities in the Near East in the Past and Present", Berlin, 14-17 April 1995 |date=1 January 1997 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-37898-8 |editor-last=Kehl-Bodrogi |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1163/9789004378988 |editor-last2=Otter-Beaujean |editor-last3=Kellner-Heikele |editor-first3=Barbara}}</ref> The Kurdish Alevis are known locally by the term ''Kızılbaş'', associating them with the Qizilbash in the Safavid dynasty, although their exact origins are unclear and subject to debate.<ref name=":0" /> Among Bektashis, ''Kızılbaş'' is used to refer to groups that are not initiated into the Bektashi order but have similar beliefs. These groups are looked down upon by initiated members of the tariqa.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Birge |first=John Kingsley |title=The Bektashi Order of Dervishes |publisher=Luzac & Co |year=1965 |location=London |pages=64}}</ref>

In the second half of the 19<small>th</small> century, a Western interest in the origins and political orientations of the Qizilbash sparked,<ref name="Academic">{{cite book |last1=Dressler |first1=Markus |title=Writing Religion: The Making of Turkish Alevi Islam |date=7 June 2013 |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=31–77 |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199969401.003.0002 |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199969401.003.0002 |access-date=17 May 2023}}</ref> resulting in them becoming the target of Western missionaries, who believed that they held Christian views about Jesus. The Qizilbash weren't hostile towards these missionaries and, according to missionary reports, some were willing to listen to their message.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Karakaya-Stump |first1=Ayfer |title=Archaeology, Anthropology and Heritage in the Balkans and Anatolia |date=2010 |publisher=Gorgias Press |pages=333–338 |doi=10.31826/9781463225421-014 |url=https://doi.org/10.31826/9781463225421-014 |access-date=18 May 2023}}</ref> In turn, the Ottoman authorities responded by making more efforts to classify the Qizilbash as Muslims, though the Qizilbash did not always accept these efforts, such that they would openly decline them at times. Despite such adversarial interactions, a clear picture of how these groups perceived their relations with the Ottoman government or the Western missionaries has not yet been established.<ref name="Academic" /> Hans-Lukas Kieser talks about an "Alevi renaissance" which, according to him, took place in the [[Tanzimat]] period, as well as later, after the [[Young Turk Revolution]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kieser |first1=Hans-Lukas |title=Altruism and Imperialism: Western Cultural and Religious Missions in the Middle East |date=2002 |publisher=Middle East Institute, Columbia University |location=New York |page=136 |isbn=097212313X }}</ref> There are some doubts, though, whether this term is appropriate, due to the scarcity of sources and the diversity of the various Qizilbash-groups.<ref name="Academic" />
{{Blockquote|It has been reported that, among the Ottoman Turks, ''kızılbaş'' has become something of a derogatory term and can be applied to groups that aren't necessarily associated with the Kazilbash of Central Asia. The Bektaşi in Turkey are often referred to as ''Kızılbaşi''.<ref>[[John Winter Crowfoot]], "Survivals among the Kappadokian Kizilbash (Bektash)", ''Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland'', 30., 1900, pp. 305–20</ref>}}

==See also==
{{Shia Islam|Branches}}
* [[Aleviler]]
* [[Bektashism and folk religion]]
* [[Afghan Qizilbash]]
* [[Mirza Kalich Beg]]
* [[Alawites]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=Note}}

==Citations==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==General sources==
* Yves Bomati and Houchang Nahavandi,''Shah Abbas, Emperor of Persia,1587–1629'', 2017, ed. Ketab Corporation, Los Angeles, {{ISBN|978-1595845672}}, English translation by Azizeh Azodi.
* {{cite book |last1=Amanat|first1=Abbas|author1-link=Abbas Amanat |title=Iran: A Modern History|date=2017 |publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0300112542}}
* {{cite book|last1=Aslanian|first1=Sebouh|title=From the Indian Ocean to the Mediterranean: The Global Trade Networks of Armenian Merchants from New Julfa|date=2011|publisher=University of California Press|location=California|isbn=978-0520947573}}
* {{cite book|last1=Blow|first1=David|title=Shah Abbas: The Ruthless King Who Became an Iranian Legend|date=2009|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=978-0857716767}}
* {{cite book|last1=Bournoutian|first1=George|author-link1=George Bournoutian|title=A Concise History of the Armenian People: (from Ancient Times to the Present)|date=2002|publisher=Mazda Publishers|isbn=978-1568591414|page=[https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00geor/page/208 208]|edition=2|url=https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00geor/page/208}}
* {{cite book|last1=Floor|first1=Willem|last2=Herzig|first2=Edmund|title=Iran and the World in the Safavid Age|date=2012|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=978-1850439301}}
* {{cite book |title= Persianate Selves: Memories of Place and Origin Before Nationalism |first=Mana |last=Kia|publisher=Stanford University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gufeDwAAQBAJ|year=2020|isbn=978-1503611955}}
* {{cite book|last1=Mikaberidze|first1=Alexander|title=Historical Dictionary of Georgia|date=2015|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-1442241466|edition=2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JNNQCgAAQBAJ&q=sakhltukhutsesi}}
* {{cite book|last1=Rothman|first1=E. Nathalie|title=Brokering Empire: Trans-Imperial Subjects between Venice and Istanbul|date=2015|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=978-0801463129}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title = Esmāʿīl Ṣafawī | last1 = Savory | first1 = Roger M. | last2= Karamustafa |first2= Ahmet T. | url = https://iranicaonline.org/articles/esmail-i-safawi | encyclopedia = Encyclopædia Iranica, online edition, Vol. III, Fasc. 5 | pages = 514–522 | location = New York | year = 1998 }}

==Further reading==
* {{cite journal |last1=Aldous |first1=Gregory |title=The Qizilbāsh and their Shah: The Preservation of Royal Prerogative during the Early Reign of Shah Ṭahmāsp |journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society |date=2021 |volume=31 |issue=4 |pages=743–758 |doi=10.1017/S1356186321000250|s2cid=236547130 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Baltacıoğlu-Brammer |first1=Ayşe |editor1-last=Erginbaş |editor1-first=Vefa |title=Ottoman Sunnism: New Perspectives |date=2019 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=9781474443319 |pages=47–70 |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/40821079 |chapter=One Word, Many Implications: The Term ‘Kızılbaş’ in the Early Modern Ottoman Context |doi=10.1515/9781474443333-006}}
* {{cite book |last1=Baltacıoğlu-Brammer |first1=Ayşe |editor1-last=Krstić |editor1-first=Tijana |editor2-last=Terzioğlu |editor2-first=Derin |title=Historicizing Sunni Islam in the Ottoman Empire, c. 1450–c. 1750|url=https://brill.com/display/title/58970 |date=2020 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-9004440296 |pages=423–450 |chapter=Neither Victim Nor Accomplice: The Kızılbaş as Borderland Actors in the Early Modern Ottoman Realm|chapter-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/379183975|doi=10.1163/9789004440296_013}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Bashir |first1=Shahzad |title=The Origins and Rhetorical Evolution of the Term Qizilbāsh in Persianate Literature |journal=Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient |url=https://www.academia.edu/7543051|date=2014 |volume=57 |issue=3 |pages=364–391|doi=10.1163/15685209-12341352 }}
* {{cite journal |last1= Kondo |first1=Nobuaki|title=Qizilbash Afterwards: The Afshars in Urmiya from the Seventeenth to the Nineteenth Century |url=https://www.academia.edu/5894257|journal=Iranian Studies |publisher=Cambridge University Press|date=1999  |volume=32 |issue=4  |pages=537–556|doi=10.1080/00210869908701968 }}

{{Safavids}}
{{Islamic Theology|schools|state=collapsed}}
{{Islam topics|state=collapsed}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:15th century in Iran]]
[[Category:Late Medieval Anatolia]]
[[Category:Islam-related slurs]]
[[Category:Medieval Azerbaijan (Iran)]]
[[Category:Military history of Safavid Iran]]
[[Category:Rebels by type]]
[[Category:Shia communities]]
[[Category:Turkic words and phrases]]