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{{Short description|Vital force in traditional Chinese philosophy}}
{{about|the Chinese principle|the wireless charging technology|Qi (standard)|the British comedy panel show|QI|other uses}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}
{{Infobox Chinese
| title = Qi
| pic = Qi 3 forms.jpg
| picsize = 180px
| t = {{linktext|氣}}
| s = {{linktext|气}}
| mc = khj+jH
| oc-bs = *{{IPA|C.qʰəp-s}}
| p = qì
| w = ch'i<sup>4</sup>
| gr = chih
| mi = {{IPAc-cmn|q|i|4}}
| bpmf = ㄑㄧˋ
| j = hei3
| y = hei
| ci = {{IPAc-yue|h|ei|3}}
| phfs = hi
| wuu = {{sup|5}}chi
| poj = khì
| hn = 氣
| buc = ké
| kanji = 気
| romaji = ki
| rr = gi
| mr = ki
| hangul = 기
| hanja = 氣
| qn = khí
| mon = хий
| mong = {{MongolUnicode|ᠬᠡᠢ}}
| monr = khii
| rtgs = lompran
| my = အသက်
| bi = /ă.t̪ɛʔ/
| tha = ลมปราณ
| lao = ຊີວິດ
| khm = ឈី
| tgl = gi
| msa = chi (چي)
| ind = chi
| tet = qi
| tp = cì
}}
{{Chinese folk religion}}
{{Taoism}}
{{Alternative medicine sidebar|traditional}}
{{Paranormal}}
In the [[Sinosphere]] and [[Chinese philosophy]], '''qi''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|tʃ|iː}} {{respell|CHEE}}; {{zh|t=氣|s=气|p=qì}}){{refn|group=note|Also '''ch'i''' ([[Wade–Giles]]),<ref>{{cite web |title=Qi |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/qi-Chinese-philosophy |website=Encyclopedia Britannica|date=22 August 2023}}</ref> or '''''chi'''''}} is a [[vital force]] traditionally believed to be a part of all living entities. Literally meaning 'vapor', 'air', 'gas', or 'breath',<ref>"Vapor": {{harvnb|Cheng|2003|p=615}}; 'air': {{harvnb|Cheng|2003|p=615}}; 'breath': {{harvnb|Barrett|1991|p=296}}, {{harvnb|Lloyd|Zhao|Dong|2018|pp=92, 138}}.</ref> the word ''qi'' is [[polysemous]], often translated as 'vital energy', 'vital force', 'material energy', or simply 'energy'.<ref>'Vital energy': {{harvnb|Lloyd|Sivin|2002|p=9}}, {{harvnb|Cheng|2003|p=615}}, {{harvnb|Liu|2015|pp=258, 267, 270, 349, 402, 474}}, {{harvnb|Wang|Bao|Guan|2020}}; 'vital force': {{harvnb|Cheng|2003|p=615}}, {{harvnb|Liu|2015|pp=205, 216, 422, 485}}; 'material energy': {{harvnb|Perkins|2013|p=404}}; 'energy': {{harvnb|Lloyd|Zhao|Dong|2018|pp=13, 138}}.</ref> Qi is also a concept in [[traditional Chinese medicine]] and in [[Chinese martial arts]]. The attempt to [[Self-cultivation|cultivate]] and balance qi is called ''[[qigong]]''.

Believers in qi describe it as a vital force, with one's good health requiring its flow to be unimpeded. Originally prescientific, today it is a [[Pseudoscience|pseudoscientific]] concept,<ref name="TCM_CSI_2" /><ref name=Lee_SR>{{cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=M. S.|last2=Pittler|first2=M. H.|last3=Ernst|first3=E.|title=Effects of reiki in clinical practice: a systematic review of randomised clinical trials|journal=International Journal of Clinical Practice|date=1 June 2008|volume=62|issue=6|pages=947–954|doi=10.1111/j.1742-1241.2008.01729.x|pmid=18410352|s2cid=25832830|issn=1742-1241|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Dunning">{{Skeptoid|id=4411|number=411|title=Your Body's Alleged Energy Fields|access-date=3 September 2016}}</ref> i.e. not corresponding to the concept of energy as used in the physical sciences.<ref name="acu_SA_2005">{{Cite journal
  | title      = Full of Holes: the curious case of acupuncture
  | journal    = Scientific American
  | date       = July 2005
  | first      = Michael
  | last       = Shermer
  | author-link = Michael Shermer
  | volume     = 293
  | issue      = 2
  | page       = 30
  | doi        = 10.1038/scientificamerican0805-30
| bibcode= 2005SciAm.293b..30S
  | pmid = 16053133
 }}</ref><ref name="Acu_CSI">{{Cite news
  | first       = Victor J.
  | last        = Stenger
  | title       = Reality Check: the energy fields of life
  | date        = June 1998
  | publisher   = Committee for Skeptical Inquiry
  | url         = http://www.csicop.org/sb/9806/reality-check.html
  | work        = Skeptical Briefs
  | access-date  = 25 December 2007
  | archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20071211153047/http://www.csicop.org/sb/9806/reality-check.html <!-- Bot retrieved archive -->
  | archive-date = 11 December 2007
}} "Despite complete scientific rejection, the concept of a special biological fields within living things remains deeply engraved in human thinking. It is now working its way into modern health care systems, as non-scientific alternative therapies become increasingly popular. From acupuncture to homeopathy and therapeutic touch, the claim is made that healing can be brought about by the proper adjustment of a person's or animal's 'bioenergetic fields.{{'"}}</ref><ref name="TCM_CSI_2">{{Cite news
  | title       = Traditional Medicine and Pseudoscience in China: A Report of the Second CSICOP Delegation (Part 2)
  | url         = http://www.csicop.org/si/show/china_conference_2/
  | publisher   = CSICOP
  | access-date  = 15 February 2009
  | url-status   = dead
  | archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20091004014428/http://www.csicop.org/si/show/china_conference_2/
  | archive-date = 4 October 2009
}}</ref><ref name="Williams2003">{{cite book |last=Williams |first=Elizabeth Ann |title=A Cultural History of Medical Vitalism in Enlightenment Montpellier |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AvqYl4sdwaYC&pg=PA4 |year=2003 |publisher=Ashgate |isbn=978-0-7546-0881-3 |page=4}}</ref>

[[Chinese gods and immortals]], especially [[anthropomorphic]] gods, are sometimes thought to have qi and be a reflection of the [[Microcosm–macrocosm analogy|microcosm]] of qi in humans, both having qi that can concentrate in certain body parts.<ref name=":03">{{Cite book |last=Salamone |first=Frank A. |title=Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2004 |isbn=0-415-94180-6 |editor-last=Levinson |editor-first=David |location=New York |pages=225}}</ref>

==Linguistic aspects==
{{More citations needed section|date=January 2017}}
The cultural keyword ''qì'' is analyzable in terms of Chinese and [[Sino-Xenic pronunciations]]. It is represented by the [[logograph]]s {{lang|zh|氣}}, {{lang|zh|气}}, and {{lang|zh|気}} with various meanings ranging from "vapor" to "anger", and is the source of the English [[loanword]] qi or ch'i.

===Pronunciation and etymology===
The logograph {{lang|zh|氣}} is read with two Chinese pronunciations: the usual ''qì'' {{lang|zh|氣}} "air; vital energy" and the rare archaic ''xì'' {{lang|zh|氣}} "to present food" (later disambiguated with {{lang|zh|餼}}). [[Hackett Publishing Company]], [[Philip J. Ivanhoe]], and [[Bryan W. Van Norden]] theorize that the word qi possibly came from a term that referred to "the mist that arose from heated sacrificial offerings".<ref name=":12">{{Cite book |last1=Ivanhoe |first1=Philip J. |title=Readings in Classical Chinese Philosophy |last2=Van Norden |first2=Bryan W. |publisher=[[Hackett Publishing Company]] |year=2005 |isbn=0-87220-781-1 |edition=2nd |location=Indianapolis |pages=391 |oclc=60826646 |author-link=Philip J. Ivanhoe |author-link2=Bryan W. Van Norden}}</ref>

Pronunciations of {{lang|zh|氣}} in modern [[varieties of Chinese]] with standardized [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] equivalents include: [[Standard Chinese]] ''qì'' {{IPA|/t͡ɕʰi˥˩/}}, [[Wu Chinese]] qi {{IPA|/t͡ɕʰi˧˦/}}, [[Southern Min]] ''khì'' {{IPA|/kʰi˨˩/}}, [[Eastern Min]] ''ké'' {{IPA|/kʰɛi˨˩˧/}}, [[Standard Cantonese]] ''hei<sup>3</sup>'' {{IPA|/hei̯˧/}}, and [[Hakka Chinese]] ''hi'' {{IPA|/hi˥/}}.

Pronunciations of {{lang|zh|氣}} in Sino-Xenic borrowings include: [[Japanese language|Japanese]] ''ki'', [[Korean language|Korean]] ''gi'', and [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] ''khí.''

Reconstructions of the [[Middle Chinese]] pronunciation of {{lang|zh|氣}} standardized to IPA transcription include: /kʰe̯i<sup>H</sup>/ ([[Bernard Karlgren]]), /kʰĭəi<sup>H</sup>/ ([[Wang Li (linguist)|Wang Li]]), /kʰiəi<sup>H</sup>/ ([[Li Rong (linguist)|Li Rong]]), /kʰɨj<sup>H</sup>/ ([[Edwin Pulleyblank]]), and /kʰɨi<sup>H</sup>/ ([[Zhengzhang Shangfang]]).

Axel Schuessler's reconstruction of the [[Eastern Han Chinese|Later Han Chinese]] pronunciation of {{lang|zh|氣}} is /kɨs/.<ref name=Schuessler2006 />

Reconstructions of the [[Old Chinese]] pronunciation of {{lang|zh|氣}} standardized to IPA transcription include: */kʰɯds/ (Zhengzhang Shangfang), */C.qʰəp-s/ ([[William H. Baxter]] and [[Laurent Sagart]]), and */kə(t)s/ (Axel Schuessler<ref name=Schuessler2006 />).

The etymology of ''qì'' interconnects with [[Kharia language|Kharia]] ''kʰis'' "anger", [[Sora language|Sora]] ''kissa'' "move with great effort", [[Khmer language|Khmer]] ''kʰɛs'' "strive after; endeavor", and [[Gyalrongic languages|Gyalrongic]] ''kʰɐs'' "anger".<ref name=Schuessler2006>{{cite book|last1=Schuessler|first1=Axel|title=ABC Etymological Dictionary of Old Chinese|date=2006|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|location=Honolulu|isbn=9780824829759|page=423|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nIvqAC7FNBQC|access-date=5 January 2017|language=en}}</ref>

===Characters===
In the [[East Asian languages]], ''qì'' has three logographs:
*{{linktext|lang=zh|氣}} is the [[Traditional Chinese characters|traditional Chinese character]], Korean ''[[hanja]]'', and Japanese ''[[kyūjitai]]'' ("old character form") ''[[kanji]]''
*{{linktext|lang=zh|気}} is the Japanese ''[[shinjitai]]'' ("new character form") ''kanji''
*{{linktext|lang=zh|气}} is the [[simplified Chinese character]].
In addition, ''qì'' {{linktext|lang=zh|炁}} is an uncommon character especially used in writing [[Fulu|Daoist talismans]]. Historically, the word ''qì'' was generally written as {{lang|zh|气}} until the [[Han dynasty]] (206 BCE–220 CE), when it was replaced by the {{lang|zh|氣}} graph clarified with ''mǐ'' {{linktext|lang=zh|米}} "rice" indicating "steam (rising from rice as it cooks.)" and depicting the Traditional Chinese view of the transformative, changeable nature of existence and the universe.

This primary logograph {{lang|zh|气}}, the earliest written character for ''qì,'' consisted of three wavy horizontal lines seen in [[Shang dynasty]] (c. 1600–1046 BCE) [[oracle bone script]], [[Zhou dynasty]] (1046–256 BCE) [[Chinese bronze inscriptions|bronzeware script]] and [[large seal script]], and [[Qin dynasty]] (221–206 BCE) [[small seal script]]. These oracle, bronze, and seal scripts logographs {{lang|zh|气}} were used in ancient times as a [[phonetic loan character]] to write ''qǐ'' {{lang|zh|乞}} "plead for; beg; ask" which did not have an early character.

The vast majority of Chinese characters are classified as [[Phono-semantic compound|radical-phonetic characters]]. Such characters combine a semantically suggestive "[[radical (Chinese character)|radical characters]]" with a phonetic element approximating ancient pronunciation. For example, the widely known word ''dào'' {{linktext|lang=zh|道}} "the [[Tao|Dao]]; the way" graphically combines the [[Radical 162|"walk" radical]] {{lang|zh|辶}} with a ''shǒu'' {{lang|zh|首}} "head" phonetic. Although the modern ''dào'' and ''shǒu'' pronunciations are dissimilar, the [[Old Chinese]] ''*lˤuʔ-s'' {{lang|zh|道}} and ''*l̥uʔ-s'' {{lang|zh|首}} were alike. The [[regular script]] character ''qì'' {{linktext|lang=zh|氣}} is unusual because ''qì'' {{linktext|lang=zh|气}} is both the [[Radical 84|"air radical"]] and the phonetic, with ''mǐ'' {{lang|zh|米}} "rice" semantically indicating "steam; vapor".

This ''qì'' {{lang|zh|气}} "air/gas radical" was only used in a few native Chinese characters like ''yīnyūn'' {{lang|zh|氤氲}} "thick mist/smoke", but was also used to create new scientific [[Chemical elements in East Asian languages#Chinese|characters for gaseous chemical elements]]. Some examples are based on pronunciations in European languages: ''fú'' {{lang|zh|氟}} (with a ''fú'' {{lang|zh|弗}} phonetic) "[[fluorine]]" and ''nǎi'' {{lang|zh|氖}} (with a ''nǎi'' {{lang|zh|乃}} phonetic) "[[neon]]". Others are based on semantics: ''qīng'' {{lang|zh|氫}} (with a ''jīng'' {{lang|zh|巠}} phonetic, abbreviating ''qīng'' {{lang|zh|輕}} "light-weight") "[[hydrogen]] (the lightest element)" and ''lǜ'' {{lang|zh|氯}} (with a ''lù'' {{lang|zh|彔}} phonetic, abbreviating ''lǜ'' {{lang|zh|綠}} "green") "(greenish-yellow) [[chlorine]]".

''Qì'' {{lang|zh|氣}} is the phonetic element in a few characters such as ''kài'' {{lang|zh|愾}} "hate" with the [[Radical 61|"heart-mind radical"]] {{lang|zh|忄}}or {{lang|zh|心}}, ''xì'' {{lang|zh|熂}} "set fire to weeds" with the [[Radical 86|"fire radical"]] {{lang|zh|火}}, and ''xì'' {{lang|zh|餼}} "to present food" with the [[Radical 184|"food radical"]] {{lang|zh|食}}.

The first Chinese dictionary of characters, the ''[[Shuowen Jiezi]]''(121 CE) notes that the primary ''qì'' {{lang|zh|气}} is a [[Chinese character classification#Pictograms|pictographic character]] depicting {{lang|zh|雲气}} "cloudy vapors", and that the full {{lang|zh|氣}} combines {{lang|zh|米}} "rice" with the phonetic qi {{lang|zh|气}}, meaning {{lang|zh|饋客芻米}} "present provisions to guests" (later disambiguated as ''xì'' {{lang|zh|餼}}).

<gallery>
File:气-oracle.svg|[[Oracle bone script]] for ''qì'' depicting [[Three Treasures (traditional Chinese medicine)|the classical three treasures of Chinese philosophy]] 
File:气-bronze.svg|[[Chinese bronze inscriptions|Bronzeware script]] for ''qì'' 
File:气-bigseal.svg|[[Large seal script]] for ''qì'' 
File:气-seal.svg|[[Small seal script]] for ''qì'', simplified Chinese character {{lang|zh|气}} is based on it.
File:ki obsolete.svg|[[Traditional Chinese]] character {{lang|zh|氣}} ''qì'', also used in Korean [[hanja]]. In Japanese [[kanji]], it was used until 1946 when [[Tōyō kanji|it was simplified]] to {{lang|ja|気}}.
</gallery>

===Meanings===
Qi is a polysemous word. The unabridged Chinese-Chinese character dictionary ''[[Hanyu Da Cidian]]'' defines it as "present food or provisions" for the ''xì'' pronunciation but also lists 23 meanings for the ''qì'' pronunciation.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Mair|first1=Victor H.|title=An Alphabetical Index to the Hanyu Da Cidian|date=2003|publisher=University of Hawai'i Press|location=Honolulu, Hawaii|isbn=978-0824828165|page=2011}}</ref> The modern ''ABC Chinese-English Comprehensive Dictionary,'' which enters ''xì'' {{lang|zh|餼}} "grain; animal feed; make a present of food", and a ''qì'' {{lang|zh|氣}} entry with seven translation equivalents for the noun, two for [[bound morphemes]], and three equivalents for the verb. <blockquote>'''n.''' ① air; gas ② smell ③ spirit; vigor; morale ④ vital/material energy (in Ch[inese] metaphysics) ⑤ tone; atmosphere; attitude ⑥ anger ⑦ breath; respiration '''b.f.''' ① weather {{lang|zh|天氣}} ''tiānqì'' ② [linguistics] aspiration {{lang|zh|送氣}} ''sòngqì'' '''v.''' ① anger ② get angry ③ bully; insult.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Defrancis|first1=John|last2=Yuqing|first2=Bai|title=ABC Chinese-English Dictionary|date=1999|publisher=University of Hawai'i Press|location=Honolulu|isbn=978-0824821548|page=465}}</ref></blockquote>Qi was also thought of as meaning "'forces in nature'" that [[deity]] could control and [[Magic (supernatural)|magicians]] and [[occultists]] could harness.<ref name=":03" />

===English borrowing===
Qi was an early [[List of English words of Chinese origin|Chinese loanword]] in English. It was [[Romanization of Chinese|romanized]] as ''k'i'' in [[Pe̍h-ōe-jī|Church Romanization]] in the early-19th century, as ch'i in [[Wade–Giles]] in the mid-19th century (sometimes misspelled ''chi'' omitting the apostrophe), and as qi in [[Pinyin]] in the mid-20th century. The ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' entry for qi gives the pronunciation as {{IPAc-en|tʃ|i}}, the etymology from Chinese ''qì'' "air; breath", and a definition of "The physical life-force postulated by certain Chinese philosophers; the material principle." It also gives eight usage examples, with the first recorded example of ''k'í'' in 1850 (''[[The Chinese Repository]]''),<ref group=note>Quoting [[Confucius]] that the ''[[Taiji (philosophy)|Taiji]]'' or "Great Extreme is the primordial substance (''k'í'') which, moving along, divided and made two ''k'í''; that which in itself has motion is the ''Yang'', and that which had rest .‥ is the ''Yin''."</ref> of ch'i in 1917 (''[[The Encyclopaedia Sinica]]''),<ref group=note>The essence of the ethical principle ''[[Li (Neo-Confucianism)|Li]]'' "is absolutely pure and good, but seeing that it is inseparable from the material element Ch'i.‥ it is from Man's birth to a greater or less extent impeded and tainted."</ref> and qi in 1971 ([[Felix Mann]]'s ''Acupuncture'')<ref group=note>"To the ancients the cornerstone of the theory of acupuncture, the concept whereby they explained its effects and action, was Qi, the energy of life."</ref>

The word qi is very frequently used in [[word game]]s—such as ''[[Scrabble]]''—due to containing a letter [[Q]] without a letter [[U]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://wordfinder.yourdictionary.com/blog/the-power-of-qi-a-scrabble-word-thatll-center-your-game/|title=The Power of Qi: A Scrabble Word That'll Center Your Game|first=Michael|last=Kwan|date=June 2, 2022|access-date=July 9, 2022}}</ref>

==Concept==
{{More citations needed section|date=September 2012}}
References to concepts analogous to qi are found in many Asian belief systems. Philosophical conceptions of qi from the earliest records of [[Chinese philosophy]] (5th century BCE) correspond to Western notions of [[humours]] and to the ancient Hindu [[yoga|yogic]] concept of ''[[prana]].'' An early form of qi comes from the writings of the Chinese philosopher [[Mencius]] (4th century BCE).

{{quotation|Within the framework of Chinese thought, no notion may attain such a degree of abstraction from empirical data as to correspond perfectly to one of our modern universal concepts. Nevertheless, the term qi comes as close as possible to constituting a generic designation equivalent to our word "energy". When Chinese thinkers are unwilling or unable to fix the quality of an energetic phenomenon, the character qi ({{lang|zh|氣}}) inevitably flows from their brushes.|Manfred Porkert<ref name="Porkert">{{cite book|last1=Porkert|first1=Manfred|title=The Theoretical Foundations of Chinese Medicine: Systems of Correspondence|date=1974|publisher=M.I.T. Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0262160582|edition=2nd|url=https://archive.org/details/theoreticalfound00pork}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=January 2017}}}}

The ancient Chinese described qi as "life force". They believed it permeated everything and linked their surroundings together. Qi was also linked to the flow of energy around and through the body, forming a cohesive functioning unit. By understanding the rhythm and flow of qi, they believed they could guide exercises and treatments to provide stability and longevity.

Although the concept has been important within many Chinese philosophies, over the centuries the descriptions of qi have varied and have sometimes been in conflict. Until China came into contact with Western scientific and philosophical ideas, the Chinese had not categorized all things in terms of matter and energy.{{Further explanation needed|date=May 2023}} Qi and ''li'' ({{lang|zh|理}}: "pattern") were 'fundamental' categories similar to matter and energy.

"In later Chinese philosophy, qi was thought of as the fundamental 'stuff' out of which everything in the universe condenses and into which it eventually dissipates."<ref name=":12" />

Fairly early on{{when|date=November 2017}}, some Chinese thinkers began to believe that there were different fractions of qi—the coarsest and heaviest fractions formed solids, lighter fractions formed liquids, and the most ethereal fractions were the "lifebreath" that animated living beings.<ref>Definitions and brief historical notes on such concepts can be found in Wei Zhengtong's "Zhong Guo Zhexue Cidian", Da Lin Publishing Company, Taipei, 1977.</ref> ''[[Yuanqi]]'' is a notion of innate or prenatal qi which is distinguished from acquired qi that a person may develop over their lifetime.

==Philosophical roots==
{{Multiple issues|section=yes|
{{More citations needed section|date=January 2017}}
{{primary sources|section|date=November 2021}}
}}
The earliest texts that speak of qi give some indications of how the concept developed. In the [[Analects]] of [[Confucius]], qi could mean "breath".<ref name="Confucius">{{cite book|last1=Legge|first1=James|title=The Analects of Confucius|date=2010|publisher=Floating Press|location=Auckland|isbn=978-1775417958}}</ref> Combining it with the Chinese word for blood (making 血氣, ''xue''–qi, blood and breath), the concept could be used to account for motivational characteristics:

{{quotation|The [morally] noble man guards himself against three things. When he is young, his ''xue''–qi has not yet stabilized, so he guards himself against sexual passion. When he reaches his prime, his ''xue''–qi is not easily subdued, so he guards himself against combativeness. When he reaches old age, his ''xue''–qi is already depleted, so he guards himself against acquisitiveness.|Confucius|Analects, 16:7}}

The philosopher [[Mozi]] used the word qi to refer to noxious vapors that would eventually arise from a corpse were it not buried at a sufficient depth. He reported that early civilized humans learned how to live in houses to protect their qi from the moisture that troubled them when they lived in caves. He also associated maintaining one's qi with providing oneself with adequate nutrition. In regard to another kind of qi, he recorded how some people performed a kind of prognostication by observing qi (clouds) in the sky.<ref name="Mozi">{{cite book|last1=Watson|first1=Burton|title=Mozi: Basic Writings|date=2003|publisher=Columbia University Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0231130011}}</ref>

[[Mencius]] described a kind of qi that might be characterized as an individual's vital energies. This qi was necessary to activity and it could be controlled by a well-integrated willpower. When properly nurtured, this qi was said to be capable of extending beyond the human body to reach throughout the universe. It could also be augmented by means of careful exercise of one's moral capacities. On the other hand, the qi of an individual could be degraded by adverse external forces that succeed in operating on that individual.<ref name="Mencius">{{cite book|last1=Lau|first1=D. C.|title=Mencius|date=2003|publisher=Chinese University Press|location=Hong Kong|isbn=978-9622018518|edition=Revised}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=March 2017}}

Living things were not the only things believed to have qi. [[Zhuangzi (book)|Zhuangzi]] indicated that wind is the qi of the Earth. Moreover, cosmic [[yin and yang]] "are the greatest of qi{{-"}}. He described qi as "issuing forth" and creating profound effects. He also said "Human beings are born [because of] the accumulation of qi. When it accumulates there is life. When it dissipates there is death... There is one qi that connects and pervades everything in the world."<ref name="Zhuangzi">{{cite book|last1=Watson|first1=Burton|title=The Complete Works of Zhuangzi|date=2013|publisher=Columbia University Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0231536509}}</ref>

The [[Guanzi (text)|Guanzi]] essay ''[[Neiye]]'' (Inward Training) is the oldest received writing on the subject of the cultivation of vapor ''[qi]'' and [[meditation]] techniques. The essay was probably composed at the Jixia Academy in Qi in the late fourth century B.C.<ref name="Cambridge">{{cite book|last1=Loewe|first1=Michael|last2=Shaughnessy|first2=Edward L.|title=The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC.|date=1999|publisher=Cambridge University Press Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=9780521470308|page=880|edition=1st|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cHA7Ey0-pbEC&q=cambridge++history+of+ancient+china|access-date=11 March 2017}}</ref>

[[Xun Zi]], another Confucian scholar of the [[Jixia Academy]], followed in later years. At 9:69/127,{{Citation needed|date=April 2023}} Xun Zi says, "Fire and water have qi but do not have life. Grasses and trees have life but do not have perceptivity. Fowl and beasts have perceptivity but do not have ''yi'' (sense of right and wrong, duty, justice). Men have qi, life, perceptivity, and ''yi''." Chinese people at such an early time had no concept of [[radiant energy]], but they were aware that one can be heated by a campfire from a distance away from the fire. They accounted for this phenomenon by claiming "qi" radiated from fire. At 18:62/122,{{Citation needed|date=April 2023}} he also uses "qi" to refer to the vital forces of the body that decline with advanced age.

Among the animals, the gibbon and the crane were considered experts at inhaling the qi. The Confucian scholar [[Dong Zhongshu]] (ca. 150 BC) wrote in [[Luxuriant Dew of the Spring and Autumn Annals]]:<ref>{{cite book|last1=Guilk|first1=Robert van|author-link=Robert van Gulik|title=The Gibbon in China: An Essay in Chinese Animal Lore|date=2015|publisher=E.J. Brill|isbn=978-7547507391|page=38}}</ref> "The gibbon resembles a macaque, but he is larger, and his color is black. His forearms being long, he lives eight hundred years, because he is expert in controlling his breathing." ("{{lang|zh|猿似猴。大而黑。長前臂。所以壽八百。好引氣也。}}")

Later, the [[syncretic]] text assembled under the direction of [[Liu An]], the [[Huainanzi|Huai Nan Zi]], or "Masters of Huainan", has a passage that presages most of what is given greater detail by the [[Neo-Confucianism|Neo-Confucians]]:

{{blockquote|Heaven (seen here as the ultimate source of all being) falls (''duo'' {{lang|zh|墮}}, i.e., descends into proto-immanence) as the formless. Fleeting, fluttering, penetrating, amorphous it is, and so it is called the Supreme Luminary. The ''dao'' begins in the Void Brightening. The Void Brightening produces the universe (''yu''–''zhou''). The universe produces qi. Qi has bounds. The clear, yang ''[qi]'' was ethereal and so formed heaven. The heavy, turbid ''[qi]'' was congealed and impeded and so formed earth. The conjunction of the clear, yang ''[qi]'' was fluid and easy. The conjunction of the heavy, turbid ''[qi]'' was strained and difficult. So heaven was formed first and earth was made fast later. The pervading essence (''xi''–''jing'') of heaven and earth becomes yin and yang. The concentrated (''zhuan'') essences of yin and yang become the four seasons. The dispersed (''san'') essences of the four seasons become the myriad creatures. The hot qi of yang in accumulating produces fire. The essence (''jing'') of the fire-qi becomes the sun. The cold qi of yin in accumulating produces water. The essence of the water-qi becomes the moon. The essences produced by coitus (yin) of the sun and moon become the stars and celestial markpoints (''chen'', planets).|Huai-nan-zi|3:1a/19}}Qi is linked to East Asian thought on [[Magic (supernatural)|magic]], and certain body parts were important to magic traditions<ref name=":03" /> such as some [[Taoism|Taoist]] sects.

==Role in traditional Chinese medicine==
The ''[[Huangdi Neijing]]'' ''(''"The Yellow Emperor's Classic of Medicine", circa 2nd century BCE) is historically credited with first establishing the pathways, called [[meridian (Chinese medicine)|meridians]], through which qi allegedly circulates in the human body.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Veith|first1=Ilza|title=Huang ti nei ching su wên = The Yellow Emperor's Classic of Medicine|date=1949|publisher=Williams and Williams|location=Baltimore|isbn=978-0520229365|edition=reissued, with a New Preface by Ken Rose; Berkeley, University of California Press, 2002 }}</ref>{{Page needed|date=January 2017}}<ref name="Lawson-Wood">{{cite book|last1=Lawson-Wood|first1=Denis|last2=Lawson-Wood|first2=Joyce|title=Acupuncture Handbook|date=1983|publisher=Health Science Press|pages=4, 133}}{{ISBN missing|date=November 2015}}</ref>

In traditional Chinese medicine, symptoms of various illnesses are believed to be either the product of disrupted, blocked, and unbalanced qi movement through meridians or deficiencies and imbalances of qi in the [[Zang Fu theory|''Zang Fu'' organs]].<ref name="Lawson-Wood"/> Traditional Chinese medicine often seeks to relieve these imbalances by adjusting the circulation of qi using a variety of techniques including [[herbology]], [[food therapy]], physical training regimens ([[qigong]], [[tai chi]], and other martial arts training),<ref>{{Cite book|last=Wu|first=Kung-tsao|title=Wu Style Tai Chi Chuan|trans-title=Wu Family T'ai Chi Ch'uan |script-title=zh:吳家太極拳|publisher=Chien-ch'uan T'ai-chi Ch'uan Association |orig-year=1980|year=2006|isbn=978-0978049904|title-link=Jianquan Taijiquan Association}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=March 2017}} [[moxibustion]], ''[[tui na]]'', or [[acupuncture]].<ref name="Lawson-Wood"/>{{rp|78}}The cultivation of Heavenly and Earthly qi allow for the maintenance of psychological actions<ref>{{lang|zh|李中梓}}, and {{lang|zh|江潤祥}}. ''Huangdi Neijing : A Synopsis with Commentaries'' = {{lang|zh|《内經知要》譯詁}}. The Chinese University of Hong Kong Press, 2010. pg. 390-93</ref>

The [[nomenclature]] of Qi in the human body is different depending on its sources, roles, and locations.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.orientmama.com/journal/what-is-qi-in-chinese-medicine|title=What is Qi in Chinese medicine?|date=23 April 2018|website=The Journal of Chinese Medicine on Orient Mama|access-date=29 April 2018|archive-date=29 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180429155259/https://www.orientmama.com/journal/what-is-qi-in-chinese-medicine|url-status=dead}}</ref> For sources there is a difference between so-called "[[Yuanqi|Primordial Qi]]" (acquired at birth from one's parents) and Qi acquired throughout one's life.<ref name=":0" /> Or again Chinese medicine differentiates between Qi acquired from the air we breathe (so called "Clean Air") and Qi acquired from food and drinks (so-called "Grain Qi"). Looking at roles Qi is divided into "Defensive Qi" and "Nutritive Qi".<ref name=":0" /> Defensive Qi's role is to defend the body against invasions while Nutritive Qi's role is to provide sustenance for the body. To protect against said invasions, medicines have four types of qi; cold, hot, warm, and cool.<ref name=":2">Yang, Shou-zhong (1998). ''The Divine Farmer's Materia Medica: A Translation of the Shen Nong Ben Cao Jing''. pg. xii</ref> Cold qi medicines are used to treat invasions hot in nature, while hot qi medicines are used to treat invasions cold in nature.<ref name=":2" /> looking at locations, Qi is also named after the [[Zang-fu|Zang-Fu organ]] or the [[Meridian (Chinese medicine)|Meridian]] in which it resides:<ref name=":0" /> "Liver Qi", "Spleen Qi", etc. Lastly, prolonged exposure to the three evil qi (wind, cold, and wetness) can result in the penetration of evil qi through surface body parts, eventually reaching [[Zang-fu|Zang-Fu organs]].<ref>Hong-zhou Wu, et al. ''World Century Compendium To TCM - Volume 1: Fundamentals Of Traditional Chinese Medicine''. World Century Publishing Corporation, 2013. pg. 22</ref> 

A qi field (''chu-chong'') refers to the cultivation of an energy field by a group, typically for healing or other benevolent purposes. A qi field is believed to be produced by visualization and affirmation. They are an important component of [[Wisdom Healing Qigong]] (''Zhineng Qigong''), founded by Grandmaster Ming Pang.<ref name="Gu">{{cite book|last1=Gu|first1=Mingtong|title=Wisdom Healing (Zhineng) Qigong: Cultivating Wisdom and Energy for Health, Healing and Happiness|date=2011|location=Petaluma, California|publisher=Chi Center|isbn=978-0983504306|pages=61–80}}</ref><ref name="Gu2">{{cite book|last1=Gu|first1=Mingtong|title=An Introduction to Wisdom Healing Qigong|date=2009|location=Petaluma, California|publisher=Chi Center|pages=30, 46–47}}{{ISBN missing}}</ref><ref name="Ooi">{{cite book|last1=Hin|first1=Ooi Kean|title=Zhineng Qigong: The Science, Theory and Practice|date=2010|publisher=CreateSpace|location=North Charleston, South Carolina|isbn=9781453867600}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=March 2017}}

==Scientific view==
The existence of Qi has not been proven scientifically.<ref name="Lee_SR"/> A 1998 consensus statement on acupuncture by the United States [[National Institutes of Health]] noted that concepts such as qi "are difficult to reconcile with contemporary biomedical information".<ref>{{Cite journal |last=NIN Consensus Development Panel on Acupuncture |date=1998-11-04 |title=Acupuncture |url=https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.280.17.1518 |journal=JAMA |volume=280 |issue=17 |pages=1518–1524 |doi=10.1001/jama.280.17.1518 |issn=0098-7484|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

==Practices involving qi==
{{More citations needed section|date=January 2017}}

===Feng shui===
{{Main|Feng shui}}
The traditional Chinese art of [[geomancy]], the placement and arrangement of space called [[feng shui]], is based on calculating the balance of qi, interactions between the [[Wuxing (Chinese philosophy)|five elements]], [[yin and yang]], and other factors. The retention or dissipation of qi is believed to affect the health, wealth, energy level, luck, and many other aspects of the occupants. Attributes of each item in a space affect the flow of qi by slowing it down, redirecting it or accelerating it. This is said to influence the energy level of the occupants. Positive qi flows in curved lines, whereas negative qi travels in straight lines.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Feng shui : how to create harmony and balance in your living and working environment = Fêng shui|last=Henwood, Belinda.|date=1998|publisher=Raincoast Books|isbn=1-55192-132-4|location=Vancouver|oclc=37985099}}</ref> In order for qi to be nourishing and positive, it must continue to flow not too quickly or too slowly.<ref name=":1" /> In addition, qi should not be blocked abruptly, because it would become stagnant and turn destructive.<ref name=":1" />

One use for a ''[[luopan]]'' is to detect the flow of qi.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Field|first1=Stephen L.|title=Qimancy, Chinese Divination by Qi|url=http://www.fengshuigate.com/qimancy.html|website=Professor Field's Fengshui Gate|access-date=7 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170223065625/http://www.fengshuigate.com/qimancy.html|archive-date=23 February 2017|date=12 February 1998|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The quality of qi may rise and fall over time. Feng shui with a compass might be considered a form of [[divination]] that assesses the quality of the local environment.

There are three kinds of qi, known as heaven qi (''tian qi'' {{lang|zh|天气}}), Earth qi (''di qi'' {{lang|zh|地气}}), and human qi (''ren qi'' {{lang|zh|人气}}).<ref name=":1" /> Heaven qi is composed of natural forces including the sun and rain. Earth qi is affected by heaven qi. For example, too much sun would lead to drought, and a lack of sun would cause plants to die off. Human qi is affected by earth qi, because the environment has effects on human beings. Feng shui is the balancing of heaven, Earth, and human qi.

===Reiki===
{{Main|Reiki}}
[[Reiki]] is a form of [[alternative medicine]] called [[Energy medicine|energy healing]]. Reiki practitioners use a technique called ''palm healing'' or ''hands-on healing'' through which a "[[Energy (esotericism)|universal energy]]" is said to be transferred through the palms of the practitioner to the patient in order to encourage emotional or physical healing. Reiki is a [[pseudoscience]],<ref name="auto">{{cite web |first= Steven |last= Novella |author-link= Steven Novella |title= Reiki |work= [[Science-Based Medicine]] |date= 19 October 2011 |url= http://www.sciencebasedmedicine.org/reiki/ |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150411081804/https://www.sciencebasedmedicine.org/reiki/ |archive-date= 11 April 2015 |url-status= live}}</ref> and is used as an illustrative example of pseudoscience in scholarly texts and academic journal articles. It is based on qi ("chi"), which practitioners say is a universal [[Vitalism|life force]], although there is no [[empirical evidence]] that such a life force exists.<ref name='Lee_SR'/><ref name="sciencebasedmedicine.org">Reiki: Fraudulent Misrepresentation  « [[Science-Based Medicine]]: [https://www.sciencebasedmedicine.org/reiki-fraudulent-misrepresentation/ Reiki: Fraudulent Misrepresentation] « [[Science-Based Medicine]], accessdate: 28 May 2016</ref> Clinical research has not shown reiki to be effective as a treatment for any medical condition.<ref name='Lee_SR'/> There has been no proof of the effectiveness of reiki therapy compared to the [[placebo effect]]. An overview of reiki investigations found that studies reporting positive effects had methodological flaws. The [[American Cancer Society]] stated that reiki should not replace conventional cancer treatment,<ref name=ACSreiki>{{cite book |publisher=[[American Cancer Society]] |title=American Cancer Society Complete Guide to Complementary and Alternative Cancer Therapies |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/americancancerso0000unse |chapter-url-access=registration |edition=2nd |year=2009 |isbn=9780944235713 |veditors=Russell J, Rovere A |pages=[https://archive.org/details/americancancerso0000unse/page/243 243–45] |chapter=Reiki}}</ref> a sentiment echoed by [[Cancer Research UK]]<ref name=crukLP>{{cite web |title=Reiki |publisher=[[Cancer Research UK]] |url=http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/cancer-help/about-cancer/treatment/complementary-alternative/therapies/reiki |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150318062404/http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/cancers-in-general/treatment/complementary-alternative/therapies/reiki |archive-date= 18 March 2015 |url-status= live|date=2017-08-30 }}</ref> and the [[National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health]].<ref name=NCCIHreiki>{{cite web |title= Reiki: What You Need To Know |url= https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/reiki/introduction.htm |publisher= [[National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health]] |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150411002903/https://nccih.nih.gov/health/reiki/introduction.htm |archive-date= 11 April 2015 |url-status= live |access-date= 24 May 2019 }}</ref> Developed in Japan in 1922 by [[Mikao Usui]],<ref name="auto"/> it has been adapted into varying cultural traditions across the world.

According to its believers, Reiki healing occurs by laying hands over or on an individual's area of pain and controlling the universal Qi flow of the nearby space, sending into the area of malaise and purifying it.<ref name="Lilienfeld2014">{{cite book|first1=Scott O. |last1= Lilienfeld|first2=Steven Jay |last2= Lynn|first3=Jeffrey M. |last3= Lohr|title=Science and Pseudoscience in Clinical Psychology |year= 2014|publisher=[[Guilford Press]]|isbn= 9781462517893 |page= [https://books.google.com/books?id=9Z0gBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA201 201]}}</ref> There is no regulation of the practicing of Reiki in the United States and generally no central world organization that has authority over it.<ref>{{citation|title=Modalities for Massage and Bodywork|author=Elaine Stillerman|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|year=2014|page=295|isbn=9780323260794|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pi9yBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA295|quote=Currently there is no standard for certification in Reiki throughout the world.}}</ref><ref>{{citation|chapter=Reiki classes and certification|title=Reiki for Dummies|author=Nina L. Paul|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=2011|isbn=9781118054741}}</ref>

===Qigong===
{{Main|Qigong}}
Qìgōng (气功 or 氣功) involves coordinated breathing, movement, and awareness. It is traditionally viewed as a practice to cultivate and balance qi. With roots in traditional Chinese medicine, philosophy and martial arts, ''qigong'' is now practiced worldwide for exercise, healing, meditation, and training for martial arts. Typically a ''qigong'' practice involves rhythmic breathing, slow and stylized movement, practicing [[Mindfulness (Buddhism)|mindfulness]], and visualization of guiding qi.<ref name="Cohen">{{cite book|last1=Cohen|first1=Kenneth S.|last2=Dossey|first2=Larry|title=The Way of Qigong: The Art and Science of Chinese Energy Healin|date=1999|publisher=Ballantine Books|location=New York|isbn=978-0345421098|edition=1st}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=January 2017}}<ref name="Liang">{{cite book|last1=Liang|first1=Master Shou-Yu|last2=Wu|first2=Wen-Ching|last3=Breiter-Wu|first3=Denise|title=Qigong Empowerment: A Guide to Medical, Taoist, Buddhist, and Wushu Energy Cultivation|date=1997|publisher=Way of the Dragon Publishing|location=East Providence, Rhode Island|isbn=978-1889659022}}</ref><ref name="Jwing-Ming">{{cite book|last1=Jwing-Ming|first1=Yang|title=Qigong for Health and Martial Arts: Exercises and Meditation|date=1998|publisher=YMAA Publication Center|location=Boston, Massachusetts|isbn=978-1886969575|edition=2nd|url=https://archive.org/details/qigongforhealthm0000yang}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=January 2017}}

===Martial arts===
{{Main|Neijin}}
Qi is a [[didacticism|didactic]] concept in [[Chinese martial arts|Chinese]], [[Vietnamese martial arts|Vietnamese]], [[Korean martial arts|Korean]], and [[Japanese martial arts]]. Martial qigong is a feature of both internal and external training systems in China<ref name="Wile">{{cite book|last1=Wile|first1=Douglas|title=Lost T'ai-chi Classics from the Late Ch'ing Dynasty |date=1996|publisher=State University of New York Press|location=Albany|isbn=9780791426548}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=January 2017}} and other East Asian cultures.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bishop|first1=Mark|title=Okinawan Karate: Teachers, Styles and Secret Techniques|date=1989|publisher=A & C Black|location=London|isbn=978-0713656664}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=January 2017}} The most notable of the qi-focused "internal" force (jin) martial arts are [[Baguazhang]], [[Xingyiquan]], [[tai chi]], [[Southern Praying Mantis]], [[Snake Kung Fu]], [[Southern Dragon Kung Fu]], [[Aikido]], [[Kendo]], [[Hapkido]], [[Daitō-ryū Aiki-jūjutsu|Aikijujutsu]], [[Luohan (martial arts)|Luohanquan]], and [[Liuhebafa]].

Demonstrations of qi or ''ki'' are popular in some [[martial arts]] and may include the unraisable body, the unbendable arm, and other feats of power. These feats can be explained using [[biomechanics]] and physics.<ref>{{cite web|last1=James|first1=Daniel Arthur|title=Unraisable Body: The Physics of Martial Arts|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/29458989|publisher=Sports Medicine Australia|access-date=5 January 2017|date=27 June 2003}}</ref>

===Acupuncture and moxibustion===
{{Main|Acupuncture|Moxibustion}}

Acupuncture is a part of traditional Chinese medicine that involves insertion of needles or the application of pinching/gripping into/onto superficial structures of the body (skin, subcutaneous tissue, muscles) at [[acupuncture point]]s to balance the flow of qi. This is often accompanied by [[moxibustion]], a treatment that involves burning [[mugwort]] on or near the skin at an acupuncture point.

===Taoist sexual practices===
{{Main|Taoist sexual practices}}

==See also==
{{Portal|China}}
{{Div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Aether (classical element)]]
* [[Aṣẹ]] (Yoruba)
* [[Aura (paranormal)]]
* [[Chakra]]
* [[Dantian]]
* [[Esoteric healing]]
* [[Geist]]
* [[Livity (spiritual concept)]]
* [[Mana (Oceanian mythology)|Mana]]
* [[Orgone]]
* [[Prana]]
* [[Reiki]]
* [[Pneuma]]
* [[Soul]]
* [[Spirit (vital essence)]]
* [[Scientific skepticism]]
{{div col end}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

===Works cited===

*{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Barrett|first1=Timothy|date=1991|title=Daoism|editor1-last=Hook|editor1-first=Brian|editor2-last=Twitchett|editor2-first=Denis|encyclopedia=The Cambridge Encyclopedia of China|edition=2d|pages=296–300|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=052135594X}}
*{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Cheng|first1=Chung-ying|date=2003|title=Qi (Ch'i): Vital Force|editor1-last=Cua|editor1-first=Antonio S.|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Chinese Philosophy|pages=615–617|location=New York|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-1353-6748-0}}
*{{cite book|last1=Liu|first1=Xiaogan|editor1-first=Xiaogan|editor1-last=Liu|date=2015|title=Dao Companion to Daoist Philosophy|series=Dao Companions to Chinese Philosophy |volume=6 |location=Dordrecht|publisher=Springer|doi=10.1007/978-90-481-2927-0|isbn=978-90-481-2926-3}}
*{{cite book|last1=Lloyd|first1=Geoffrey E. R.|last2=Sivin|first2=Nathan|author1-link=G. E. R. Lloyd|date=2002|title=The Way and the Word: Science and Medicine in Early China and Greece|location=New Haven|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=0-300-09297-0}}
*{{cite book|last1=Lloyd|first1=Geoffrey E. R.|last2=Zhao|first2=Jingyi Jenny|last3=Dong|first3=Qiaosheng|author1-link=G. E. R. Lloyd|date=2018|title=Ancient Greece and China Compared|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/9781316091609|isbn=978-1-107-08666-1}}
*{{cite book|last1=Perkins|first1=Dorothy|date=2013|title=Encyclopedia of China: The Essential Reference to China, Its History and Culture|location=New York|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-57958-110-7}}
*{{cite book|last1=Wang|first1=Yueqing|last2=Bao|first2=Qinggang|last3=Guan|first3=Guoxing|chapter=Vital Energy (Qi, 气) |translator-last=Xiang|translator-first=Shuchen|date=2020|title=History of Chinese Philosophy Through Its Key Terms|pages=177–190|location=Singapore|publisher=Springer/Nanjing University Press|doi=10.1007/978-981-15-2572-8_14|isbn=978-981-15-2571-1|s2cid=216180284}}

==Further reading==
* {{Cite book |author1=Wright, Thomas |author2=Eisenberg, David |title=Encounters with Qi: Exploring Chinese medicine |publisher=Norton hi |location=New York |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-393-31213-3 |oclc=32998368 |url=https://archive.org/details/encounterswithqi00eise_0 }}
* {{Cite book|author=Powers, John. |title=Introduction to Tibetan Buddhism |publisher=Snow Lion Publications |location=Ithaca, NY |year=1995 |page=591 |isbn=978-1-55939-282-2}}

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Wiktionary}}
* [https://philosophyandartcollaboratory.org/qi-breathvital-energy-1 Article by Fuoco B. Fann "A Philosophical and Cultural Interpretation of Qi"]
* [http://www.skepdic.com/chi.html The Skeptics Dictionary]
* [http://qi-encyclopedia.com ''Qi Encyclopedia'']

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