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{{Short description|Military campaign of the Spanish–American War}}
{{Good article}}
{{Use American English|date = March 2019}}
{{Use mdy dates|date = March 2019}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| image             = [[File:Puerto Rico Expedition.png|250px]]<br />Map of the Puerto Rico campaign illustrating operations July 25 – August 12, 1898, and showing [[Municipalities of Puerto Rico|municipality]] borders in 1898. {{Blue|Blue}} are US Naval forces, {{red|red}} are US land forces, and {{green|green}} are Spanish ground forces.<br />[[File:Puerto Rico USA-España.png|250px]]<br />Map of Puerto Rico under the US and Spanish flags from August 14 until September 19, 1898. The 23 blue-colored municipalities were under the US flag and the 55 yellow-colored municipalities were under the Spanish flag
| conflict          = Puerto Rico campaign
| partof            = the [[Spanish–American War]]
| date              = May 8 – August 13, 1898<!-- See USS Yale (1889) article or the Bombardment of San Juan article for USS Yale's beginning of the campaign.-->
| place             = [[Puerto Rico]], [[Atlantic Ocean]]
| result            = American victory
*United States takeover of Puerto Rico<ref name=Zwick>{{cite news
|title=Sitting in Darkness: An Unheeded Message About U.S. Militarism
|last=Zwick |first=Jim
|work=Baltimore Sun
|date=April 23, 1995
|pages=J1, J6}}</ref>
* End of the [[Spanish–American War]] in Puerto Rico, leading to the [[Treaty of Paris (1898)|Treaty of Paris]].
| territory         = Handover of Puerto Rico from Spain to the United States, and the establishment of the [[Military Government of Porto Rico]].
| combatant2        = {{flagdeco|Spain|1785}} [[Restoration (Spain)|Spain]]
*{{flagdeco|Spain|1785}} [[Captaincy General of Puerto Rico]]
| combatant1        = {{flag|United States|1896}}
| commander2        = {{flagdeco|Spain|1785}} [[Manuel Macías y Casado]]
| commander1        = {{flagdeco|United States|1896}} [[Nelson A. Miles]]<br /> {{flagdeco|United States|1896}} [[William T. Sampson]]
| strength2         = '''Spain:''' 8,000<br />'''Puerto Rico:''' 10,000<ref name="MHPR">{{cite book
|access-date=2008-09-04
|url=http://www.fortunecity.com/victorian/churchmews/1216/historia.negroni.htm
|series=1898 Los Documentos de Puerto Rico
|author=Negroni, Héctor Andrés
|title=La Guerra Hispanoamericana en Puerto Rico (Military history of Puerto Rico)
|language=es
|publisher=Sociedad Estatal Quinto Centenario
|year=1992
|isbn=84-7844-138-7
|author-link=Hector Andres Negroni
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120130162348/http://www.fortunecity.com/victorian/churchmews/1216/historia.negroni.htm
|archive-date=January 30, 2012
|url-status=dead
}}</ref>
| strength1         = 15,472<ref name="MHPR" />
| casualties2       = 17 killed<ref name=Malavet/><br />88 wounded<ref name=Malavet/><br /> 324 captured<ref name=Malavet/> <br />10,000 surrendered at the end of the campaign<ref name="MHPR" />
| casualties1       = 9 killed<ref name="spanamwar.com">''[https://spanamwar.com/puertoland4.htm The American Army Moves on Puerto-Rico] by Dr. Mark R. Barnes, Ph. D. Senior Archeologist, National Park Service, Southeast Regional Office.''</ref><ref name=Malavet>{{cite book |last1=Malavet |first1=Pedro |title=America's Colony: The Political and Cultural Conflict Between the United States and Puerto Rico |date=2004 |publisher=NYU Press |isbn=9780814756805 |page=36}}</ref><br>46 wounded<ref name="spanamwar.com" /><ref name=Malavet/>
}}

The '''Puerto Rico campaign''' was the American military sea and land operation in [[Puerto Rico]] during the [[Spanish–American War]], which resulted in the [[invasion]], [[Military occupation|occupation]], and [[annexation]] of the [[Geography of Puerto Rico|archipelago and island]] by the [[United States]], and the [[cession]] of said territory by [[Spanish Empire|Spain]]. The offensive began on May 12, 1898, when the [[United States Navy]] attacked the capital, [[San Juan, Puerto Rico|San Juan]]. Though the damage inflicted on the city was minimal, the Americans were able to establish a [[blockade]] in the city's harbor, [[San Juan Bay]]. On June 22, the cruiser ''Isabel II'' and the [[destroyer]] ''Terror'' delivered a [[Second Battle of San Juan|Spanish counterattack]], but were unable to break the blockade and ''Terror'' was damaged.

The land offensive began on July 25, when 1,300 infantry soldiers led by Major General [[Nelson A. Miles]] disembarked off the coast of [[Guánica, Puerto Rico|Guánica]]. After winning the first skirmish, the Americans advanced to [[Coamo, Puerto Rico|Coamo]], where they engaged Puerto Rican and Spanish troops in battle. With two defenders and four Americans dead, the defenders retreated. The United States forces were able to seize control of [[Fajardo, Puerto Rico|Fajardo]] on August 1, but were forced to withdraw on August 5 after a group of 200 Puerto Rican–Spanish soldiers led by Pedro del Pino counterattacked, while most civilian inhabitants fled to [[Cape San Juan Light|the nearby lighthouse]]. The Americans encountered more opposition as they advanced towards the main island's interior. They engaged in two crossfires in [[Guamaní River]] and [[Coamo, Puerto Rico|Coamo]], both of which were inconclusive as the allied soldiers retreated. A battle in [[San Germán, Puerto Rico|San Germán]] concluded in a similar fashion with the Spanish retreating to [[Lares, Puerto Rico|Lares]].

On August 9, 1898, American troops that were pursuing units retreating from Coamo and [[Asomante, Aibonito, Puerto Rico|Asomante]] encountered heavy resistance in [[Aibonito, Puerto Rico|Aibonito]] and retreated after six of their soldiers were injured. They returned three days later, reinforced with artillery units and attempted a surprise attack. After about an hour of fighting, Spanish artillery batteries had been silenced. American guns advanced some 2,150 yards and set up positions, but soldiers reported seeing Spanish reinforcements nearby and the guns were withdrawn back to the main line. Shortly before the launch of a flanking movement on the Spanish, all military actions in Puerto Rico were suspended on August 13, after U.S. President [[William McKinley]] and French ambassador [[Jules Cambon]], acting on behalf of the Spanish government, signed an [[armistice]] whereby Spain relinquished its sovereignty over the territories of Puerto Rico, [[Cuba]], the [[Philippines]] and [[Guam]].

== Prelude ==
[[File:Alfred Thayer Mahan.jpeg|left|thumb|120px|[[Alfred T. Mahan]]]]

In 1890, Captain [[Alfred Thayer Mahan]], a member of the Navy War Board and leading U.S. strategic thinker, wrote a book titled ''[[The Influence of Sea Power upon History]]'' in which he argued for the creation of a large and powerful navy modeled after the [[Royal Navy]]. Part of his strategy called for the acquisition of colonies in the [[Caribbean Sea]] that would serve as [[Fuelling station|coaling]] and naval stations, being strategic points of defense upon the construction of an [[Isthmusian canal|''isthmusian'' canal]].<ref name="SP">"Strategy as Politics'; by: Jorge Rodriguez Beruff; Publisher: La Editorial; Universidad de Puerto Rico; page 7; {{ISBN|978-0-8477-0160-5}}</ref>

This idea was not new; [[William H. Seward]], a former [[Secretary of state|Secretary of State]] for various Presidents, among them [[Abraham Lincoln]] and [[Ulysses Grant]], had strongly advocated that a canal be built either in [[Honduras]], [[Nicaragua]] or [[Panama]], and that the United States annex the [[Dominican Republic]] and purchase Puerto Rico and Cuba. The idea of annexing the Dominican Republic failed to receive the approval of the U.S. Senate, and Spain did not accept the 160 million dollars which the U.S. offered for Puerto Rico and Cuba.<ref name="SP" /> Mahan made the following statement to the War Department: "Having therefore no foreign establishments either colonial or military, the ships of war of the United States, in war will be like land birds, unable to fly far from their own shores. To provide resting places for them where they can coal and repair, would be one of the first duties of a government proposing to itself the development of the power of the nation at sea."<ref>A.T.Mahan, "The Influence of Sea Power upon History (1660–1783)", London: Sampson Low, Marston, Seale; page 83</ref>
[[File:Bandera tercer batallon.jpg|thumb|150px|Flag of the Batallón Provisional No. 3 de Puerto Rico (3rd Provisional Battalion of Puerto Rico)]]
Since 1894, the [[Naval War College]] had been formulating plans for war with Spain. By 1896, the [[Office of Naval Intelligence]] had prepared a plan which included military operations in Puerto Rican waters. Not only was Puerto Rico considered valuable as a naval station, Puerto Rico and Cuba were also abundant in a valuable commercial commodity which the United States lacked: cane sugar.
<ref>''Strategy as Politics'' by: Jorge Rodriguez Beruff; Publisher: La Editorial; Universidad de Puerto Rico; page 13; {{ISBN|978-0-8477-0160-5}}</ref>

On February 15, 1898 [[USS Maine (ACR-1)#Sinking|USS ''Maine'']] exploded and sank in [[Havana Harbor]], Cuba. According to the Navy's leading weapons expert, Philip Alger, the explosion was due to a coal fire igniting a reserve magazine of six tons of gunpowder, much of which was already degrading due to the humid climate.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://jenniferhallock.com/tag/puerto-rico/ |title=Puerto Rico |date=June 17, 2016 |access-date=September 1, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160914162831/http://jenniferhallock.com/tag/puerto-rico/ |archive-date=September 14, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> However, the United States forwarded an ultimatum to Spain to withdraw from Cuba following the sinking of ''Maine''. In response, Spain broke off diplomatic relations with the United States, and on April 23, 1898, Spain [[Declaration of war|declared war]]. On April 25, the [[United States Congress|U.S. Congress]] declared that a state of war between the United States and Spain had existed since April 20.<ref name=Hakim_p144-149>{{harvnb|Hakim|1994|pp=144–149}}</ref> One of the United States' principal objectives in the Spanish–American War was to take control of Spanish possessions in the Atlantic—Puerto Rico and Cuba—and their possessions in the Pacific—the Philippines and Guam.<ref name=World1898>{{cite book
|access-date=2008-08-03
|url=https://www.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/1898/intro.html
|title=The World of 1898: The Spanish–American War
|publisher=Hispanic Division, Library of Congress
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629125650/http://www.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/1898/intro.html
|archive-date=June 29, 2011
|url-status=live
}}</ref>

On April 27, U.S. ships, the [[Monitor (warship)|monitor]] {{USS|Puritan|BM-1|6}}, and the [[armored cruiser]]s {{USS|New York|ACR-2|6}}, and {{USS|Cincinnati|C-7|6}}, bombarded the Spanish fortifications at [[Matanzas Bay]] in Cuba. By July 16, an [[armistice]] was signed at the ''Arbol de La Paz'' (a large [[ceiba|''ceiba'']] tree) in [[Santiago de Cuba]] by U.S. and Spanish forces ending hostilities in Cuba and its waters. The United States then directed its undivided military resources to Puerto Rico.<ref name=World1898_ChronCuba>{{cite web
|access-date=2008-08-02
|url=https://www.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/1898/chroncuba.html
|title=Chronology of Cuba in the Spanish–American War
|work=The World of 1898: The Spanish–American War
|publisher=Hispanic Division, Library of Congress
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171224061453/http://www.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/1898/chroncuba.html
|archive-date=December 24, 2017
|url-status=live
}}</ref> Two leaders of the Puerto Rican section of the [[Partido Revolucionario Cubano (1892)|Cuban Revolutionary Party]], [[Julio J. Henna]] and [[Roberto H. Todd Wells|Roberto H. Todd]],<ref name=prfrogui>{{cite web
|access-date=2008-08-07
|url=http://www.prfrogui.com/fortune/ballester.htm
|title=Hombres Illustres de Puerto Rico
|publisher=www.prfrogui.com
|language=es
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080913170559/http://www.prfrogui.com/fortune/ballester.htm
|archive-date=September 13, 2008
|url-status=live
}}</ref> had written to U.S. [[William McKinley|President McKinley]] asking that Puerto Rico be included in whatever intervention was planned for Cuba as early as March 10. They even provided the U.S. government with information about the Spanish military presence on the island.<ref name="COPRSAW">{{cite web
|access-date=2008-08-04
|url=https://www.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/1898/chronpr.html
|title=Chronology of Puerto Rico in the Spanish–American War
|work=The World of 1898: The Spanish–American War
|publisher=Hispanic Division, Library of Congress
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180104123909/http://www.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/1898/chronpr.html
|archive-date=January 4, 2018
|url-status=live
}}</ref>

On May 24, 1898, in a letter to [[Theodore Roosevelt]], [[Henry Cabot Lodge]] wrote, "Porto Rico is not forgotten and we mean to have it".<ref name="Puerto Rico">{{cite web |title=Spanish-American War in Puerto Rico |url=https://npgallery.nps.gov/pdfhost/docs/NRHP/Text/64500545.pdf |website=National Park Service |publisher=United States Department of the Interior |access-date=30 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211073515/https://npgallery.nps.gov/pdfhost/docs/NRHP/Text/64500545.pdf |archive-date=February 11, 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> 

=== Spanish preparations ===
[[File:Macias1.jpg|thumb|120px|[[Manuel Macías y Casado]]]]

On April 21, 1898, the ''[[Gaceta de Puerto Rico]]'' published a decree of the Spanish-appointed [[governor of Puerto Rico]], [[Manuel Macías y Casado]], which proclaimed [[martial]] law for the island, suspending all constitutional rights in preparation for war.,<ref name="Rivero_Mendez_1922">{{cite web | title=Crónica de la guerra hispano-americana en Puerto Rico |first=Angel|last=Rivero Méndez|website=Internet Archive | date=November 23, 1922 | url=https://archive.org/details/abz5671.0001.001.umich.edu/page/36 | language=es|access-date=August 29, 2019}}</ref> declared [[martial law]], resolving to resist the American forces.<ref name="DT">{{harvnb|Trask|1996|p=338}}</ref> Casado declared that "Providence will not permit that in these countries which were discovered by the Spanish nation the echo of our language should ever cease to be heard, nor that our flag should disappear before the eyes. ... Long live Puerto Rico, always Spanish. Long live Spain." Casado hoped that a grant of [[autonomy]] would ensure that Puerto Ricans would remain loyal to the Spanish Crown.<ref name="DT" />

With the outbreak of war, the Spanish Crown sent the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd Puerto Rican provisional battalions to defend Cuba against the Americans, depleting Puerto Rico's defenses. The 1st Puerto Rican Provisional Battalion, composed of the Talavera Cavalry and [[Krupp]] artillery, was sent to [[Santiago de Cuba]] where they battled the American forces in the [[Battle of San Juan Hill]], and  suffered a total of 70 casualties.<ref name="EC">{{Cite web |url=http://home.coqui.net/sarrasin/tropas.htm |title=Tropas de España en Puerto |access-date=August 31, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110125013109/http://home.coqui.net/sarrasin/tropas.htm |archive-date=January 25, 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> 
{{clear}}

=== American preparations ===
[[File:Riefkohl map.JPG|left|thumb|250px|Map drawn by [[Rudolph W. Riefkohl|Rudolph Riefkohl]] and given to Edwin Emerson Jr.]][[File:Edwin Emerson Jr 001.jpg|thumb|140px|Edwin Emerson Jr.]]The Spanish Crown was unaware that, at the time, the United States had successfully infiltrated the island with a number of spies, among them [[Henry Howard Whitney]], Henry Ward, George Bronson Brea, William Freeman, James Dewel, Frederick Ober and [[Edwin Emerson, Jr.]]<ref name="EPR">{{Cite web |url=http://home.coqui.net/sarrasin/Espias.html |title="Los espías estadounidenses de la Guerra Hispanoamericana en Puerto Rico" (American Spies in Puerto Rico during the Spanish–American War); By: Roberto Ramos-Perea del Ateneo Puertorriqueño |access-date=September 8, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091007152108/http://home.coqui.net/sarrasin/Espias.html |archive-date=October 7, 2009 |url-status=live }}</ref>

According to a story published in [[Century Magazine|''Century'' magazine]] in September 1898, Emerson Jr. was pretending to be a German journalist. He presented himself to the German consul in [[Saint Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands|St. Thomas]] and asked for the names of [[German immigration to Puerto Rico|Puerto Ricans of German descent]] whom he could interview. Among the names which the consul gave him were those of the Riefkohl family of the town of [[Maunabo, Puerto Rico|Maunabo]]. Upon his arrival in the town of Maunabo he met 14-year-old [[Rudolph W. Riefkohl]] and asked him in [[German language|German]] whether he had a map of Puerto Rico (that "Emerson had lost his"). Riefkohl answered that he did, but it was decidedly too big for Emerson's use. Riefkohl returned home, not knowing that Emerson was a spy, and quickly drew another with a depiction of the major ports and harbors of Puerto Rico.<ref name="EPR" /> Emerson used the map, and it is believed by some that he may have given the map to the U.S. Army commanding general, [[Nelson A. Miles]], influencing Miles's decision on the landing points for the invasion of Puerto Rico. A photostatic copy of Riefkohl's map was published in the ''Century'' article.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://digital.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=cent;cc=cent;rgn=full%20text;idno=cent0056-5;didno=cent0056-5;view=image;seq=684;node=cent0056-5%3A6;page=root;size=s;frm=frameset; |title=Alone in Puerto Rico, by Edwin Emerson, Jr., ''Century Magazine'', Vol. 56, Issue 5, pp. 666–676, September 1898 |access-date=September 8, 2009 |archive-date=April 8, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200408092036/http://digital.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=cent;cc=cent;rgn=full%20text;idno=cent0056-5;didno=cent0056-5;view=image;seq=684;node=cent0056-5%3A6;page=root;size=s;frm=frameset; |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Naval campaign in Puerto Rico (May 8–August 13) ==

=== First actions ===
[[File:San cristobal cannon s.jpg|thumb|200px|Ordoñez 15&nbsp;cm cannon which opened fire on [[SS City of Paris (1888)|USS ''Yale'']]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fortunecity.com/victorian/churchmews/1216/unif.artilleria.htm|title=Cañón Ordóñez de 15 cm modelo 1885|access-date=October 31, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204041640/http://www.fortunecity.com/victorian/churchmews/1216/unif.artilleria.htm|archive-date=February 4, 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref>]]

The first engagement between the belligerents occurred on May 8, 1898, when the converted liner {{USS|Yale|1888|6}} captured a Spanish freighter, ''Rita'', in San Juan Bay. On May 9, ''Yale'' fought a brief battle with ''Alfonso XIII'', a Spanish [[auxiliary cruiser]], resulting in a Spanish victory.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://edicionesdigitales.info/diariorivero/diariorivero.pdf |title=Ediciones Digitales |access-date=June 27, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150529002339/http://edicionesdigitales.info/diariorivero/diariorivero.pdf |archive-date=May 29, 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> Around this time, Captain [[Ángel Rivero Méndez]] was assigned the command of the Spanish forces at the [[Castillo San Cristóbal (San Juan)|Fortress of San Cristóbal]] in San Juan. On May 10, when ''Yale'' returned to San Juan Bay, Rivero-Méndez ordered his men to open fire on the steamer with an Ordoñez 15-centimeter cannon, the first combat in Puerto Rico of the [[Spanish–American War]].<ref name="GHA" /> For his actions, Rivero-Mendez was awarded the ''Cruz de la Orden de Mérito Militar'' (the Cross of the Order of the Military Merit) first class.<ref name="GHA">{{cite web
|access-date=2006-10-10
|url=http://members.tripod.com/~adjuntas1/guerra1.html
|title=1898 – Adjuntas en la Guerra Hispanoamericana
|language=es
|archive-date=March 30, 2012
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120330055709/http://adjuntas1.tripod.com/guerra1.html
|url-status=live
}}</ref>

=== Bombardment of San Juan ===
[[File:Hero tales of the American soldier and sailor as told by the heroes themselves and their comrades; the unwritten history of American chivalry (1899) (14597170710).jpg|thumb|left|Bombardment of San Juan]]
[[File:Rear Admiral William T. Sampson.jpg|thumb|140px|Rear Admiral [[William T. Sampson]] during the Spanish–American War]]

The [[Bombardment of San Juan]], or the '''First Battle of San Juan''' (not to be confused with the [[Battle of San Juan Hill]] or the [[Battle for the Río San Juan de Nicaragua]]), refers to the first American naval attack on the [[Walls of Old San Juan|fortifications of San Juan]], during the Spanish–American War. The American naval commanders believed the bulk of the Spanish fleet under Admiral [[Pascual Cervera y Topete]] was steaming from the [[Cape Verde|Cape Verde Islands]] to the Antilles, and ultimately to Puerto Rico. With this understanding, Rear Admiral [[William T. Sampson]] and a squadron of ten American warships, the battleships {{USS|Iowa|BB-4|6}}, {{USS|Indiana|BB-1|2}}, {{USS|New York|ACR-2|2}}, [[cruiser]]s {{USS|Montgomery|C-9|6}} and {{USS|Detroit|C-10|2}}, [[Monitor (warship)|monitors]] {{USS|Amphitrite|1883|6}} and {{USS|Terror|BM-4|2}}, [[torpedo boat]] {{USS|Porter|TB-6|6}}, two unidentified [[auxiliary cruiser]]s, and an unarmed [[Collier (ship type)|collier]] had stood out from [[Havana]] at noon on May 2 bound for Puerto Rico. Sampson intended to intercept and destroy the Spanish squadron and then move on to attack secondary shore targets: [[San Juan National Historic Site|San Juan's castles, forts and batteries]]. He was unaware that Topete had already eluded them and slipped his squadron into the [[Santiago de Cuba|Bay of Santiago]].<ref name="World1898_Cervera">{{cite web
|access-date=2008-08-17
|url=https://www.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/1898/cervera.html
|title=Pascual Cervera y Topete
|work=The World of 1898: The Spanish–American War
|publisher=Hispanic Division, Library of Congress
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180117093420/http://www.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/1898/cervera.html
|archive-date=January 17, 2018
|url-status=live
}}</ref>

On May 12, Sampson's squadron arrived at San Juan, finding an empty harbor. Making the best of the situation and as an exercise for his untested gunners, Sampson ordered the bombardment of the city's citadels. Captains [[Ramón Acha Caamaño]] and José Antonio Iriarte were among those who defended the city from [[Castillo San Felipe del Morro]]. They had three batteries under their command, which were armed with at least three 15&nbsp;cm Ordóñez cannons. The battle lasted three hours and resulted in the death of Justo Esquivies, the first Puerto Rican soldier to die in the Puerto Rico campaign.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.forocoches.com/foro/showthread.php?t=1994679&page=2 |title=Foros |access-date=February 26, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130926231127/http://www.forocoches.com/foro/showthread.php?t=1994679&page=2 |archive-date=September 26, 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> Caamaño was awarded the ''Cruz de la Orden de Merito Militar'' (the Cross of the Order of the Military Merit) first class for his actions.<ref name="PGHA">{{Cite web |url=http://home.coqui.net/sarrasin/pers1.htm |title=Protagonistas de la Guerra Hispano Americana en Puerto Rico |access-date=February 26, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304023007/http://home.coqui.net/sarrasin/pers1.htm |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>

After causing much damage to the Spanish defenses and receiving minor damage, low on coal and ammunition, Sampson ordered a cease fire and returned to Havana, Cuba, and then on to [[Key West|Key West, Florida]], for repairs and supplies.<ref name="World1898_Sampson">{{cite web
|access-date=2008-08-05
|url=https://www.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/1898/sampson.html
|title=Rear Admiral William T. Sampson
|work=The World of 1898: The Spanish–American War
|publisher=Hispanic Division, Library of Congress
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180105054533/http://www.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/1898/sampson.html
|archive-date=January 5, 2018
|url-status=live
}}</ref>

=== Second Battle of San Juan ===
[[File:Bombardment of El Morro in 1898.jpg|thumb|Bombardment of San Felipe del Morro]]

On June 22, 1898, {{USS|Saint Paul|SP-1643|6}} under the command of Captain [[Charles Sigsbee]] arrived at San Juan Bay from Cuba and joined the blockade. Shortly after midday the old Spanish cruiser {{ship|Spanish cruiser|Isabel II||2}} set off from San Juan to engage ''Saint Paul'' with support from shore batteries. ''Isabel II'' opened fire on ''Saint Paul'' at long range without success in an attempt to break the blockade. {{ship|Spanish destroyer|Terror||2}}, a Spanish destroyer docked in San Juan for repairs, attempted to cover the cruiser's escape with a [[torpedo]] attack but was thwarted when her rudder was damaged by a direct hit from ''Saint Paul''. Losing steerage, ''Terror'' inadvertently turned broadside, allowing ''Saint Paul'' to score direct hits near ''Terror''{{'}}s waterline, disabling one of her engines and causing her to list. ''Terror'' abandoned the attack and returned to port, followed by ''Isabel II''. On June 26, USS ''Saint Paul'' was relieved by {{USS|Yosemite|1892|6}}, which continued the blockade of San Juan Bay.<ref name=DANFS_StPaul>{{cite web
|access-date=2008-07-30
|url=http://www.history.navy.mil/danfs/s3/saint_paul-i.htm
|title=Saint Paul
|work=Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships
|publisher=Naval Historical Center, Department of the Navy
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081020041246/http://www.history.navy.mil/danfs/s3/saint_paul-i.htm
|archive-date=October 20, 2008
|url-status=dead
}}</ref>

=== Third Battle of San Juan ===
[[File:AngelRiveroMendez.png|150px|thumb|Captain Angel Rivero Mendez]]

On June 28, 1898, the American auxiliary cruiser {{USS|Yosemite|1892|6}} [[Third Battle of San Juan (1898)|fought]] with a squadron of Spanish warships. This squadron consisted of one cruiser, two gunboats, and one blockade runner. During the engagement, [[Antonio López (shipwreck)|SS ''Antonio López'']], a transoceanic steamer belonging to the [[Compañía Transatlántica Española|''Compañía Transatlántica Española'']] carrying a cargo of needed military supplies, was pursued by ''Yosemite'' until the Spanish freighter ran aground at [[Culebra, Puerto Rico|Ensenada Honda]], Puerto Rico, with her valuable cargo.<ref>Berta Pensado, ''El Marqués de Comillas'' (1954)</ref> Captain Caamaño was in charge of retrieving the ship's cargo and the men under his command quickly removed as much of it as possible. The desperate efforts proved fruitful, and nearly the entire cargo was [[Marine salvage|salvaged]] from the [[Hulk (ship type)|hulk]] with only minor articles and a cannon that had fallen overboard during salvage attempts being lost.<ref name="nhlsum">{{cite web|url=http://tps.cr.nps.gov/nhl/detail.cfm?ResourceId=-359793475&ResourceType=Site|title=ANTONIO LOPEZ (Shipwreck)|access-date=2009-07-30|work=National Historic Landmark summary listing|publisher=National Park Service|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007063530/http://tps.cr.nps.gov/nhl/detail.cfm?ResourceId=-359793475&ResourceType=Site|archive-date=October 7, 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref>

On 15 July, the cruiser {{USS|New Orleans|CL-22|6}} arrived to relieve ''Yosemite'', and then quickly finished off ''Antonio Lopez'' the next day by firing twenty [[Incendiary device|incendiary shells]] into the vessel and sinking her off the coast of [[Dorado, Puerto Rico|Dorado]]. Though ''Antonio Lopez'' had been sunk, her cargo was successfully delivered and ensured that any American assault on San Juan would be met with stronger resistance. Caamaño was awarded the ''Cruz de la Orden de Merito Naval'' by the Spanish government.<ref name="PGHA" />

The residents of San Juan were furious with Captain Rivero-Méndez and blamed him for the destruction wreaked on their city by American bombardments. Nothing came of those recriminations and Captain Rivero-Méndez was ordered to turn over the keys of all the military installations in San Juan to Captain [[Henry A. Reed (general)|Henry A. Reed]] of the [[U.S. Army]] after the [[Treaty of Paris (1898)|Treaty of Paris of 1898]] was signed.<ref name="GHA" />

== Land campaign in Puerto Rico (July 25 – August 13) ==

=== Landing in Guánica ===
[[File:Nelson A. Miles by Brands Studios, 1898.jpg|thumb|140px|left|Lieutenant General [[Nelson A. Miles]]]]

The Spanish forces expected the Americans to attack the northern region of the island and concentrated their defenses around San Juan and [[Arecibo, Puerto Rico|Arecibo]]. The Spanish government was also aware of a planned landing by the Americans at [[Fajardo, Puerto Rico|Fajardo]], located on the east coast and had that town fortified. However, the southern and western regions of Puerto Rico were left with little or no defenses at all.<ref name="AAMPR">{{cite web
|access-date=2008-08-02
|url=http://www.spanamwar.com/puertoland2.htm
|last=Barnes
|first=Mark R.
|title=The American Army Moves on Puerto-Rico, Part 2
|work=War in Puerto Rico
|publisher=Spanish American War Centennial Website
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080724113938/http://spanamwar.com/puertoland2.htm
|archive-date=July 24, 2008
|url-status=live
}}</ref>

After Cuba was taken, President [[William McKinley]] approved the land invasion of Puerto Rico by way of [[Fajardo]], taking into consideration that the Spaniards had fortified San Juan, where they expected the initial attack. A convoy of ships left [[Tampa, Florida]], and on July 21 another convoy, which included USS ''Yale'', USS ''Massachusetts'', USS ''Gloucester'' and USS ''Dixie'', departed from [[Guantánamo]] for a four-day journey to Puerto Rico.<ref name="EDG" />

Major General [[Nelson A. Miles|Miles]] traveled aboard USS ''Yale''. While approaching the [[Mona Passage]] that separates Puerto Rico from the island of [[Hispaniola]] to the east, Miles opted to land his troops in the southern region of the island, choosing [[Guánica, Puerto Rico|Guánica]] as his landing zone. Miles dispatched patrol boats to notify all other convoys of his decision and to order them to proceed to Guánica. Miles' decision to change the invasion site was based on his belief that the town of Fajardo would be fortified and he feared that Spanish coastal gun boats would disrupt a landing there.<ref name="AAMPR" /><ref name="EDG">{{cite web
|access-date=2008-08-02
|url=http://home.coqui.net/sarrasin/desembarco.guanica.htm
|title=El desembarco en Guánica
|work=1898 La Guerra Hispano Americana en Puerto Rico
|language=es
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100421161340/http://home.coqui.net/sarrasin/desembarco.guanica.htm
|archive-date=April 21, 2010
|url-status=live
}}</ref>
[[File:Guanica Lighthouse 1893.jpg|thumb|[[Guánica Light|Guánica Lighthouse]] c.1893]]

On July 25, General Miles, 1,300 infantry soldiers of the 3,300 total that were assigned for the initial invasion and a convoy of ships, under the command of naval captain [[Francis J. Higginson]] of {{USS|Massachusetts|BB-2|6}} arrived at [[Ensenada de Guánica|Guánica Bay]]. The following Navy ships and Army troopships were part of the convoy: USS ''Yale'' with Generals Miles and [[George A. Garretson]] embarked, {{USS|Windom|1896|6}} carrying General [[Guy V. Henry]], {{USS|Columbia|C-12|6}}, {{USS|Gloucester|1891|6}}, {{USS|Dixie|1893|6}}, {{USS|Wasp|1893|6}} and the U.S. Army transports ''Lampasas'', ''Unionist'', ''Stillwater'' and ''Specialist''. Two captured Spanish ships, ''Nueces'' and ''Rita'' that had been confiscated by USS ''Yale'' as [[war prize]]s were also used.<ref name="AAMPR" /><ref name="EDG" />

In 1898, Guánica was a small [[Barrios of Puerto Rico|''barrio'']] within the jurisdiction of the municipality of [[Yauco, Puerto Rico|Yauco]]. It had 60 houses in all and its only defense was eleven members of the 4th Volante de Yauco, a Puerto Rican militia unit, under the command of Lieutenant Enrique Méndez López. When the [[Guánica Light|Guánica Lighthouse]] keeper Robustiano Rivera spotted the approaching convoy, he immediately gave the alert to the residents of the ''barrio''. All of the residents, with the exception Agustín Barrenechea, Vicente Ferrer, Juan María Morciglio, Simón Mejil, Salvador Muñoz, Cornelio Serrano and Pascual Elena, who welcomed the invaders, abandoned their homes and joined Rivera on his journey to Yauco where he broke the news of the invading forces to the city's mayor.<ref name="EDG" />

=== First skirmish ===
[[File:Marinos.glaucester.jpg|thumb|Gloucester landing team]]

''Gloucester'' was the first ship to set anchor in the Bay of Guánica. Twenty-eight sailors and [[United States Marine Corps|marines]], under the command of lieutenants H. P. Huse and Wood, departed from the ship on rafts and landed on the beach. The marines lowered the [[Flag of Spain|Spanish flag]] from a beach flagpole and replaced it with the [[American flag]]. They then proceeded to set up a machine gun nest and placed [[barbed wire]] around their perimeter. The first land skirmish in Puerto Rico between the Puerto Rican militia and the American forces occurred when Lieutenant Méndez López and his men attacked and opened fire on the Americans. During the small battle which followed, the Americans returned fire with their machine gun and ''Gloucester'' began to bombard the Spanish position. Lieutenant Méndez López and three of his men were wounded and the militia unit was forced to retreat to the town of [[Yauco barrio-pueblo|Yauco]].<ref name="AAMPR" /><ref name="EDG" />

=== Invasion ===
[[File:General Nelson Miles and other soldiers on horseback Puerto Rico..JPG|thumb|150px|General Nelson Miles and other soldiers on horseback in Puerto Rico]]

After the skirmish was over, men from ''Lampasas'' landed on the beach to secure the area and to build a landing dock. Three thousand and three-hundred American soldiers under the command of General Miles landed. The units that landed were the 6th Volunteer Regiments of [[Illinois]] and [[Massachusetts]], an artillery battalion, five battery companies, two engineer companies and a medical unit.<ref name="EDG" /> The men who had not abandoned the settlement of Guánica swore allegiance to the United States. Garretson named Agustín Barrenechea as Mayor of Guánica and Simón Mejil the chief of police. On the afternoon of the 25th, Garretson left Guánica with seven companies of the 6th Massachusetts and one company of the 6th Illinois and headed towards Yauco.<ref name="EDG" />

Secretary of War [[Russell A. Alger]] learned about the landing at Guánica the next day when he read an [[Associated Press]] report in a local [[Washington, D.C.]], newspaper. The War Department had ordered Miles to invade Puerto Rico by way of San Juan and therefore Alger was completely surprised with the report. Miles would have been subject to disciplinary actions had the invasion not gone so smoothly. Alger received the following cable from Miles three days after the invasion:<ref name="HoH">{{cite web|access-date=2008-08-02|url=http://www.homeofheroes.com/wallofhonor/spanish_am/14_puertorico.html|title=Puerto Rico — "A Moonlight Picnic"|publisher=Home of Heroes|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081012235248/http://homeofheroes.com/wallofhonor/spanish_am/14_puertorico.html|archive-date=October 12, 2008|url-status=dead}}</ref> "Spanish troops are retreating from southern part of Puerto Rico. This is a prosperous and beautiful country. The Army will soon be in mountain region. Weather delightful; troops in the best of health and spirit. Anticipate no insurmountable obstacles in future results. Results thus far have been accomplished without loss of a single life.<ref name=HoH/>

=== Battle of Yauco ===
{{See also|Yauco Battle Site}}
[[File:Francisco Puig (1898).gif|left|thumb|120px|Lt. Col. Francisco Puig|alt=]][[File:Yauco Battlefield 1898.jpg|thumb|Part of the [[Hacienda Santa Rita|Hacienda Desideria]], owned by Antonio Mariani, where the [[Yauco Battle Site|Battle of Yauco]] took place in 1898]][[File:Train Station in Yauco.jpg|thumb|19th century train station in [[Yauco, Puerto Rico|Yauco]]]]

After Rivera, the keeper of the Guánica Lighthouse notified Atilio Gaztambide, the mayor of Yauco, located {{convert|6|mi|km|spell=in}} northeast of Guánica, of the imminent and incoming American invasion, the mayor in turn notified Governor Macías via telegraph. The governor ordered Captain Salvador Meca and his 3rd Company of the 25th Patria Battalion from Yauco to head for Guánica. Meca and his men were joined by Lieutenant Colonel Francisco Puig, who assumed command of the Spanish forces at [[Hacienda Santa Rita|Hacienda Desideria]] {{convert|2|mi|km|spell=in}} from Guánica. Puig arrived with two companies known as "''Cazador Patria'' Battalion", and they were joined by Puerto Rican volunteers, the civil guards and mounted guerrillas from the towns of Yauco and [[Sabana Grande, Puerto Rico|Sabana Grande]]. Puig had the men positioned on both sides of the road that ran from Guánica to the coffee Hacienda Desideria (owned by Antonio Mariani) in Yauco, as well as an infantry company positioned on a hill south of the hacienda.<ref name="BY">{{cite web
|access-date=2007-07-30
|url=http://www.spanamwar.com/puertoland2.htm
|last=Barnes
|first=Mark R.
|title=The American Army Moves on Puerto-Rico: The Landing and Skirmish at Guánica and the Battle of Yauco
|work=War in Puerto Rico
|publisher=Spanish American War Centennial Website
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080724113938/http://spanamwar.com/puertoland2.htm
|archive-date=July 24, 2008
|url-status=live
}}</ref>

In the meantime, Garretson set out of Guánica with his men towards Yauco with the intention of capturing the Yauco rail terminus that ran between that town and the city of [[Ponce, Puerto Rico|Ponce]], the largest in the southern region of the island.<ref name="BY" /> Garretson and his men arrived in the darkness of night and were informed by his scouts of the possibility of a hostile situation at the Hacienda Desideria. He ordered the Illinois company and two companies (companies L and M) of the 6th Massachusetts to occupy a small hill on his right that overlooked the hacienda.<ref name="BY" />

Captain San Pedro detected the movements of the American troops from his positions on a nearby hill and ordered his men to open fire. Garretson then ordered a direct attack on the Spanish and Puerto Rican forces in the hacienda. At day break, the 6th Massachusetts overran the Spanish forces and suffered four casualties.<ref name="BY" /> Puig was expecting reinforcements from Yauco which did not arrive and was ordered to disengage and retreat. Before retreating the right wing of the Spanish force, which was not overrun, initiated a flanking attack against two positions held by the Illinois and Massachusetts companies. The unexpected strength of the Spanish force caused some of the 6th Massachusetts troops to momentarily panic, but the Spanish forces were eventually driven off. Puig and his forces suffered two officers and three soldiers wounded and two soldiers dead.<ref name="BY" />

Puig and his men retreated towards Yauco, but failed to destroy the rail terminus which connected the town to the city of Ponce, and proceeded to march towards the town of [[Peñuelas, Puerto Rico|Peñuelas]]. Garretson's troops entered Yauco on the afternoon of July 26 and on July 27 Puig's men continued their march, leaving their artillery and heavy equipment behind, passing the towns of [[Adjuntas, Puerto Rico|Adjuntas]] and [[Utuado, Puerto Rico|Utuado]] and finally arriving at the city of [[Arecibo, Puerto Rico|Arecibo]] on the northern coast of the island on July 29.<ref name="BY" /> Colonel Puig, believing that he would be dishonored and accused by the Spanish government of abandoning military equipment during his retreat, committed suicide on August 2.<ref>{{cite web
|access-date=2008-08-02
|url=http://home.coqui.net/sarrasin/pers7.htm#anchor221005
|title=Protagonistas de la Guerra Hispano Americana en Puerto Rico
|work=1898 La Guerra Hispano Americana en Puerto Rico
|language=es
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509092337/http://home.coqui.net/sarrasin/pers7.htm#anchor221005
|archive-date=May 9, 2008
|url-status=live
}}</ref>

Miles, upon learning about the lack of discipline of the 6th Massachusetts during the battle, ordered an investigation. The 6th Massachusetts was sent on a hard march from Guánica to Ponce as punishment and the regimental commander, a lieutenant colonel, a major, and a captain resigned upon request.<ref name="BY" />

=== Battle of Fajardo ===
{{Further|Battle of Fajardo}}
[[File:Fajardo lighthouse 1898.jpg|thumb|''Faro de Las Cabezas de San Juan'' ([[Cape San Juan Light|Cape San Juan lighthouse]]), c. 1898]]

On August 1, the monitors {{USS|Puritan|BM-1|6}}, {{USS|Amphitrite|BM-2|6}}, armed tug {{USS|Leyden|1865|6}}, and collier {{USS|Hannibal|1898|6}} were sailing off the coast of [[Fajardo, Puerto Rico|Fajardo]] on the northeast corner of Puerto Rico, when Captain [[Frederick Rodgers|Frederick W. Rodgers]], ''Puritan''{{'}}s commanding officer and senior officer afloat, spotted the ''Faro de Las Cabezas de San Juan'' ([[Cape San Juan Light]]house) that had been designated the landing site for the US Army's invasion of Puerto Rico. Rodgers ordered a reconnaissance landing party ashore, including Puerto Rican volunteers. The sailors advanced to within a {{convert|1/2|mi|km|spell=in}} of Fajardo, about {{convert|5|mi|km|spell=in}} from the coast, but withdrew when they encountered Spanish troops.<ref name="FLH">{{cite web
|access-date=2008-08-02
|url=http://www.homeofheroes.com/wallofhonor/spanish_am/14_puertorico.html
|title=Fajardo lighthouse
|publisher=Home of Heroes
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081012235248/http://homeofheroes.com/wallofhonor/spanish_am/14_puertorico.html
|archive-date=October 12, 2008
|url-status=dead
}}</ref><ref name="home.coqui.net">{{Cite web |url=http://home.coqui.net/sarrasin/incidente.fajardo.htm#anchor239953 |title=Los incidentes de Fajardo 3 al 7 de agosto de 1898 |access-date=February 27, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120222154436/http://home.coqui.net/sarrasin/incidente.fajardo.htm#anchor239953 |archive-date=February 22, 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The 25-man Spanish garrison stationed in Fajardo was alerted to the American presence and ordered to withdraw after notifying their superiors in San Juan. When Santiago Veve Calzada, a Fajardo native, realized that the garrison was abandoned and his town defenseless against the Americans, he implored the Spanish authorities in San Juan to dispatch troops to defend Fajardo.<ref name="FLH" /> Losing hope that Spanish troops would come to the town's aid, Veve went to the lighthouse to seek protection for the town from the Americans. On the afternoon of August 5, Veve entered Fajardo with a contingent of [[Sailor|bluejackets]] and United States flags were hoisted over the [[United States Customs House (Fajardo, Puerto Rico)|Fajardo Customs House]] at the harbor and in the city hall.<ref name="FLH" /> On the evening of August 6, Captain [[Charles James Barclay (U.S. Navy officer)|Charles J. Barclay]] of ''Amphitrite'' ordered 28 sailors and 7 officers commanded by Lieutenant Charles N. Atwater and Assistant Engineer David J. Jenkins ashore to relight and occupy the Fajardo lighthouse. They were also ordered to quarter 60 women and children of the town's families that were deemed in danger for having sided with the Americans. As the first group of sailors was entering the darkened lighthouse, naval cadet William H. Boardman was mortally wounded when his revolver fell from a faulty holster and discharged into his thigh, cutting the femoral artery. His was one of only two Navy deaths during the Puerto Rico campaign.<ref name="home.coqui.net" />

On August 4, Governor General [[Manuel Macías y Casado]] sent Colonel Pedro del Pino and about 220 troops, including civil guardsmen to recapture the city. When Colonel Pino entered Fajardo on August 7, he found it nearly deserted because the residents, fearing a battle, had fled to the Fajardo light and the surrounding hills. At close to midnight on August 8, Pino's troops began their assault on the lighthouse. The landing party of ''Amphitrite''{{'}}s sailors occupying the lighthouse doused the light and signaled the ships offshore, initiating shore bombardment as the naval guns began firing a protective pattern. After two hours, the Spanish forces retreated back to the town. The Americans suffered no casualties, despite a close call when a wayward naval shell smashed through the {{convert|2|ft|m|adj=on|spell=in}} thick walls of the lighthouse within touch of six men but failed to explode. The Spanish losses were two dead and three wounded, including a lieutenant.<ref name="FLH" /><ref name="home.coqui.net" />

Early the next morning, Barclay decided the continued occupation of the lighthouse was of marginal value and ordered his men back to the ship. A landing party of 30 sailors from ''Amphitrite'' and a similar number of [[United States Marine Corps|U.S. Marines]] from {{USS|Cincinnati|C-7|6}} under Lieutenant [[John A. Lejeune]] came ashore to secure the area while the 60 Fajardo civilians boarded ''Leyden'' for passage to [[Ponce, Puerto Rico|Ponce]] and the lighthouse was abandoned to the Spaniards. In Fajardo, Pino's men tore down the U.S. flags that flew over the harbor customs house and city hall, returning to San Juan after verifying that the lighthouse was truly abandoned. The contingent of about 20 civil guards that had accompanied Pino, were left to maintain order in the town. The skirmish at Fajardo was the only time that American forces withdrew from a position during the Puerto Rico campaign.<ref name="FLH" />

=== Battle of Guayama ===
[[File:US troopships and convoy at Playa de Ponce, 1898.jpg|thumb|US troopships and convoy at [[Playa, Ponce, Puerto Rico|Playa de Ponce]], 1898]]

After the town of Yauco was taken, Miles decided to attack the City of [[Ponce, Puerto Rico|Ponce]] by sea and by land. Garretson's 6th Illinois and 6th Massachusetts had returned to Guánica and after the troops rested, Garretson and his men were ordered to move eastward to Ponce. Lt. Col. Rafael Martinez Illecas, in charge of the Spanish forces in that city, had pulled out, leaving behind a small garrison of 300 volunteers to hold the town.<ref name="PRL" /> When the American forces arrived in [[Ponce, Puerto Rico|Ponce]] they met no resistance and the Spanish volunteers surrendered. The American forces were not the only ones who participated in the taking of Ponce. Members of the [[Puerto Rican Commission]], which included the leader of the [[Intentona de Yauco|''Intentona de Yauco'']] revolt, [[Antonio Mattei Lluberas]] and his group, arrived in Ponce aboard [[SS St. Louis (1894)|USS ''St. Louis'']] and were assigned to the headquarters of General Miles. From this group Miles organized the "Porto Rican Scouts", which was later assigned to General Theodore Schwan, under the command of Edwardo Lugo Viñas.<ref name="SH">{{Cite web |url=http://www.proyectosalonhogar.com/Enciclopedia_Ilustrada/Documentos_historicos/Protagonistas/P12.htm |title=Protagonistas de la Guerra Hispano Americana en Puerto Rico Parte XII |access-date=October 13, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304092737/http://www.proyectosalonhogar.com/Enciclopedia_Ilustrada/Documentos_historicos/Protagonistas/P12.htm |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> Miles then ordered Brigadier General Peter G. Hains and the men of the 3rd Illinois, 4th Ohio and 4th Pennsylvania Volunteer Infantry Regiments to take [[Arroyo, Puerto Rico|Arroyo]], a small port {{convert|60|mi|km}} east of Ponce that served the larger nearby coastal town of [[Guayama, Puerto Rico|Guayama]].<ref name="PRL" /> Arroyo was taken on August 2 and on August 5 Hanes ordered the 4th Ohio, the 3rd Illinois and a battery of Sims-Dudley guns, manned by Company G of the 4th Ohio, to capture Guayama.<ref name="PRL">{{cite web
|access-date=2008-08-02
|url=http://www.spanamwar.com/puertoland3.htm
|last=Barnes
|first=Mark R.
|title=The American Army Moves on Puerto-Rico Part 3
|work=War in Puerto Rico
|publisher=Spanish American War Centennial Website
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081011060957/http://spanamwar.com/puertoland3.htm
|archive-date=October 11, 2008
|url-status=live
}}</ref>

Spanish forces were entrenched on the crest of two small hills, between which the road from Arroyo to Guayama ran. The Americans had crossed a stream in front of the hills when suddenly the Spanish opened fire. The Americans protected their position by the stream and increased their firepower as more reinforcements arrived.<ref name="PRL" /> The outnumbered Spanish troops retreated to Guayama as the Americans made their advance on the hills. The firefight, which lasted half an hour, left three American wounded. When the 4th Ohio entered the town they discovered that the Spaniards had fled north and abandoned the city, ending the Battle of Guayama. General [[John Rutter Brooke]] used the Cautiño Residence ([[Casa Cautiño|''Casa Cautiño'']]) by the town square in Guayama as his military headquarters.<ref name="PRL" />

=== Battle of the Guamaní River Bridge ===
On August 6, Colonel Alonzo B. Coit sent two companies of the 4th Ohio on a reconnaissance mission across and beyond a cast iron bridge that crossed the [[Guamaní River]]. The road beyond the bridge was essential for General Hains' projected advance to the town of [[Cayey, Puerto Rico|Cayey]].<ref name="HoH" /> The 4th Ohio observed elements of Spain's 6th Provisional Battalion under the command of [[Julio Cervera Baviera]] entrenched in a hilly area they called Guamaní Heights, six miles north of the bridge. The 4th felt that they were too strongly entrenched to attempt an assault at the time.<ref name="PRL" /> The 4th Ohio requested reinforcements and on August 9, attacked the Spaniards and a short firefight erupted. The numerical superiority of the Americans forced the Spanish to retreat from Guamaní Heights.<ref name="HoH" /><ref name="PRL" /> This battle was the costliest battle yet for the Americans since their landing at Guánica, as it resulted in seven wounded. The Spanish forces suffered 2 dead and 15 wounded.<ref name="HoH" />

=== Battle of Coamo ===
[[File:3rd Wisconsin.jpg|thumb|The 3rd Wisconsin awaits orders to charge the Spanish at [[Coamo, Puerto Rico|Coamo]]]]

Shortly after the American soldiers disembarked, a group of Spanish and Puerto Rican units began moving from [[Ponce, Puerto Rico|Ponce]] to [[Aibonito, Puerto Rico|Aibonito]], marching through the [[Carretera Central (Puerto Rico)|Carretera Central]] route. The caravan was composed of two companies of the ''Cazadores de la Patria'' Battalion and some members of the Civil Guard and a Puerto Rican anti-Spanish guerilla force. A total of 248 infantry men and 42 members of the cavalry formed the battalions under the command of Lt. Col. Rafael Martínez Illescas, the same commander who was in charge of the Ponce garrison.<ref name="p.42">{{Harvnb |Pratts|2006|p=42}}</ref> Traveling by foot, the journey would last two days. The group decided to spend one night in the [[Hot spring|hot springs]] resort in the municipality of [[Coamo, Puerto Rico|Coamo]] known as the [[Baños de Coamo|''Baños de Coamo'']] before continuing their march in the morning.<ref name="p.42" /><ref name="SW">{{Cite web |url=http://www.spanamwar.com/puertoland3.htm |title=The American Army Moves on Puerto-Rico |access-date=August 1, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081011060957/http://spanamwar.com/puertoland3.htm |archive-date=October 11, 2008 |url-status=live }}</ref> Martínez Illescas immediately ordered the construction of several trenches; while building these, the soldiers were ambushed by an anti-Spanish guerilla force, led by Pedro María Descartes, who managed to kill a member of the Civil Guard.<ref name="p.42" />

[[File:SpanishAmericanWarPOW.jpg|right|thumb|Spanish and Puerto Rican prisoners of war after the Battle of Coamo]]
Meanwhile, two battalions of volunteers from [[Wisconsin]] and [[Pennsylvania]], led by Generals [[Oswald Herbert Ernst|Oswald H. Ernst]] and [[James H. Wilson]], settled on opposite sides of the road to Coamo.<ref name="p.42" /> On August 9, 1898, the Americans began their offensive, opening cannon fire against the city and completing their attack with artillery fire, the 3rd and 4th Regular Pennsylvania Artillery to provide artillery support for the frontal assault on the ''Baños'', damaging the resort.<ref name="SW" /><ref name="p.46">{{Harvnb |Pratts|2006|p=46}}</ref> The Americans intended to encircle and defeat the defenses in the city. A group of soldiers entered the city from the backside, having advanced through a river nearby. The rear assault was reinforced by Wilson's army under General Ernst, attempting to trap the allied soldiers in a crossfire, employing a tactic known as the [[pincer movement]].<ref name="p.48">{{Harvnb |Pratts|2006|p=48}}</ref> Martínez Illescas was surprised by the attack and led an improvised attack, but he was killed in the crossfire along with his second-in-command, leaving Captain Hita in charge; he ordered his men to surrender. Half of the allied troops ignored the order and continued the attack, Troop C galloped at top speed north from the ''Baños de Coamo'', after finding the resort abandoned by the Spanish.<ref name="SW" /> Hita's men were sent to a prisoner-of-war camp located at [[Descalabrado River]], while the men who continued to attack retreated to Aibonito when they realized that the Americans were using a pincer movement.<ref name="p.48" />

=== Battle of Silva Heights ===
{{See also|Silva Bridge}}[[File:Col. Julio Soto Villanueva and staff (1898).jpg|thumb|Col. Julio Soto Villanueva (X) with his staff in [[Mayagüez, Puerto Rico|Mayagüez]]]]

Brigadier General [[Theodore Schwan]] and 2,896 men of his Independent Brigade had landed in Guánica and marched towards occupied Yauco. Schwan and his men were ordered to move westward and to capture the city of [[Mayagüez, Puerto Rico|Mayagüez]]. Colonel Julio Soto Villanueva ordered 1,500 Spanish Regulars of the 24th Rifle Battalion, six companies of the Alfonso XIII auxiliaries, and other scattered Spanish and Puerto Rican guerilla forces dispatched from the garrison at Mayagüez to meet and defeat Schwan. The Spanish forces entrenched themselves at a high ridge they named Silva Heights, located at a road near the town of [[Hormigueros, Puerto Rico|Hormigueros]].<ref name="HoH" />

Schwan's troops arrived in the city of [[San Germán, Puerto Rico|San Germán]] and continued the march towards their objective. Troop A of Schwan's 5th Cavalry approached Silva Heights and were soon engaged in a firefight when the Spanish forces opened fire. The Americans were aided by two companies of the 19th Infantry, supported by artillery and [[Gatling gun]]s, as well as the 11th Infantry. The Spanish forces retreated after the American reinforcements brought them under intense fire.<ref name="HoH" /> Schwan's men set up camp on Silva Heights for the night and the following day they continued their drive to Mayagüez. They arrived the following morning to find that the Spanish forces had abandoned the city to retreat to the east towards [[Lares, Puerto Rico|Lares]]. Schwan decided to send forces in order to follow and capture Soto Villanueva and his forces, as he was additionally ordered to take the town of [[Las Marías, Puerto Rico|Las Marías]] which was in the way of the retreating army's path. The outcome of the Silva Heights Battle left 3 Spanish dead, 6 wounded, and 136 prisoners. Schwan's brigade suffered 15 wounded and 2 killed in action.<ref name="HoH" /><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://army.togetherweserved.com/army/servlet/tws.webapp.WebApp?cmd=ShadowBoxProfile&type=Person&ID=405039 |title=U.S. Army Service Tribute {{!}} TWS Roll of Honor<!-- Bot generated title --> |access-date=June 30, 2019 |archive-date=November 7, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211107220915/https://army.togetherweserved.com/army/servlet/tws.webapp.WebApp?cmd=ShadowBoxProfile&type=Person&ID=405039 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Battle of Asomante ===
[[File:Asomante.jpg|right|thumb|Spanish trenches in [[Asomante, Aibonito, Puerto Rico|Asomante]]]]

The American cavalry pursued the soldiers that had retreated from Coamo, but were not able to reach them until the units had entered Aibonito Pass, a [[mountain pass]] more commonly known as [[Asomante, Aibonito, Puerto Rico|Asomante]]. The region had been prepared by allied Puerto Rican and Spanish troops, who had built a trench and placed soldiers and equipment around the foliage.<ref name="p.50">{{harvnb|Pratts|2006|p=50}}</ref> As soon as the soldiers noticed the presence of the invading unit they opened cannon fire. The cavalry received infantry reinforcements, which were received by battery fire. Six American soldiers were injured in the crossfire, prompting a retreat order.<ref name="p.50" /> The allied units (Spanish and Puerto Rican) lost five soldiers and two civil guards.<ref name="p.50" /> During the following two days the Americans decided to do a battlefield [[reconnaissance]] and Colonel [[Samuel Reber II]], developed a [[croquis]] of the Aibonito Pass. Spies were deployed throughout Coamo, including a Puerto Rican separatist named Carlos Patterne, who was able to enter the city without suspicion and contact Rufino Huertas, a separatist teacher.<ref name="p.51" /> Huertas gave Patterne a series of defense plans that were previously developed and organized by Martínez Illescas.<ref name="p.51">{{Harvnb |Pratts|2006|p=51}}</ref> While inactive, the Puerto Rican soldiers deployed in Asomante completed rounds every two hours, working four hours daily. They mostly ate beans, some rice and meat, while conserving several cracker packs for Spanish reinforcements that were supposed to arrive.<ref name="p.70-71">{{Harvnb |Pratts|2006|pp=70–71}}</ref> They slept in improvised huts that did not protect them from the rain.<ref name="p.70-71" />

The American commanders decided to attack the trenches with artillery, while sending a large group to [[Barranquitas, Puerto Rico|Barranquitas]], from which they would try to attack the allied troops from the back.<ref name="p.55">{{Harvnb |Pratts|2006|p=55}}</ref> At 10:30&nbsp;a.m. Captain [[Ramsay D. Potts (brigadier general)|Ramsay D. Potts]] led part of the 3rd Wisconsin Volunteer Infantry Regiment through the central highway to Aibonito. Lieutenants Bliss and O'Hern led two units with similar equipment. At 1:00&nbsp;p.m. the allied troops opened cannon fire as the Americans entered their range.<ref name="p.59">{{Harvnb|Pratts|2006|p=59}}</ref> Potts ordered the deployment of two batteries while O'Hern received orders from Commander Landcaster to set a cannon at a distance of a 100 yards to the vanguard's right.<ref name="p.59" /> They intended to defeat a small group led by Captain Hernaíz. Shrapnel from allied cannon fire was falling close to Lancaster's location, and he asked Potts to help him by deploying a battery nearby. One of Hernaíz's Placensias cannons overheated, which forced him to order a temporary cease to the offensive.<ref name="p.60">"{{Harvnb |Pratts|2006|p=60}}</ref> Landcaster believed that the opposition had been annihilated, ordered an advance. However, the allied fire was renewed, this time supported by [[Mauser]] rifle fire. The sudden attack caused confusion among some soldiers, who reported seeing a second Spanish unit nearby.<ref name="p.81">"{{Harvnb |Pratts|2006|p=81}}</ref> Fearing that the allied units could capture the American equipment, Landcaster ordered a retreat. Lieutenant Hains was gravely injured by a Mauser bullet, being replaced by Sergeant John Long. Meanwhile, most of Potts' men fled the battlefield. In the crossfire the allied forces overpowered the American infantry, using Mauser fire to disorganize their artillery,<ref name="p.62">{{Harvnb|Pratts|2006|p=62}}</ref> during which time four American officials were gravely injured including Long, Lieutenant Harris, Captain E.T. Lee and Corporal Oscar Swanson.<ref name="p.82">"{{Harvnb |Pratts|2006|p=82}}</ref> Private Frederick Yough, Corporal August Yank, George J. Bruce and Private Sices also received injuries, with Yough subsequently dying. Harris' position was filled by O'Hern, while Swanson was fatally shot while trying to support the artillery. In total the allied units had only an injured artillery man, while the American side had two dead and five injured. Wilson's camp was the first to receive a telegram from General Miles notifying him that the war had ended. The Americans sent Bliss to Asomante, but Nouvilas refused to suspend the hostilities after receiving a telegram from Macías denying any peace treaty.<ref name="p.63">{{Harvnb|Pratts|2006|p=63}}</ref> All military actions in Puerto Rico were supposed to be suspended on August 13, after President [[William McKinley]] and French Ambassador [[Jules Cambon]], acting on behalf of the Spanish government, signed an [[armistice]] whereby Spain relinquished its sovereignty over the territory of Puerto Rico.<ref name="COPRSAW" /> However a final engagement took place on the same day.

=== The Guacio Disaster ===
The retreating [[Mayagüez, Puerto Rico|Mayagüez]] army marched for the next two days after leaving the city. At 10:30 am on August 11, Soto Villanueva was injured in the leg after falling through a bridge he was trying to cross. He became convinced his leg had been broken and needed to be carried by four men in a hammock for the remainder of the march. The marching army reached [[Las Marías, Puerto Rico|Las Marias]] on the same day. Soto Villanueva then ordered a private meeting at the house of the town mayor between himself, Lieutenant Colonel Antonio Oses, Lieutenant Colonel Salvador Suau and Lieutenant Rodolfo Olea Mora in which it is decided to make a final stand in the town against the incoming enemy forces. Soto sent a telegram to General Macias informing him of the choice, but as a response received orders to continue the march towards [[Lares, Puerto Rico|Lares]]. Feeling incapable of leading the march, Soto once again set up a meeting between himself and the aforementioned officers. During the meeting, Soto ordered the army to leave him and relinquished his command to Lieutenant Colonel Oses. As his first order as commanding officer, Oses followed the Governor's command. However, when attempting to leave las Marias the army was halted at 11:00 pm on August 12 by the roaring [[Río Grande de Añasco|Guacio River]] which had grown massive enough as to prevent passage through it. Oses ordered the army to wait until morning to see if the current died down. On August 13 the river currents remained at the same level. In the morning Colonel Suau remembered a crossing at the north of the river and at 9:00 am ordered troops under his command to march north in order to pass through it. At this point the American troops were spotted, beginning the battle. Oses saw victory as unlikely and ordered Lieutenant Olea to launch a barrage of cannon fire at the American troops as his forces attempted to cross the river by force. In the ensuing melee Oses and the majority of the Spanish forces were captured, taken prisoner and forced to march back to Mayagüez. The forces under Colonel Suau found the crossing and retreated from the battle, later successfully arriving in Lares where they learned of the surrender. Schwan, upon receiving news of the prisoners wished to continue the pursuit of the remaining forces, but was halted by news of the surrender. The battle at Las Marías was perceived to have been a colossal military failure by the Spanish and local population, who named it the Guacio Disaster.<ref>{{Cite web|title=desastre.guasio.htm|url=http://home.coqui.net/sarrasin/desastre.guasio.htm|access-date=2021-12-14|website=home.coqui.net}}</ref>

== Aftermath ==

=== Treaty of Paris of 1898 ===
[[File:Raising the U.S. flag over San Juan, October 18, 1898.JPG|thumb|150px|Raising the U.S. flag in [[La Fortaleza]], San Juan, October 18, 1898]]

The Puerto Rico campaign, which began with ''Yales''{{'}}s capture of ''Rita'' on May 8, and ended on December 10, after the [[Treaty of Paris (1898)|Treaty of Paris]] was signed, was short compared to the other campaigns in the [[Spanish–American War]], because an [[armistice]] stopped the hostilities between Spain and the United States on August 12. As a result, the campaign came to an end before its military objective in Puerto Rico was completed, which was to reach and take the capital city of [[San Juan, Puerto Rico|San Juan]]. Among the factors which benefited the invaders in the short campaign was that the Puerto Ricans who resided in the southern and western towns and villages resented Spanish rule and tended to view the Americans as their liberators.<ref name="HoH" /> The Treaty of Paris came into effect on April 11, 1899, when the documents of ratification were exchanged. Some Puerto Rican leaders such as [[José de Diego]] and [[Eugenio María de Hostos]] expected the United States to grant the island its independence<ref>{{cite web
|access-date=2008-08-02
|url=http://www.hostos.cuny.edu/about/hostos.html
|title=About Eugenio María de Hostos (1839–1903)
|publisher=Hostos Community College
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081002115622/http://www.hostos.cuny.edu/about/hostos.html
|archive-date=October 2, 2008
|url-status=live
}}</ref><ref name="World1898_Diego">{{cite web
|access-date=2008-08-02
|url=https://www.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/1898/diego.html
|title=José de Diego
|work=The World of 1898: The Spanish–American War
|publisher=Hispanic Division, Library of Congress
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170827093712/http://www.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/1898/diego.html
|archive-date=August 27, 2017
|url-status=live
}}</ref> and in the case of [[Rosendo Matienzo Cintrón]] and the committee which he headed, greeted General Miles and the invaders in Ponce with banquets.<ref name="END">[http://www.zonai.com/promociones/biografias/0401/rosendo.asp El Nuevo Dia] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090603005313/http://www.zonai.com/promociones/biografias/0401/rosendo.asp |date=2009-06-03 }}</ref> Believing that Puerto Rico would gain its independence, a group of men staged an uprising in [[Ciales, Puerto Rico|Ciales]] on August 13, 1898, which became known as ''El Levantamiento de Ciales'' or the "Ciales Uprising" and proclaimed Puerto Rico a republic.<ref>El levantamiento de Ciales, by Juan Manuel Delgado, Editorial Guasábara, 1980.</ref> The Spanish authorities who were unaware that the cease fire had been signed brutally suppressed the uprising.<ref>[http://www.proyectosalonhogar.com/Enciclopedia_Ilustrada/Almanaque_historico3.htm#donde Projecto Salon Hogar] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160605155510/http://www.proyectosalonhogar.com/enciclopedia_ilustrada/Almanaque_historico3.htm#donde |date=June 5, 2016 }}, Retrieved December 20, 2008</ref> Another reason which can explain why the campaign was short and not as violent as the others is that the 1st, 2nd and 3rd Puerto Rican provisional battalions were in Cuba defending that island against the American invaders.

The Puerto Rican Battalion suffered a total of 70 casualties which included their dead, wounded, MIAs and prisoners.<ref name="EC" /> The Spanish, Puerto Ricans and Americans that participated in the campaign totaled 33,472. Of this total 8,000 were Spanish, 10,000 were Puerto Rican and 15,472 were American military personnel. The Spanish and Puerto Ricans suffered 429 casualties which included 17 dead, 88 wounded and 324 captured. The American forces suffered 43 casualties: 3 dead and 40 wounded.<ref name="MHPR" /> The commander of Spain's 6th Provisional Battalion, Julio Cervera Baviera, gained notoriety as the author of a [[pamphlet]] called ''La defensa de [[Puerto Rico]]'', which supported Governor General [[Manuel Macías y Casado]] and in an attempt to justify Spain's defeat against the United States, blamed the Puerto Rican volunteers in the Spanish Army as the reason behind the fiasco.<ref>Frances Negrón-Muntaner, ''Boricua Pop: Puerto Ricans and the Latinization of American Culture'' (New York: NYU Press, 2004), 11.</ref> A group of angry San Juan locals agreed to challenge Cervera to a [[duel]] if the commander did not retract his pamphlet. The men drew lots for this honor; it fell to José Janer y Soler and was seconded by [[Cayetano Coll y Toste]] y Leonidas Villalón. Cervera's seconds were Colonel Pedro del Pino and Captain Emilio Barrera. The duel never took place, as Cervera explained his intentions in writing the pamphlet, and all parties were satisfied.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{Cite web |url=http://home.coqui.net/sarrasin/pers2.htm |title=Pers2.htm<!-- Bot generated title --> |access-date=August 16, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080130100035/http://home.coqui.net/sarrasin/pers2.htm |archive-date=January 30, 2008 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Under the terms of the [[Treaty of Paris (1898)|Treaty of Paris of 1898]], ratified on April 11, 1899, Puerto Rico was ceded to the United States. Spain had lost its last colony in the Western Hemisphere and the United States gained imperial strength and global presence. The United States established a military government and appointed Miles the first head of the military government established on the island, acting as both head of the army of occupation and administrator of civil affairs.<ref name="Miles">{{cite book
|url=http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1711.dl/History.Miles
|last=Miles
|first=Nelson Appleton
|title=Personal Recollections and Observations of General Nelson A. Miles
|quote=Embracing a Brief View of the Civil War, or, From New England to the Golden Gate : and the Story of his Indian Campaigns, with Comments on the Exploration, Development and Progress of Our Great Western Empire"
|publisher=Werner
|location=Chicago
|year=1896
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081121121309/http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1711.dl/History.Miles
|archive-date=November 21, 2008
|url-status=live
}}</ref> Members of the Spanish forces and civilians who were loyal to the Spanish Crown were allowed to return to Spain. By October 18, the Spanish withdrawal from Puerto Rico was completed as the final troops left San Juan for Spain.<ref name="COPRSAW" /> Those who belonged to the Spanish military and who decided to stay in Puerto Rico were offered the option by the United States to serve in the newly formed "[[65th Infantry Regiment (United States)|Porto Rico Regiment]]". Some took the offer, such as [[Teófilo Marxuach]], a former lieutenant in the Spanish Army,<ref name="Hewitt">{{harvnb|Hewitt|Holmes|Williams|1905|p=440}}</ref> and others, such as Captain Angel Rivero Méndez, declined the offer and retired from the military.<ref name="Rivero">{{cite web
|access-date=2008-08-02
|url=http://perso.wanadoo.es/padron/rivero/
|title=Angel Rivero, Crónica de la Guerra Hispanoamericana en Puerto Rico
|language=es
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090111061510/http://perso.wanadoo.es/padron/rivero/
|archive-date=January 11, 2009
|url-status=dead
}}</ref>

=== "Americanization" of Puerto Rico ===
[[File:Uncle Sam and the Goddess of Liberty bring freedom to Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines (1898 newspaper cartoon).jpg|right|thumb|In an 1898 newspaper cartoon, "Uncle Sam" watches as the "Goddess of Liberty" heralds "freedom" for Cuba, Puerto Rico and the Philippines]][[File:1899BalanceCartoon.jpg|thumb|upright|An 1899 cartoon in American newspaper ''[[The Philadelphia Inquirer]]'' depicting the people of Puerto Rico, as well as those of the new possessions of the United States, as black savage children]][[File:School Begins (Puck Magazine 1-25-1899).jpg|thumb|250x250px|An 1899, caricature by [[Louis Dalrymple]] (1866–1905), showing Uncle Sam harshly lecturing four black children labelled Philippines, Hawaii, Puerto Rico and Cuba]]
From 1898 to 1900, Puerto Rico was governed by four military officers, commanding general Miles, Major General [[John R. Brooke]] (1898–1898), Major General [[Guy Vernor Henry|Guy Vernon Henry]] (1898–1899) and Major General [[George Whitefield Davis]] (1899–1900). Miles, Brooke and Henry were experienced veterans of the [[American Indian Wars|Indian Wars]] and, even though they were accustomed to the pacification and administration of the [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]], the U.S. Army had no previous experience in the administration of overseas territories.<ref name="SP2">''Strategy as Politics'' by: Jorge Rodriguez Beruff; Publisher: La Editorial; Universidad de Puerto Rico; page 18–19; {{ISBN|978-0-8477-0160-5}}</ref> Henry stated: "It was an entirely new duty for American Army officers. There was no precedent in the experience of these so suddenly placed in charge of this our first real colony, upon which their policy could be based."<ref name="SP2" />

The administration of Puerto Rico was the responsibility of the [[United States Department of War]]'s Division of Insular Affairs which was modeled after the [[Bureau of Indian Affairs]]. Almost immediately, the United States began the "[[US imperialism|Americanization]]" process of Puerto Rico. The U.S. occupation brought about a total change in Puerto Rico's economy and [[polity]] and did not apply democratic principles to the colony. Puerto Rico was classified as an "unincorporated territory" which meant that the protections of the [[United States Constitution]] did not automatically apply because the island belonged to the U.S., but was not part of the U.S.<ref name="CT">{{cite web
|access-date=2007-08-03
|url=http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-4172324_ITM
|title=Changing forms of U.S. hegemony in Puerto Rico: the impact on the family and sexuality
|work=Urban Anthropology and Studies of Cultural Systems and World Economic Development
|date=March 22, 2003
|last=Safa
|first=Helen
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205090026/http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-4172324_ITM
|archive-date=December 5, 2008
|url-status=live
}}</ref>

In 1899, [[U.S. Senator]] [[George F. Hoar|George Frisbie Hoar]] described Puerto Ricans as "uneducated, simple-minded and harmless people who were only interested in wine, women, music and dancing" and recommended that Spanish should be abolished in the island's schools and only English should be taught.<ref name=Harvey1899>{{cite news
|access-date=2008-08-03
|url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9D0CE2D6163DE433A25751C2A9649C94689ED7CF
|title=Americanizing Puerto Rico
|last=Harvey
|first=S.S.
|work=New York Times
|date=February 22, 1899
|page=4
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304200226/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9D0CE2D6163DE433A25751C2A9649C94689ED7CF
|archive-date=March 4, 2016
|url-status=live
}}</ref> Schools became the primary vehicle of Americanization, and initially all classes were taught in English, which also made for a large dropout rate.<ref name="CT" />

On January 15, 1899, the military government changed the name of Puerto Rico to ''Porto Rico'' (On May 17, 1932, U.S. Congress changed the name back to "Puerto Rico") and the island's currency was changed from the [[Currencies of Puerto Rico|Puerto Rican peso]] to the [[United States dollar|American dollar]], integrating the island's currency into the U.S. monetary system.<ref name=Dinwiddie_p261>{{harvnb|Dinwiddie|1899|p=261}}</ref> The United States exerted its control over the economy of the island by prohibiting Puerto Rico from negotiating commercial treaties with other nations, from determining tariffs, and from shipping goods to the mainland on other than U.S. carriers.<ref name="CT" />

=== Civil disorder ===
A state of civil disorder existed in the island's mountainous region after the invasion of the United States. The local [[Criollo people|Criollo]], who now found themselves unemployed and felt that they had been exploited by their former employers, formed bands called ''Partidas''. The ''Partidas'' at first attacked and robbed many of the wealthy plantation owners, who were loyal to the Spanish Crown, in vengeance, however they later began to attack the businesses owned by the locals. One of the most notable leaders of the Partidas was [[José Maldonado Román]] a.k.a. ''Aguila Blanca''. Maldonado, who operated in the areas of [[Juana Díaz, Puerto Rico|Juana Díaz]] and [[Ponce, Puerto Rico|Ponce]], harassed the [[Civil Guard (Spain)|Spanish Civil Guard]] and later did the same to the American forces. Another factor contributing to the state of civil disorder on the island was the lack of discipline of the American troops who were stationed there. These troops were not professional soldiers and were composed of volunteers. Many instances were reported where these men would act disorderly, under the influence of alcohol, and get into fights with the local residents.<ref name="LG">''1898-La Guerra Despues de la Guerra'' by: Fernando Pico; Publishers: Ediciones Huracan; {{ISBN|0-940238-25-X}}</ref> The state of civil disorder came to a halt on the island after the military government began to rebuild Puerto Rico's infrastructure, thereby providing employment for many of the discontented and unemployed population, and when the volunteer troops were replaced by the regular army.<ref name="LG" />

=== End of military rule and rise of the sugar economy ===
Military rule was replaced by a civilian government by way of the [[Foraker Act]] of 1900. However, the act stipulated that the governor, chief of police and top officials were presidentially appointed and they were all to be Americans.<ref name="CT" />

In 1901, the first civilian U.S. governor of Puerto Rico, [[Charles H. Allen]], installed himself as president of the largest sugar-refining company in the world, the [[American Sugar Refining Company]]. This company was later renamed the [[Domino Foods|Domino Sugar]] company. In effect, Allen leveraged his governorship of Puerto Rico into a [[controlling interest]] over the entire Puerto Rican [[economy]].<ref name="p.108-112">Ribes Tovar et al., pp. 122–144</ref>

=== 54 years after the end of the Puerto Rico campaign ===
In 1947, the U.S. granted Puerto Ricans the right to democratically elect [[governor of Puerto Rico|their own governor]], which they first exercised in 1948. The [[Constitution of Puerto Rico]] was approved by a Constitutional Convention on February 6, 1952, ratified by the U.S. Congress, and approved by [[Harry S. Truman|President Harry S. Truman]] on July 3 of that year. Puerto Rico adopted the name of ''Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico'' (which translates as "Free Associated State of Puerto Rico"), today officially translated into English as [[Commonwealth (U.S. insular area)|Commonwealth of Puerto Rico]], for its [[body politic]].<ref>[http://www.lexjuris.com/lexprcont.htm Constitution of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico – in Spanish (Spanish)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111114003340/http://www.lexjuris.com/lexprcont.htm |date=2011-11-14 }}.</ref><ref name=ConstitutionSpanish>{{cite web
 |access-date  = 2008-08-02
 |url         = http://www.lexjuris.com/lexprcont.htm
 |title       = Constitution of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico
 |publisher   = LexJuris de Puerto Rico
 |language    = es
 |url-status     = dead
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20111114003340/http://www.lexjuris.com/lexprcont.htm
 |archive-date = 2011-11-14
}}</ref><ref name=ConstitutionEnglish>{{cite web
|access-date=2008-08-02
|url=http://topuertorico.org/constitu.shtml
|title=Constitution of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico
|publisher=Welcome.toPuertoRico.org
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111125081800/http://www.topuertorico.org/constitu.shtml
|archive-date=November 25, 2011
|url-status=live
}}</ref>

== Markers, monuments and tombstones ==
In Puerto Rico there are no officially-established or built monuments to commemorate the Spanish–American War. There are however various markers where some of the historical events took place and some tombstones which honor both the American invaders and the joint Spanish and Puerto Rican defenders of the island. The [[National Register of Historic Places]] also lists various structures and sites in direct reference to the Spanish–American War such as the [[Antonio López (shipwreck)|S.S. Antonio Lopez Shipwreck]] site in [[Dorado, Puerto Rico|Dorado]], the [[Guánica Light|Guánica]] and [[Cape San Juan Light|Fajardo lighthouses]], the [[Silva Bridge]] in [[Hormigueros, Puerto Rico|Hormigueros]], and the [[Yauco Battle Site]] (and Hacienda Desideria, today known as [[Hacienda Santa Rita]]) in [[Guánica, Puerto Rico|Guánica]]. Some of these sites were also listed as part of a multiple property submission under the title "Spanish American War in Puerto Rico" in 1992.<ref>Oficina del Canciller, Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico; Oficina Estatal de Conservación Histórica. (2000). ''Spanish American War, 1898 – Nominaciones Temáticas'' [Nominee Properties in the National Register]. Retrieved September 14, 2025, from https://docs.pr.gov/files/OECH/Lugares%20Historicos/Propiedades%20en%20el%20Registro%20Nacional/1%20Nominaciones%20tematicas/64500545%20Spanish%20American%20War,%201898%20(2000).pdf</ref>

=== ''La Piedra de Guánica and other landmarks'' ===
[[File:Guanica Rock.jpg|right|200px|thumb|[[Guánica Rock|Rock in Guánica]] marking where Major [[Nelson A. Miles|General Nelson A. Miles]] and his men landed]]

The municipality of Guánica is home to a landmark rock that contains an inscription indicating the place where Major General Nelson A. Miles and his men landed on September 1898. There is also a monument in the town dedicated to the veterans of the Spanish–American War, though the monument does not specify to which veterans it is dedicated, the Americans or the Spanish/Puerto Ricans. Nearby, in Yauco, there is a monumental tombstone dedicated to an unknown Spanish soldier who had fallen in combat and was left there on that very spot. In Coamo there are two markers that indicate the place where Rafael Martínez Illescas and Frutos López died. López's tomb is located in the old cemetery of Coamo next to that of the tomb of the three unknown Puerto Rican soldiers who perished in that conflict. Martínez Illescas' body was transferred in 1916 to his hometown of [[Cartagena, Spain|Cartagena]] in Spain, where he is buried now. The municipality of Guayama, however, has recently dedicated a monument dedicated to the members of the 4th Ohio Infantry. In [[Asomante, Aibonito, Puerto Rico|Asomante]], there is a marker which indicates the place where the "Battle of Asomante" took place.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://home.coqui.net/sarrasin/monu.htm |title=Monumentos y tumbas |access-date=June 20, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515014700/http://home.coqui.net/sarrasin/monu.htm |archive-date=May 15, 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Puerto Rico}}
* [[Army of Puerto Rican Occupation Medal]]
* [[Military history of Puerto Rico]]
* [[Camp Las Casas]]
* [[Spain–United States relations]]
* [[Politics of Puerto Rico]]
* [[El Grito de Lares|''El Grito de Lares'']]
* [[Intentona de Yauco|''Intentona de Yauco'']]
* [[Puerto Ricans in World War I]]
* [[Puerto Ricans in World War II]]
* [[Puerto Ricans in the Vietnam War]]
* [[65th Infantry Regiment]]
{{Clear}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite book|first=Jorge Rodríguez |last=Beruff|title=Strategy as Politics: Puerto Rico on the Eve of the Second World War|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h0sYAAAAYAAJ|year=2007|publisher=La Editorial, Universidad de Puerto Rico|isbn=978-0-8477-0160-5}}
* {{cite book
|last=Dinwiddie |first=William
|year=1899
|title=Puerto Rico: Its Conditions and Possibilities
|publisher=Harper & Brothers
|location=New York
|url=https://archive.org/details/puertoricoitsco00dinwgoog
|quote=William Dinwiddie. }}
* {{cite book
|last=Hakim
|first=Joy
|year=1994
|title=History of US: Book Eight, An Age of Extremes
|location=New York
|publisher=Oxford University Press
|isbn=0-19-507759-8
|url-access=registration
|url=https://archive.org/details/ageofextremes00haki
}}
* {{cite book
|last1=Hewitt|first1=Waterman Thomas
|last2=Holmes |first2=Frank R.
|last3=Williams |first3= Lewis A.
|year=1905
|title=Cornell University: A History
|publisher=The University Publishing Society
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Pratts |first=Edgardo
|title=De Coamo a la Trinchera del Asomante
|publisher=Fundación Educativa Idelfonso Pratts
|location=Puerto Rico
|language=es
|edition=1st
|isbn=0-9762185-6-9
|year=2006
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Trask
|year=1996
|title=The War with Spain in 1898
|publisher=University of Nebraska Press |first=David F.
|isbn=0-8032-9429-8}}
* [[Ángel Rivero Méndez]]: ''Crónica de la Guerra Hispanoamericana en Puerto Rico''. Published by: Imprenta de los sucesores de Rivade- neyra (1922)
* [[Héctor Andrés Negroni]]: ''Historia militar de Puerto Rico''. Published by: Sociedad Estatal Quinto Centenario (1992)

== External links ==
{{Wikisource|From Yauco to Las Marias}}
* [http://spanamwar.com/puertoland1.htm Spanish–American War Centennial site]
* {{cite web |publisher=New York Public Library |title=Puerto Rico |url=http://legacy.www.nypl.org/research/chss/grd/resguides/spanamerwar/PuertoRico.html |work=The Spanish–American War: A Guide to the Collections of the Humanities and Social Sciences Library |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927052901/http://legacy.www.nypl.org/research/chss/grd/resguides/spanamerwar/PuertoRico.html |archive-date=2013-09-27 }}

{{Spanish Empire}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Battles of the Spanish–American War]]
[[Category:Military history of Puerto Rico]]
[[Category:Military in Puerto Rico|Campaign]]
[[Category:Spanish–American War]]
[[Category:United States Marine Corps in the 18th and 19th centuries]]