View source for Psychological abuse

{{Short description|Mental or emotional harm inflicted on a person}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2021}}

'''Psychological abuse''', often known as '''emotional abuse''' or '''mental abuse''', is a form of [[abuse]] characterized by a person subjecting or exposing another person to a behavior that may result in [[psychological trauma]], including [[Anxiety disorder|anxiety]], [[chronic depression]], [[clinical depression]] or [[post-traumatic stress disorder]] amongst other psychological problems.<ref name="Dutton, D. G. 19942">{{Cite journal |last=Dutton |first=Donald G. |date=Summer 1994 |title=Patriarchy and wife assault: the ecological fallacy |journal=[[Violence & Victims]] |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=167–182 |doi=10.1891/0886-6708.9.2.167 |pmid=7696196 |s2cid=35155731}}</ref><ref name="Maiuro2">{{citation |last1=Dutton |first1=Mary Ann |title=Psychological abuse in violent domestic relations |page=197 |year=2000 |postscript=. |editor-last1=Maiuro |editor-first1=Roland D. |contribution=Court-involved battered women's responses to violence: the role of psychological, physical, and sexual abuse |location=New York |publisher=Springer Publishing Company |isbn=978-0-8261-1146-3 |last2=Goodman |first2=Lisa A. |last3=Bennett |first3=Lauren |editor-first2=K. Daniel |editor-last2=O'Leary}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=pv6XIjT4MpUC Preview.]</ref><ref name="Emotional Abuse2">{{Cite journal |last1=Thompson |first1=Anne E. |last2=Kaplan |first2=Carole A. |date=February 1996 |title=Childhood emotional abuse |journal=[[British Journal of Psychiatry|The British Journal of Psychiatry]] |volume=168 |issue=2 |pages=143–148 |doi=10.1192/bjp.168.2.143 |pmid=8837902|s2cid=8520532 }}</ref>

It is often associated with situations of [[controlling behavior in relationships|controlling behavior in abusive relationships]], and may include [[bullying]], [[gaslighting]], [[Workplace bullying|abuse in the workplace]], amongst other behaviors that may cause an individual to feel unsafe.<ref name="Maiuro2" /><ref name="Emotional Abuse2" /> 

== General definition ==
[[Clinician]]s and researchers have offered different definitions of psychological abuse.<ref name="Emotional Abuse3">{{Cite journal|last1=Thompson|first1=Anne E.|last2=Kaplan|first2=Carole A.|date=February 1996|title=Childhood emotional abuse|journal=[[British Journal of Psychiatry|The British Journal of Psychiatry]]|volume=168|issue=2|pages=143–148|doi=10.1192/bjp.168.2.143|pmid=8837902|s2cid=8520532}}</ref> According to current research, the terms "psychological abuse" and "emotional abuse" can be used interchangeably, unless associated with psychological violence.<ref name=":023">{{Cite book|last=O'Leary |first=K. Daniel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pv6XIjT4MpUC&dq=psychological+abuse+in+relationships&pg=PR9|title=Psychological Abuse in Violent Domestic Relations|date=2004|publisher=Springer Publishing Company|isbn=978-0-8261-1146-3|language=en}}</ref> Usually, "emotional abuse" refers to any abuse that is emotional rather than physical, though experts often continue to find it difficult to recognize and operationally define it, and "experience uncertainty about proving it legally."<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://doi.org/10.1016/S0145-2134(02)00342-3 | doi=10.1016/S0145-2134(02)00342-3 | title=Emotional abuse and neglect (Psychological maltreatment): A conceptual framework | date=2002 | last1=Glaser | first1=Danya | journal=Child Abuse & Neglect | volume=26 | issue=6–7 | pages=697–714 | pmid=12201163 | url-access=subscription }}</ref> 

Emotional abuse can take several forms. Three general patterns of abusive behavior include aggressing, denying, and minimizing; "Withholding is another form of denying. Withholding includes refusing to listen, to communicate, and emotionally withdrawing as punishment."<ref>{{cite web|year=2007|title=Emotional abuse|url=https://www.counselingcenter.illinois.edu/self-help-brochures/relationship-problems/emotional-abuse/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141120190029/http://www.counselingcenter.illinois.edu/self-help-brochures/relationship-problems/emotional-abuse/|archive-date=20 November 2014|access-date=8 November 2013|publisher=Counseling Center, [[University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign|University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign]]}}</ref> Even though there is no established definition for emotional abuse, emotional abuse can possess a definition beyond verbal and psychological abuse. Blaming, shaming, and [[name calling]] are a few verbally abusive behaviors that can affect a victim emotionally. The victim's self-worth and emotional well-being are altered and even diminished by the verbal abuse, resulting in an emotionally abused victim.<ref name="HelpGuide">{{cite web | last1 = Smith | first1 = Melinda | last2 = Segal | first2 = Jeanne | title = Domestic violence and abuse: signs of abuse and abusive relationships | url = https://www.helpguide.org/articles/abuse/domestic-violence-and-abuse.htm | website = helpguide.org | access-date = 14 February 2015 | date = December 2014 }}</ref>

The victim may experience severe psychological effects. This would involve the tactics of brainwashing, which can fall under psychological abuse as well, but emotional abuse consists of the manipulation of the victim's emotions. The victim may feel their emotions are being affected by the abuser to such an extent that the victim may no longer recognize their own feelings regarding the issues the abuser is trying to control. The result is the victim's self-concept and independence are systematically taken away.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Mega | first1 = Lesly Tamarin | last2 = Mega | first2 = Jessica Lee | last3 = Mega | first3 = Benjamin Tamarin | last4 = Harris | first4 = Beverly Moore | title = Brainwashing and battering fatigue: psychological abuse in domestic violence | journal = North Carolina Medical Journal | volume = 61 | issue = 5 | pages = 260–265 | date = September–October 2000 | pmid = 11008456 }} [https://www.familytx.org/research/Psy%20Abuse.pdf Pdf.]</ref>

The [[U.S. Department of Justice]] defines emotionally abusive traits as causing fear by [[intimidation]], threatening physical [[self-harm|harm to self]], partner, children, or partner's family or friends, destruction of pets and property, and forcing [[isolation (psychology)|isolation]] from family, friends, or school or work.<ref>{{cite web | last1 = National Domestic Violence Hotline | last2 = National Center for Victims of Crime | last3 = WomensLaw.org | title = Domestic violence | url = https://www.justice.gov/ovw/domestic-violence | website = justice.gov | publisher = [[United States Department of Justice|U.S. Department of Justice]] | date = 2014-07-23 }}</ref> More subtle emotionally abusive behaviors include [[insult]]s, putdowns, arbitrary and unpredictable behavior, and [[gaslighting]] (e.g. the [[denial]] that previous abusive incidents occurred). Modern technology has led to new forms of abuse, by text messaging and online [[cyber-bullying]].

In 1996, [[Health Canada]] argued that emotional abuse is "based on power and control",<ref name="EAbuse Canada">{{cite web |url=https://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/ncfv-cnivf/familyviolence/html/fvemotion_e.html |title=What is Emotional Abuse? |publisher=[[Public Health Agency of Canada]] |access-date=27 January 2019 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050407201522/http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/ncfv-cnivf/familyviolence/html/fvemotion_e.html |archive-date=7 April 2005|date=2011-07-04 }}</ref> and defines emotional abuse as including rejecting, degrading, terrorizing, isolating, corrupting/exploiting and "denying emotional responsiveness" as characteristic of emotional abuse.

Several studies have argued that an isolated incident of verbal aggression, dominant conduct or jealous behaviors does not constitute the term "psychological abuse".  Rather, it is defined by a pattern of such behaviors, unlike [[physical abuse|physical]] and [[sexual abuse|sexual maltreatment]] where only one incident is necessary to label it as abuse.<ref name="Besharov, D. J. 1990">{{cite book | last = Besharov | first = Douglas J. | title = Recognizing child abuse: a guide for the concerned | publisher = Free Press Collier Macmillan Maxwell Macmillan | location = New York Toronto New York | year = 1990 | isbn = 978-0-02-903081-3 | url = https://archive.org/details/recognizingchild00besh }}</ref> Tomison and Tucci write, "emotional abuse is characterized by a climate or pattern of behavior(s) occurring over time ... Thus, 'sustained' and 'repetitive' are the crucial components of any definition of emotional abuse."<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Tomison | first1 = Adam M. | last2 = Tucci | first2 = Joe | title = Emotional abuse: the hidden form of maltreatment | journal = National Child Protection Clearing House | volume = 8 | date = September 1997 | url = https://www.aifs.gov.au/nch/pubs/issues/issues8/issues8.html | access-date = 9 January 2024 | archive-date = 10 July 2014 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140710133520/http://www.aifs.gov.au/nch/pubs/issues/issues8/issues8.html | url-status = dead }}</ref> [[Andrew Vachss]], an author, attorney, and former [[sex crime]]s investigator, defines emotional abuse as "the systematic diminishment of another. It may be intentional or subconscious (or both), but it is always a course of conduct, not a single event."<ref>{{cite news | last = Vachss | first = Andrew | title = You carry the cure in your own heart | url = https://www.vachss.com/av_dispatches/disp_9408_a.html | work = [[Parade (magazine)|Parade]] | publisher = Athlon Publishing | date = 28 August 1994 }}</ref>

== Prevalence ==

=== Intimate relationships ===
{{Main|Domestic violence|Intimate relationships}}
When discussing the different types of psychological abuse in terms of domestically violent relationships, it is important to recognize the 4 different types; Denigrating Damage to Partner's Self-Image or Esteem, Passive Aggressive Withholding of Emotional Support, Threatening Behavior, and Restricting Personal Territory and Freedom:<ref name=":022">{{Cite book|last=O'Leary|first=K. Daniel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pv6XIjT4MpUC&dq=psychological+abuse+in+relationships&pg=PR9|title=Psychological Abuse in Violent Domestic Relations|date=2004|publisher=Springer Publishing Company|isbn=978-0-8261-1146-3|language=en}}</ref>
* ''Denigrating Damage'' refers to an individual using verbal aggression like yelling towards their partner that is delivered as profane and derogatory.<ref name=":022" />
* ''Passive Aggressive Withholding of Emotional Support'' refers to an individual intentionally avoiding and withdrawing themselves from their partner in an attempt to be neglectful and emotionally abandoning.<ref name=":022" />
* ''Threatening Behavior'' refers to an individual making verbal threats towards their partner that could imply eliciting physical harm, threats of divorce, lying, and threats of reckless behavior that could put their safety at risk.<ref name=":022" />
* ''Restricting Personal Territory and Freedom'' refers to the isolation of social support from family and friends. This could include taking away partner's autonomy and having a lack of personal boundaries.<ref name=":022" />

It has been reported that at least 80% of women who have entered the criminal justice system due to partner violence have also experienced psychological abuse from their partner.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Klesges|first=K. Henning and L. M.|title=Prevalence and Characteristics of Psychological Abuse Reported by Court-Involved Battered Women {{!}} EndNote Click|url=https://click.endnote.com/viewer?doi=10.1177%2F0886260503253878&token=WzMyODE3OTUsIjEwLjExNzcvMDg4NjI2MDUwMzI1Mzg3OCJd.RArbTtpTH7YoMWy5skUXm5mUMt4|access-date=2021-12-04|journal=Journal of Interpersonal Violence|year=2003|volume=18|issue=8|pages=857–871|language=en|doi=10.1177/0886260503253878|pmid=19768889|s2cid=2461513}}</ref> This partner violence is also known as domestic abuse.

Domestic abuse—defined as chronic mistreatment in marriage, families, dating, and other intimate relationships—can include emotionally abusive behavior. Although psychological abuse does not always lead to physical abuse, physical abuse in domestic relationships is nearly always preceded and accompanied by psychological abuse.<ref name="Maiuro2"/> Murphy and O'Leary reported that psychological [[aggression]] is the most reliable predictor of later physical aggression.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Murphy | first1 = Christopher M. | last2 = O'Leary | first2 = K. Daniel | title = Psychological aggression predicts physical aggression in early marriage | journal = [[Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology]] | volume = 57 | issue = 5 | pages = 579–582 | doi = 10.1037/0022-006X.57.5.579 | pmid = 2794178 | date = October 1989 }}</ref>

A 2012 review by Capaldi et al., which evaluated risk factors for intimate partner violence (IPV), noted that psychological abuse has been shown to be both associated with and common in IPV. High levels of verbal aggression and relationship conflict, "practically akin to psychological aggression", strongly predicted IPV; male jealousy in particular was associated with female injuries from IPV.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1 =Capaldi |first1 =Deborah M. |last2 =Knoble |first2 =Naomi B. |last3 =Shortt |first3 =Joann Wu |last4 =Kim |first4 =Hyoun K. |title =A Systematic Review of Risk Factors for Intimate Partner Violence |journal =[[Partner Abuse]] |volume =3 |issue =2 |pages =231–280 |doi =10.1891/1946-6560.3.2.231 |pmid =22754606 |date =April 2012 |pmc =3384540 }}</ref>

Attempts to define and describe violence and abuse in hetero-normative intimate relationships can become contentious as different studies present different conclusions about whether men or women are the primary instigators. For instance, a 2005 study by Hamel reports that "men and women physically and emotionally abuse each other at equal rates."<ref>{{cite book | last = Hamel | first = John | title = Gender-inclusive treatment of intimate partner abuse: evidence-based approaches | publisher = Springer Publishing Company, LLC | location = New York, New York | year = 2014 | edition = 2nd | isbn = 978-0-8261-9677-4 }}</ref> Basile found that psychological aggression was effectively bidirectional in cases where heterosexual and homosexual couples went to court for domestic disturbances.<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Basile | first = Steve | s2cid = 23539857 | title = Comparison of abuse alleged by same- and opposite-gender litigants as cited in requests for abuse prevention orders | journal = Journal of Family Violence | volume = 19 | issue = 1 | pages = 59–68 | doi = 10.1023/B:JOFV.0000011583.75406.6a | date = February 2004 | quote = ...male and female defendants, who were the subject of a complaint in domestic relations cases, while sometimes exhibiting different aggressive tendencies, measured almost equally abusive in terms of the overall level of psychological and physical aggression. }}</ref>

A 2007 study of Spanish college students aged 18–27 found that psychological aggression (as measured by the [[Conflict Tactics Scale]]) is so pervasive in dating relationships that it can be regarded as a normalized element of dating, and that women are substantially more likely to exhibit psychological aggression.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Muñoz-Rivas | first1 = Marina J. | last2 = Gómez | first2 = José Luis Graña | last3 = O'Leary | first3 = K. Daniel | last4 = Lozano | first4 = Pilar González | title = Physical and psychological aggression in dating relationships in Spanish university students | journal = Psicothema | volume = 19 | issue = 1 | pages = 102–107 | pmid = 17295990 | date = 2007 | url = https://www.psicothema.com/psicothema.asp?id=3334 }} [https://www.psicothema.com/pdf/3334.pdf Pdf.]</ref> Similar findings have been reported in other studies.<ref name="Welsh, Deborah P 2008. Pages 877-891">{{Cite journal | last1 = Welsh | first1 = Deborah P. | last2 = Shulman | first2 = Shmuel | title = Directly observed interaction within adolescent romantic relationships: What have we learned? | journal = Journal of Adolescence | volume = 31 | issue = 6 | pages = 877–891 | doi= 10.1016/j.adolescence.2008.10.001 | pmid = 18986697 | date = December 2008 | pmc=2614117}}</ref> Strauss et al. found that female intimate partners in heterosexual relationships were more likely than males to use psychological aggression, including threats to hit or throw an object.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Straus | first1 = Murray A. | last2 = Hamby | first2 = Sherry L. | last3 = Boney-McCoy | first3 = Sue | last4 = Sugarman | first4 = David B. | title = The revised Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS2): development and preliminary psychometric data | journal = [[Journal of Family Issues]] | volume = 17 | issue = 3 | pages = 283–316 | doi= 10.1177/019251396017003001 | date = May 1996 | s2cid = 145367941 }} Short form from {{PMID|15844722}} [https://pubpages.unh.edu/~mas2/CTS15.pdf Pdf.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171025172943/http://pubpages.unh.edu/~mas2/CTS15.pdf |date=25 October 2017 }}</ref>

A study of young adults by Giordano et al. found that females in intimate heterosexual relationships were more likely than males to threaten to use a knife or gun against their partner.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Giordano | first1 = Peggy C. | last2 = Millhollin | first2 = Toni J. | last3 = Cernkovich | first3 = Stephen A. | last4 = Pugh | first4 = M.D. | last5 = Rudolph | first5 = Jennifer L. | title = Deliquency, identity, and women's involvement in relationship violence | journal = [[Criminology (journal)|Criminology]] | volume = 37 | issue = 1 | pages = 17–40 | doi= 10.1111/j.1745-9125.1999.tb00478.x | date = February 1999 }}</ref> While studies allege that women use violence in intimate relationships as often or more often than men, women's violence is typically self-defensive rather than aggressive.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Saunders | first1 = Daniel G. | title = Are Physical Assaults by Wives and Girlfriends a Major Social Problem? | journal = [[Violence Against Women]] | volume = 8 | issue = 12 | pages = 1424–1448 | doi=10.1177/107780102237964 | date = December 2002| hdl = 2027.42/90019 | s2cid = 145578534 | hdl-access = free }}</ref>

In 1996, the National Clearinghouse on Family Violence,<ref name="EAbuse Canada" /> for Health Canada, reported that 39% of married women or common-law wives suffered emotional abuse by husbands/partners; and a 1995 survey of women 15 and over 36–43% reported emotional abuse during childhood or adolescence, and 39% experienced emotional abuse in marriage/dating; this report does not address boys or men suffering emotional abuse from families or intimate partners. A BBC radio documentary on domestic abuse, including emotional maltreatment, reports that 20% of men and 30% of women have been abused by a spouse or other intimate partner.<ref name="Boys Don't Cry">{{cite news | title = Boys don't cry | url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/1xtra/tx/documentaries/domesticabuse.shtml | work = [[BBC Radio 1Xtra]] | publisher = [[BBC]] | date = 27 February 2009 | access-date = 6 July 2009}} A BBC radio documentary.</ref>

=== Child emotional abuse ===
{{See also|Child abuse}}
Psychological abuse of a child is commonly defined as a pattern of behavior by parents or caregivers that can seriously interfere with a child's cognitive, emotional, psychological, or social development.<ref name="Besharov, D. J. 1990" /> According to the DSM-5, Child Psychological Abuse is defined as verbal or symbolic acts given by parent or caregiver which can result in significant psychological harm.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5.|date=2013|publisher=American Psychiatric Association |isbn=978-0-89042-554-1|edition=5th |location=Arlington, VA|oclc=830807378}}</ref> Examples are yelling, comparing to others, name-calling, blaming, gaslighting, manipulating, and normalizing abuse due to the status of being underage.

Some parents may emotionally and psychologically harm their children because of stress, poor parenting skills, social isolation, and lack of available resources or inappropriate expectations of their children. Straus and Field report that psychological aggression is a pervasive trait of American families: "verbal attacks on children, like physical attacks, are so prevalent as to be just about universal."<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Straus | first1 = Murray A. | last2 = Field | first2 = Carolyn J. | title = Psychological aggression by American parents: national data on prevalence, chronicity, and severity | journal = [[Journal of Marriage and Family]] | volume = 65 | issue = 4 | pages = 795–808 | doi = 10.1111/j.1741-3737.2003.00795.x | jstor = 3599891 | date = November 2003 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.360.7774 }}</ref> A 2008 study by English, et al. found that fathers and mothers were equally likely to be verbally aggressive towards their children.<ref name="English_Maltreat">{{Cite journal | last1 = English | first1 = Diana J. | last2 = Graham | first2 = J. Christopher | last3 = Newton | first3 = Rae R. | last4 = Lewis | first4 = Terri L. | last5 = Richard | first5 = Thompson | last6 = Kotch | first6 = Jonathan B. | last7 = Weisbart | first7 = Cindy | s2cid = 39288807 | title = At-risk and maltreated children exposed to intimate partner aggression/violence: what the conflict looks like and its relationship to child outcomes | journal = [[Child Maltreatment (journal)|Child Maltreatment]] | volume = 14 | issue = 2 | pages = 157–171 | doi= 10.1177/1077559508326287 | pmid = 18984806 | date = May 2009 }}</ref>

=== Elder emotional abuse ===
{{Main|Elder abuse}}
Choi and Mayer performed a study on [[elder abuse]] (causing harm or distress to an older person), with results showing that 10.5% of the participants were victims of "emotional/psychological abuse", which was most often perpetrated by a son or other relative of the victim.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Choi|first1=Namkee G.|last2=Mayer|first2=James|date=August 2000|title=Elder abuse, neglect, and exploitation: risk factors and prevention strategies|journal=Journal of Gerontological Social Work|volume=33|issue=2|pages=5–25|doi=10.1300/J083v33n02_02|s2cid=54101962}} [https://umcoa.siteturbine.com/uploaded_files/mainecenteronaging.umaine.edu/files/issuebriefelderabuse.pdf Pdf.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304211630/http://umcoa.siteturbine.com/uploaded_files/mainecenteronaging.umaine.edu/files/issuebriefelderabuse.pdf|date=4 March 2016}}</ref> Of 1288 cases in 2002–2004, 1201 individuals, 42 couples, and 45 groups were found to have been abused. Of these, 70% were female. Psychological abuse (59%) and [[elder financial abuse|material/financial]] abuse (42%) were the most frequently identified types of abuse.<ref name=":1">{{citation|title=Elder abuse and neglect prevention challenges for the future: including an analysis of referrals to Age Concern elder abuse and neglect prevention services from 1 July 2004 to 30 June 2006|date=October 2007|url=https://www.ageconcern.org.nz/files/EANP/Challenges%20for%20the%20Future,%20Stats%20report%20for%20Age%20Concern%202004-07.pdf|page=6|postscript=.|editor-last=Age Concern New Zealand|contribution=Executive summary: key findings|location=Wellington|publisher=Age Concern New Zealand|isbn=978-0-473-12814-2|access-date=9 January 2024|archive-date=27 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230127233455/https://www.ageconcern.org.nz/files/EANP/Challenges%20for%20the%20Future,%20Stats%20report%20for%20Age%20Concern%202004-07.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> One study found that the overall prevalence rate of abused elderly in Hong Kong was 21.4%. Out of this percentage, 20.8% reported being verbally abused.<ref name=":123">{{Cite journal|last1=YAN|first1=ELSIE|last2=TANG|first2=CATHERINE SO-KUM|date=2001-11-01|title=Prevalence and Psychological Impact of Chinese Elder Abuse|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/088626001016011004|journal=Journal of Interpersonal Violence|language=en|volume=16|issue=11|pages=1158–1174|doi=10.1177/088626001016011004|s2cid=145580028|issn=0886-2605|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

=== Workplace ===
{{Main|Workplace bullying}}
Rates of reported emotional abuse in the workplace vary, with studies showing 10%, 24%, and 36% of respondents indicating persistent and substantial emotional abuse from coworkers.<ref>{{citation | last1 = Burnazi | first1 = Laurela | last2 = Keashly | first2 = Loraleigh | last3 = Neuman | first3 = Joel H. | contribution = Aggression revisited: Prevalence, antecedents, and outcomes | editor-last = Dunn (chair) | editor-first = Jennifer R. | title = Counterproductive work behaviors (symposium conducted at the meeting of the Academy of Management) | publisher = [[Academy of Management]] | location = Honolulu, Hawaii | date = 10 August 2005 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1 = Jagatic | first1 = Karen | last2 = Burnazi | first2 = Laurela | title = The nature, extent, and impact of emotional abuse in the workplace: Results of a statewide survey | publisher = [[Academy of Management]] | location = Toronto, Canada | date = September 2000 }} Paper presented at the Academy of Management Conference.</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1 = Keashly | first1 = Loraleigh | last2 = Neuman | first2 = Joel H. | title = Exploring persistent patterns of workplace aggression | publisher = [[Academy of Management]] | location = Denver, Colorado | date = September 2000 }} Paper presented at the Academy of Management. [https://www2.newpaltz.edu/~neumanj/neuman_and_keashly_siop2003.pdf Pdf of conference presentation.]</ref>
Keashly and Jagatic found that males and females commit "emotionally abusive behaviors" in the workplace at roughly similar rates.<ref>{{citation | last1 = Keashly | first1 = Loraleigh | last2 = Jagatic | first2 = Karen | contribution = By any other name: American perspectives on workplace bullying | editor-last1 = Einarsen | editor-first1 = Ståle | editor-last2 = Hoel | editor-first2 = Helge | editor-last3 = Zapf | editor-first3 = Dieter |display-editors = 3 | editor-last4 = Cooper | editor-first4 = Cary L. | title= Bullying and emotional abuse in the workplace: American perspectives in research and practice | publisher = Taylor & Francis | location = London New York | edition = 2nd | year = 2010 | isbn = 978-0-415-25359-8 | postscript = .}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=WubtAAAAMAAJ&q=Bullying+9780415253598 Details.]</ref> In a web-based survey, Namie found that women were more likely to engage in workplace bullying, such as name calling, and that the average length of abuse was 16.5 months.<ref name="Namie, G. 2000">{{cite book | last = Namie | first = Gary | title = U.S. Hostile Workplace Survey 2000 | publisher = Workplace Bullying Institute (WBI) | date = October 2000 }} Paper presented at the New England Conference on Workplace Bullying, Suffolk University Law School, Boston. [http://www.workplacebullying.org/multi/pdf/N-N-2000.pdf Pdf.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111227071624/http://www.workplacebullying.org/multi/pdf/N-N-2000.pdf |date=27 December 2011 }}</ref>

Pai and Lee found that the incidence of workplace violence typically occurs more often in younger workers.<ref name="Sheuan Lee 2011">{{Cite journal|last1=Pai|first1=Hsiang-Chu|last2=Lee|first2=Sheuan|date=May 2011|title=Risk factors for workplace violence in clinical registered nurses in Taiwan|journal=Journal of Clinical Nursing|volume=20|issue=9–10|pages=1405–1412|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2702.2010.03650.x|pmid=21492284|doi-access=free}}</ref> "Younger age may be a reflection of lack of job experience, resulting in [an inability] to identify or prevent potentially abusive situations... Another finding showed that lower education is a risk factor for violence."<ref name="Sheuan Lee 2011" /> This study also reports that 51.4% of the workers surveyed have already experienced verbal abuse, and 29.8% of them have encountered workplace bullying and [[mobbing]].<ref name="Sheuan Lee 2011" />

== Characteristics of abusers ==
{{See also|DARVO}}
In their review of data from the [[Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Study]] (a longitudinal birth cohort study) Moffitt et al.<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Moffitt | first1 = Terrie E. | last2 = Caspi | first2 = Avshalom | last3 = Rutter | first3 = Michael | last4 = Silva | first4 = Phil A. | title = Sex differences in antisocial behaviour conduct disorder, delinquency, and violence in the Dunedin longitudinal study | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge, UK New York | year = 2001 | isbn = 978-0-521-01066-5 }}</ref> report that while men exhibit more aggression overall, sex is not a reliable predictor of interpersonal aggression, including psychological aggression.

The DARVO study found that no matter what gender a person is, aggressive people share a cluster of traits, including high rates of suspicion and jealousy; sudden and drastic [[mood swing]]s; poor [[self control|self-control]]; and higher than average rates of approval of violence and aggression. Moffitt et al. also argue that [[Antisocial personality disorder|antisocial]] men exhibit two distinct types of interpersonal aggression (one against strangers, the other against intimate female partners), while antisocial women are rarely aggressive against anyone other than intimate male partners or their own children.{{request quotation|date=June 2025}}

Abusers may aim to avoid household chores<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rakovec-Felser |first=Zlatka |date=2014-10-22 |title=Domestic violence and abuse in intimate relationship from public health perspective |url=https://healthpsychologyresearch.openmedicalpublishing.org/article/22398 |journal=Health Psychology Research |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=The risk factors of domestic violence and abuse |doi=10.4081/hpr.2014.1821 |doi-broken-date=19 June 2025 |issn=2420-8124 |pmc=4768593 |pmid=26973948}}</ref> or exercise total control of family finances. Abusers can be very manipulative, often recruiting friends, law officers and court officials, and even the victim's family to their side, while [[victim blaming|shifting blame to the victim]].<ref name="Bancroft">{{cite book | last = Bancroft | first = Lundy | title = Why does he do that? Inside the minds of angry and controlling men | publisher = [[Berkley Books]] | location = New York, New York | year = 2002 | isbn = 978-0-425-19165-1 | url = https://archive.org/details/whydoeshedothati00banc_0 }} [https://books.google.com/books?id=xEZIpu3SVvcC Preview.]</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Hirigoyen | first = Marie-France | others = Helen Marx (translator, from French); Thomas Moore (afterword) | title = Stalking the soul: emotional abuse and the erosion of identity | publisher = Helen Marx Books | location = New York | year = 2004 | isbn = 978-1-885586-99-5 }} [https://books.google.com/books?id=2DpzDCVMGGwC&pg=PA196 Details.]</ref> A victim may internalize the abuse and may form future relationships with abusers.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mental Abuse And Addiction |url=https://www.addictioncenter.com/addiction/mental-abuse/ |access-date=2022-04-14 |website=Addiction Center |language=en-US}}</ref>

== Effects ==

=== Abuse of intimate partners ===
Most victims of psychological abuse within intimate relationships often experience changes to their psyche and actions. This varies throughout the various types and lengths of emotional abuse. Long-term emotional abuse has long term debilitating effects on a person's sense of self and integrity.<ref>{{cite web | last = Packota | first = Valerie J. | title = Emotional abuse of women by their intimate partners: a literature review | url = https://www.springtideresources.org/resource/emotional-abuse-women-their-intimate-partners-literature-review | website = springtideresources.org | publisher = Springtide Resources | date = 2000 | access-date = 9 January 2024 | archive-date = 5 July 2022 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220705153144/http://www.springtideresources.org/resource/emotional-abuse-women-their-intimate-partners-literature-review | url-status = dead }}</ref> Often, research shows that emotional abuse is a precursor to physical abuse when three particular forms of emotional abuse are present in the relationship: threats, restriction of the abused party and damage to the victim's property.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Follingstad | first1 = Diane R. | last2 = Rutledge | first2 = Larry L. | last3 = Berg | first3 = Barbara J. | last4 = Hause | first4 = Elizabeth S. | last5 = Polek | first5 = Darlene S. | s2cid = 43458952 | title = The role of emotional abuse in physically abusive relationships | journal = Journal of Family Violence | volume = 5 | issue = 2 | pages = 107–120 | doi= 10.1007/BF00978514 | date = June 1990 }}</ref>

Psychological abuse is often not recognized by survivors of [[domestic violence]] as abuse. A study of college students by Goldsmith and Freyd report that many who have experienced emotional abuse do not characterize the mistreatment as abusive.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1=Goldsmith | first1=Rachel E. | last2=Freyd | first2=Jennifer J. | s2cid=18527024 | title= Awareness for emotional abuse | journal=[[Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma|Journal of Emotional Abuse]] | volume=5 | issue=1 | pages=95–123 | doi=10.1300/J135v05n01_04 | date = April 2005 }} [https://dynamic.uoregon.edu/jjf/articles/gf05.pdf Pdf.]</ref> Additionally, Goldsmith and Freyd show that these people also tend to exhibit higher than average rates of [[alexithymia]] (difficulty identifying and processing their own emotions). This is often the case when referring to victims of abuse within intimate relationships, as non-recognition of the actions as abuse may be a [[coping (psychology)|coping]] or [[defense mechanism]] in order to either seek to master, minimize or tolerate [[stress (biology)|stress]] or [[emotional conflict|conflict]].<ref name="Weiten">{{cite book | last1 = Weiten | first1 = Wayne | last2 = Lloyd | first2 = Margaret A. | last3 = Dunn | first3 = Dana S. | last4 = Hammer | first4 = Elizabeth Yost | title = Psychology applied to modern life: adjustment in the 21st century | publisher = Wadsworth Cengage Learning | location = Belmont, California | edition = 9th | year = 2008 | isbn = 978-0-495-55339-7 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | editor-last = Snyder | editor-first = C. R. | title = Coping the psychology of what works | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = New York | year = 1999 | isbn = 978-0-19-802803-1 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | editor-last1 = Zeidner | editor-first1 = Moshe | editor-last2 = Endler | editor-first2 = Norman S. | title = Handbook of coping: theory, research, applications | publisher = Wiley | location = New York | year = 1996 | isbn = 978-0-471-59946-3 | url = https://archive.org/details/handbookofcoping00mosh }}</ref>

Marital or relationship dissatisfaction can be caused by psychological abuse or aggression. In a 2007 study, Laurent et al. report that psychological aggression in young couples is associated with decreased satisfaction for both partners: "psychological aggression may serve as an impediment to couples' development because it reflects less mature [[coercive]] tactics and an inability to balance self/other needs effectively."<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Laurent | first1 = Heidemarie K. | last2 = Kima | first2 = Hyoun K. | last3 = Capaldi | first3 = Deborah M. | title = Interaction and relationship development in stable young couples: effects of positive engagement, psychological aggression, and withdrawal | journal = Journal of Adolescence | volume = 31 | issue = 6 | pages = 815–835 | doi= 10.1016/j.adolescence.2007.11.001 | pmc = 2642009 | date = December 2008 | pmid=18164053}}</ref> In a 2008 study on relationship dissatisfaction in adolescents Walsh and Shulman explain, "The more psychologically aggressive females were, the less satisfied were both partners. The unique importance of males' behavior was found in the form of withdrawal, a less mature conflict negotiation strategy. Males' withdrawal during joint discussions predicted increased satisfaction."<ref name="Welsh, Deborah P 2008. Pages 877-891" />

There are many different responses to psychological abuse. Jacobson et al. found that women report markedly higher rates of fear during marital conflicts.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Jacobson | first1 = Neil S. | last2 = Gottman | first2 = John M. | last3 = Waltz | first3 = Jennifer | last4 = Rushe | first4 = Regina | last5 = Babcock | first5 = Julia | last6 = Holtzworth-Munroe| first6 = Amy | title = Affect, verbal content, and psychophysiology in the arguments of couples with a violent husband | journal = [[Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology]] | volume = 62| issue = 5 | pages = 982–988 | doi = 10.1037/0022-006X.62.5.982 | pmid = 7806730 | date = October 1994 }}</ref> However, a rejoinder argued that Jacobson's results were invalid due to men and women's drastically differing interpretations of questionnaires.<ref name=Dutton_rethinking>{{cite book | last = Dutton | first = Donald G. | title = Rethinking domestic violence | publisher = University of British Columbia Press | location = Vancouver | year = 2006 | isbn = 978-1-282-74107-2 }}</ref> Coker et al. found that the effects of mental abuse were similar whether the victim was male or female.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Coker | first1 = Ann L. | last2 = Davis | first2 = Keith E. | last3 = Arias | first3 = Ileana | last4 = Desai | first4 = Sujata | last5 = Sanderson | first5 = Maureen | last6 = Brandt | first6 = Heather M. | last7 = Smith | first7 = Paige H. | title = Physical and mental health effects of intimate partner violence for men and women | journal = [[American Journal of Preventive Medicine]] | volume = 23 | issue = 4 | pages = 260–268 | doi = 10.1016/S0749-3797(02)00514-7 | pmid = 12406480 | date = November 2002 }}</ref> A 1998 study of male college students by Simonelli & Ingram found that men who were emotionally abused by their female partners exhibited higher rates of chronic depression than the general population.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Simonelli | first1 = Catherine J. | last2 = Ingram | first2 = Kathleen M. | title = Psychological distress among men experiencing physical and emotional abuse in heterosexual dating relationships | journal = [[Journal of Interpersonal Violence]] | volume = 13 | issue = 6 | pages = 667–681 | doi = 10.1177/088626098013006001 | date = December 1998 | s2cid = 144725132 }}</ref> Pimlott-Kubiak and Cortina found that severity and duration of abuse were the only accurate predictors of after effects of abuse; sex of perpetrator or victim were not reliable predictors.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pimlott-Kubiak |first1=Sheryl |last2=Cortina |first2=Lilia M. |title=Gender, victimization, and outcomes: reconceptualizing risk |journal=[[Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology]] |volume=71 |issue=3 |pages=528–539 |doi=10.1037/0022-006X.71.3.528 |pmid=12795576 |date=June 2003 |citeseerx=10.1.1.519.8059 }} [https://web.archive.org/web/20151031213212/http://www.lsa.umich.edu/psych/lilia-cortina-lab/Pimlott.Cortina.2003.JCCP.pdf Pdf.]</ref>

=== Abuse of children ===
The effects of psychological abuse on children can involve a variety of mental health concerns such as post-traumatic stress disorder, major depressive disorder, personality disorders, low self-esteem, aggression, anxiety, and emotional unresponsiveness.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Iram Rizvi|first1=Syeda Fariha|last2=Najam|first2=Najma|date=2014|title=Parental Psychological Abuse toward children and Mental Health Problems in adolescence|journal=Pakistan Journal of Medical Sciences|volume=30|issue=2|pages=256–260|issn=1682-024X|pmc=3998989|pmid=24772122}}</ref> These effects can be exemplified by the constant criticism, regular living with threats, or being rejected, that can be exemplified by withholding love and support as well as not having any guidance from the guardians of the children.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Identification of Emotional Abuse – Child Welfare Information Gateway |url=https://www.childwelfare.gov/topics/can/identifying/emotional-abuse/ |access-date=2022-04-14 |website=www.childwelfare.gov}}</ref>

English et al. report that children specifically whose families are characterized by interpersonal violence, including psychological aggression and verbal aggression, may exhibit these disorders.<ref name="English_Maltreat" /> Additionally, English et al. report that the impact of emotional abuse "did not differ significantly" from that of physical abuse. Johnson et al. report that, in a survey of female patients, 24% suffered emotional abuse, and that this group experienced higher rates of gynecological problems.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Johnson | first1 = J.K. | last2 = John | first2 = R. | last3 = Humera | first3 = A. | last4 = Kukreja | first4 = S. | last5 = Found | first5 = M. | last6 = Lindow | first6 = S.W. | title = The prevalence of emotional abuse in gynaecology patients and its association with gynaecological symptoms | journal = European Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology and Reproductive Biology | volume = 133 | issue = 1 | pages = 95–99 | doi = 10.1016/j.ejogrb.2006.04.035 | pmid = 16757091 | date = July 2007 }}</ref> In their study of men emotionally abused by a wife/partner or parent, Hines and Malley-Morrison report that victims exhibit high rates of post-traumatic stress disorder and [[drug addiction]], including [[alcoholism]].<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Hines | first1 = Denise A. | last2 = Malley-Morrison | first2 = Kathleen | s2cid = 67844486 | title = Psychological effects of partner abuse against men: a neglected research area | journal = [[Psychology of Men and Masculinity|Psychology of Men & Masculinity]] | volume = 2 | issue = 2 | pages = 75–85 | doi = 10.1037/1524-9220.2.2.75 | date = July 2001 }} [https://wordpress.clarku.edu/dhines/files/2012/01/Hines-Malley-Morrison-2001.pdf Pdf.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230516202620/https://wordpress.clarku.edu/dhines/files/2012/01/Hines-Malley-Morrison-2001.pdf |date=16 May 2023 }}</ref>

Glaser reports, "An infant who is severely deprived of basic emotional nurturance, even though physically well cared for, can fail to thrive and can eventually die. Babies with less severe emotional deprivation can grow into anxious and insecure children who are slow to develop and who have low self-esteem."<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Glaser | first = Danya | title = Emotional abuse and neglect (psychological maltreatment): a conceptual framework | journal = Child Abuse & Neglect | volume = 26 | issue = 6–7 | pages = 697–714 | doi = 10.1016/S0145-2134(02)00342-3 | pmid = 12201163 | date = June 2002 | s2cid = 4539592 }}</ref> Glaser also informs that the abuse impacts the child in a number of ways, especially on their behavior, including: "insecurity, poor self-esteem, destructive behavior, angry acts (such as fire setting and animal cruelty), withdrawal, poor development of basic skills, alcohol or drug abuse, suicide, difficulty forming relationships and unstable job histories."

Oberlander et al. performed a study which discovered that among the youth, those with a history of maltreatment showed that emotional distress is a predictor of early initiation of sexual intercourse.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Oberlander | first1 = Sarah E. | last2 = Wang | first2 = Yan | last3 = Thompson | first3 = Richard | last4 = Lewis | first4 = Terri | last5 = Proctor | first5 = Laura J. | last6 = Isbell | first6 = Patricia | last7 = English | first7 = Diana J. | last8 = Dubowitz | first8 = Howard | last9 = Litrownik | first9 = Alan J. | last10 = Black | first10 = Maureen M. | title = Childhood maltreatment, emotional distress, and early adolescent sexual intercourse: multi-informant perspectives on parental monitoring | journal = [[Journal of Family Psychology]] | volume = 25 | issue = 6 | pages = 885–894 | doi = 10.1037/a0025423 | pmid = 21928888 | pmc = 3874382 | date = December 2011 }}</ref> Oberlander et al. state, "A childhood history of maltreatment, including... psychological abuse, and neglect, has been identified as a risk factor for early initiation of sexual intercourse ... In families where child maltreatment had occurred, children were more likely to experience heightened emotional distress and subsequently to engage in sexual intercourse by age 14. It is possible that maltreated youth feel disconnected from families that did not protect them and subsequently seek sexual relationships to gain support, seek companionship, or enhance their standing with peers." It is apparent that psychological abuse sustained during childhood is a predictor of the onset of sexual conduct occurring earlier in life, as opposed to later.

=== Abuse in the workplace ===
Psychological abuse has been found present within the workplace as evidenced by previous research. [[Gary Namie|Namie's]] study of workplace emotional abuse found that 31% of women and 21% of men who reported workplace emotional abuse exhibited three key symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder ([[hypervigilance]], [[intrusive thoughts|intrusive imagery]], and [[avoidance coping|avoidance behaviors]]).<ref name="Namie, G. 2000" /> The most common psychological, professional, financial, and social effects of sexual harassment and retaliation are as follows:
* Psychological stress and health impairment, loss of motivation.
* Decreased work or school performance as a result of stressful conditions; increased [[absenteeism]] in fear of harassment repetition.
* Having to drop courses, change academic plans, or leave school (loss of tuition) in fear of harassment repetition or as a result of stress.
* Being objectified and humiliated by scrutiny and gossip.
* Loss of trust in environments similar to where the harassment occurred.
* Loss of trust in the types of people that occupy similar positions as the harasser or their colleagues, especially in cases where they are not supportive, difficulties or stress on peer relationships, or relationships with colleagues.
* Effects on sexual life and relationships: can put extreme stress upon relationships with significant others, sometimes resulting in divorce.
* Weakening of support network, or being ostracized from professional or academic circles (friends, colleagues, or family may distance themselves from the victim, or shun him or her altogether).
* [[Major depressive disorder|Depression]], anxiety or [[panic attack]]s.
* Sleeplessness or [[nightmare]]s, difficulty concentrating, headaches, [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]].
* [[Eating disorder]]s (weight loss or gain), alcoholism, and feeling powerless or out of control.<ref>{{cite web | title = Common effects of sexual harassment | url = https://www.webcom.com/wcs/harass.html#effects | archive-url = https://archive.today/20070709085048/http://www.webcom.com/wcs/harass.html | url-status = dead | archive-date = 2007-07-09 | website = webcom.com | publisher = Dealing with sexual harassment: with focus on Santa Cruz, California }}
* Taken from: {{cite book | last = Dervin Flower | first = Hilary | title = Women's Crisis Support publication }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Sexual Harassment: Myths and Realities | url = https://www.psysci.co/sexual-harassment-myths-and-realities | website = psysci.co | publisher = Psychology, Science and Health |access-date= 30 April 2015 | date = 2015-04-30 }}
* Taken from: {{cite news | last = unknown | title = Sexual harassment: myths and realities | work = APA Public Information Home Page | publisher = [[American Psychological Association]] | date = 16 March 1998 }} https://www.apa.org/</ref><ref name="VAW_effects">{{cite web | last = Stop violence against women |title= Effects of sexual harassment |url=https://www.stopvaw.org/Effects_of_Sexual_Harassment.html | website = stopvaw.org/ |publisher = The Advocates for Human Rights |date=9 May 2007 |access-date= 7 October 2012 }}
* From the original: {{cite journal | last = Commission of the European Communities (EEC) | author-link = European Commission | title = Commission Recommendation of 27 November 1991 on the protection of the dignity of women and men at work (92/131/EEC) | journal = Official Journal of the European Communities |volume=35 |issue=L 049 | pages = 0001–0008 | date = 24 February 1992 | url = https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX%3A31992H0131 }}</ref><ref name="org_factor">{{cite web | last = Piotrkowski | first = Chaya S. | title = Gender issues: articles from the ILO encyclopaedia of occupational health and safety, volume II | url = https://www.ilo.org/public/english/protection/safework/gender/encyclo/psy14ae.htm | website = ilo.org | publisher = [[International Labor Office]] | access-date = 7 October 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081220123857/http://www.ilo.org/public/english/protection/safework/gender/encyclo/psy14ae.htm |archive-date=20 December 2008 }}
* Print version: {{citation | last = Piotrkowski | first = Chaya S. | contribution = 34.28: Psychosocial and organizational factors: Interpersonal factors: sexual harassment | editor-last = Mager Stellman | editor-first = Jeanne | title = Encyclopaedia of occupational health and safety, volume II | pages = [https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediaofo0003unse/page/1989 1989–1990] | publisher = [[International Labor Office]] | location = Geneva, Switzerland | year = 1998 | isbn = 978-92-2-109203-2 | postscript = . | url = https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediaofo0003unse/page/1989 }}</ref>

== Abuse of the elderly ==
Elderly who have suffered psychological abuse have been found to experience similar outcomes as other population groups such as depression, anxiety, feelings of isolation and neglect, and powerlessness.<ref name=":123" /> One study examined 355 Chinese elderly participants (60 and older) and found that 75% of reported abusers were grown-up children of the elderly. Within this study, these individuals suffered outcomes from the abuse, specifically verbal abuse which contributed to their psychological distress.<ref name=":123" />

== Prevention ==

=== In intimate relationships ===
Recognition of abuse is the first step to prevention. It is often difficult for abuse victims to acknowledge their situation and to seek help. For those who ''do'' seek help, research has shown that people who participate in an intimate partner violence prevention program report less psychological aggression toward their targets of psychological abuse, and reported victimization from psychological abuse decreased over time for the treatment group.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Langhinrichsen-Rohling | first1 = Jennifer | last2 = Turner | first2 = Lisa A. | s2cid = 29332095 | title = The efficacy of an intimate partner violence prevention program with high-risk adolescent girls: a preliminary test | journal = Prevention Science | volume = 13 | issue = 4 | pages = 384–394 | doi = 10.1007/s11121-011-0240-7 | pmid = 21842333 | date = August 2012 }}</ref>

There are non-profit organizations that provide support and prevention services such as the [[National Domestic Violence Hotline]], [[The Salvation Army]], and [[Benefits.gov]].

=== In the family ===
Child abuse in the sole form of emotional/psychological maltreatment is often the most difficult to identify and prevent, as government organizations, such as [[Child Protective Services]] in the US, is often the only method of intervention, and the institute "must have demonstrable evidence that harm to a child has been done before they can intervene. Due to this a lot of victims may stay in the care of their abuser. Since emotional abuse doesn't result in physical evidence such as bruising or malnutrition, it can be very hard to diagnose."<ref name="Feild, T. 2003">{{citation | last1 = Field | first1 = T. | last2 = Winterfield | first2 = A. | contribution = Abuse, part 2: sexual abuse | editor-last = Englewood | editor-first = C.O. | title = Tough problems, tough choices: guidelines for needs-based service planning in child welfare | publisher = [[American Humane Association]], [[Annie E. Casey Foundation]], and [[Casey Family Programs]] | url = https://www.americanhumane.org/children/professional-resources/special-resources/decision-makin/products-1.html | access-date = 19 November 2015 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111006163320/http://www.americanhumane.org/children/professional-resources/special-resources/decision-makin/products-1.html | archive-date = 6 October 2011 | url-status = dead }} [https://www.americanhumane.org/assets/pdfs/children/decision-making-guidelines/abuse-part-two.pdf Pdf.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304083618/http://www.americanhumane.org/assets/pdfs/children/decision-making-guidelines/abuse-part-two.pdf |date=4 March 2016 }}</ref> Some researchers have, however, begun to develop methods to diagnose and treat such abuse, including the ability to: identify risk factors, provide resources to victims and their families, and ask appropriate questions to help identify the abuse.<ref name="Feild, T. 2003" /><ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Schechter | first1 = Daniel S. | last2 = Myers | first2 = Michael M. | last3 = Brunelli | first3 = Susan A. | last4 = Coates | first4 = Susan W. | last5 = Zeanah, Jr. | first5 = Charles H. | last6 = Davies | first6 = Mark | last7 = Grienenberger | first7 = John F. | last8 = Marshall | first8 = Randall D. | last9 = McCaw | first9 = Jaime E. | last10 = Trabka | first10 = Kimberly A. | last11 = Liebowitz | first11 = Michael R. | title = Traumatized mothers can change their minds about their toddlers: understanding how a novel use of videofeedback supports positive change of maternal attributions | journal = Infant Mental Health Journal | volume = 27 | issue = 5 | pages = 429–447 | doi = 10.1002/imhj.20101 | pmid = 18007960 | pmc = 2078524 | date = September–October 2006 }}</ref>

=== In the workplace ===
The majority of companies within the United States provide access to a [[human resources]] department, in which to report cases of psychological/emotional abuse. Also, many managers are required to participate in conflict management programs, in order to ensure the workplace maintains an "open and respectful atmosphere, with tolerance for diversity and where the existence of interpersonal frustration and friction is accepted but also properly managed."<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Kinder | first1 = Andrew | last2 = Hughes | first2 = Rick | last3 = Cooper | first3 = Cary | title = Employee well-being support a workplace resource | publisher = John Wiley & Sons | location = Chichester, England Hoboken, New Jersey | year = 2008 | isbn = 978-0-470-06001-8 }}</ref> Organizations must adopt [[zero-tolerance]] policies for professional verbal abuse. Education and coaching are needed to help employees to improve their skills when responding to professional-to-professional verbal abuse.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Sofield | first1 = Laura | last2 = Salmond | first2 = Susan W. | s2cid = 30218546 | title = Workplace violence: a focus on verbal abuse and intent to leave the organization | journal = Orthopaedic Nursing | volume = 22 | issue = 4 | pages = 274–283 | pmid = 12961971 | date = July–August 2003 | doi=10.1097/00006416-200307000-00008}}</ref>

== Popular perceptions ==
Several studies found [[double standard]]s in how people tend to view emotional abuse by men versus emotional abuse by women. Follingstad et al. found that, when rating hypothetical vignettes of psychological abuse in marriages, professional psychologists tend to rate male abuse of females as more serious than identical scenarios describing female abuse of males: "the stereotypical association between physical aggression and males appears to extend to an association of psychological abuse and males".<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Follingstad | first1 = Diane R. | last2 = DeHart | first2 = Dana D. | last3 = Green | first3 = Eric P. | s2cid = 29313550 | title = Psychologists' judgments of psychologically aggressive actions when perpetrated by a husband versus a wife | journal = [[Violence & Victims]] | volume = 19 | issue = 4 | pages = 435–452 | doi = 10.1891/vivi.19.4.435.64165 | pmid = 15726937 | date = August 2004 }}</ref>{{rp|446}}

Similarly, [[Susan Sorenson|Sorenson]] and Taylor randomly surveyed a group of Los Angeles, California residents for their opinions of hypothetical vignettes of abuse in heterosexual relationships.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Sorenson | first1 = Susan B. |author1-link=Susan Sorenson| last2 = Taylor | first2 = Catherine A. | title = Female aggression toward male intimate partners: an examination of social norms in a community-based sample | journal = [[Psychology of Women Quarterly]] | volume = 29 | issue = 1 | pages = 78–96 | doi = 10.1111/j.1471-6402.2005.00170.x | date = March 2005 | s2cid = 143270154 }}</ref> Their study found that abuse committed by women, including emotional and psychological abuse such as controlling or humiliating behavior, was typically viewed as less serious or detrimental than identical abuse committed by men. Additionally, Sorenson and Taylor found that respondents had a broader range of opinions about female perpetrators, representing a lack of clearly defined mores when compared to responses about male perpetrators.

When considering the emotional state of psychological abusers, psychologists have focused on aggression as a contributing factor. While it is typical for people to consider males to be the more aggressive of the two sexes, researchers have studied female aggression to help understand psychological abuse patterns in situations involving female abusers. According to Walsh and Shluman, "The higher rates of female initiated aggression [including psychological aggression] may result, in part, from adolescents' attitudes about the unacceptability of male aggression and the relatively less negative attitudes toward female aggression".<ref name="Welsh, Deborah P 2008. Pages 877-891" /> This concept that females are raised with fewer restrictions on aggressive behaviors (possibly due to the anxiety over aggression being focused on males) is a possible explanation for women who utilize aggression when being mentally abusive.

Some researchers have become interested in discovering exactly why women are usually not considered to be abusive. Hamel's 2007 study found that a "prevailing [[patriarchal]] conception of [[intimate partner violence]]" led to a systematic reluctance to study women who psychologically and physically abuse their male partners.<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Hamel | first = John | title = Toward a gender-inclusive conception of intimate partner violence research and theory: part 2 – new directions | journal = [[International Journal of Men's Health]] | volume = 8 | issue = 1 | pages = 41–59 | date = 2009 | url = https://www.mensstudies.info/OJS/index.php/IJMH/article/view/557 | url-status = dead | doi = 10.3149/jmh.0801.41 | doi-broken-date = 19 June 2025 | access-date = 9 January 2024 | archive-date = 12 January 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180112220523/http://www.mensstudies.info/OJS/index.php/IJMH/article/view/557 | url-access = subscription }} [https://www.mensstudies.info/OJS/index.php/IJMH/article/view/557/pdf_10 Pdf.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151119103305/http://www.mensstudies.info/OJS/index.php/IJMH/article/view/557/pdf_10 |date=19 November 2015 }}</ref> These findings state that existing cultural norms show males as more dominant and are therefore more likely to begin abusing their significant partners.

Dutton found that men who are emotionally or physically abused often encounter victim blaming that erroneously presumes the man either provoked or deserved the mistreatment by their female partners.<ref name=Dutton_rethinking /> Similarly, domestic violence victims will often blame their own behavior, rather than the violent actions of the abuser. Victims may try continually to alter their behavior and circumstances in order to please their abuser.<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Tjaden | first1 = Patricia G. | last2 = Thoennes | first2 = Nancy | title = Extent, nature, and consequences of intimate partner violence: findings from the national violence against women survey | publisher = [[National Institute of Justice]] and [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] | date = July 2000 | url = https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/21858 }} [https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/181867.pdf Pdf.] {{NCJ|181867}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Cantalano | first = Shannan | title = Intimate partner violence in the United States | publisher = [[Bureau of Justice Statistics]], [[United States Department of Justice|U.S. Department of Justice]] | date = 28 December 2006 }}
* For the most recent statistics on intimate partner violence visit the [https://www.bjs.gov/index.cfm?ty=pbdetail&iid=4801 BJS website.] {{NCJ|265377}}</ref> Often, this results in further dependence of the individual on their abuser, as they may often change certain aspects of their lives that limit their resources. A 2002 study concluded that emotional abusers frequently aim to exercise total control of different aspects of family life. This behavior is only supported when the victim of the abuse aims to please their abuser.<ref name=Bancroft />

Many abusers are able to control their victims in a manipulative manner, utilizing methods to persuade others to conform to the wishes of the abuser, rather than to force them to do something they do not wish to do. Simon argues that because aggression in abusive relationships can be carried out subtly and covertly through various [[Psychological manipulation|manipulation]] and [[Control freak|control]] tactics, victims often do not perceive the true nature of the relationship until conditions worsen considerably.<ref>{{citation | last = Simon | first = George Jr | author-link = George K. Simon | contribution = Epilogue: aggression and covert-aggression in a permissive and undisciplined society | editor-last = Simon | editor-first = George Jr | editor-link = George K. Simon | title = In sheep's clothing: understanding and dealing with manipulative people | pages = 111–136 | publisher = Parkhurst Brothers | location = Little Rock, Arkansas | year = 2010 | isbn = 978-1-935166-30-6 | postscript = .}}</ref><ref>{{citation | last = Simon | first = George K. Jr | author-link = George K. Simon | contribution = The aggressive pattern | editor-last = Simon | editor-first = George K. Jr | editor-link = George K. Simon | title = Character disturbance: the phenomenon of our age | pages = 118–119 | publisher = Parkhurst Brothers | location = Little Rock, Arkansas | year = 2011 | isbn = 978-1-935166-32-0 | postscript = .}}</ref>

== Cultural causes ==
A researcher in 1988 said that wife abuse stems from "normal psychological and behavioral patterns of most men ... feminists seek to understand why men, in general, use physical force against their partners and what functions this serves for a society in a given historical context".<ref>{{citation | last = Bograd | first = Michele Louise | contribution = Feminist perspectives on wife abuse: an introduction | editor-last1 = Yllö | editor-first1 = Kersti | editor-last2 = Bograd | editor-first2 = Michele Louise | title = Feminist perspectives on wife abuse | page = [https://archive.org/details/feminis_xxx_1988_00_9940/page/13 13] | publisher = Sage Publications | location = Newbury Park, California | year = 1988 | isbn = 978-0-8039-3053-7 | postscript = . | url = https://archive.org/details/feminis_xxx_1988_00_9940/page/13 }}</ref> Dobash and Dobash (1979) said that "Men who assault their wives are living up to cultural prescriptions that are cherished in Western society--aggressiveness, male dominance and female subordination--and they are using physical force as a means to enforce that dominance," while Walker claims that men exhibit a "socialized androcentric need for power".<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Dobash | first1 = R. Emerson | last2 = Dobash | first2 = Russell | title = Violence against wives: a case against the patriarchy | url = https://archive.org/details/violenceagainstw00doba | url-access = registration | publisher = Free Press | page = [https://archive.org/details/violenceagainstw00doba/page/57 57] | location = New York | year = 1979 | isbn = 978-0-02-907810-5 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last = Walker | first = Lenore E. | title = Psychology and violence against women | journal = [[American Psychologist]] | volume = 44 | issue = 4 | pages = 695–702 | doi = 10.1037/0003-066X.44.4.695 | pmid = 2729743 | date = April 1989 }}</ref>

While some women are aggressive and dominating to male partners, a 2003 report concluded that the majority of abuse in heterosexual partnerships, at about 80% in the US, is perpetrated by men.<ref>{{cite book | last = Rennison | first = Callie Marie | title = Intimate partner violence, 1993-2001 | url = https://gb1.ojp.usdoj.gov/search?q=cache:eox8Lxq8pBwJ:www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/ipv01.pdf+NCJ+197838&site=BJS-OJP&client=bjsnew_frontend&proxystylesheet=bjsnew_frontend&output=xml_no_dtd&ie=UTF-8&access=p&oe=UTF-8 | publisher = [[Bureau of Justice Statistics]], [[United States Department of Justice|U.S. Department of Justice]] | date = February 2003 }}{{Dead link|date=March 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} {{NCJ|197838}}
* For the most recent statistics on intimate partner violence visit the [https://www.bjs.gov/index.cfm?ty=pbdetail&iid=4801 BJS website.] {{NCJ|265377}}</ref> (Critics stress that this Department of Justice study examines ''crime'' figures, and does not specifically address ''domestic abuse'' figures.<ref>{{citation | last = Straus | first = Murray A. | contribution = The controversy over domestic violence by women: a methodological, theoretical, and sociology of science analysis | editor-last1 = Arriaga | editor-first1 = Ximena B. | editor-last2 = Oskamp | editor-first2 = Stuart | title = Violence in intimate relationships | pages = 17–44 | publisher = Sage Publications | location = Thousand Oaks, California | year = 1999 | isbn = 978-1-4522-0465-9 }}</ref> While the categories of crime and domestic abuse may cross-over, many instances of domestic abuse are either not regarded as crimes{{citation needed|date=December 2015}} or reported to police—critics{{who|date=December 2015}} thus argue that it is inaccurate to regard the DOJ study as a comprehensive statement on domestic abuse.) A 2002 study reports that ten percent of violence in the UK, overall, is by females against males.<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Simmons | first1 = Jon | title = Crime in England and Wales 2001/2002 | url = https://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/crimeew1.html | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081201091656/http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/crimeew1.html | url-status = dead | archive-date = 2008-12-01 | publisher = [[Home Office]] | date = July 2002 |display-authors=etal}} {{NCJ|198270}}
* For the most recent figures visit the UK's [https://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/taxonomy/index.html?nscl=Crime+in+England+and+Wales Office for National Statistics (ONS) website.]</ref> However, more recent data specifically regarding domestic abuse (including emotional abuse) report that 3 in 10 women, and 1 in 5 men, have experienced domestic abuse.<ref name="Boys Don't Cry" />

One source said that legal systems have in the past endorsed these traditions of male domination, and it is only in recent years that abusers have begun to be punished for their behavior.<ref name="Bancroft" /> In 1879, a Harvard University law scholar wrote, "The cases in the American courts are uniform against the right of the husband to use any [[chastisement]], moderate or otherwise, toward the wife, for any purpose."<ref>{{cite book | last = St. John Green | first = Nicholas | author-link = Nicholas St. John Green | title = Criminal Law Reports: Being Reports of Cases Determined in the Federal and State Courts of the United States, and in the Courts of England, Ireland, Canada, Etc. with Notes, Volume 2 |publisher=Hurd and Houghton | location = New York | year = 1874 | oclc = 22125148}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=GRBFAAAAIAAJ Details.]</ref>

While recognizing that researchers have done valuable work and highlighted neglected topics<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Dutton | first1 = Donald G. | others = Susan Golant (contributor) | title = The batterer: a psychological profile | publisher = Recording for the Blind & Dyslexic | location = Princeton, New Jersey | year = 2004 | isbn = 978-0-465-03388-1 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/battererpsycholo0000dutt }}</ref> critics suggest that the male cultural domination hypothesis for abuse is untenable as a generalized explanation for numerous reasons:
* A 1989 study concluded that many variables (racial, ethnic, cultural and subcultural, nationality, religion, family dynamics, and mental illness) make it very difficult or impossible to define male and female roles in any meaningful way that apply to the entire population.<ref>{{cite book | last = Levinson | first = David | title = Family violence in cross-cultural perspective | publisher = Sage Publications | location = Newbury Park, California | year = 1989 | isbn = 978-0-8039-3076-6 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/familyviolencein0000levi }}</ref>
* A 1995 study concluded that disagreements about power-sharing in relationships are more strongly associated with abuse than are imbalances of power.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Coleman | first1 = Diane H. | last2 = Straus | first2 = Murray A. | s2cid = 26305516 | title = Marital power, conflict, and violence in a nationally representative sample of American couples | journal = [[Violence & Victims]] | volume = 1 | issue = 2 | pages = 141–157 | pmid = 3154145 | date = Summer 1986 | doi = 10.1891/0886-6708.1.2.141 }}
* Initially presented as a paper at the meeting of the [[American Society of Criminology]], San Diego, California, 1985.</ref>
* Peer-reviewed studies have produced inconsistent results when directly examining patriarchal beliefs and wife abuse. Yllo and Straus (1990) said that "low status" women in the United States suffered higher rates of spousal abuse;<ref>{{citation | last1 = Yllö | first1 = Kersti A. | last2 = Straus | first2 = Murray A. | contribution = Patriarchy and violence against wives: the impact of structural and normative factors | editor-last1 = Straus | editor-first1 = Murray A. | editor-last2 = Gelles | editor-first2 = Richard J. | others = Christine Smith (contributor) | title = Physical violence in American families: risk factors and adaptations to violence in 8,145 families | pages = [https://archive.org/details/physicalviolence0000stra/page/383 383–401] | publisher = Transaction Publishers | location = New Brunswick, New Jersey | year = 1990 | isbn = 978-0-88738-263-5 | postscript = . | url = https://archive.org/details/physicalviolence0000stra/page/383 }}</ref> however, a rejoinder argued that Yllo and Straus's interpretive conclusions were "confusing and contradictory".<ref name="Dutton, D. G. 19942"/> Smith (1990) estimated that patriarchal beliefs were a causative factor for only 20% of wife abuse.<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Smith | first = Michael D. | s2cid = 19556947 | title = Patriarchal ideology and wife beating: a test of a feminist hypothesis | journal = [[Violence & Victims]] | volume = 5 | issue = 4 | pages = 257–273 | pmid = 2098090 | date = Winter 1990 | doi = 10.1891/0886-6708.5.4.257 }}</ref> Campbell (1993) writes that "there is not a simple linear correlation between female status and rates of wife assault."<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Campbell | first = J.C. | title = Prevention of wife battering: insights from cultural analysis. Nursing Network on Violence against Women | journal = [[POPLINE|Response]] | volume = 14 | issue = 3 | pages = 18–24 | date = 1993 | url = https://www.popline.org/node/340472 }}</ref>{{rp|19}} Other studies had similar findings.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Sugarman | first1 = David B. | last2 = Frankel | first2 = Susan L. | s2cid = 13551207 | title = Patriarchal ideology and wife-assault: a meta-analytic review | journal = Journal of Family Violence | volume = 11 | issue = 1 | pages = 13–40 | doi = 10.1007/BF02333338 | date = March 1996 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Felson | first1 = Richard B. | last2 = Outlaw | first2 = Maureen C. | s2cid = 26265068 | title = The control motive and marital violence | journal = [[Violence & Victims]] | volume = 22 | issue = 4 | pages = 387–407 | doi = 10.1891/088667007781553964 | pmid = 17691548 | date = 2007 }}</ref> Additionally, a 1994 study of Hispanic Americans revealed that traditionalist men exhibited lower rates of abuse towards women.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Kantor | first1 = Glenda K. | last2 = Jasinski | first2 = Jana L. | last3 = Aldarondo | first3 = Etiony | s2cid = 31549817 | title = Sociocultural status and incidence of marital violence in Hispanic families | journal = [[Violence & Victims]] | volume = 9 | issue = 3 | pages = 207–222 | pmid = 7647043 | date = Fall 1994 | doi = 10.1891/0886-6708.9.3.207 }}</ref>
* Studies from the 1980s showed that treatment programs based on the patriarchal privilege model are flawed due to a weak connection between abusiveness and one's cultural or social attitudes.<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Browning | first1 = James J. | last2 = National Clearinghouse on Family Violence | title = Stopping the violence: Canadian programmes for assaultive men | publisher = Health and Welfare Canada | location = Ottawa, Canada | year = 1984 | isbn = 978-0-7748-5987-5 | oclc = 16927209 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1 = Neidig | first1 = Peter | last2 = Friedman | first2 = Dale H. | title = Spouse abuse: a treatment program for couples | publisher = Research Press Co. | location = Champaign, Illinois | year = 1984 | isbn = 978-0-87822-234-6 | url = https://archive.org/details/spouseabusetreat0000neid }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Dutton | first = Donald G. | title = The domestic assault of women: psychological and criminal justice perspectives | publisher = Allyn and Bacon | location = Boston | year = 1988 | isbn = 978-0-205-11323-1 }}</ref>
* A 1992 study challenge the concept that male abuse or control of women is culturally sanctioned, and concluded that abusive men are widely viewed as unsuitable partners for dating or marriage.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Dutton | first1 = Donald G. | last2 = Hemphill | first2 = Kenneth J. | s2cid = 22213805 | title = Patterns of socially desirable responding among perpetrators and victims of wife assault | journal = [[Violence & Victims]] | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | pages = 29–39 | date = Spring 1992 | pmid = 1504031 | doi = 10.1891/0886-6708.7.1.29 }}</ref> A 1988 study concluded that a minority of abusive men qualify as pervasively misogynistic.<ref>{{citation | last1 = Dutton | first1 = Donald G. | last2 = Browning | first2 = James J. | contribution = Power struggles and intimacy anxieties as causative factors of violence in intimate relationships | editor-last = Russell | editor-first = Gordon W. | title = Violence in intimate relationships | publisher = PMA Publishing Corp. | location = Great Neck, New York | year = 1988 | isbn = 978-0-89335-231-8 | postscript = .}}</ref> A 1986 study concluded that the majority of men who commit spousal abuse agree that their behavior was inappropriate.<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Dutton | first = Donald G. | title = Wife assaulter's explanations for assault: the neutralization of self-punishment | journal = [[Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science]] | volume = 18 | issue = 4 | pages = 381–390 | doi = 10.1037/h0079964 | date = October 1986 }}</ref> A 1970 study concluded that a minority of men approve of spousal abuse under even limited circumstances.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Stark | first1 = R. | last2 = McEvoy | first2 = J. | title = Middle class violence | journal = [[Psychology Today]] | volume = 4 | issue = 6 | pages = 107–112 | date = November 1970 | url = https://www.psychologytoday.com/magazine/archive }}
* Also available as: {{citation | last1 = Stark | first1 = R. | last2 = McEvoy | first2 = J. | contribution = Middle class violence | editor-last = Articles (various) | title = Change: readings in society & human behavior | page = 272 | publisher = CRM Books | location = Del Mar, California | year = 1972 | isbn = 978-0-87665-133-9 | postscript = .}}</ref> Studies from the 1970 and 1980s concluded that the majority of men are non-abusive towards girlfriends or wives for the duration of relationships, contrary to predictions that aggression or abuse towards women is an innate element of masculine culture.<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Straus | first1 = Murray A. | last2 = Gelles | first2 = Richard J. | title = Is family violence increasing? A comparison of 1975 and 1985 national survey rates | publisher = Transaction Publishers | location = New Brunswick, New Jersey | year = 1990 }}
* Initially presented as a paper to the [[American Society of Criminology]], San Diego, California, November, 1985.</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1 = Kennedy | first1 = Leslie W. | last2 = Dutton | first2 = Donald G. | title = The incidence of wife assault in Alberta | publisher = Population Research Laboratory, Department of Sociology, University of Alberta | location = Edmonton, Alta | series = Edmonton area series report, no. 53 | year = 1987 | oclc = 17948290 }}
* Also published as: {{Cite journal | last1 = Kennedy | first1 = Leslie W. | last2 = Dutton | first2 = Donald G. | title = The incidence of wife assault in Alberta | journal = [[Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science]] | volume = 21 | issue = 1 | pages = 40–54 | doi = 10.1037/h0079792 | date = January 1989 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1 = Straus | first1 = Murray A. | last2 = Gelles | first2 = Richard J. | last3 = Steinmetz | first3 = Suzanne K. | title = Behind closed doors: violence in the American family | publisher = Anchor Press/Doubleday | location = Garden City, New York | year = 1980 | isbn = 978-0-385-14259-5 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1 = Schulman | first1 = Mark A. | last2 = Kentucky Commission on Women | title = A survey of spousal violence against women in Kentucky | publisher = [[United States Department of Justice|U.S. Department of Justice]] | location = Washington, DC | year = 1979 | oclc = 6374427 }}</ref>
* In 1994, a researcher said that the numerous studies establishing that heterosexual and gay male relationships have lower rates of abuse than lesbian relationships, and the fact that women who have been involved with both men and women were more likely to have been abused by a woman "are difficult to explain in terms of male domination."<ref name="Dutton, D. G. 19942"/> Additionally, Dutton said that "patriarchy must interact with psychological variables in order to account for the great variation in power-violence data. It is suggested that some forms of psychopathology lead to some men adopting patriarchal ideology to justify and rationalize their own pathology."

A 2010 study said that [[fundamentalist]] views of religions tend to reinforce emotional abuse, and that "Gender inequity is usually translated into a power imbalance with women being more vulnerable. This vulnerability is more precarious in traditional patriarchal societies."<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Mobaraki | first1 = A.E.H. | last2 = Söderfeldt | first2 = B. | title = Gender inequity in Saudi Arabia and its role in public health | journal = [[Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal]] | volume = 16 | issue = 1 | pages = 113–118 | pmid = 20214168 | date = January 2010 | url = https://www.emro.who.int/emhj-volume-16-2010/volume-16-issue-1/article19.html | doi = 10.26719/2010.16.1.113 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

In the [[Book of Genesis]] God specifically punishes women after Adam and Eve disobey Him: "in sorrow, thou shalt bring forth children: and thy desire shall be to thy husband, and he shall rule over thee"; God also condemns Adam to a lifetime of work, for the sin of listening to his wife.<ref>Genesis 3:16-17</ref>

Some studies say that fundamentalist religious prohibitions against divorce may make it more difficult for religious men or women to leave an abusive marriage. A 1985 survey of Protestant clergy in the United States by Jim M Alsdurf found that 21% of them agreed that "no amount of abuse would justify a woman's leaving her husband, ever", and 26% agreed with the statement that "a wife should submit to her husband and trust that God would honor her action by either stopping the abuse or giving her the strength to endure it."<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Jones | first1 = Ann|author1-link=Ann Jones (author) | last2 = Schechter | first2 = Susan |author2-link=Susan Schechter| contribution = More help for you and your kids: for family, friends, and helpers | title = When love goes wrong: what to do when you can't do anything right | publisher = HarperCollins Publishers | location = New York | year = 1992 | isbn = 978-0-06-016306-8 | url = https://archive.org/details/whenlovegoeswron00annj }}</ref> A 2016 report by the Muslim Women's Network UK cited several barriers for Muslim women in abusive marriages who seek divorce through [[Islamic Sharia Council|Sharia Council]] services. These barriers include: selectively quoting religious text to discourage divorce; blaming the woman for the failed marriage; placing greater weight on the [[Sharia#Court procedures|husband's testimony]]; requiring the woman to present [[Sharia#Court procedures|two male witnesses]]; and pressuring women into mediation or reconciliation rather than granting a divorce, even when domestic violence is present.<ref>{{cite web |last=Gohir |first=Shaista |url=https://www.mwnuk.co.uk//go_files/resources/MWNU%20Marriage_Divorce%20Report_WEB2.pdf |title=Information and Guidance on Muslim Marriage and Divorce in Britain | pages=40–46 |publisher=Muslim Women's Network UK |date=January 2016 |access-date=28 February 2019 }}</ref>

== See also ==
{{columns-list|colwidth=18em|
* [[Coercion]]
* [[Destabilisation#Psychology|Destabilisation]]
* [[Economic abuse]]
* [[Emotional blackmail]]
* [[Guilt trip]]
* [[Isolation to facilitate abuse]]
* [[Poisonous pedagogy]]
* [[Psychological manipulation]]
* [[Psychological trauma]]
* [[Silent treatment]]
}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Medical resources
 | DiseasesDB =
 | ICD10 = {{ICD10|T|74|3|t|66}}
 | ICD9 = {{ICD9|995.82}}
 | ICDO =
 | OMIM =
 | MedlinePlus =
 | eMedicineSubj =
 | eMedicineTopic =
 | MeshID =
}}
* {{Commons category-inline}}

{{Abuse}}
{{Bullying}}
{{Manipulation (psychology)}}
{{Domestic violence}}
{{Consequences of external causes}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Psychological Abuse}}
[[Category:Psychological abuse| ]]
[[Category:Harassment and bullying]]