View source for Proto-Dravidian language

{{Short description|Reconstructed common ancestor of the Dravidian languages}}
{{infobox proto-language 
|name=Proto-Dravidian
|familycolor=Dravidian
|target=[[Dravidian languages]]
|era= c. 4000–3000 BCE
|region= Peninsular India, [[Deccan Plateau]]
|child1=[[Proto South-Dravidian language|Proto South-Dravidian]]
|child2=Proto South-Central-Dravidian
|child3=Proto Central-Dravidian
|child4=Proto North-Dravidian
}}
{{Dravidian}}

'''Proto-Dravidian''' is the [[linguistic reconstruction]] of the common ancestor of the [[Dravidian languages]] native to the [[Indian subcontinent]].{{sfn|Andronov|2003|p=299}} It is thought to have differentiated into Proto-North Dravidian, Proto-Central Dravidian, and [[Proto-South Dravidian]], although the date of diversification is still debated.{{sfn|Krishnamurti|2003|p=492}}

==History==
As a [[proto-language]], Proto-Dravidian is not itself attested in historical records. Its modern conception is based solely on [[Linguistic reconstruction|reconstruction]]. It is suggested that the language was spoken in the 4th millennium BCE, and started evolving into various branches around 3rd-millennium BCE.<ref>{{Cite book |title=History and Archaeology. vol. 1, no. 1–2 |year=1980 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=chvjAAAAMAAJ&q=the+proto-+Dravidian+linguistic+community+disintegrated+at+the+beginning+of+the+4th+millennium+B.+C |page=234 |publisher=Department of Ancient History, Culture, and Archaeology, University of Allahabad |oclc=11579254}}<!--Please provide the title of the contribution and its author; the preview on Google Books doesn't provide a contents list.--></ref>{{full citation needed|date=September 2022}}

The [[Dravidian people#Origins|origin and territory of the Proto-Dravidian speakers]] is uncertain, but some suggestions have been made based on the reconstructed Proto-Dravidian vocabulary. The reconstruction has been done on the basis of cognate words present in the different branches ([[Northern Dravidian languages|Northern]], [[Central Dravidian Languages|Central]] and [[South Dravidian|Southern]]) of the Dravidian language family.{{sfn|McIntosh|2008|p=353}}

According to {{harvp|Fuller|2007}}, the botanical vocabulary of Proto-Dravidian is characteristic of the [[dry deciduous forest]]s of central and peninsular India. For the Southern Dravidians, this region extends from [[Khathiar-Gir dry deciduous forests|Saurashtra]] and [[Narmada Valley dry deciduous forests|Central India]] to [[South Deccan Plateau dry deciduous forests|South India]]. It thus represents the general area in which the Dravidians were living before the separation of branches.{{sfn|McIntosh|2008|p=353}} 

According to [[Franklin Southworth]] (2005),{{sfn|Southworth|2005}} the Proto-Dravidian vocabulary is characteristic of a rural economy based on agriculture, animal husbandry and hunting. However, there are some indications of a society more complex than a rural one:{{sfn|McIntosh|2008|p=353–354}}

* Words for an [[storey|upper storey]] and [[beam (structure)|beam]]
* [[Metallurgy]]
* Trade
* Payment of dues (possibly taxes or contributions to religious ceremonies)
* Social stratification

This evidence is not sufficient to determine with certainty the territory of the Proto-Dravidians. These characteristics can be accommodated within multiple contemporary cultures, including:{{sfn|McIntosh|2008|p=353–354}}

* 2nd and 3rd millennium BCE Neolithic-Chalcolithic cultures of [[Mehrgarh]] and present-day [[Ahar-Banas culture|western Rajasthan]], [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]] and other parts of the peninsula.
* Early [[Indus Valley civilisation]] sites in [[Pakistan]] and later ones in the Saurashtra (Sorath) area of present-day [[Gujarat]].
* [[Asko Parpola]] identifies Proto-North Dravidians with the [[Indus Valley civilization]] (IVC) and the [[Meluhha]] people mentioned in [[Sumer]]ian records, and has suggested that the word "Meluhha" derives from the Dravidian words ''mel(u)-akam'' ("highland country, high abode").{{sfn|Parpola|Parpola|1975|p=217–225}}
* [[Loan words]] identified in [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]] such as the words for [[ivory]] and [[sesame]] are considered to be derived from Proto-Dravidian and spread from IVC to [[Mesopotamia]] due to trade.{{sfn|McIntosh|2008|p=354}}{{sfn|Ansumali Mukhopadhyay|2021}}

==Phonology==

===Vowels===
Proto-Dravidian contrasted between five short and long vowels: ''*a'', ''*ā'', ''*i'', ''*ī'', ''*u'', ''*ū'', ''*e'', ''*ē'', ''*o'', ''*ō''. The sequences ''*ai'' and ''*au'' are treated as ''*ay'' and ''*av'' (or *''aw'').{{sfn|Baldi|1990|p=342}}

===Consonants===
Proto-Dravidian has been reconstructed as having the following consonant phonemes:{{sfn|Subrahmanyam|1983|p=40}}{{sfn|Zvelebil|1990}}{{sfn|Krishnamurti|2003}}

{| class="wikitable Unicode" border="1" style="text-align:center"
|-
! !![[Labial consonant|Labial]]
![[Dental consonant|Dental]]
![[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
![[Retroflex]]
![[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
![[Velar consonant|Velar]]
![[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
![[Plosives]]
| *p || *t || *ṯ || *ʈ || *c || *k ||
|-
![[Nasal consonant|Nasals]]
| *m || *n || (*ṉ){{efn|reconstructed by [[P. S. Subrahmanyam]]}} || *ɳ || *ɲ ||  ||
|-
![[Lateral consonant|Laterals]]
| || || *l || *ɭ || || ||
|-
![[Rhotic consonant|Rhotics]]
| || || *r || *ɻ{{efn|may also be represented as ḻ or r̤}} || || ||
|-
![[Semivowels]]
| *w || || ||  || *j || || *H
|}
{{Notelist}}

The singular alveolar plosive ''*ṯ'' developed into an alveolar trill {{IPA|/r/}} in many of the South and South Central languages, it later merged with the tap in many of them; Tulu has /d͡ʒ, d̪, ɾ/ as reflexes, Manda-Kui made it /d͡ʒ/ and Hill-Maria Gondi made it /ʁ/. ''*ṯṯ'' and ''*nṯ'' became /r̥, nr/ in Konda and [tr, ndr] in many Tamil dialects. Apart from them, other languages did not rhotacize it, instead either preserving them or merging it with other sets of stops like dentals in Kannada, retroflexes in Telugu or palatals in Manda-Kui and some languages of Kerala.<ref>{{Cite web| title=Tribal Languages of Kerala | url=http://www.languageinindia.com/july2013/ravisankarkeralatriballanguages.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130721004115/http://www.languageinindia.com:80/july2013/ravisankarkeralatriballanguages.pdf | archive-date=2013-07-21}}</ref> Central made all alveolars dental which is one of the features distinguishing it from South Central branch and North made it /r, s/.{{sfn|Krishnamurti|2003}}<ref>{{Cite web| title=Dravidian Comparative Phonology | url=https://www.tamildigitallibrary.in/admin/assets/book/TVA_BOK_0012142_Dravidian_comparative_phonology.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230601185052/https://www.tamildigitallibrary.in/admin/assets/book/TVA_BOK_0012142_Dravidian_comparative_phonology.pdf | archive-date=2023-06-01}}</ref> For example, Tamil ''āṟu'', Tulu ''āji'', Naiki ''sādi'', Kui ''hāja''; Tamil ''puṟṟu'', Tulu ''puñca'', Kannada ''huttu'', Naiki ''puṭṭa'', Konda ''puRi'', Malto ''pute''; Tamil ''onṟu'', Tulu ''oñji'', Pengo ''ronje'', Brahui ''asi''.

Velar nasal ''*ṅ'' occurred only before ''*k'' in Proto-Dravidian (as in many of its daughter languages). Therefore, it is not considered a separate phoneme in Proto-Dravidian. However, it attained phonemic status in languages like Malayalam, [[Gondi language|Gondi]], [[Konda language (Dravidian)|Konda]] and [[Pengo language|Pengo]] because the original sequence ''*ṅk'' was simplified to ''*ṅ'' or ''*ṅṅ''.{{sfn|Subrahmanyam|1983}}

The glottal fricative ''*H'' has been proposed by {{harvp|Krishnamurti|2003}} to account for the Old Tamil Aytam (''Āytam'') and other Dravidian comparative phonological phenomena.

[[P. S. Subrahmanyam]] reconstructs 6 nasals for PD compared to 4 by Krishnamurti, who also does not reconstruct a laryngeal.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.academia.edu/23734414 | title=Professor P. S. Subrahmanyam, (1939-2016) the distinguished Dravidian linguist: A short profile and his publications | last1=Prema | first1=S. | last2=Sreekumar | first2=P. }}</ref>

The Northern Dravidian languages [[Kurukh language|Kurukh]], [[Malto language|Malto]] and [[Brahui language|Brahui]] cannot easily be derived from the traditional Proto-Dravidian phonological system. {{harvp|McAlpin|2003}} proposes that they branched off from an earlier stage of Proto-Dravidian than the conventional reconstruction, which would apply only to the other languages. He suggests reconstructing a richer system of dorsal stop consonants:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Early Proto-Dravidian !! Late Proto-Dravidian<br />(Proto-Non-North Dravidian) !! Proto-Kurukh-Malto !! Brahui
|- align="center"
| *c || *c || *c ||<!--tʃ?-->
|- align="center"
| *kʲ || *c || *k || k
|- align="center"
| *k || *k || *k || k
|- align="center"
| *q || *k || *q || x<br />k / _i(ː)
|}

==Numerals==
{{main|wikt:Appendix:Cognate sets for Dravidian languages#Numerals}}

==Vocabulary==

===Crop plants===
Below are some crop plants that have been found in the Southern Neolithic complex of [[Karnataka]] and [[Andhra Pradesh]], along with their Proto-Dravidian or Proto-South Dravidian reconstructions by {{harvp|Southworth|2005}}. In some cases, the proto-form glosses differ from the species identified from archaeological sites. For example, the two Southern Neolithic staple grasses ''[[Brachiaria]] ramosa'' and ''[[Setaria verticillata]]'' respectively correspond to the reconstructed Proto-Dravidian forms for ''[[Sorghum vulgare]]'' and ''[[Setaria italica]]'' as early Dravidian speakers shifted to [[millet]] species that were later introduced to South India.{{sfn|Southworth|2005}}

{| class="wikitable"
|+Pulses
! Common name !! Scientific name !! Reconstruction level !! Proto-form !! Gloss of proto-form
|-
| [[horsegram]] || ''[[Macrotyloma uniflorum]]'' || Late Proto-Dravidian || *koḷ || [[horsegram]]
|-
| [[green gram]] || ''[[Vigna radiata]]'' || Late Proto-Dravidian || *pac-Vt/Vl || [[green gram]]
|-
| [[black gram]] || [[Vigna mungo|''Vigna'' cf. ''mungo'']]; ''[[Vigna trilobata]]'' || Late Proto-Dravidian || *uẓ-untu, *min(t) || [[black gram]]
|-
| [[hyacinth bean]] || ''[[Lablab purpureus]]'' || Proto-Tamil || *ava-rai || ''[[Dolichos lablab]]''
|-
| [[pigeonpea]] || ''[[Cajanus cajan]]'' || Late Proto-Dravidian || *tu-var || [[pigeonpea]]
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+Millets and related grasses
! Common name !! Scientific name !! Reconstruction level !! Proto-form !! Gloss of proto-form
|-
| [[browntop millet]] || ''[[Brachiaria ramosa]]'' || Late Proto-Dravidian || *conna-l || [[sorghum]]
|-
| [[Setaria verticillata|bristly foxtail]] || ''[[Setaria verticillata]]'' || Late Proto-Dravidian || *kot-V || ''[[Setaria italica]]''
|-
| [[sawa millet]] || [[Echinochloa colona|''Echinochloa'' cf. ''colona'']] ||  ||  || 
|-
| [[Setaria pumila|yellow foxtail]] || ''[[Setaria pumila]]'' ||  ||  || 
|-
| [[little millet]] || ''[[Panicum sumatrense]]'' ||  ||  || 
|-
| [[kodo millet]] || ''[[Paspalum scrobiculatum]]'' || Proto-South Dravidian || *(v)ār/ar-Vk || [[pearl millet]]
|-
| [[millet]] || ''[[Pennisetum glaucum]]'' || Proto-South Dravidian || *kam-pu || [[bulrush millet]]
|-
| [[finger millet]] || ''[[Eleusine coracana]]'' || Proto-South Dravidian || *ira(k) || [[finger millet|ragi]]
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+Large cereals
! Common name !! Scientific name !! Reconstruction level !! Proto-form !! Gloss of proto-form
|-
| [[barley]] || ''[[Hordeum vulgare]]'' ||  ||  || 
|-
| [[wheat]] || ''[[Triticum]]'' || Late Proto-Dravidian? || *kūli || [[wheat]]
|-
| [[rice]] || ''[[Oryza]]'' sp. || Late Proto-Dravidian? || *(v)ar-iñci || [[rice]]
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+Other food/crop plants
! Common name !! Scientific name !! Reconstruction level !! Proto-form !! Gloss of proto-form
|-
| [[jujube]] || ''[[Zizyphus]]'' sp. || Late Proto-Dravidian || *irak- || [[jujube]]
|-
| [[Ficus|fig]] || ''[[Ficus]]'' sp. || Late Proto-Dravidian || *cuv- || [[Ficus|fig]]
|-
| [[java plum]] || cf. ''[[Syzygium cumini]]'' || Late Proto-Dravidian || *ñēr-al || [[Syzygium cumini|jambu]]
|-
| [[globe cucumber]] || [[Cucumis prophetarum|''Cucumis'' cf. ''prophetarum'']] ||  ||  || 
|-
| [[luffa]] || cf. ''[[Luffa cylindrica]]'' || Late Proto-Dravidian || *pīr || 
|-
| [[flax]] || ''[[Linum usitatissimum]]'' || Proto-South Dravidian || *ak-V-ce || 
|-
| [[cotton]] || ''[[Gossypium]]'' sp. || Proto-South Dravidian || *par-utti || 
|-
| [[okra]] || ''[[Abelmoschus]]'' sp. ||  ||  || 
|-
| [[parenchyma]] fragments ||  || Early Proto-Dravidian || *kic-ampu || 
|-
| [[date palm]] || ''Phoenix'' sp. || Early Proto-Dravidian||*cīntu ||
|-
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+Not identified archaeologically in the Southern Neolithic
! Common name !! Scientific name !! Reconstruction level !! Proto-form !! Gloss of proto-form
|-
| [[onion]]/[[garlic]] || ''[[Allium]]'' sp. || Early Proto-Dravidian || *uḷḷi || 
|-
| [[eggplant]] || ''[[Solanum]]'' sp. || Early Proto-Dravidian || *vaẓ-Vt || 
|-
| [[sesame]] || ''[[Sesamum indicum]]'' || Late Proto-Dravidian || *nū(v)- || [[sesame]]
|-
| [[sugarcane]] || ''[[Saccharum]]'' sp. || Early Proto-Dravidian || *cet-Vkk || 
|-
| [[hemp]] || ''[[Cannabis]]'' sp. || Late Proto-Dravidian ? || *boy-Vl || 
|}

===Basic vocabulary===
Basic vocabulary of Proto-Dravidian selected from {{harvp|Krishnamurti|2003}}:{{sfn|Krishnamurti|2003|p={{pn|date=August 2022}}}}

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="font-size: 85%"
! gloss !! Proto-Dravidian
|-
| one || *on-ṯu
|-
| one (adj.) || *ōr-/*or-V-
|-
| two || *īr/*ir-V
|-
| three (adj.) || *muH-/*mū-
|-
| four (adj.) || *nāl/*nal-V-
|-
| five (adj.) || *cay-m-
|-
| six (adj.) || *caṯ-V
|-
| seven (adj.) || *eẓ-V
|-
| eight (adj.) || *eṇ
|-
| nine, 9/10 || *toḷ-/*toṇ-
|-
| ten minus one || *on-patV
|-
| ten (adj.) || *paH-
|-
| head, hair, top || *tal-ay
|-
| cheek || *kap-Vḷ
|-
| eye || *kaṇ
|-
| eyeball || *kuṭ-V/*kuṇṭ-V
|-
| ear || *kew-i
|-
| nose, beak || *mū-nk(k)u/-nc-
|-
| tooth || *pal
|-
| mouth{{efn|Also 'edge, beak, mouth of vessel, aperture, blade of sword'.}} || *wāy
|-
| hand, arm || *kay
|-
| leg, foot || *kāl
|-
| heart, kidney || *kuṇṭV
|-
| liver || *taẓ-Vnk-/-nkk
|-
| milk, breast || *pāl
|-
| bone || *el-V-mp/-nk
|-
| bone marrow || *mūḷ-V-
|-
| excrement || *piy/*pī
|-
| house || *il
|-
| husband || *maẓc-a-
|-
| man, husband || *māy-tt-/*mā-cc-
|-
| woman || *peṇ
|-
| name || *pin-cc-Vr
|-
| sky || *wān-am
|-
| sun || *en-ṯ-
|-
| sun || *pōẓ/*poẓ-u-tu
|-
| moon, moonlight || *nel-a-nc/-ncc
|-
| month || *nel-V-
|-
| star || *cukk-V
|-
| star || *miHn
|-
| cloud || *muy-il
|-
| water || *nīr
|-
| river, stream || *yĀtu
|-
| lake || *kuḷ-am/-Vnc-
|-
| sea, ocean || *kaṭ-al
|-
| stone || *kal
|-
| wind || *waḷi
|-
| day || *nāḷ
|-
| night || *nāḷ/*naḷ-V-
|-
| year || *yAṇṭ-u
|-
| tree || *mar-am/-an
|-
| fruit, pod || *kāy
|-
| forest || *kā(-n), kā-ṭu
|-
| grass || *pul
|-
| thatched grass || *pīr
|-
| dog || *naH-ay/-att/-kuẓi
|-
| animal, beast, deer || *mā
|-
| deer || *kur-V-c-
|-
| tiger || *pul-i
|-
| rat || *el-i
|-
| snake || *pāmpu
|-
| meat || *iṯ-ay-cci
|-
| meat || *ū/*uy
|-
| oil, ghee || *ney
|-
| fish || *mīn
|-
| louse || *pēn
|-
| mosquito || *nuẓ-Vḷ/-nk-
|-
| wing || *ceṯ-ank-/-ankk-
|-
| black || *cir-
|-
| white || *weḷ/*weṇ
|-
| red || *kem
|-
| sweet (adj./n.) || *in-
|-
| sour || *puḷ-
|-
| bitter; bitterness || *kac (> kay)
|-
| to eat, drink || *uHṇ-/*ūṇ-
|-
| to eat || *tiHn-
|-
| to come || *waH-/*waH-r
|-
| to walk || *naṭ-a
|-
| to give || *ciy-/*cī-
|-
| to die || *caH- ~ *ceH-
|-
| to sleep || *kū-r-
|-
| to sleep || *tuñc-
|-
| to count || *eṇ
|}
{{Notelist}}

==See also==
{{sister project |project=wiktionary |text=[[Wiktionary]] has a list of reconstructed Proto-Dravidian forms at '''''[[Wiktionary:Appendix:Proto-Dravidian reconstructions|Appendix:Proto-Dravidian reconstructions]]'''''}}
*[[Elamo-Dravidian languages]]
*[[Dravidian languages]]
*[[Sanskrit]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

===Works cited===
{{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
* {{Cite book |last=Andronov |first=Mikhail Sergeevich |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vhB60gYvnLgC&pg=PA299 |title=A Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian Languages |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |year=2003 |isbn=978-3-447-04455-4}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Ansumali Mukhopadhyay |first=Bahata |date=December 2021 |title=Ancestral Dravidian languages in Indus Civilization: ultraconserved Dravidian tooth-word reveals deep linguistic ancestry and supports genetics |journal=Humanities and Social Sciences Communications |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=193 |doi=10.1057/s41599-021-00868-w |s2cid=236901972|doi-access=free }}
* {{Cite book |last=Baldi |first=Philip |title=Linguistic Change and Reconstruction Methodology |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |year=1990 |isbn=3-11-011908-0 |page=342 |author-link=Philip Baldi}}
* {{Cite book |last=Fuller |first=Dorian Q. |title=The Evolution and History of Human Populations in South Asia |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-4020-5561-4 |series=Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology Series |pages=393–443 |chapter=Non-human genetics, agricultural origins and historical linguistics in South Asia |doi=10.1007/1-4020-5562-5_18}}
* {{Cite book |last=Krishnamurti |first=Bhadriraju |title=The Dravidian Languages |date=2003 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-43533-8 |author-link=Bhadriraju Krishnamurti}}
* {{Cite journal |last=McAlpin |first=David W. |year=2003 |title=Velars, Uvulars and the Northern Dravidian hypothesis |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=123 |issue=3 |pages=521–546 |doi=10.2307/3217749 |jstor=3217749}}
* {{Cite book |last=McIntosh |first=Jane |title=The Ancient Indus Valley: New Perspectives |date=2008 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-57607-907-2}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Parpola |first1=Asko |first2=Simo |last2=Parpola |title=On the relationship of the Sumerian toponym Meluhha and Sanskrit mleccha |journal=Studia Orientalia |volume=46 |year=1975 |pages=205–238 |url=http://ojs.tsv.fi/index.php/StOrE/article/view/49874/14912}}
* {{Cite conference |last=Southworth |first=Franklin C. |year=2005 |title=Proto-Dravidian Agriculture |url=https://www.sas.upenn.edu/~fsouth/from_ccat/Proto-DravidianAgriculture.pdf |conference=7th ESCA Round Table Conference, Kyoto, June 2005 |author-link=Franklin Southworth}}
* {{Cite book |last=Subrahmanyam |first=P.S. |title=Dravidian Comparative Phonology |publisher=Annamalai University |year=1983}}
* {{Cite book |last=Zvelebil |first=Kamil |title=Dravidian Linguistics: An Introduction |publisher=Pondicherry Institute of Linguistics and Culture |year=1990 |author-link=Kamil Zvelebil}}
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Andronov |first=M. |date=1964 |title=Lexicostatistic analysis of the chronology of disintegration of proto-Dravidian |journal=Indo-Iranian Journal |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=170–186 |doi=10.1163/000000064791616433 |s2cid=161229771}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Blažek |first=Václav |year=2009 |title=Dravidian numeral |url=https://www.jolr.ru/files/%287%29jlr2009-1%2869-80%29.pdf |journal=Journal of Language Relationship |volume=1 |pages=69–80 |authorlink1=Václav Blažek}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Chandrasekaran |first=Periannan |date=7 January 2016 |title=Pleonastic Compounding: An Ancient Dravidian Word Structure |journal=Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=1–59 Seiten |doi=10.11588/ejvs.2011.1.319}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Emeneau |first=M. B. |date=April 1988 |title=Proto-Dravidian *c- and Its Developments |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=108 |issue=2 |pages=239–268 |doi=10.2307/603651 |jstor=603651}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Kobayashi |first=Masato |date=2021 |title=Viewing Proto-Dravidian from the Northeast |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=140 |issue=2 |pages=467–482 |doi=10.7817/jameroriesoci.140.2.0467|s2cid=226670756 |doi-access=free }}.
* {{Cite journal |last1=Kolipakam |first1=Vishnupriya |last2=Jordan |first2=Fiona M. |last3=Dunn |first3=Michael |last4=Greenhill |first4=Simon J. |last5=Bouckaert |first5=Remco |last6=Gray |first6=Russell D. |last7=Verkerk |first7=Annemarie |date=March 2018 |title=A Bayesian phylogenetic study of the Dravidian language family |journal=Royal Society Open Science |volume=5 |issue=3 |pages=171504 |bibcode=2018RSOS....571504K |doi=10.1098/rsos.171504 |pmc=5882685 |pmid=29657761 |s2cid=4844024}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Sankaran |first=C. R. |date=1939 |title=Reconstruction of the Proto-Dravidian Pronouns |journal=Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=96–105 |jstor=42929233}}
* {{cite journal |last=Smirnitskaya |first=Anna |title=Nominations for siblings: Proto-Dravidian reconstruction and borrowability |journal=Journal of Language Relationship |volume=21 |issue=3–4 |date=2024 |pages=201–223 |doi=10.31826/jlr-2024-213-406|doi-access=free }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Southworth |first=Franklin |date=December 2011 |title=Rice in Dravidian |journal=Rice |volume=4 |issue=3–4 |pages=142–148 |doi=10.1007/s12284-011-9076-9 |s2cid=12983737 |author-link=Franklin Southworth|doi-access=free |bibcode=2011Rice....4..142S }}
* {{Cite book |last=Subramoniam |first=V. I. |title=Pratidanam: Indian, Iranian, and Indo-European studies presented to Franciscus Bernardus Jacobus Kuiper on his sixtieth birthday |year=1968 |isbn=9783112415306 |pages=344–358 |chapter=A Problem in the Reconstruction of the Proto Dravidian Nasal Phonemes |doi=10.1515/9783112415306-047}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Subrahmanyam |first=P.S. |date=2006 |title=Proto-Dravidian Short, High, and Mid Vowels: Mergers in South Dravidian and Telugu-Kuwi |journal=Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute |volume=66/67 |pages=291–303 |jstor=42931454}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Wells |first1=Bryan K. |title=The Archaeology and Epigraphy of Indus Writing |last2=Fuls |first2=Andreas |date=2015 |publisher=Archaeopress |isbn=978-1-78491-046-4 |pages=77–99 |chapter=Proto-Dravidian and the Indus Script |jstor=j.ctvr43jmf.14}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
* {{Cite book |last=T. Burrow |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/burrow/index.html |title=Dravidian Etymological Dictionary, 2nd Edition |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1984 |isbn=978-0-19-864326-5 |location=Oxford |access-date=2008-10-26}}

{{Dravidian languages}}
{{Tamil language}}

[[Category:Dravidian languages|*]]
[[Category:Proto-languages|Dravidian]]
[[Category:Pre-Indo-European languages]]