View source for Pronunciation of English ⟨th⟩

{{Short description|Sounds spelled with the digraph ⟨th⟩}}

{{Use British English|date = March 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2020}}
{{More citations needed|date=May 2018}}

{{English phonology topics}}
{{IPA notice}}

In English, the [[digraph (orthography)|digraph]] [[th (digraph)|{{angbr|th}}]] usually represents either the [[voiced dental fricative]] [[phoneme]] {{IPA|/ð/}} (as in '''''th'''is'') or the [[voiceless dental fricative]] phoneme {{IPA|/θ/}} (as in '''''th'''ing''). Occasionally, it stands for {{IPA|/t/}} (as in '''''Th'''ailand'', or '''''Th'''omas''). In the word ''eigh'''th''''', it is often pronounced {{IPA|/tθ/}}. In compound words, {{angbr|th}} may be a [[consonant sequence]] rather than a digraph (as in the {{IPA|/t.h/}} of ''ligh'''th'''ouse'').

== General description ==
In standard English, the phonetic realization of the two dental fricative phonemes shows less variation than many other English consonants. Both are pronounced either [[interdental consonant|interdentally]], with the blade of the tongue resting against the lower part of the back of the upper teeth and the tip protruding slightly, or with the tip of the tongue against the back of the upper teeth. For some speakers these two positions are in [[free variation]], while for other speakers they are in [[complementary distribution]], the position behind the teeth being used when the dental fricative stands in proximity to an alveolar fricative {{IPAslink|s}} or {{IPAslink|z}}, as in ''myths'' ({{IPA|/θs/}}) or ''clothes'' ({{IPA|/ðz/}}). Lip configuration may vary depending on phonetic context. The [[vocal folds]] are abducted. The [[velopharyngeal port]] is closed. Air forced between tongue surface and cutting edge of the upper teeth (interdental) or inside surface of the teeth (dental) creates audible frictional turbulence.

The difference between {{IPA|/θ/}} and {{IPA|/ð/}} is normally described as a voiceless–voiced contrast, the distinction that native speakers are most aware of. They are also distinguished by other phonetic markers: the [[Fortis and lenis|fortis]] {{IPA|/θ/}} is pronounced with more muscular tension than the lenis {{IPA|/ð/}}; and {{IPA|/θ/}} is more strongly [[Aspirated consonant|aspirated]] than {{IPA|/ð/}}, as can be demonstrated by holding a hand in front of the mouth as they are spoken.

==Phonology and distribution ==

In modern English, {{IPA|/θ/}} and {{IPA|/ð/}} are distinct [[phoneme]]s, not merely [[allophone]]s, as demonstrated by [[minimal pair]]s such as ''thigh:thy, ether:either, teeth:teethe''. They are distinguished from the neighbouring labiodental fricatives, sibilants and alveolar stops by such minimal pairs as ''thought:fought/sought/taught'' and ''then:Venn/Zen/den''.

The vast majority of words in English spelled with {{angbr|th}} have {{IPA|/θ/}}, and almost all newly created words do. However, the high frequency of the function words, particularly ''the'', means that {{IPA|/ð/}} is more frequent in [[Type–token distinction|actual use.]]

As a general rule, in initial position, {{IPA|/θ/}} is used except in certain function words; in medial position, {{IPA|/ð/}} is used except for certain foreign loan words; and in final position, {{IPA|/θ/}} is used except in certain verbs. A more detailed explanation follows.

===Initial position===
*Almost all words beginning with a dental fricative have {{IPA|/θ/}}.
*A small number of common function words (the Middle English anomalies mentioned below) begin with {{IPA|/ð/}}. The words in this group are:
**1 definite article: ''the''
**4 demonstratives: ''this, that, these, those''
**2 personal pronouns each with multiple forms: ''thou, thee, thy, thine, thyself; they, them, their, theirs, themselves, themself''
**7 adverbs and conjunctions: ''there, then, than, thus, though, thence, thither'' (though in the United States ''thence'' and ''thither'' may be pronounced with initial {{IPA|/θ/}}<ref name=AHD>The [[American Heritage Dictionary]], 1969.</ref>)
**Various compound adverbs based on the above words: ''therefore, thereupon, thereby, thereafter, thenceforth'', etc.
*A few words use an initial {{angbr|th}} for {{IPA|/t/}} (e.g. ''Thomas''): see below.

===Medial position===
*Most native words with a medial {{angbr|th}} have {{IPA|/ð/}}.
**Between vowels (including [[r-colored vowel]]s), followed by a weak vowel: ''heathen, farthing, fathom, Worthington''; and the frequent combination -ther-: ''bother, brother, dither, either, farther, father, further, heather, lather, mother, northern, other, rather, smithereens, slither, southern, together, weather, whether, wither''; ''Caruthers, Netherlands, Witherspoon''.
**Followed by {{IPA|/r/}}: ''brethren''.
*A few native words have a medial {{IPA|/θ/}}:
**The suffixes ''-y, -ly, -ing'' and ''-ed'' normally leave terminal {{IPA|/θ/}} unchanged: ''earthy, healthy, pithy, stealthy, wealthy, bothy'' (from ''booth''); ''fourthly'', ''monthly''; ''earthing''; ''frothed''; but ''worthy'' and ''swarthy'' have {{IPA|/ð/}}.
**Some plurals have {{IPA|/θs/}}, as discussed in more detail below: ''cloths, baths'' etc.
**Compound words in which the first element ends or the second element begins with {{angbr|th}} frequently have {{IPA|/θ/}}, as these elements would in isolation: ''bathroom, Southampton; anything, everything, nothing, something''.
**The only other native words with medial {{IPA|/θ/}} would seem to be ''brothel'' (usually) and ''Ethel''.
*Most loan words with a medial {{angbr|th}} have {{IPA|/θ/}}.
**From Greek: ''Agatha, anthem, atheist, Athens, athlete, cathedral, Catherine, Cathy, enthusiasm, ether, ethics, ethnic, lethal, lithium, mathematics, method, methyl, mythical, panther, pathetic, sympathy''
**From Latin: ''author, authority'' (though in Latin these had {{IPA|/t/}}; see below). Also names borrowed from or via Latin: ''Bertha, Gothic, Hathaway, Othello, Parthian''
**From Celtic languages: ''Arthur'' (Welsh has {{IPA|/θ/}} medially: {{IPA|/ærθɨr/}}); ''Abernathy, Abernethy'', as an anglicization, though Gaelic has no {{IPA|/θ/}}. 
**From Hebrew: ''Ethan'', ''Jonathan'', ''Bethlehem'', ''Bethany'', ''Leviathan'', ''Bethel''
**From German: ''Luther'', as an anglicized [[spelling pronunciation]] (see below).
*Loanwords with medial {{IPA|/ð/}}:
**Greek words with the combination -thm-: ''algorithm, logarithm, rhythm''. Exception : arithmetic {{IPA|/əˈrɪθmətɪk/}}. The word ''asthma'' may be pronounced {{IPA|/ˈæzðmə/}} or {{IPA|/ˈæsθmə/}}, though here the {{angbr|th}} is usually silent.
*A few words have a medial {{angbr|th}} for {{IPA|/t/}} or {{IPA|/th/}} (e.g. ''lighthouse''): see below.

===Final position===

*Nouns and adjectives
**Nouns and adjectives ending in a dental fricative usually have {{IPA|/θ/}}: ''bath, breath, cloth, froth, health, hearth, loath, mouth, sheath, sooth, tooth/teeth, width, wreath''.
**Exceptions are usually marked in the spelling with a [[silent e|silent {{angbr|e}}]]: ''tithe, lathe, lithe'' with {{IPA|/ð/}}.
**''blithe'' can have either {{IPA|/ð/}} or {{IPA|/θ/}}. ''booth'' has {{IPA|/ð/}} in England but {{IPA|/θ/}} in America.
*Verbs
**Verbs ending in a dental fricative usually have {{IPA|/ð/}}, and are frequently spelled with a silent {{angbr|e}}: ''bathe, breathe, clothe, loathe, scathe, scythe, seethe, sheathe, soothe, teethe, tithe, wreathe, writhe.'' Spelled without {{angbr|e}}: ''mouth'' (verb) nevertheless has {{IPA|/ð/}}.
**''froth'' has {{IPA|/θ/}} whether as a noun or as a verb.
**The verb endings -s, -ing, -ed do not change the pronunciation of a {{angbr|th}} in the final position in the stem: ''bathe'' has {{IPA|/ð/}}, therefore so do ''bathed, bathing, bathes''; ''frothing'' has {{IPA|/θ/}}. Likewise ''clothing'' used as a noun, ''scathing'' as an adjective etc.
**The archaic verb inflection "-eth" has {{IPA|/θ/}}.
*Others
**''with'' has either {{IPA|/θ/}} or {{IPA|/ð/}} (see below), as do its compounds: ''within'', ''without'', ''outwith'', ''withdraw'', ''withhold'', ''withstand'', ''wherewithal'', etc.

===Plurals===
*Plural {{angbr|s}} after {{angbr|th}} may be realized as either {{IPA|/ðz/}} or {{IPA|/θs/}}:
**Some plural nouns ending in {{angbr|ths}}, with a preceding vowel, have {{IPA|/ðz/}}, although the singulars always have {{IPA|/θ/}}; however, a variant in {{IPA|/θs/}} will be found for many of these: ''baths, mouths, oaths, paths, sheaths, truths, wreaths, youths'' exist in both varieties; ''clothes'' always has {{IPA|/ðz/}} (if not pronounced {{IPA|/kloʊz/}}<ref>{{cite book |first1=John S. |last1=Kenyon |author1-link=John Samuel Kenyon |first2=Thomas A. |last2=Knott |orig-year=1944 |year=1953 |title=A Pronouncing Dictionary of American English |publisher=Merriam-Webster |location=Springfield, Mass. |isbn=0-87779-047-7 |page=[https://archive.org/details/pronouncingdicti00keny/page/87 87] |title-link=A Pronouncing Dictionary of American English }}</ref>).
**Others have only /θs/: ''azimuths, breaths, cloths, deaths, faiths, Goths, growths, mammoths, moths, myths, smiths, sloths, zeniths'', etc. This includes all words in 'th' preceded by a consonant (''earths'', ''hearths'', ''lengths'', ''months'', ''widths'', etc.) and all numeric words, whether preceded by vowel or consonant (''fourths, fifths, sixths, sevenths, eighths'' {{IPA|/eɪtθs/}}, ''twelfths, fifteenths, twentieths, hundredths'' {{IPA|/hʌndrədθs/}}, ''thousandths'').
**''Booth'' has {{IPA|/ð/}} in the singular and hence {{IPA|/ðz/}} in the plural for most speakers in England.{{citation needed|reason=not borne out by my experience|date=July 2020}} In American English, it has {{IPA|/θ/}} in the singular and {{IPA|/θs/}} or {{IPA|/ðz/}} in the plural. This pronunciation also prevails in Scotland.

===Grammatical alternation===
In pairs of related words, an [[alternation (linguistics)|alternation]] between {{IPA|/θ/}} and {{IPA|/ð/}} is possible, which may be thought of as a kind of [[consonant mutation]]. Typically {{IPA|/θ/}} appears in the singular of a noun, {{IPA|/ð/}} in the plural and in the related verb: ''cloth'' {{IPA|/θ/}}, ''clothes'' {{IPA|/ð/}}, ''to clothe'' {{IPA|/ð/}}. This is directly comparable to the {{IPA|/s/-/z/}} or {{IPA|/f/-/v/}} alternation in ''house, houses'' or ''wolf, wolves''. It goes back to the allophonic variation in Old English (see below), where it was possible for {{angbr|þ}} to be in final position and thus voiceless in the basic form of a word, but in medial position and voiced in a related form. The loss of inflections then brought the voiced medial consonant to the end of the word. Often a remnant of the old inflection can be seen in the spelling in the form of a silent {{angbr|e}}, which may be thought of synchronically as a marker of the voicing.

===Regional differences in distribution===

The above discussion follows [[Daniel Jones (phonetician)|Daniel Jones]]' [[English Pronouncing Dictionary]], an authority on standard [[British English]], and [[Webster's New World College Dictionary]], an authority on [[American English]]. Usage appears much the same between the two. Regional variation within standard English includes the following:
*The final consonant in ''with'' is pronounced {{IPA|/θ/}} (its original pronunciation) in northern [[Great Britain|Britain]], but {{IPA|/ð/}} in the south, though some speakers of Southern British English use {{IPA|/θ/}} before a voiceless consonant and {{IPA|/ð/}} before a voiced one. A 1993 postal poll of [[American English]] speakers showed that 84% use {{IPA|/θ/}}, while 16% have {{IPA|/ð/}} (Shitara 1993). (The variant with {{IPA|/ð/}} is presumably a [[sandhi]] development.)
*In [[Scottish English]], {{IPA|/θ/}} is found in many words which have {{IPA|/ð/}} further south. The phenomenon of nouns terminating in {{IPA|/θ/}} taking plurals in {{IPA|/ðz/}} does not occur in the north. Thus the following have {{IPA|/θs/}}: ''baths'', ''mouths'' (noun), ''truths''. Scottish English does have the termination {{IPA|/ðz/}} in verb forms, however, such as ''bathes'', ''mouths'' (verb), ''loathes'', and also in the noun ''clothes'', which can be realized without {{IPA|/ð/}}. Scottish English also has {{IPA|/θ/}} in ''with, booth, thence'' etc., and the Scottish pronunciation of ''thither'', almost uniquely, has both {{IPA|/θ/}} and {{IPA|/ð/}} in the same word. Where there is an American-British difference, the North of Britain generally agrees with the United States on this phoneme pair.
*Some dialects of American English use {{IPA|/ð/}} at the beginning of the word "thank".

==History of the English phonemes==

===Germanic origins===
[[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] (PIE) had no dental fricatives, but these evolved in the earliest stages of the Germanic languages. In [[Proto-Germanic]], {{IPA|/ð/}} and {{IPA|/θ/}} were separate phonemes, usually represented in Germanic studies by the symbols *đ and *þ.
* *đ ({{IPA|/ð/}}) was derived by [[Grimm's law]] from PIE *dʰ or by [[Verner's law]] (i.e. when immediately following an unstressed syllable) from PIE *t.
* *þ ({{IPA|/θ/}}) was derived by Grimm's law from PIE *t.
In [[West Germanic languages|West Germanic]], the Proto-Germanic *đ shifted further to *d, leaving only one dental fricative phoneme. However, a new {{IPA|[ð]}} appeared as an [[allophone]] of {{IPA|/θ/}} in medial positions by assimilation of the voicing of the surrounding vowels. {{IPA|[θ]}} remained in initial and presumably in final positions (though later [[terminal devoicing]] would in any case have eliminated the evidence of final {{IPA|[ð]}}). This West Germanic phoneme, complete with its distribution of allophones, survived into Old English. In German and Dutch, it shifted to a {{IPA|/d/}}, the allophonic distinction simply being lost. In German, West Germanic *d shifted to {{IPA|/t/}} in what may be thought of as a chain shift, but in Dutch, *þ, *đ and *d merged into a single {{IPA|/d/}}.

The whole complex of Germanic dentals, and the place of the fricatives within it, can be summed up in this table:

{| class="wikitable"
! PIE
! Proto-Germanic
! West Germanic
! Old English
! German
! Dutch
! Notes
|-
| rowspan=3| *t
| rowspan=2| *þ
| *[þ]
| {{IPA|[θ]}}
| rowspan=2| {{IPA|/d/}}
| rowspan=4| {{IPA|/d/}}
| Original *t in initial position, or in final position after a stressed vowel
|-
| *[đ]
| {{IPA|[ð]}}
| Original *t in medial position after a stressed vowel
|-
| rowspan=2| *đ
| rowspan=2| *d
| rowspan=2| {{IPA|/d/}}
| rowspan=2| {{IPA|/t/}}
| Original *t after an unstressed vowel
|-
| *dʰ
| Original *dʰ in all positions
|-
| *d
| *t
| *t
| {{IPA|/t/}}
| {{IPA|/s/}} or {{IPA|/ts/}}
| {{IPA|/t/}}
| Original *d in all positions
|}

Note that this table shows only the basic rules. The actual developments in all of the mentioned languages are more complicated (due to dialectal variation, peculiar developments in [[consonant cluster]]s, etc.). For more on these phonemes from a comparative perspective, see [[Grammatischer Wechsel]]. For the developments in German and Dutch see [[High German consonant shift]].

===Old English===

Thus English inherited a phoneme {{IPA|/θ/}} in positions where other West Germanic languages have {{IPA|/d/}} and most other Indo-European languages have {{IPA|/t/}}: English ''three'', German ''drei'', Latin ''tres''.

In Old English, the phoneme {{IPA|/θ/}}, like all fricative phonemes in the language, had two allophones, one voiced and one voiceless, which were distributed regularly according to phonetic environment.
*{{IPA|[ð]}} (like {{IPA|[v]}} and {{IPA|[z]}}) was used between two voiced sounds (either vowels or voiced consonants).
*{{IPA|[θ]}} (like {{IPA|[f]}} and {{IPA|[s]}}) was spoken in initial and final position, and also medially if adjacent to another unvoiced consonant.

Although Old English had two graphemes to represent these sounds, {{angbr|þ}} ([[þ|thorn]]) and {{angbr|ð}} ([[ð|eth]]), it used them interchangeably, unlike [[Old Icelandic]], which used {{angbr|þ}} for {{IPA|/θ/}} and {{angbr|ð}} for {{IPA|/ð/}}.

===Development up to Modern English===
The most important development on the way to modern English was the investing of the existing distinction between {{IPA|[ð]}} and {{IPA|[θ]}} with phonemic value. Minimal pairs, and hence the phonological independence of the two phones, developed as a result of three main processes.

#In early Middle English times, a group of very common function words beginning with {{IPA|/θ/}} (the, they, there, etc.) came to be pronounced with {{IPA|/ð/}} instead of {{IPA|/θ/}}. Possibly this was a [[sandhi]] development; as these words are frequently found in unstressed positions, they can sometimes appear to run on from the preceding word, which may have resulted in the dental fricative being treated as though it were word-internal. This allowed a word-initial minimal pair like ''thigh:thy''. 
#English has borrowed many words from [[Greek language|Greek]], including a vast number of [[science|scientific]] terms. Where the original Greek had the letter {{angbr|θ}} (theta), English usually retained the Late Greek pronunciation regardless of phonetic environment, resulting in the presence of {{IPA|/θ/}} in medial position (''anthem'', ''methyl'', etc.). This allowed a medial minimal pair like ''ether:either''.
#English has lost its original verb inflections. When the stem of a verb ends with a dental fricative, this was usually followed by a vowel in Old English, and was therefore voiced. It is still voiced in modern English, even though the verb inflection has disappeared leaving the {{IPA|/ð/}} at the end of the word. Examples are to bathe, to mouth, to breathe. Sometimes a remnant of the original vowel remained in the spelling (see: [[Silent e]]), but this was inconsistent. This allowed a minimal pair in final position like ''loath:loathe''.

Other changes that affected these phonemes included a shift {{IPA|/d/}} → {{IPA|/ð/}} when followed by unstressed suffix -er. Thus Old English ''fæder'' became modern English ''father''; likewise ''mother, gather, hither, together, weather'' (from ''mōdor, gaderian, hider, tōgædere, weder''). In a reverse process, Old English ''byrþen'' and ''morþor'' or ''myrþra'' become ''burden'' and ''murder'' (compare the obsolete variants ''burthen'' and ''murther'').

Dialectally, the alternation between {{IPA|/d/}} and {{IPA|/ð/}} sometimes extends to other words, as ''bladder, ladder, solder'' with {{IPA|/ð/}} (possibly being restricted elsewhere by the former two clashing with ''blather'' and ''lather''). On the other hand, some dialects retain original ''d,'' and extend it to other words, as ''brother, further, rather''. The [[Wales|Welsh]] name ''Llewelyn'' appears in older English texts as ''Thlewelyn'' ([[Rolls of Parliament]] (''Rotuli parliamentorum'') I. 463/1, King Edward I or II), and ''Fluellen'' (Shakespeare, ''Henry V''). ''Th'' also occurs dialectally for ''wh,'' as in ''thirl, thortleberry, thorl,'' for ''whirl, whortleberry, whorl''. Conversely, [[Scots language|Scots]] has {{lang|sco|whaing}}, {{lang|sco|whang}}, {{lang|sco|white}}, {{lang|sco|whittle}}, for {{lang|enm|thwaing}}, {{lang|enm|thwang}}, {{lang|enm|thwite}}, {{lang|enm|thwittle}}.

The old verb inflection ''-eth'' (Old English ''-eþ'') was replaced by ''-s'' (''he singeth → he sings''), not a sound shift but a completely new inflection.

== Dialectal realizations ==
In some dialects the "th"-sound phonemes {{IPA|/θ/}} and {{IPA|/ð/}} are pronounced differently from the dental fricatives {{IPA|[θ]}} and {{IPA|[ð]}}. Most common are: substitution with labiodental fricatives {{IPA|[f]}} and {{IPA|[v]}} (fronting), substitution with alveolar stops {{IPA|[t]}} and {{IPA|[d]}} (stopping), and substitution with alveolar fricatives {{IPA|[s]}} and {{IPA|[z]}} (alveolarization).  Fronting and stopping are more common among speakers of English dialects, whereas alveolarization is more common among language learners whose first languages are [[French language|French]], [[German language|German]], or [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]]. To speakers of varieties in which {{IPA|/θ/}} and {{IPA|/ð/}} are pronounced {{IPA|[θ]}} and {{IPA|[ð]}}, fronting and stopping are generally considered to have less of a [[Markedness|marked]] contrast with the standard pronunciation than alveolarization, which is often more stigmatized.

A fourth, less common substitution is {{IPA|[h]}} for {{IPA|/θ/}} word-initially or intervocalically. This is called [[debuccalization]], and somewhat prevalent in Scottish English.

=== th-fronting ===
{{main|th-fronting}}
In some areas, such as [[London]], and certain dialects, including [[African American Vernacular English]] and less commonly New Zealand, many people realize the phonemes {{IPA|/θ/}} and {{IPA|/ð/}} as {{IPA|[f]}} and {{IPA|[v]}}, respectively. Although traditionally stigmatized as typical of a [[Cockney]] accent, this pronunciation is fairly widespread, especially when immediately surrounded by other fricatives for ease of pronunciation, and has, in the early 20th century, become an increasingly noticeable feature of the [[Estuary English]] accent of South East England. It has in at least one case been transferred into standard English as a neologism: a ''bovver boy'' is a thug, a "boy" who likes "bother" (fights). [[Joe Brown and his Bruvvers]] was a Pop group of the 1960s. The song "Fings ain't wot they used t'be" was the title song of [[Fings Ain't Wot They Used T'Be|a 1959 Cockney comedy]]. Similarly, a [[New Zealander]] from the northernmost parts of the country might state that he or she is from "[[Northland Region|Norfland]]".

Note that, at least in Cockney, a word beginning with {{IPA|/ð/}} (as opposed to its voiceless counterpart {{IPA|/θ/}}) can never be labiodental. Instead, it is realized as any of {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|ð}}, {{IPAplink|ð̞}}, {{IPAplink|d}}, {{IPAplink|l}}, {{IPAplink|ʔ}}]}}, or is dropped altogether.<ref name="wright">{{Harvcoltxt|Wright|1981|p=137}}</ref><ref name="wells">{{Harvcoltxt|Wells|1982|p=329}}</ref>

=== th-stopping ===
{{main|th-stopping}}
Many speakers of [[African American Vernacular English]], [[Caribbean English]], [[Liberian English]], [[Nigerian English]], [[Philadelphia English]], and [[Philippine English]] (along with other Asian English varieties) pronounce the fricatives {{IPA|/θ, ð/}} as alveolar stops {{IPA|[t, d]}}. Similarly, but still distinctly, many speakers of [[New York City English]], [[Inland Northern American English|Chicago English]], [[Boston English]], [[Indian English]], [[Newfoundland English]], and [[Hiberno-English]] use the dental stops {{IPA|[t̪, d̪]}} (typically distinct from alveolar {{IPA|[t, d]}}) instead of, or in free variation with, {{IPA|[θ, ð]}}. Native speakers of most [[Indo-Aryan languages]] often substitute the dental fricatives {{IPA|[θ, ð]}} with the voiceless aspirated and voiced dental stops {{IPA|[t̪ʰ, d̪]}}, respectively.

In Cockney, the th-stopping may occur when a word begins with {{IPA|/ð/}} (but not its voiceless counterpart {{IPA|/θ/}}).<ref name="wright"/><ref name="wells"/> This is also associated with the accent of the English city of [[Sheffield]] (such as the nickname ''dee-dahs'' for residents) but such pronunciations are now confined to the very oldest residents of Sheffield.<ref>Stoddart, Upton and Widdowson in ''Urban Voices'', Arnold, London, 1999, p. 79</ref>

=== th-alveolarization ===
Th-alveolarization is a process that occurs in some African varieties of English where the dental fricatives {{IPA|/θ, ð/}} merge with the alveolar fricatives {{IPAslink|s}} and {{IPAslink|z}}. It is an example of [[assibilation]].

In rarer or older varieties of [[African American Vernacular English]], {{IPA|/θ/}} may be pronounced {{IPA|[s]}} after a vowel and before another consonant, as in ''bathroom'' {{IPA|[ˈbæsɹum]}}.<ref>[http://www.rehabmed.ualberta.ca/spa/phonology/features.htm Phonological Features of African American Vernacular English]</ref>

Th-alveolarization is often parodied as typical of French-, Japanese-, and German-speaking learners of English, but it is widespread among many other foreign learners because the dental fricative "th" sounds are [[Markedness|not very common]] among the world's languages. Due to the said ridicule, learners who are unable to realize these sounds sometimes opt for the less [[Markedness|marked]] th-fronting or th-stopping instead of alveolarization.{{citation needed|date=July 2019}}

{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
|+ class="nowrap" | Homophonous pairs
!{{IPA|/s, z/}}
!{{IPA|/θ, ð/}}
!IPA
!Notes
|-
|ace ||eighth ||{{IPA|ˈeɪs}} || ''eighth'' more often merges with ''eights'' (see below)
|-
|bass ||bath ||{{IPA|ˈbæs}} || ''bass'', the fish; but distinct in dialects with [[broad A]]
|-
|[[Bess (disambiguation)|Bess]] ||[[Beth (disambiguation)|Beth]] ||{{IPA|ˈbɛs}}
|-
|breeze ||breathe ||{{IPA|ˈbɹiːz}}
|-
|close ||clothe ||{{IPA|ˈkloʊz}}
|-
|close ||clothes ||{{IPA|ˈkloʊz}}
|-
|eights ||eighth ||{{IPA|ˈeɪts}}
|-
|[[Erse (disambiguation)|Erse]] ||earth ||{{IPA|ˈɜː(r)s}}
|-
|face ||faith ||{{IPA|ˈfeɪs}}
|-
|force ||forth ||{{IPA|ˈfoə(r)s}}
|-
|force ||fourth ||{{IPA|ˈfoə(r)s}}
|-
|frost ||frothed ||{{IPA|ˈfrɒst, ˈfrɔːst}}
|-
|gross ||growth ||{{IPA|ˈɡroʊs}}
|-
|kiss ||kith ||{{IPA|ˈkɪs}}
|-
|lays ||lathe ||{{IPA|ˈleɪz}}
|-
|laze ||lathe ||{{IPA|ˈleɪz}}
|-
|lies ||lithe ||{{IPA|ˈlaɪz}}
|-
|louse ||[[Louth (disambiguation)|Louth]] ||{{IPA|ˈlaʊs}}
|-
|lyse ||lithe ||{{IPA|ˈlaɪz}}
|-
|mass ||math ||{{IPA|ˈmæs}}
|-
|mess ||meth ||{{IPA|ˈmɛs}}
|-
|miss ||myth ||{{IPA|ˈmɪs}}
|-
|months ||month ||{{IPA|ˈmʌns}}
|-
|moss ||moth ||{{IPA|ˈmɒs, ˈmɔːs}}
|-
|mouse ||mouth ||{{IPA|ˈmaʊs}}
|-
|pass ||path ||{{IPA|ˈpæs}}, {{IPA|ˈpɑːs}}
|-
|piss ||pith ||{{IPA|ˈpɪs}}
|-
|purse ||[[Perth]] ||{{IPA|ˈpɜː(r)s}}
|-
|race ||wraith ||{{IPA|ˈreɪs}}
|-
|rise ||writhe ||{{IPA|ˈraɪz}}
|-
|[[Ross (disambiguation)|Ross]] ||[[Roth (disambiguation)|Roth]] ||{{IPA|ˈrɒs, ˈrɔːs}}
|-
|ryes ||writhe ||{{IPA|ˈraɪz}}
|-
|sai ||thigh ||{{IPA|ˈsaɪ}}
|-
|sane ||thane ||{{IPA|ˈseɪn}}
|-
|sane ||thegn ||{{IPA|ˈseɪn}}
|-
|sank ||thank ||{{IPA|ˈsæŋk}}
|-
|saw ||thaw ||{{IPA|ˈsɔː}}
|-
|saw ||[[Thor]] ||{{IPA|ˈsɔː}} || In most [[Non-rhotic]] accents; specifically those without the [[Cot-caught merger]].
|-
|seam ||theme ||{{IPA|ˈsiːm}}
|-
|seas ||seethe ||{{IPA|ˈsiːz}}
|-
|seem ||theme ||{{IPA|ˈsiːm}}
|-
|sees ||seethe ||{{IPA|ˈsiːz}}
|-
|seize ||seethe ||{{IPA|ˈsiːz}}
|-
|sick ||thick ||{{IPA|ˈsɪk}}
|-
|sigh ||thigh ||{{IPA|ˈsaɪ}}
|-
|sin ||thin ||{{IPA|ˈsɪn}}
|-
|sing ||thing ||{{IPA|ˈsɪŋ}}
|-
|sink ||think ||{{IPA|ˈsɪŋk}}
|-
|six ||sixth ||{{IPA|ˈsɪks}}
|-
|size ||scythe ||{{IPA|ˈsaɪz}}
|-
|soar ||thaw ||{{IPA|ˈsɔː}} || [[Non-rhotic]] acents with [[horse-hoarse merger]].
|-
|soar ||[[Thor]] ||{{IPA|ˈsɔː(r)}} || With [[horse-hoarse merger]].
|-
|soared ||thawed ||{{IPA|ˈsɔːd}} || [[Non-rhotic]] accents with [[horse-hoarse merger]].
|-
|some ||thumb ||{{IPA|ˈsʌm}}
|-
|song ||thong ||{{IPA|ˈsɒŋ, ˈsɔːŋ}}
|-
|sore ||thaw ||{{IPA|ˈsɔː}} || [[Non-rhotic]] accents with [[horse-hoarse merger]].
|-
|sore ||[[Thor]] ||{{IPA|ˈsɔː(r)}} || With [[horse-hoarse merger]].
|-
|sored ||thawed ||{{IPA|ˈsɔːd}} || [[Non-rhotic]] accents with [[horse-hoarse merger]].
|-
|sort ||thought ||{{IPA|ˈsɔːt}} || [[Non-rhotic]] accents.
|-
|sought ||thought ||{{IPA|ˈsɔːt}}
|-
|suds ||thuds ||{{IPA|ˈsʌdz}}
|-
|sum ||thumb ||{{IPA|ˈsʌm}}
|-
|sump ||thump ||{{IPA|ˈsʌmp}}
|-
|sunder ||thunder ||{{IPA|ˈsʌndə(r)}}
|-
|sunk ||thunk ||{{IPA|ˈsʌŋk}}
|-
|swart ||thwart ||{{IPA|ˈswɔː(r)t}}
|-
|sword ||thawed ||{{IPA|ˈsɔːd}} || [[Non-rhotic]] accents with [[horse-hoarse merger]].
|-
|tense ||tenth ||{{IPA|ˈtɛns}}
|-
|tents ||tenth ||{{IPA|ˈtɛn(t)s}}
|-
|truce ||truth ||{{IPA|ˈtruːs}}
|-
|use (n) ||youth ||{{IPA|ˈjuːs}}
|-
|whiz ||with ||{{IPA|ˈwɪz}} || With [[wine-whine merger]].
|-
|wizard ||withered ||{{IPA|ˈwɪzə(r)d}}
|-
|worse ||worth ||{{IPA|ˈwə(r)s}}
|-
|wrasse ||wrath ||{{IPA|ˈræs}} ||
|-
|wreath ||[[Reece (name)|Reece]] ||{{IPA|ˈriːs}} ||
|-
|wreath ||[[Rhys]] ||{{IPA|ˈriːs}} ||
|-
|Z; zee ||the ||{{IPA|ˈziː}} || ''The'' before vowels and silent H; but distinct in dialects where ''Z'' is {{IPA|[zɛd]}}
|-
|Z; zee ||thee ||{{IPA|ˈziː}} || but distinct in dialects where ''Z'' is {{IPA|[zɛd]}}
|-
|Zs; zees ||these ||{{IPA|ˈziːz}} ||
|-
|zen ||then ||{{IPA|ˈzɛn}}
|}

=== th-debuccalization ===
In many varieties of [[Scottish English]], {{IPA|/θ/}} becomes {{IPA|[h]}} word initially and intervocalically.<ref>{{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FJ7dAgAAQBAJ&q=Th-debuccalization&pg=PA48 |title = Principles in the Emergence and Evolution of Linguistic Features in World Englishes|isbn = 9783954891917|last1 = Weber|first1 = Tobias|date = February 2014| publisher=Anchor Academic Publishing (aap_verlag) }}</ref>

Th-debuccalization occurs mainly in [[Glasgow]] and across the [[Central Belt]]. A common example is {{IPA|[hɪŋk]}} for ''think''. This feature is becoming more common in these places over time, but is still variable.{{citation needed|date=August 2009}} In word final position, {{IPA|[θ]}} is used, as in standard English.

The existence of local {{IPA|[h]}} for {{IPA|/θ/}} in Glasgow complicates the process of [[th-fronting]] there, a process which gives {{IPA|[f]}} for historical {{IPA|/θ/}}. Unlike in the other dialects with th-fronting, where {{IPA|[f]}} solely varies with {{IPA|[θ]}}, in Glasgow, the introduction of th-fronting there creates a three-way variant system of {{IPA|[h]}}, {{IPA|[f]}} and {{IPA|[θ]}}.

Use of {{IPA|[θ]}} marks the local educated norms (the regional standard), while use of {{IPA|[h]}} and {{IPA|[f]}} instead mark the local non-standard norms. {{IPA|[h]}} is well known in Glasgow as a vernacular variant of {{IPA|/θ/}} when it occurs at the start of a word and intervocalically, while {{IPA|[f]}} has only recently risen above the level of social consciousness.

Given that th-fronting is a relatively recent innovation in Glasgow, it was expected that linguists might find evidence for lexical diffusion for {{IPA|[f]}} and the results found from Glaswegian speakers confirm this.{{citation needed|date=August 2009}} The existing and particular lexical distribution of th-debuccalization imposes special constraints on the progress of th-fronting in Glasgow.

In accents with th-debuccalization, the cluster {{IPA|/θr/}} becomes {{IPA|[hr]}},{{citation needed|reason=This has been unsourced since 2006, and this is an environment that would seem to be resistant to debuccalization, so a source would be really nice|date=December 2022}} giving these dialects a consonant cluster that does not occur in other dialects. The replacement of {{IPA|/θr/}} with {{IPA|[hr]}} leads to pronunciations like:

* three – {{IPA|[hri]}}
* throw – {{IPA|[hro]}}
* through, threw – {{IPA|[hrʉ]}}
* thrash – {{IPA|[hraʃ]}}
* thresh – {{IPA|[hrɛʃ]}}
* thrown, throne – {{IPA|[hron]}}
* thread – {{IPA|[hrɛd]}}
* threat – {{IPA|[hrɛt]}}

== Assimilation ==
As with many English consonants, a process of [[Assimilation (phonology)|assimilation]] can result in the substitution of other speech sounds in certain phonetic environments. Native speakers do this subconsciously.

At word boundaries, alveolar stops next to dental fricatives assimilate very regularly, especially in rapid colloquial speech, involving both the [[place of articulation]] and the [[manner of articulation]]: the ''[[alveolar consonant|alveolar]]'' stops become ''[[dental consonant|dental]]'', while the dental ''[[fricative consonant|fricatives]]'' become ''[[Stop consonant|stops]]''.<ref name="Roach2009">{{cite book|last=Roach|first=Peter|title=English Phonetics and Phonology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dDVR_zh5wkMC&pg=PA112|year=2009|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-71740-3|page=112}}</ref><ref name="GramleyPátzold2004">{{cite book|last1=Gramley|first1=Stephan|last2=Pátzold|first2=Michael|title=A Survey of Modern English|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qFZsXfJsa8kC&pg=PA76|year=2004|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-42046-9|page=76}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Collins|first1=Beverley|last2=Mees|first2=Inger M.|title=Practical Phonetics and Phonology: A Resource Book for Students|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=faVJTQIw9eQC&pg=PA122|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-50649-6|page=122}}</ref><ref name="Shockey">{{cite book|last=Shockey|first=Linda|title=Sound Patterns of Spoken English|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9OWQGsOB62UC&pg=PA43|year=2003|pages=43–44|chapter=2.5.1 ð-reduction|publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=9780470758243}}</ref> The resulting consonant is usually long ([[Gemination|geminated]]) which may be the only audible cue for the speaker to distinguish particular words (for example, the definite and indefinite articles, compare "run the mile" {{IPA|[ˈɹʌn̪ n̪ə ˈmaɪl]}} and "run a mile" {{IPA|[ˈɹʌn ə ˈmaɪl]}}).<ref name="Shockey" />
: ''i'''n th'''e'': {{IPA|/ɪn ðə/}} → {{IPA|[ɪn̪ n̪ə]}}
: ''joi'''n th'''e army'': {{IPA|/ˈdʒɔɪn ði ˈɑːmi/}} → {{IPA|[ˈdʒɔɪn̪ n̪i ˈɑːmi]}}
: ''rea'''d th'''ese'': {{IPA|/riːd ðiːz/}} → {{IPA|[ɹiːd̪ d̪iːz]}}
: ''righ'''t th'''ere'': {{IPA|/raɪt ˈðɛə/}} → {{IPA|[ɹaɪt̪ ˈt̪ɛə]}} (more commonly: {{IPA|[ɹaɪʔ ˈðɛə]}}, with a glottal stop)
: ''fai'''l th'''e test'': {{IPA|/ˈfeɪl ðə ˈtɛst/}} → {{IPA|[ˈfeɪl̪ l̪ə ˈtɛst]}}

The alveolar fricatives may become dental as well:<ref name="Shockey" />
: ''thi'''s th'''ing'': {{IPA|/ðɪs θɪŋ/}} → {{IPA|[ðɪs̪ θɪŋ]}} or {{IPA|[ðɪs̪ s̪ɪŋ]}}
: ''take'''s th'''em'': {{IPA|/teɪks ðəm/}} → {{IPA|[teɪks̪ ðm̩]}} or {{IPA|[teɪks̪ s̪m̩]}}
: ''wa'''s th'''is'': {{IPA|/wɒz ðɪs/}} → {{IPA|[wɒz̪ ðɪs]}}  or {{IPA|[wɒz̪ z̪ɪs]}}

{{IPA|/θ/}} and {{IPA|/ð/}} can also be lost through elision:<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bauer|first1=Laurie|last2=Lieber|first2=Rochelle|last3=Plag|first3=Ingo|title=The Oxford Reference Guide to English Morphology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EXlYCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA131|year=2015|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-874706-2|page=131}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Collins|first1=Beverley|last2=Mees|first2=Inger M.|title=Practical Phonetics and Phonology: A Resource Book for Students|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=faVJTQIw9eQC&pg=PA127|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-50649-6|page=127}}</ref> ''months'' {{IPA|[mʌns]}}, ''clothes'' {{IPA|[kloʊz]}}.
In rapid speech, {{not a typo|''sixth(s)''}} may be pronounced like ''six''.<ref>{{cite EPD|17|Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jGSXwqTCwpkC&pg=PR15}}</ref> ''Them'' may be contracted to ''<nowiki/>'em'', and in this case the contraction is often indicated in writing. Some linguists see '' 'em'' as originally a separate word, a remnant of Old English ''hem'', but as the apostrophe shows, it is perceived in modern English as a contraction of ''them''.<ref>Online Etymology Dictionary. [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=%27em&searchmode=none 'em]. Retrieved 18 September 2006.</ref>

== Acquisition problems ==
Children generally learn the less [[markedness|marked]] phonemes of the language before the more marked ones. In the case of English-speaking children, {{IPA|/θ/}} and {{IPA|/ð/}} are often among the last phonemes to be learnt, frequently not being mastered before the age of five. Prior to this age, many children substitute the sounds {{IPA|[f]}} and {{IPA|[v]}} respectively. For small children, ''fought'' and ''thought'' are therefore homophones. As British and American children begin school at age four and five respectively, this means that many are learning to read and write before they have sorted out these sounds, and the infantile pronunciation is frequently reflected in their spelling errors: ''ve fing'' for ''the thing''.

Children with a [[lisp]], however, have trouble distinguishing {{IPA|/θ/}} and {{IPA|/ð/}} from {{IPA|/s/}} and {{IPA|/z/}} respectively in speech, using a single {{IPA|/θ/}} or {{IPA|/ð/}} pronunciation for both, and may never master the correct sounds without speech therapy. The lisp is a common speech impediment in English.

Foreign learners may have parallel problems. Learners from very many cultural backgrounds have difficulties with English dental fricatives, usually caused by interference with either [[Sibilant consonant|sibilants]] or [[Stop consonant|stops]]. Words with a dental fricative adjacent to an alveolar fricative, such as ''clothes'' {{small|({{audio|en-us-clothes-2.ogg|{{IPA|/kloʊðz/}}|help=no}} or {{audio|en-us-clothes.ogg|{{IPA|/kloʊz/}}|help=no}})}}, ''truths'' {{small|{{audio|en-US truths.ogg|{{IPA|/tɹuθs/}}|(|help=no}}}}, ''fifths'' {{small|({{audio|en-US fifths.ogg|{{IPA|/fɪfθs/}}|help=no}} or {{audio|en-US fifths (informal).ogg|{{IPA|/fɪθs/}}|help=no}})}}, ''sixths'' {{pronunciation|en-us-sixths.ogg|{{IPA|/sɪksθs/}}|(|help=no}}, ''anesthetic'' {{pronunciation|en-US anesthetic.ogg|{{IPA|/ˌænəsˈθɛtɪk/}}|(|help=no}}, etc., are commonly very difficult for foreign learners to pronounce.  Some of these words containing consonant clusters can also be difficult for native speakers, including those using the standard {{IPA|/θ/}} and {{IPA|/ð/}} pronunciations generally, allowing such accepted informal pronunciations of ''clothes'' as {{IPA|/kloʊz/}} (a homophone of the verb ''close'') and {{not a typo|''fifth(s)''}} as {{IPA|/fɪθ(s)/}}.

==History of the digraph==
{{See also|Th (digraph)}}

==={{angbr|th}} for /θ/ and /ð/===
Though English speakers take it for granted, the digraph {{angbr|th}} is in fact not an obvious combination for a dental fricative. The origins of this have to do with developments in Greek.

[[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] had an [[aspiration (phonetics)|aspirated]] {{IPA|/dʱ/}} that came into Greek as {{IPA|/tʰ/}}, spelled with the letter theta. In the Greek of [[Homer]] and [[Plato]], this was still pronounced {{IPA|/tʰ/}}, and therefore when Greek words were borrowed into Latin, theta was transcribed with {{angbr|th}}. Since {{IPA|/tʰ/}} sounds like {{IPA|/t/}} with a following puff of air, {{angbr|th}} was the logical spelling in the Latin alphabet.

By the time of New Testament Greek ([[Koine|koiné]]), however, the aspirated stop had shifted to a fricative: {{IPA|/tʰ/→/θ/}}. Thus theta came to have the sound that it still has in [[Modern Greek]], and which it represents in the [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]. From a Latin perspective, the established digraph {{angbr|th}} now represented the voiceless fricative {{IPA|/θ/}}, and was used thus for English by French-speaking scribes after the [[Norman Conquest]], since they were unfamiliar with the Germanic graphemes ð (eth) and þ (thorn). Likewise, the spelling {{angbr|th}} was used for {{IPA|/θ/}} in [[Old High German]] prior to the completion of the [[High German consonant shift]], again by analogy with the way Latin represented the Greek sound. It also appeared in early modern [[Swedish language|Swedish]] before a final shift to /d/.

The history of the digraphs {{angbr|ph}} for {{IPA|/f/}} and {{angbr|ch}} for Scots, Welsh or German {{IPA|/x/}} is parallel.

==={{angbr|th}} for /t/===

Since neither {{IPA|/tʰ/}} nor {{IPA|/θ/}} was a native sound in Latin, the tendency emerged at the latest in medieval Latin, to substitute {{IPA|/t/}}. Thus, in many modern languages, including French and German, the {{angbr|th}} digraph is used in Greek loan-words to represent an original {{IPA|/θ/}}, but is now pronounced {{IPA|/t/}}: examples are French ''théâtre'', German ''Theater''. In some cases, this etymological {{angbr|th}}, which has no remaining significance for pronunciation, has been transferred to words in which there is no etymological justification for it. For example, German ''Tal'' ('valley', cognate with English ''dale'') appears in many place-names with an archaic spelling ''Thal'' (contrast [[Neandertal (valley)|Neandertal]] and [[Neanderthal]]). The [[German Orthographic Conference of 1901|German spelling reform of 1901]] largely reversed these, but they remain in some proper nouns. The name ''[[Rothschild]]'' is an example of this, being a compound of {{lang|de|rot[h]}} ("red") and ''Schild'' ("shield").

Examples of this are also to be found in English, perhaps influenced immediately by French. In some Middle English manuscripts, {{angbr|th}} appears for {{angbr|t}} or {{angbr|d}}: ''tho'' 'to' or 'do', ''thyll'' till, ''whythe'' white, ''thede'' deed. In Modern English we see it in ''Esther'', ''Thomas'', ''Thames'', ''thyme'', ''Witham'' (the town in Essex, not the river in Lincolnshire which is pronounced with {{IPA|/ð/}}) and the old spelling of Satan as ''Sathan''. More recently, the name of the capital of Nepal was often written ''Katmandu'' down to the late 20th century, but is now usually spelt ''Kathmandu''.

In a small number of cases, this spelling later influenced the pronunciation: ''amaranth, amianthus'' and ''author'' have [[spelling pronunciation]]s with {{IPA|/θ/}}, and some English speakers use {{IPA|/θ/}} in ''Neanderthal''.

==={{angbr|th}} for /th/===

A few [[English compound]] words, such as ''lightheaded'' or ''hothouse'', have the letter combination {{angbr|th}} split between the parts, though this is not a digraph. Here, the {{angbr|t}} and {{angbr|h}} are pronounced separately (''light-headed'') as a cluster of two consonants. Other examples are ''anthill, goatherd, lighthouse, outhouse, pothead''; also in words formed with the suffix -''hood'': ''knighthood'', and the similarly formed Afrikaans loanword ''[[apartheid]]''. In a few place names ending in t+ham, the t-h boundary has been lost and become a spelling pronunciation, for example [[Grantham]].

==See also==
*[[Pronunciation]]
*[[English pronunciation]]
*[[Received Pronunciation]]
*[[Spelling pronunciation]]
*[[Non-native pronunciations of English]]
*[[English orthography]]
*[[Thorn (letter)|Thorn]]
*[[Eth]]

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Sources ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{citation
|last1 = Collins
|first1 = Beverley
|last2 = Mees
|first2 = Inger M.
|year = 2013
|orig-year = First published 2003
|title = Practical Phonetics and Phonology: A Resource Book for Students
|edition = 3rd
|publisher = Routledge
|isbn = 978-0-415-50650-2
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=faVJTQIw9eQC
}}
* Shitara, Yuko (1993). "A survey of American pronunciation preferences." ''Speech Hearing and Language'' 7: 201–32.
* {{citation
|last = Wells
|first = John C.
|author-link = John C. Wells
|year=1982
|title = Accents of English 2: The British Isles
|location = Cambridge, England
|publisher = Cambridge University Press
|isbn = 0-521-24224-X
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=a3-ElL71fikC
}}
* {{citation
|last=Wright
|first=Peter
|title = Cockney Dialect and Slang
|location=London, England
|publisher=B.T. Batsford Ltd.
|year=1981
}}
{{refend}}

{{-}}
{{History of the English language}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Pronunciation Of English Th}}
[[Category:English phonology]]
[[Category:English th]]