View source for Promotion (chess)

{{Short description|Chess rule}}
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[[Image:Olimpiada Bled Slovenija deska.jpg|right|thumb|upright=1.2|[[Chess set]] with extra black and white queens for promotion, [[35th Chess Olympiad]] ]]

In [[chess]], '''promotion''' is the replacement of a [[pawn (chess)|pawn]] with a new piece when the pawn is moved to its {{chessgloss|eighth rank|last rank}}. The player replaces the pawn immediately with a [[queen (chess)|queen]], [[rook (chess)|rook]], [[bishop (chess)|bishop]], or [[knight (chess)|knight]] of the same {{chessgloss|color}}.<ref>{{Harvcol|Just|Burg|2003|p=16}}</ref> The new piece does not have to be a previously captured piece.<ref>{{Harvcol|Schiller|2003|pp=18–19}}</ref> Promotion is mandatory when moving to the last rank; the pawn cannot remain as a pawn.

Promotion to a queen is known as ''queening''; promotion to any other piece is known as ''[[#Underpromotion|underpromotion]]''.<ref>{{Harvcol|Golombek|1977}}</ref> Promotion is almost always to a queen, as it is the most powerful piece. Underpromotion might be done for various reasons, such as to avoid [[stalemate]] or for tactical reasons related to the knight's unique movement pattern. Promotion or the threat of it often decides the result in an [[Chess endgame|endgame]].

{{AN chess|pos=toc}}

==Rules==
When a pawn is promoted, it is removed from the board, and the new piece is placed on the square the pawn moved to. Any piece may be promoted to regardless of whether it has been captured. Consequently, a player might have two or more queens, or three or more rooks, bishops, or knights.<ref>{{citation |editor1-last=Hooper |editor1-first=David |editor1-link=David Vincent Hooper |editor2-last=Whyld |editor2-first=Kenneth |editor2-link=Kenneth Whyld |title=[[The Oxford Companion to Chess]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1996 |edition=2nd |origyear=First pub. 1992 |isbn=0-19-280049-3 |entry=promotion |page=323 |quote=Thus a player might have two or more queens, or three or more rooks, bishops, or knights.}}</ref> In theory, a player could have as many as nine queens, ten knights, ten bishops, or ten rooks, though these are highly improbable scenarios.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=AS8CAAAAYAAJ&dq=%22nine+queens%22+chess&pg=PA413 The Chess Player's Chronicle, Vol. 2], 1841, p. 413</ref>

===Representation of promoted pieces===
Most chess sets come with only the 32 pieces used in the starting position. Some chess sets come with an extra queen of each color, but this does not accommodate the possibility of having three or more pieces of the same type.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.uschess.org/index.php/Learn-About-Chess/Learn-to-Play-Chess.html|title=Learn to Play Chess|website=www.uschess.org}}</ref> When multiple sets are available, promoted pieces are borrowed from other sets if required. Under [[FIDE]] rules, a player may stop the [[chess clock|clocks]] and summon the [[Arbiter (chess)|arbiter]] to provide a piece for promotion.{{refn|Article 6.11.2 in FIDE Laws of Chess<ref name="FideLawsOfChess">{{Cite web|title=FIDE Handbook E. Miscellaneous / 01. Laws of Chess / FIDE Laws of Chess taking effect from 1 January 2018|url=https://handbook.fide.com/chapter/E012018|access-date=12 July 2020|website=FIDE}}</ref>}}

Under [[US Chess Federation]] rules and in casual play, an upside-down rook may designate a queen.<ref>{{harvcol|Just|Burg|2003|pp=16–17}}</ref>{{refn|Article "8F7. Promoted piece not available" in USCF Laws of Chess<ref name="UscfLawsOfChess">{{Cite web|title=US_Chess_Rule_Book- Online_Only_Edition_v7.1-1.2.11-7.19.19.pdf|url=http://www.uschess.org/docs/gov/chessrules/US_Chess_Rule_Book-%20Online_Only_Edition_v7.1-1.2.11-7.19.19.pdf|access-date=12 July 2020|website=The United States Chess Federation}}</ref>}}<ref group=note>"It is common practice, however, to play using an upside-down rook for a second queen. In the absence of a player's announcement to the contrary, an upside-down rook will be considered a queen." {{Harvcol|Just|Burg|2003|p=17}}</ref> However, according to FIDE arbiter guidelines, such a move is treated as a legal promotion to a rook (not an illegal move, which would incur a time penalty).<ref>[https://arbiters.fide.com/wp-content/uploads/Publications/Manual/ARBManual2022.pdf Arbiters' Manual 2022], 4.4.4, FIDE</ref>

==History==
Promotion first existed in [[chaturanga]], an ancestor of chess created in the 6th century. In chaturanga, a pawn is promoted upon reaching the last rank of the board. Historians dispute what the pawn can be promoted to. Some sources state that a pawn can be promoted only to a ''[[Ferz (chess)|mantri]]'', an early form of the [[Queen (chess)|queen]] only able to move one square diagonally, with the idea being that a foot soldier that advanced all the way through the enemy lines was promoted to the lowest rank of officer.<ref>[https://www.chessvariants.com/historic.dir/chaturanga.html Chaturanga]</ref> Others claim that the pawn, if the piece is available for promotion, is promoted to the piece initially positioned on the file on which the pawn stands, except if the pawn stands on the king's file, in which case it is promoted to a mantri. If the piece is unavailable, the pawn remains unpromoted on its square.<ref>[http://www.ludoteka.com/chaturanga-en.html Chaturanga - game rules]</ref>

Chaturanga was introduced to the [[Middle East]] as [[shatranj]] around the 7th century. In shatranj, a pawn can be promoted only to a ''[[Ferz (chess)|fers]]'' (equivalent to chaturanga's mantri). As chaturanga and shatranj spread to the western world and eastern Asia, as well as several other regions of the world, the promotion rule evolved. (See [[#Regional games of the chess family|Regional games of the chess family]] section for more information.)

After the queen gained its modern identity and abilities in the 15th century, replacing the ''farzin'' or ''ferz'', some players objected to the fact that a king could have more than one queen via promotion.<ref>{{harvcol|Davidson|1981|pp=59–60}}</ref> One old set of chess rules says, "A promoted pawn became a ferz, with the move of the queen."{{citation needed|date=March 2022}}

In Italy, in the 18th and early 19th centuries, a pawn could be promoted only to a captured piece; if none of the promoting player's non-pawn pieces were captured, the pawn remained inactive until a piece became available, whereupon the pawn immediately assumed that piece's role. [[François-André Danican Philidor|Philidor]] did not like the possibility of having two queens; in all editions of his book (1749 to 1790), he stated that a promotion could only be to a piece previously captured. Lambe also stated this rule in a 1765 book.<ref>{{harvcol|Davidson|1981|pp=60–61}}</ref>  A player could thus never have two queens, three knights, three rooks, or three bishops.<ref name="harvcol|Staunton|1848|p=7">{{harvcol|Staunton|1848|p=7}}</ref> 
The restricted promotion rule was applied inconsistently. [[Jacob Sarratt]]'s 1828 book gave unrestricted promotion. By Sarratt's time, unrestricted promotion was popular, and according to Davidson, it was universal by the mid-19th century.<ref>{{harvcol|Davidson|1981|p=61}}</ref> However, [[Howard Staunton]] wrote in ''The Chess-Player's Handbook'', originally published in 1847, that [[Carl Jaenisch]] said that the restricted promotion rule was still in force in northern Europe, Russia, Scandinavia, and Germany.<ref name="harvcol|Staunton|1848|p=7"/> For instance, an 1836 Norwegian game-book by [[Peter Tidemand Malling]] clearly states "Queen, Rook, or any other officer that has been lost",<ref>{{harvcol|Malling|1836|p=127}}</ref> and this wording was used as late as 1862 for the third and final reprint.

===1862 British Chess Association rule===
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Under Law XIII of the 1862 "Code of Laws of the British Chess Association", a pawn reaching its last rank had the option to remain as a pawn instead of being promoted.<ref group=note>Law XIII of the 1862 "Code of Laws of the British Chess Association" states: "When a pawn has reached the eighth square, the player has the option of selecting a piece, whether such piece has previously been lost or not, whose names and powers it shall then assume, or of deciding that it shall remain a pawn."</ref><ref>{{Harvcol|Steinitz|1990|p=xxii}}</ref> In his 1889 work ''The Modern Chess Instructor'', [[Wilhelm Steinitz]], the first [[World Chess Champion]], endorsed this rule,<ref>{{Harvcol|Steinitz|1990|p=xx}}</ref> explaining its purpose by referring to the position diagrammed, which he cited from [[Johann Löwenthal]]'s ''Book of the London Chess Congress, of 1862''.

1.Bxg2? loses quickly after 1...Ra1+ 2.Bf1 Rb1, putting White in [[zugzwang]], so the pawn must capture the rook and promote. If White plays 1.bxa8=Q? or promotes to rook, bishop or knight, Black wins with 1...gxh3, whereupon  2...h2{{chessAN|#}} is unstoppable. Instead, White [[draw (chess)|draws]] by 1.bxa8=P!!, when 1...gxh3 or 1...Kxh3 stalemates White, and other moves allow 2.Bxg2, with a drawn endgame.<ref name="Harvcol|Steinitz|1990|p=xxiv">{{Harvcol|Steinitz|1990|p=xxiv}}</ref> Steinitz wrote, "We approve of the decision of the London Chess Congress, of 1862, although the 'dummy' pawn rule was denounced by some authorities."<ref name="Harvcol|Steinitz|1990|p=xxiv"/> The same rule and explanation are given by [[George H. D. Gossip]] in ''The Chess-Player's Manual''.<ref>{{Harvcol|Gossip|Lipschütz|1902|pp=17–18,33}}</ref>
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The broad language of Law XIII appears to allow promotion to any piece {{em|of either color}}. This led to the whimsical [[joke chess problem]] illustrated. White is to play and checkmate in one move. No solution is possible under modern-day rules, but with Law XIII in effect, the surprising solution is 1.g8=BlackN#!!, when the newly-promoted knight blocks its own king's flight square.<ref>{{Harvcol|Birbrager|1975|p=25}}</ref> Other amusing problems have been created involving promotion to a white or black king, which Law XIII also appears to allow.

Howard Staunton vigorously opposed the 1862 rule when it was proposed, but the tournament committee passed it by a large majority of votes.<ref>{{Harvcol|Sergeant|1934|p=117}}</ref> It did not catch on, however. [[Philip Sergeant]] wrote:<ref>{{Harvcol|Sergeant|1934|p=138}}</ref>
<blockquote>A correspondent in the May [1865] ''Chess World'' ... did not exaggerate when he wrote that the B.C.A. Code had been very generally rejected by British amateurs, and emphatically condemned by the leading authorities of America, Germany, and France. In particular, the absurd "dead Pawn" rule, against which Staunton had made his protest in 1862, had failed to win acceptance.</blockquote>

The British Chess Association code was superseded by the "Revised International Chess Code" of the London 1883 international chess tournament, under which promotion is mandatory.<ref group=note>In its entirety, Rule 10 provided, "A Pawn reaching the eighth square must be named as a Queen or piece, at option of player, independent of the number of pieces on the board. The created Queen or piece acts immediately in its new capacity. Until the pawn has been so named the move is incomplete."</ref><ref>{{Harvcol|Minchin|1973|pp=iii–iv}}</ref>

==Strategy==
The ability to promote is often the critical factor in [[Chess endgame|endgames]] and thus is an important consideration in [[Chess opening|opening]] and [[Chess middlegame|middlegame]] [[Chess strategy|strategy]]. A far-advanced pawn can threaten to be promoted and thus be a valuable asset. Almost all promotions occur in the endgame, but promotion can happen at any point in the game.

Due to the pawn's ability to be promoted, having an extra pawn can often be a decisive advantage. In general, a pawn is more valuable the farther advanced it is, as it is closer to promotion. As a result, it is often beneficial to place a pawn in enemy territory; even if it does not control any important squares, it may still be useful, as it forces the opponent to ensure that it is not promoted.

A [[passed pawn]] is a pawn that no enemy pawns can stop from reaching promotion.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Passed Pawn - Chess Term |url=https://www.chess.com/terms/passed-pawn |access-date=2024-03-31 |website=Chess.com |language=en-US}}</ref> A passed pawn is highly valuable in the endgame, where few enemy pieces remain to prevent it from being promoted.

A {{chessgloss|pawn race}} is a situation in which each side tries to promote a passed pawn before their opponent.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pawn Race |url=https://www.chess.com/lessons/finding-checkmate/pawn-race |access-date=2024-03-31 |website=Chess.com |language=en-US}}</ref> Usually, the first player to promote wins unless their opponent can promote immediately afterward.

==Examples==

===Opening promotion===
Promotion occasionally occurs in the opening, often after one side makes a [[Blunder (chess)|blunder]], as in the [[Albin Countergambit, Lasker Trap|Lasker Trap]], which features a promotion to a knight on move seven:

: '''1. d4 d5 2. c4 e5 3. dxe5 d4 4. e3{{chesspunc|?}} Bb4+ 5. Bd2 dxe3{{chesspunc|!}} 6. Bxb4{{chesspunc|??}} exf2+! 7. Ke2 fxg1=N+!'''

[[Carl Schlechter|Schlechter]]–[[Julius Perlis|Perlis]], Karlsbad 1911 could have featured a promotion to queen on move 11:

: '''1. d4 d5 2. c4 c6 3. Nf3 Nf6 4. e3 Bf5 5. Qb3 Qb6 6. cxd5 Qxb3 7. axb3 Bxb1? 8. dxc6! Be4?? 9. Rxa7! Rxa7 10. c7'''

Threatening both 11.cxb8=Q and 11.c8=Q.<ref>{{harvcol|Chernev|1967|p=66}}</ref> Perlis avoided the trap with 8...Nxc6!, losing more slowly.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1000627 |title=Schlechter vs. Perlis, Karlsbad 1911 |website=[[Chessgames.com]] |access-date = 2010-03-04 }}</ref>

The British [[International Grandmaster|grandmaster]] [[Joseph Gallagher|Joe Gallagher]] used the same tactical pattern a half-move earlier in Terentiev–Gallagher, [[Liechtenstein]] Open 1990:

: '''1. d4 Nf6 2. Bg5 Ne4 3. Bf4 c5 4. c3 Qb6 5. Qb3 cxd4 6. Qxb6 axb6 7. Bxb8? dxc3 8. Be5?? Rxa2!'''

And now White could have resigned, since if 9.Rxa2, ...c2 promotes the c-pawn.<ref>{{harvcol|Gallagher|1996|p=121}}</ref> In the actual game, White played 9.Nxc3, dropping a rook, and played on in a hopeless position for several more moves.<ref>[https://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1243680 Terentiev-Gallagher at chessgames.com]</ref>

Another example occurs after the moves:

: '''1. e4 c6 2. d4 d5 3. Nc3 dxe4 4. Nxe4 Nf6 5. Ng3 h5 6. Bg5{{chesspunc|?!}} h4 7. Bxf6?? hxg3 8. Be5 Rxh2! 9. Rxh2 Qa5+! 10. c3 Qxe5+! 11. dxe5 gxh2'''

With the dual threat of 12...hxg1=Q and 12...h1=Q, as in Schuster–Carls, Bremen 1914 and {{chessgloss|NN}}&ndash;[[Carlos Torre|Torre]], Mexico 1928.<ref>{{harvcol|Burgess|1998|p=72}}</ref> If 10.Qd2 instead of 10.c3, then 10...exf2+! 11.Kd1 (11.Kxf2 Qxd2+) Qxd2+ 12.Kxd2 fxg1=Q rather than 10...Qxe5 11.dxe5 gxh2 12.Nf3 h1=Q 13.0-0-0 with a strong attack.<ref>{{harvcol|Neishtadt|1996|pp=94–96}}</ref>

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| P. Short vs. Daly, 2006

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There are also a few opening lines where each side gets a [[desperado (chess)|desperado]] pawn that goes on a capturing spree, resulting in each side queening a pawn in the opening. An example is seen in [[Philip Short (chess player)|P. Short]]–Daly, 2006 [[Irish Chess Championship]], where play continued '''10... bxc3 11. exf6 cxb2 12. fxg7 bxa1=Q 13. gxh8=Q'''.

Both players promoted by White's seventh move in Casper–Heckert:<ref>{{cite web|author=Tim Krabbé |url=http://www.xs4all.nl/~timkr/records/records.htm#Earliest%20double%20polygamy |title=Earliest double polygamy |publisher=Xs4all.nl |access-date = 2010-03-04}}</ref>

: '''1. e4 Nf6 2. Nc3 d5 3. e5 d4 4. exf6 dxc3 5. d4 cxb2 6. fxg7 bxa1=Q 7. gxh8=Q'''
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===More than two queens===

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| Fischer vs. Petrosian, 1959<ref name="Fischer–Petrosian"/>

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| Position after 37.h8{{=}}Q, four queens
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In master play, it is rare for one or both players to have more than one queen. One of the best known games in which each side had two queens is [[Bobby Fischer]] vs. [[Tigran Petrosian]], [[World Chess Championship 1960#1959 Candidates Tournament|1959 Candidates Tournament]], illustrated in the diagram and analyzed extensively in Fischer's ''[[My 60 Memorable Games]]''. Four queens existed from move 37 until move 44.<ref>{{harvcol|Fischer|2008|pp=113–14}}</ref><ref name="Fischer–Petrosian">{{cite web |url=http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1106430 |title=Fischer vs. Petrosian, Bled, Zagreb & Belgrade Yugoslavia (1959) |website=Chessgames.com |access-date = 2010-03-04 }}</ref>
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| Position after 58.a8{{=}}Q, six queens
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Very few games have been played with six queens; two examples are Emil Szalanczy–Nguyen, Thi Mai (2009) and [[David Antón Guijarro]]–Alejandro Franco Alonso (2011).<ref name="chessib">{{cite web | url = http://www.chessib.com/five-six-queens-chess-games.html|title=17 Astonishing Chess Games with 5 and 6 Queens on the Board|publisher=Chess Siberia| author=Boris Schipkov|access-date = 24 November 2014 }}</ref> In the first game, each side had three queens from move 58 to move 65.<ref name="chessib"/> The game ended in a draw with a single queen on each side.<ref name="chessib"/> In the second game, both sides also had three queens; Black ultimately resigned with each side having one queen.<ref name="chessib"/>
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===Linares incident===
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An unusual incident occurred in a 1993 game between [[Anatoly Karpov]] and [[Garry Kasparov]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1067319 |title=Karpov vs. Kasparov, Linares 1993, rd 10 |website=[[Chessgames.com]] }}</ref> When the game reached the diagrammed position, Karpov was in serious [[time trouble]], having one minute to make 16 moves in order to reach [[Time control#Overtime formats|overtime]]. Kasparov captured the rook on d1 with the pawn on c2 and said, "Queen!", indicating promotion to a queen. However, no queen was immediately available; it took some time for the arbiter to find a black queen. Kasparov later said that, if he had been more attentive, he would have promoted to a rook, using the black rook that had been taken on move 23.

Kasparov's clock was running while the arbiter was getting a queen, so he started Karpov's clock. Karpov immediately played 25.Qxe4, and Kasparov told him that he was in [[check (chess)|check]], to which Karpov replied, "From what? It might be a bishop on d1." At this point, the clocks were stopped. The arbiter eventually found a black queen, and the game was backed up to the position after 24...cxd1=Q+. Kasparov's move was ruled to be illegal, as he had started his opponent's clock without placing the promoted piece on the square of promotion; as a result, Karpov was given two extra minutes on his clock. Regardless, Kasparov soon won the game. Kasparov later disputed that his move had been illegal.<ref>{{harvcol|Kasparov|2010|p=332}}</ref>
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===Canadian championship incident===
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| Sambuev vs. Noritsyn, 2017
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The 2017 [[Canadian Chess Championship]], played under FIDE rules, was controversially decided by an incorrectly executed promotion.

At the end of the regular tournament, [[Bator Sambuev]] and [[Nikolay Noritsyn]], both former champions, were tied for first place and were required to decide the title by playoff. After a series of rapid games failed to resolve the tie, a "sudden death" blitz playoff began; pairs of games would be played, and the first player to win a game and to win or draw the reverse would win the championship.

The first blitz game was drawn. In the second game, Noritsyn had seconds remaining on the clock and was about to make his 50th move, an automatic promotion to a queen on d1. Noritsyn moved his pawn to d1, and not seeing a queen readily available (Sambuev was holding it in his hand<ref>Video recording of the final game. {{Citation |title=IMG 0382 | date=3 July 2017 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qBNEcRgHkvE&t=850s |access-date=2023-12-27 |language=en}}</ref>), grabbed a rook, turned it upside down, placed it on the promotion square, and announced, "Queen!" The arbiter immediately stepped in and ruled that the newly promoted piece was in fact a rook. Noritsyn subsequently lost the game and the title. Sambuev denied that he had deliberately concealed the queen in order to make it difficult for Noritsyn to execute the queen promotion correctly in the available time. Noritsyn's appeal was dismissed.<ref>Mike Klein, [https://www.chess.com/news/view/controversial-finish-to-canadian-chess-championship-5047 Controversial Finish To Canadian Championship -- Update], chess.com, 12 July 2017</ref>
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==Underpromotion==
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An ''underpromotion'' is a promotion to a knight, rook, or bishop. Although these pieces are less powerful than the queen, there are some rare situations where underpromotion is advantageous.<ref>{{cite web |title=Chess Tactics {{!}} 38 Definitions and Examples |url=https://www.chess.com/article/view/chess-tactics |website=Chess.com |date=14 February 2019 |access-date=10 April 2022}}</ref> In practice, many underpromotions are inconsequential, described as "silly jokes" by [[Tim Krabbé]].<ref name=Krabbé99>[[Tim Krabbé]], [https://timkr.home.xs4all.nl/chess2/minor.htm Underpromotion in Games], ''Chess curiosities'', 1999</ref>

Due to the knight's unique movement pattern, promotion to a knight may be useful for a variety of reasons (illustrated below). Because the queen combines the powers of the rook and the bishop, there is rarely a reason to promote to either of those pieces. Doing so is occasionally advantageous, however, usually to avoid an immediate draw by stalemate if the promotion were to a queen.

Promotion to knight or rook in practical play is rare, and promotion to bishop is even rarer, but they are a popular theme in composed [[chess problem]]s, such as the [[Saavedra position]]. For example, a study by [[Jan Rusinek]] sees White promoting to knight, bishop and rook in order to induce stalemate.<ref>{{cite book |title=Endgame Magic |first1=John |last1=Beasley |first2=Timothy |last2=Whitworth |location=Batsford |year=1996 }}</ref> An [[Allumwandlung]] is a problem where promotions to all four possible pieces occur. An extreme example is the [[Babson task]], a {{chessprobgloss|directmate}} where promotions by Black must be countered by matching promotions by White (so if Black promotes to a rook, so does White, and so on).

===Promotion to a knight===
{{Chess diagram small
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|Murray Chandler and Helen Milligan<ref>{{cite book |last1=Chandler |first1=Murray |last2=Milligan |first2=Helen |title=Chess for Children |date=1 April 2004 |publisher=Gambit Publications |location=London, United Kingdom |isbn=978-1-904600-06-0 |page=65 |edition=10th}}</ref>
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In the diagrammed position, 1...d1=Q? leaves material equal and leads to a drawn position. Instead, promotion to a knight with  1...d1=N+ wins by virtue of a [[fork (chess)|fork]]: 2.K(any) followed by 2...Nxb2 leaves Black a piece up with a winning endgame.
{{clear}}
<!--
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|Emanuel Lasker
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|Promotion to a knight wins.
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In the diagram, given by World Champion [[Emanuel Lasker]], White has a huge {{chessgloss|material}} disadvantage. 1.exd8=Q? would leave Black ahead in material. Instead, promotion to a knight with  '''1. exd8=N+!''' wins by virtue of a [[fork (chess)|fork]]: 1...K(any) 2.Nxf7 followed by 3.Nxh8 leaves White a piece up with a winning endgame.<ref>Emanuel Lasker, ''Lasker's Manual of Chess'', Dover Publications, 1960, pp. 35–36. SBN 486-20640-8.</ref>
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|Kamsky vs. Bacrot, 2006
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|Position before 74...e1{{=}}N+. Promotion to a knight gets to a drawn endgame.
}}
Promotion to knight may also be done for defensive reasons. For example, a knight promotion is a standard defensive technique in a rook versus pawn endgame;<ref>{{Harvcol|de la Villa|2008|pp=71–72}}</ref> a 2006 game between [[Gata Kamsky]] and [[Étienne Bacrot]] shows such a case.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1411263 |title=Kamsky vs. Bacrot, 2006 |website=[[Chessgames.com]] |access-date = 2010-03-04 }}</ref> White threatens to capture the pawn or checkmate by Rh1 if the black pawn promotes to a queen, rook, or bishop. The only move that does not lose for Black is 74...e1=N+! The resulting rook versus knight endgame is a theoretical draw (see [[pawnless chess endgame]]). In the actual game, mistakes were made in the rook versus knight endgame, and White won on move 103.<ref>{{Harvcol|de la Villa|2008|pp=43–44}}</ref> 
{{clear}}

{| align="right"
|-valign="top"
|+ Zurakhov vs. Koblencs, 1956
|
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<!--[http://www.xs4all.nl/~timkr/chess2/diary13txt.htm points out (scroll down to No. 242)]-->Zurakhov–Koblencs, Tbilisi 1956<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.365chess.com/players/Vladlen_Y_Zurakhov/?p=1&start=100|title=Vladlen Y Zurakhov – Chess games (page 3) – 365Chess.com|website=www.365chess.com|access-date=2016-03-06}}</ref> is a very rare example of a game with two significant promotions to knights; it also features a rare instance of a non-checking knight promotion. In the first diagram, Black threatens 57...Nxg7, and if White avoided this by promoting to queen, rook, or bishop, Black would reach a drawn position with the knight fork 57...Ne7+ and 58...Nxg8. The only winning move is 57.g8=N!, which White played.

Twenty-one moves later, the players reached the position in the second diagram. Once again, a promotion to anything other than a knight would allow a knight fork, e.g. 79.c8=Q?? Nd6+ and 80...Nxc8, with a drawn ending. White instead played 79.c8=N+! (there are other winning moves, such as 79.Kc5) 79...Kb8 80.Kb6 and Black resigned, since White cannot be stopped from promoting a third pawn, this time to a queen.

{{clear}}
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|Akopian vs. Karjakin
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This was the 71st move of a game between [[Vladimir Akopian]] and [[Sergey Karjakin]] at [[Nalchik]], 2009.<ref>''[[Daily Telegraph]]'', p. W15 (''Weekend'' supplement), 2 May 2009</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1543553 |title=Akopian vs. Karjakin, Nalchik 2009 |website=[[Chessgames.com]] |access-date = 2010-03-04 }}</ref> After 71.a8=Q??, 71...Qxb2+, followed by alternating checks on the a and b files, would give Black a [[perpetual check]], so Akopian played 71.a8=N!, and Karjakin resigned, as 71...Qxb2+ would be met by the [[cross-check]] 72.Nb6+, which in turn forces 72...Qxb6+ 73.Kxb6, with an easy win for White.
{{clear}}

{{Chess diagram small
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|P. Svidler vs. V. Malakhov
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|Position before 31...dxe1{{=}}N+!
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An example of promotion to a knight occurred in the game [[Peter Svidler]]–[[Vladimir Malakhov (chess player)|Vladimir Malakhov]], played at the [[FIDE World Cup]] in December 2009 at [[Khanty-Mansiysk]] in [[Siberia]] ([[Slav Defense]] a6):<ref>''[[Daily Telegraph]]'' Monday 7 December 2009</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1565688 |title=Svidler vs. Malakhov, Khanty-Mansiysk 2009 |website=[[Chessgames.com]] |access-date = 2010-03-04 }}</ref>
:'''1. d4 d5 2. c4 c6 3. Nc3 Nf6 4. Nf3 a6 5. e3 b5 6. c5 g6 7. Bd3 Bg4 8. h3 Bxf3 9. Qxf3 Bg7 10. g4 e5! 11. Qg3 Nfd7 12. Ne2 Qe7 13. 0-0 h5 14. f3 Nf8 15. a4 b4 16. Bd2 a5 17. e4 dxe4 18. Bxe4 Ne6 19. Rae1 h4 20. Qf2 0-0 21. f4 exd4 22. f5{{chesspunc|!?}} Nxc5 23. Bb1 d3 24. Nc1 Qd6 25. Ba2?? Bd4 26. Be3 Ne4 27. Qxh4 g5 28. Qh5 d2 29. f6 Qxf6 30. Bxd4 Qxd4+ 31. Kg2''' (diagram) '''dxe1=N+!'''

and White resigned because of 32.Rxe1 Qf2+ 33.Kh1 Ng3# or 32.Kh2 Qxb2+ 33.Ne2 Qxe2+ 34.Rf2 Qxf2+ 35.Kh1 Ng3#. If 31...dxe1=Q??, it is White who mates with 32.Bxf7+ Rxf7 33.Qxf7+ Kh8 34.Qf8+ Kh7 35.Rf7+ Kg6 36.Qg8+ Kh6 37.Rh7#.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://chessbase.com/newsdetail.asp?newsid=5958 |title=World Cup R5: Malakhov and Karjakin take the lead |date=3 December 2009 |publisher=ChessBase.com |access-date = 2010-03-31}}</ref>
-->
{{clear}}

===Promotion to a rook===
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|White to move
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|Promotion to queen draws; promotion to a rook wins.
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In the diagrammed position, Black threatens to capture White's pawn and draw the game. Promotion to a queen would result in a stalemate, whereas the move 1.g8=R! wins because White can force an elementary [[Checkmate#King and rook|checkmate]] from the resulting position.
{{clear}}

{{Chess diagram small
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|P. Short vs. Daly, 2006
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|Position before 70...b1{{=}}R!
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In the diagrammed position from the game P. Short–Daly, 2006 [[Irish Chess Championship]], a promotion to queen would allow stalemate: 70...b1=Q?? 71.Qh3+! Kxh3 stalemate (or 71...Kg1 72.Qh1+!, and now the black king is forced to capture). Instead, the game concluded  70...b1=R! {{chessAN|0–1}}
{{clear}}

{{Chess diagram small
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|F. Lazard<br>''L'Opinio'' 1935, 2nd prize
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|White to play and draw
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Less often, promotion to rook is necessary to {{em|induce}} stalemate to save a draw in an otherwise hopeless position. The example shown is from the end of a [[endgame study|study]] by [[Frédéric Lazard]]. Black threatens checkmate by moving the king and playing ...Bf4. Promotion to queen does not work: 4.d8=Q? Bf4 5.Qd2+ Kf3 6.Qxf4+ Kxf4, and Black easily wins the pawn ending. Promotion to rook saves the draw, however:
:'''4. d8=R! Bf4''' 
If 4...Bxh2, then 5.Rd3+!
:'''5. Rd2''' 
Now king moves by Black cause stalemate because the rook is [[pin (chess)|pinned]] and cannot move. If Black instead moves the bishop along the c1–h6 diagonal, White can parry this with a [[perpetual pursuit]] of the bishop with the rook, so Black cannot make any progress: 5...Bg5 6.Rd5 Kf4 7.Rd2 Bh6 8.Rd6 Kg5 9.Rd2 is one possible continuation.<ref name=Krabbé99/><ref>[https://pdb.dieschwalbe.de/search.jsp?expression=PROBID%20IN%20%27P1399427%27 ''Die Schwalbe''] problem database</ref>
{{clear}}

===Promotion to a bishop===
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| White to play and win
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In the diagrammed position, the pawn must be advanced to c8 and promoted; otherwise, it is captured, resulting in a draw. Promotion to a queen or rook would [[pin (chess)|pin]] the bishop, leaving Black with no legal moves, resulting in a stalemate; promotion to knight may appear to threaten checkmate via 2.Nb6#, but Black moves their bishop next turn, so there is no mate, and White cannot make any further progress. Promotion to bishop is the only way to win, threatening mate with Bb7 that the enemy bishop, being confined to dark squares, is helpless to prevent:

: '''1. c8=B! B(any) 2. Nd7 B(any) 3. Bb7# {{chessAN|1–0}}'''
{{clear}}<!--

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| White to play and mate in 2
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Promotion to a queen or rook by taking the queen is an immediate draw by stalemate. Promotion to a knight still wins, but not as quickly. Any other move loses or draws. The only move that mates in 2 is
: '''1. exf8=B! Kg8 2. Qg7# {{chessAN|1–0}}'''
{{clear}} -->

{{Chess diagram small
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| Hermanis Matisons <br />''Rigaer Tageblatt'', 1914<ref>{{cite web |title=Chess Problem Database Solver |url=https://pdb.dieschwalbe.de/P1279350 |website=Schwalbe |access-date=3 May 2023}}</ref>

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| White to move and draw; position after Black's fifth move
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Less often, promotion to bishop is necessary to {{em|induce}} stalemate to save a draw in an otherwise hopeless position. The example shown is from the end of a [[endgame study|study]] by [[Hermanis Matisons]].

Both king moves lose quickly (they can be met by 6...Rgg7, for example), so the pawn must be promoted. 6.b8=Q and 6.b8=R both lose to a capture on c8, and 6.b8=N, while leaving a stalemate after 6...Rgxc8??, loses quickly after 6...Rcxc8. This leaves only 6.b8=B!: since the c7-rook is now pinned, Black must either lose it with a theoretical draw or play 6...Rxc8 which, with a bishop on b8 rather than a queen or rook, is stalemate.
{{clear}}

{{Chess diagram small
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|Reshko vs. Kaminsky, 1972
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|61.a8{{=}}B! is the only way to win.
}}
In the diagrammed position from a 1972 game between Aron Reshko and Oleg Kaminsky, promotion to a queen or rook would allow 61...Qf7+! 62.Qxf7 stalemate. White could promote to a knight, but that would not be sufficient to win after 61...Qa7!<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1253800 |title=Reshko vs. Kaminsky, Leningrad Championship 1972 |website=[[Chessgames.com]] |access-date = 2010-03-04 }}</ref><ref name="Harvcol|Soltis|1978|pp=34–35">{{Harvcol|Soltis|1978|pp=34–35}}</ref> White wins after:

:'''61. a8=B! Qb3 62. Qd7'''
If 62.Bc6 Qa2 63.Bd7 Qg8 64.Qxg8+ Kxg8 65.Kg6 also wins.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{Harvcol|Müller|Pajeken|2008|pp=219–20}}</ref>
:'''62... Qg8 63. Bd5 Qf8 64. Bf7 Kh8 65. Qe8 Qxe8 66. Bxe8 Kh7 67. Bf7 Kh8'''
Black is in [[zugzwang]] for two moves.
:'''68. Kg6 h5 69. Kxh5''' wins.<ref name="Harvcol|Soltis|1978|pp=34–35"/>

This position has been included in several books with the move 61.a8=B! as the problem-like solution. According to [[Karsten Müller|Müller]] and Pajeken, however, the actual game continuation was 61.a8=N? Qa7 62.g5 hxg5 63.hxg5 fxg5 64.Qg6+ Kg8 65.Qc6 Qf7+? (65...Kh7! draws) 66.Kg4 1–0.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
{{clear}}

<!--
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|Sokolsky vs. Ravinsky, <br />1938 (or 1933)
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|66.a8{{=}}B! is the only way to win.
}}

In the 1938 (or 1933) game between [[Alexey Sokolsky]] and Grigory Ravinsky, promotion to a queen or rook would allow 66...Rc2+ 67.Ka1 (67.Kxc2 is a stalemate) Rc1+ with a draw by perpetual check. Promotion to a knight also draws after 66...Rc8! 67.Ra6 Rxa8 68.Rxa8 stalemate. However, the move '''66. a8=B!''', which was played in the game, wins for White, with the following main variations:
{{ordered list|type=lower-alpha
 |'''66... Rh5 67. Be4 Rxh6 68. Ka3''' (putting Black into zugzwang) '''68... Rh5 69. Rb8 Re5 70. Bc6''' and White wins.
 |'''66... Rc7 67. Bd5 Bd7 68. Rd6 Be8''' (if the rook moves along the c-file, then 69.Bxf7+) '''69. Bxf7+ Kxf7 70. Rd8''' and the threats of 71.Rxe8 or g8{{=}}Q+ (or both) are unstoppable.
 |'''66... Rc8 67. Be4''' (or 67.Bd5 Rd8 68.Bc4 Rc8 69.Rb7 Rd8 70.Re7 Rc8 71.Ka3 Rb8 72.Bd5 Rd8 73.Kb4 Rb8+ 74.Ka5 Rd8 75.Kb6 Rc8 76.Kb7 Rd8 77.Kc7 Rd7+ 78.Rxd7 Bxd7 79.Bxf7+ and White wins) '''67... Bc6 68. Bxc6 Ra8 69. Ba4 Re8 70. Ka3! Ra8 71. Re6! fxe6 72. Kb4 Kf7 73. Bc6 Rb8+ 74.Kc5''' and 75.Be4 and 76.Bxh7 win for White (if 74...Rxb3, then 75.Be8+).
 |'''66... Re5''' (preventing 67.Bd5) '''67. Bf3! Rf5''' (67...Bc6 or 67...Bb5 are met by 68.Bd5!) '''68. Be4''' (or 68.Rb8 Re5) '''68... Re5 69. Bd3 Bb5 70. Bc4''' and White wins by getting his rook to e7 (if 70...Re8 or 70...Bc6, then 71.Bxf7+).<ref name=Krabbé99/>
}}

{{Chess diagram small
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|27 September 2016
|kl|  |kd|bd|  |  |  |
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|1.g8{{=}}B! is the only way to win.
}}

On the diagram on the right, 1.g8{{=}}Q? or 1.g8{{=}}R? pins the bishop, and therefore stalemates the black king. 1.g8{{=}}N? allows 1...Bg5! when the bishop in g5 dominates the white knight and no matter what knight move White plays it will all allow capturing the knight on Black's second move causing White to be in a stalemate position. So the only move is '''1. g8{{=}}B!''' when the black bishop must move. Then '''2. Be6+! Kd8 3. Kb7!''' or '''3. Kb8!''' and Black cannot prevent '''4. a8{{=}}Q'''. A great example where all promotions other than bishop lead to stalemate either of black (Q, R) or white (N), where promotion to bishop wins.-->

===Insignificant underpromotions===
{{Chess diagram small
| tright
| Shirov vs. Kramnik, 2005

|  |  |kd|  |  |  |  |rd
|  |  |pd|  |  |  |pd|pd
|  |pd|  |  |  |  |  |  
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|  |ql|  |  |  |  |  |  
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|pl|  |pl|  |pd|kl|  |pl
|  |rl|  |rd|  |  |  |

| Position before 25...e1{{=}}B+
}}
In practical play, the majority of underpromotions are made when there is no real reason not to promote to a queen. These occur usually because the promoted piece is immediately captured, rendering the choice of promotion unimportant,<ref name=Krabbé99/> or because the game is easily won regardless of the choice of promoted piece. One high-level example of the former occurred in the game [[Alexei Shirov|Shirov]]&ndash;[[Vladimir Kramnik|Kramnik]], Amber Blindfold, 2005.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1334541 |title=Shirov vs. Kramnik |website=[[Chessgames.com]] |access-date = 2010-03-04 }}</ref> In the diagrammed position, Black played 25...e1=B+. This underpromotion is inconsequential, as 26.Qxe1 is forced whether Black promotes to a queen or bishop.
{{clear}}

{{Chess diagram small
| tright
| Vidmar vs. Maróczy, 1932

|  |  |  |  |  |  |bl|  
|  |  |  |pl|bd|  |kd|pl
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|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |

| Position before 124.h8{{=}}B+
}}
In 1932, a long game<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1094403 |title=Vidmar vs. Maróczy, Sliac 1932 |website=[[Chessgames.com]] |access-date = 2010-03-04 }}</ref> between [[Milan Vidmar]] and [[Géza Maróczy]] had reached an [[opposite-colored bishops endgame]] and been a theoretical draw for many moves. White promoted to bishops on two successive moves, both pieces being immediately captured by Black's king:
:'''124. h8=B+ Kxh8 125. d8=B Kxg8'''
The game was drawn on move 129.
{{clear}}

==Promotion in other games of the chess family==
===Western chess variants===
Most [[Chess variant|variants of Western chess]] feature promotion. The promotion rule in these variants is usually similar to that of standard chess, though it is sometimes amended to cohere with the variant's rule set. In general, the following apply:<ref>[http://www.chessvariants.com/piececlopedia.dir/pawn.html Pawn], Piececlopedia at chessvariants.com</ref>
* A pawn is promoted upon reaching the last rank of the board, regardless of the board's size.
* A pawn may be promoted to any non-{{chessgloss|royal piece|royal}} [[fairy chess piece|fairy piece]] featured in the variant. The [[Mann (chess)|mann]], a non-royal version of the king, may be one such piece.

Due to the first guideline, a pawn on a longer board has to move further to be promoted. Some variants partially compensate for this by allowing the pawn to advance further than two squares on its initial move; for example, in the 16×16 [[chess on a really big board]], a pawn can advance up to six squares on its first move.<ref>[http://www.chessvariants.com/d.betza/chessvar/16x16.html Chess on a Really Big Board] at ''[[The Chess Variant Pages]]''</ref>

The second guideline has unusual consequences in some games. For example, in Knightmate, the knight is royal while the king is not, so the player may promote a pawn to a king but not to a knight.<ref>[http://www.chessvariants.org/diffobjective.dir/knightmate.html Knightmate] by [[Hans Bodlaender]]</ref> In [[losing chess]], the king is not royal, so a pawn can be promoted to a king.

===Regional games of the chess family===
Most regional games of the chess family (with the notable exception of [[janggi]]) include promotion, though the rule varies.

====Makruk====
In [[makruk]], pawns begin the game on their third rank. When a pawn reaches its sixth rank, it is promoted to a [[Ferz|Met]] (Makruk's queen), a piece that may move one square diagonally.<ref>[https://www.chessvariants.com/oriental.dir/thai.html Makruk: Thai Chess]</ref><ref>[http://ancientchess.com/page/play-makruk.htm How to Play Thai Chess]</ref>

The pawn in makruk has a flat shape and can be flipped over to represent the new piece.

====Sittuyin====
[[File:Sittuyin starting position No. 8.PNG|thumb|200px|A sittuyin position after the initial setup phase. Promotion zones consist of the squares located on the two diagonal lines through the middle of the board.]]
In [[sittuyin]], the promotion zone is marked by two diagonal lines, each line connecting two opposite corners of the board. A pawn standing on a promotion square on the opponent's half of the board may be promoted to a queen. Promotion can occur only if the player's queen is captured, so a player cannot have several queens at once.<ref name="sittuyin1">[http://ancientchess.com/page/play-sittuyin.htm How to Play Sittuyin]</ref><ref name="sittuyin2">[https://www.chessvariants.com/oriental.dir/burmese.html Sittuyin: Burmese Chess]</ref>

A pawn is not promoted the moment it reaches a promotion square; it may be promoted only on a subsequent move. It is unclear how this promotion is effected: some sources claim that the pawn is simply replaced with the new piece as a move,<ref name="sittuyin1" /> but others state that the pawn moves one square diagonally like a queen and then is promoted to one within the same move, as long as this move does not give check or capture an enemy queen.<ref name="sittuyin2" />

A pawn may move through a promotion square without being promoted, whereupon it loses its opportunity to do so. A pawn that reaches the back rank must remain there until captured, unless it is on a promotion square.
{{clear left}}

====Shogi====
{{Main|Shogi#Promotion}}
Uniquely among modern games of the chess family, [[shogi]] allows almost all pieces to be promoted.<ref name="shogi">[https://www.ricoh.com/ja/SHOGI/rules/erules.html Shogi rules]</ref><ref name="shog1">[http://ancientchess.com/page/play-shogi.htm How to Play Shogi]</ref> Promotion usually occurs multiple times in a game of shogi.

In standard shogi, a player's promotion zone consists of the three farthest ranks of the board. A piece can be promoted when it moves into, out of, or within its promotion zone. A piece can be [[Shogi#Drops|dropped]], however, only in its unpromoted state, regardless of where it is dropped and whether it was promoted when captured, though it can then be promoted on subsequent turns.<ref name="shogi" /><ref name="shog1" />

Six of the eight types of pieces can be promoted. Unlike in chess, each piece can be promoted only to one particular piece.<ref name="shogi" /><ref name="shog1" /> Two of these promoted pieces have movement patterns that are only available by promotion, and the remaining ones have the same movement as the gold general.

Promotion in shogi is usually optional; the only exception is when an exclusively forward-moving piece advances so far forward that it would have no legal move on subsequent turns if left unpromoted (e.g. a pawn moving to the last rank). Once a piece is promoted, it cannot be demoted back into its original form unless it is captured.

The ability to choose whether or not to promote is important, as some pieces lose some of their power upon being promoted (e.g. a promoted [[Shogi#Movement|silver general]] can no longer move diagonally backwards); thus, there can be a legitimate reason not to promote, even though all pieces theoretically gain more than they lose upon promoting.<ref name="shogi" /><ref name="shog1" />

=====Shogi variants=====
Most [[shogi variant]]s have similar promotion rules to standard shogi, where all but a few pieces have the ability to be promoted, each to one type of piece. In most variants, the player's promotion zone is bounded by the position of the opponent's pawns at the start of the game.

There are, however, some differences, especially in variants larger than shogi itself. For example, in the historical variants [[chu shogi]] and [[dai shogi]], among others, the option of promotion is more restrictive than in the standard game: a piece can be promoted normally as it enters the promotion zone, but if it makes a move out of or wholly within the zone, it can be promoted only if it also captures another piece. Also unlike standard shogi, a forward-moving piece in these variants may be left unpromoted at the far end of the board, unable to move. Furthermore, some pieces have different promoted states depending on the variant played (e.g. a silver general is promoted to a gold general in [[Shogi#Movement|shogi]] but to a vertical mover in [[Chu shogi#Individual pieces|chu shogi]] and [[Dai shogi#Individual pieces|dai shogi]]).

In [[maka dai dai shogi]], there is no promotion zone at all; instead, pieces can be promoted only upon capturing an opponent piece. Promotion is optional if the captured piece is unpromoted but mandatory if the captured piece is promoted. This is particularly important, as many pieces' promoted forms are in fact far weaker, so these pieces will often avoid capturing promoted pieces. This variant is also unique in that the king can be promoted as well: it is promoted to a very powerful piece called the emperor, which can jump to any unprotected square on the board. The king in the three-player hexagonal variant [[sannin shogi]] can also promote, gaining the ability to move like a [[hexagonal chess]] queen and the ability to capture, without moving, any undefended pieces it could capture by moving.

Many large variants (including chu shogi, dai shogi and maka dai dai shogi, as well as [[sho shogi]] which is a direct predecessor of standard shogi) have a piece known as the drunk elephant, which is promoted to a prince. The prince has exactly the same movements as the king and is also a royal piece; this means that, when a drunk elephant is promoted, the player has two royal pieces, and the opponent must capture both to win the game.

====Xiangqi {{anchor|Xiangqi and janggi}}====
[[Xiangqi]] has a rule that resembles promotion: the soldier, which moves and captures one point vertically forward, gains the additional ability to move and capture one point horizontally after crossing into the opposing half of the board. This does not change the piece's identity, however.<ref name="xiangqi">[https://brainking.com/en/GameRules?tp=68 BrainKing - Game rules (Chinese Chess)]</ref>
<!--
[[Xiangqi]] and [[janggi]], two closely related games of the chess family, have no promotion.<ref name="xiangqi">[https://brainking.com/en/GameRules?tp=68 BrainKing - Game rules (Chinese Chess)]</ref><ref name="janggi">[http://ancientchess.com/page/play-janggi.htm How to play Janggi]</ref> In xiangqi, the only type of piece that changes its movement depending on its position is the [[Xiangqi#Soldier|soldier]] (analogous to the pawn in chess). At the start of the game, a soldier can only move and capture one point forward, but once it reaches the opponent's half of the board, it can also move one point to the left or right. This is not generally considered to be promotion, as the piece's identity does not change.<ref name="xiangqi" />

Janggi does not have any rules that resemble promotion. [[Janggi#Soldiers|Soldiers]] can always move one point forward or to the side, regardless of their position on the board. In both xiangqi and janggi, a soldier at the last rank can only move one point sideways.<ref name="janggi" />
-->

==See also==
* {{section link|Checkers|King}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

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==External links==
* [https://www.chesshistory.com/winter/extra/underpromotion.html Underpromotion in Chess by Edward Winter]

{{chess}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2020}}

[[Category:Chess terminology]]
[[Category:Rules of chess]]