View source for President of the Continental Congress

{{Short description|Presiding officer of the U.S. Continental Congress}}
{{Use American English|date=November 2025}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=November 2025}}
{{Infobox official post
| post            = President of the United States in Congress Assembled
| body            = 
| insignia        = Seal of the President of the Continental Congress.svg{{!}}class=skin-invert
| insigniacaption = [[President of the Continental Congress#Seal|Seal of the president of the Congress]]
| image           = 
| imagecaption    =
| department      = [[Continental Congress]]
| style           = {{ubl|[[Mr. President (title)|Mr. President]] (informal)|[[The Honorable]] (formal)}}
| status          = Presiding officer
| seat            =
| appointer       = Vote within the Congress
| formation       = {{start date|1774|09|05}}
| first           = [[Peyton Randolph]]
| last            = [[Cyrus Griffin]]
| abolished       = {{end date|1788|11|02}}
}}
{{Continental Congress}}

The '''president of the United States in Congress Assembled''', known unofficially as the '''president of the Continental Congress''' and later as '''president of the Congress of the Confederation''', was the presiding officer of the [[Continental Congress]], the convention of delegates that assembled in [[Philadelphia]] as the first [[Provisional government|transitional]] national government of the [[United States]] during the [[American Revolution]]. The [[President (government title)|president]] was a member of Congress elected by the other delegates to serve as a neutral [[discussion moderator]] during meetings of Congress. Designed to be a largely ceremonial position without much influence, the office was unrelated to the later office of [[President of the United States]].<ref name="Ellis1">{{harvnb|Ellis|1999}}, p. 1.</ref>

Upon the [[ratification]] of the [[Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union]], which served as new first constitution of the U.S. in March 1781, the Continental Congress became the [[Congress of the Confederation]], and membership from the [[Second Continental Congress]], along with its president, carried over without interruption to the First Congress of the Confederation.

Fourteen men served as president of Congress between September 1774 and November 1788. They came from nine of the [[Thirteen Colonies|original 13 states]]: [[Colony of Virginia|Virginia]] (3), [[Province of Massachusetts Bay|Massachusetts]] (2), [[Province of Pennsylvania|Pennsylvania]] (2), [[Province of South Carolina|South Carolina]] (2), [[Connecticut Colony|Connecticut]], (1), [[Delaware Colony|Delaware]] (1), [[Province of Maryland|Maryland]] (1), [[Province of New Jersey|New Jersey]] (1), and [[Province of New York|New York]] (1).<ref>{{harvnb|Morris|1987}}, p. 101.</ref>

==Role==
By design, the president of the [[Continental Congress]] was a position with limited authority.<ref name="Wilson71">{{harvnb|Jillson|Wilson|1994}}, p. 71.</ref> The Continental Congress, fearful of concentrating political power in an individual, gave their presiding officer even less responsibility than the [[speaker (politics)|speakers]] in the lower houses of the [[Colonial government in the Thirteen Colonies|colonial assemblies]].<ref>{{harvnb|Jillson|Wilson|1994}}, pp. 71–73.</ref> Unlike some colonial speakers, the president of Congress could not, for example, set the legislative agenda or make committee appointments.<ref>{{harvnb|Jillson|Wilson|1994}}, pp. 75, 89.</ref> The president could not meet privately with foreign leaders; such meetings were held with committees or the entire Congress.<ref>{{harvnb|Jillson|Wilson|1994}}, pp. 77–78.</ref>

The presidency was a largely ceremonial position.<ref name="ANB-Hanson">Gregory A. Stiverson, "Hanson, John, Jr.", ''[[American National Biography Online]]'', February 2000.</ref><ref>H. James Henderson. "Boudinot, Elias", ''American National Biography Online'', February 2000.</ref> There was no salary.<ref>{{harvnb|Sanders|1930}}, 13.</ref> The primary role of the office was to preside over meetings of Congress, which entailed serving as an impartial moderator during debates.<ref>{{harvnb|Jillson|Wilson|1994}}, pp. 76, 82.</ref> When Congress would resolve itself into a [[Committee of the Whole]] to discuss important matters, the president would relinquish his chair to the chairman of the Committee of the Whole.<ref>{{harvnb|Jillson|Wilson|1994}}, p. 81.</ref> Even so, the fact that President [[Thomas McKean]] was at the same time serving as Chief Justice of Pennsylvania, provoked some criticism that he had become too powerful. According to historian Jennings Sanders, McKean's critics were ignorant of the powerlessness of the office of president of Congress.<ref>{{harvnb|Sanders|1930}}, pp. 21–22.</ref>

The president was also responsible for dealing with a large amount of official correspondence,<ref name="Wilson76">{{harvnb|Jillson|Wilson|1994}}, p. 76.</ref> but he could not answer any letter without being instructed to do so by Congress.<ref>{{harvnb|Jillson|Wilson|1994}}, p. 80.</ref> Presidents also signed, but did not write, Congress's official documents.<ref>{{harvnb|Jillson|Wilson|1994}}, p. 78.</ref> These limitations could be frustrating, because a delegate essentially declined in influence when he was elected president.<ref>{{harvnb|Jillson|Wilson|1994}}, p. 89.</ref>

Historian [[Richard B. Morris]] argued that, despite the ceremonial role, some presidents were able to wield some influence:
{{Blockquote|Lacking specific authorization or clear guidelines, the presidents of Congress could with some discretion influence events, formulate the agenda of Congress, and prodded Congress to move in directions they considered proper. Much depended on the incumbents themselves and their readiness to exploit the peculiar opportunities their office provided.<ref>{{harvnb|Morris|1987}}, p. 100</ref>}}

Congress, and its presidency, declined in importance after the ratification of the [[Articles of Confederation]] and the ending of the [[American Revolutionary War|Revolutionary War]]. Increasingly, delegates elected to the Congress declined to serve, the leading men in each state preferred to serve in state government, and the Congress had difficulty establishing a [[quorum]].<ref>{{harvnb|Jillson|Wilson|1994}}, pp. 85–88.</ref> President [[John Hanson]] wanted to resign after only a week in office, but Congress lacked a quorum to select a successor, and so he stayed on.<ref name="ANB-Hanson" /> President [[Thomas Mifflin]] found it difficult to convince the states to send enough delegates to Congress to ratify the 1783 [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Treaty of Paris]].<ref>John K. Alexander, "Mifflin, Thomas", ''American National Biography Online'', February 2000.</ref> For six weeks in 1784, President [[Richard Henry Lee]] did not come to Congress, but instead instructed secretary [[Charles Thomson]] to forward any papers that needed his signature.<ref>{{harvnb|Jillson|Wilson|1994}}, p. 87.</ref>

[[John Hancock]] was elected to a second term in November 1785, even though he was not then in Congress, and Congress was aware that he was unlikely to attend.<ref name="Wilson88" /> He never took his seat, citing poor health, though he may have been uninterested in the position.<ref name="Wilson88">{{harvnb|Jillson|Wilson|1994}}, p. 88.</ref> Two delegates, [[David Ramsay (historian)|David Ramsay]] and [[Nathaniel Gorham]], performed his duties with the title of "[[chairman]]".<ref name="Wilson88" /><ref>{{harvnb|Sanders|1930}}, p. 29.</ref> When Hancock finally resigned the office in June 1786, Gorham was elected. After he resigned in November 1786, it was months before enough members were present in Congress to elect a new president.<ref name="Wilson88" /> In February 1787, General [[Arthur St. Clair]] was elected. Congress passed the [[Northwest Ordinance]] during St. Clair's presidency and elected him as the governor of the Northwest Territory.<ref>{{harvnb|Sanders|1930}}, pp. 30–31.</ref>

As the people of the various states began debating the proposed [[United States Constitution]] in later months of 1787, the Confederation Congress found itself reduced to the status of a [[caretaker government]].<ref name="Wilson88" /> There were not enough delegates present to choose St. Clair's successor until January 22, 1788, when the final president of Congress, [[Cyrus Griffin]], was elected.<ref name="Wilson88" /> Griffin resigned his office on November 15, 1788, after only two delegates showed up for the new session of Congress.<ref name="Wilson88" />

==Term of office==
Prior to ratification of the Articles, presidents of Congress served terms of no specific duration; their tenure ended when they resigned, or, lacking an official resignation, when Congress selected a successor. When Peyton Randolph, who was elected in September 1774 to preside over the [[First Continental Congress]], was unable to attend the last few days of the session due to poor health, [[Henry Middleton]] was elected to replace him.<ref>{{harvnb|Sanders|1930}}, p. 11.</ref> When the Second Continental Congress convened the following May, Randolph was again chosen as president, but he returned to Virginia two weeks later to preside over the [[House of Burgesses]].<ref>{{harvnb|Sanders|1930}}, pp. 11–12.</ref> John Hancock was elected to fill the vacancy, but his position was somewhat ambiguous because it was not clear if Randolph had resigned or was on a [[leave of absence]].<ref>{{harvnb|Fowler|1980}}, p. 191.</ref> The situation became uncomfortable when Randolph returned to Congress in September 1775. Some delegates thought Hancock should have stepped down, but he did not; the matter was resolved only by Randolph's sudden death that October.<ref>{{harvnb|Fowler|1980}}, p. 199.</ref>

Ambiguity also clouded the end of Hancock's term. He left in October 1777 for what he believed was an extended leave of absence, only to find upon his return that Congress had elected [[Henry Laurens]] to replace him.<ref>{{harvnb|Fowler|1980}}, p. 230–31.</ref> Hancock, whose term ran from May 24, 1775 to October 29, 1777 (a period of {{age in years and months |1775|5|24 |1777|10|29}}), was the longest serving president of Congress.

The length of a presidential term was ultimately codified by Article Nine of the Articles of Confederation, which authorized Congress "to appoint one of their number to preside; provided that no person be allowed to serve in the office of president more than one year in any term of three years".<ref>{{cite web| url=https://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=lljc&fileName=009/lljc009.db&recNum=167&itemLink=r%3Fammem%2Fhlaw%3A%40field%28DOCID%2B%40lit%28jc0092%29%29%230090008&linkText=1| editor1-last=Ford| editor1-first=Worthington C.|display-editors=etal| editor1-link=Worthington C. Ford| title=Journals of the Continental Congress, 1774-1789| location=Washington, D.C.| year=1904–37| volume=19| issue=137| access-date=December 31, 2017}}</ref> When the Articles [[Coming into force|went into effect]] in March 1781, however, the Continental Congress did not hold an election for a new president under the new constitution.<ref name="Burnett503">{{harvnb|Burnett|1941}}, 503.</ref> Instead, [[Samuel Huntington (statesman)|Samuel Huntington]] continued serving a term that had already exceeded the new [[term limit]].<ref name="Burnett503" /> The first president to serve the specified one-year term was John Hanson (November 5, 1781 to November 4, 1782).<ref name="ANB-Hanson" /><ref>{{harvnb|Burnett|1941}}, p. 524.</ref>

==List of presidents==
Terms and backgrounds of the 14 men who served as president of the Continental Congress:<ref>{{harvnb|Jillson|Wilson|1994}}, p. 77.</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! class = "unsortable"|Portrait
! Name
! State/colony
! Term
! Length
! class = "unsortable"|Previous position
{{Officeholder table
| image             = PeytonRandolph.jpeg
| officeholder      = [[Peyton Randolph]]
| officeholder_sort = Randolph, Peyton
| officeholder_note = 
| born_year         = 1721
| died_year         = 1775
| term_start        = [[Virginia]]
| term_end          = {{sort|01|September 5, 1774}}<br>–<br>October 22, 1774
| timeinoffice      = {{ayd|1774|9|5|1774|10|22}}
| previous_office   = [[List of Speakers of the Virginia House of Burgesses|Speaker]] of the Virginia [[House of Burgesses]]
}}
{{Officeholder table
| image             = Henry Middleton by Benjamin West.jpg
| officeholder      = [[Henry Middleton]]
| officeholder_sort = Middleton, Henry
| officeholder_note = 
| born_year         = 1717
| died_year         = 1784
| term_start        = [[South Carolina]]
| term_end          = {{sort|02|October 22, 1774}}<br>–<br>October 26, 1774
| timeinoffice      = {{ayd|1774|10|22|1774|10|26}}
| previous_office   = Speaker, S.C. Commons House of Assembly
}}
{{Officeholder table
| image             = PeytonRandolph.jpeg
| officeholder      = [[Peyton Randolph]]
| officeholder_sort = Randolph, Peyton
| officeholder_note = 
| born_year         = 1721
| died_year         = 1775
| term_start        = Virginia
| term_end          = {{sort|03|May 10, 1775}}<br>–<br>May 24, 1775
| timeinoffice      = {{ayd|1775|5|10|1775|5|24}}
| previous_office   = [[List of Speakers of the Virginia House of Burgesses|Speaker]] of the Virginia [[House of Burgesses]]
}}
{{Officeholder table
| image             = John Hancock 1770-crop.jpg
| officeholder      = [[John Hancock]]
| officeholder_sort = Hancock, John
| officeholder_note = 
| born_year         = 1737
| died_year         = 1793
| term_start        = [[Massachusetts]]
| term_end          = {{sort|04|May 24, 1775}}<br>–<br>October 29, 1777
| timeinoffice      = {{ayd|1775|5|24|1777|10|29}}
| previous_office   = President, [[Massachusetts Provincial Congress]]
}}
{{Officeholder table
| image             = Henry laurens.jpg
| officeholder      = [[Henry Laurens]]
| officeholder_sort = Laurens, Henry
| officeholder_note = 
| born_year         = 1724
| died_year         = 1792
| term_start        = South Carolina
| term_end          = {{sort|05|November 1, 1777}}<br>–<br>December 9, 1778
| timeinoffice      = {{ayd|1777|11|1|1778|12|9}}
| previous_office   = President, S.C. Provincial Congress, Vice President, S.C.
}}
{{Officeholder table
| image             = John Jay (Gilbert Stuart portrait).jpg
| officeholder      = [[John Jay]]
| officeholder_sort = Jay, John
| officeholder_note = 
| born_year         = 1745
| died_year         = 1829
| term_start        = [[New York (state)|New York]]
| term_end          = {{sort|06|December 10, 1778}}<br>–<br>September&nbsp;28,&nbsp;1779
| timeinoffice      = {{ayd|1778|12|10|1779|9|28}}
| previous_office   = Chief Justice [[New York Supreme Court]]
}}
{{Officeholder table
| image             = Samuel Huntington - Charles Willson Peale.jpg
| officeholder      = [[Samuel Huntington (Connecticut politician)|Samuel Huntington]]
| officeholder_sort = Huntington, Samuel
| officeholder_note = 
| born_year         = 1731
| died_year         = 1796
| term_start        = [[Connecticut]]
| term_end          = {{sort|07|September 28, 1779}}<br>–<br>July 10, 1781
| timeinoffice      = {{ayd|1779|9|28|1781|7|10}}
| previous_office   = Associate Judge, Connecticut Superior Court
}}
{{Officeholder table
| image             = Thomas McKean by Charles Willson Peale.jpg
| officeholder      = [[Thomas McKean]]
| officeholder_sort = McKean, Thomas
| officeholder_note = 
| born_year         = 1734
| died_year         = 1817
| term_start        = [[Delaware]]
| term_end          = {{sort|08|July 10, 1781}}<br>–<br>November 5, 1781
| timeinoffice      = {{ayd|1781|7|10|1781|11|5}}
| previous_office   = Chief Justice of the Pennsylvania Supreme Court
}}
{{Officeholder table
| image             = John Hanson Portrait 1770.jpg
| officeholder      = [[John Hanson]]
| officeholder_sort = Hanson, John
| officeholder_note = 
| born_year         = 1721
| died_year         = 1783
| term_start        = [[Maryland]]
| term_end          = {{sort|09|November 5, 1781}}<br>–<br>November 4, 1782
| timeinoffice      = {{ayd|1781|11|5|1782|11|4}}
| previous_office   = [[Maryland House of Delegates]]
}}
{{Officeholder table
| image             = Elias Boudinot.jpg
| officeholder      = [[Elias Boudinot]]
| officeholder_sort = Boudinot, Elias
| officeholder_note = 
| born_year         = 1740
| died_year         = 1821
| term_start        = [[New Jersey]]
| term_end          = {{sort|10|November 4, 1782}}<br>–<br>November 3, 1783
| timeinoffice      = {{ayd|1782|11|4|1783|11|3}}
| previous_office   = Commissary of Prisoners for the [[Continental Army]]
}}
{{Officeholder table
| image             = Thomas Mifflin.jpg
| officeholder      = [[Thomas Mifflin]]
| officeholder_sort = Mifflin, Thomas
| officeholder_note = 
| born_year         = 1744
| died_year         = 1800
| term_start        = [[Pennsylvania]]
| term_end          = {{sort|11|November 3, 1783}}<br>–<br>June 3, 1784
| timeinoffice      = {{ayd|1783|11|3|1784|6|3}}
| previous_office   = Quartermaster General of Continental Army, Board of War
}}
{{Officeholder table
| image             = Charles Willson Peale - Richard Henry Lee - NPG.74.5 - National Portrait Gallery (cropped).jpg
| officeholder      = [[Richard Henry Lee]]
| officeholder_sort = Lee, Richard
| officeholder_note = 
| born_year         = 1732
| died_year         = 1794
| term_start        = Virginia
| term_end          = {{sort|12|November 30, 1784}}<br>–<br>November 4, 1785
| timeinoffice      = {{ayd|1784|11|30|1785|11|4}}
| previous_office   = Virginia House of Burgesses
}}
{{Officeholder table
| image             = John Hancock 1770-crop.jpg
| officeholder      = [[John Hancock]]
| officeholder_sort = Hancock, John
| officeholder_note = 
| born_year         = 1737
| died_year         = 1793
| term_start        = Massachusetts
| term_end          = {{sort|13|November 23, 1785}}<br>–<br>June 5, 1786
| timeinoffice      = {{ayd|1785|11|23|1786|6|5}}
| previous_office   = Governor of Massachusetts
}}
{{Officeholder table
| image             = Nathaniel Gorham.jpg
| officeholder      = [[Nathaniel Gorham]]
| officeholder_sort = Gorham, Nathaniel
| officeholder_note =
| born_year         = 1738
| died_year         = 1796
| term_start        = Massachusetts
| term_end          = {{sort|14|June 6, 1786}}<br>–<br>February 2, 1787
| timeinoffice      = {{ayd|1786|6|6|1787|02|2}}
| previous_office   = Board of War
}}
{{Officeholder table
| image             = ArthurStClairOfficialPortrait-restored.jpg
| officeholder      = [[Arthur St.&nbsp;Clair]]
| officeholder_sort = St.Clair, Arthur 
| officeholder_note = 
| born_year         = 1737
| died_year         = 1818
| term_start        = Pennsylvania
| term_end          = {{sort|15|February 2, 1787}}<br>–<br>November 4, 1787
| timeinoffice      = {{ayd|1787|2|2|1787|11|4}}
| previous_office   = Major General, Continental Army
}}
{{Officeholder table
| image             = CyrusGriffin.jpg
| officeholder      = [[Cyrus Griffin]]
| officeholder_sort = Griffin, Cyrus
| officeholder_note = 
| born_year         = 1748
| died_year         = 1810
| term_start        = Virginia
| term_end          = {{sort|16|January 22, 1788}}<br>–<br>November 2, 1788
| timeinoffice      = {{ayd|1788|1|22|1788|11|15}}
| previous_office   = Judge, [[Virginia Court of Appeals]]
}}
|}

==Relationship to the president of the United States==
Beyond a similarity of title, the office of President of Congress "bore no relationship"<ref name="Ellis1" /> to the later office of [[President of the United States]]. As historian Edmund Burnett wrote:
{{Blockquote|The president of the United States is scarcely in any sense the successor of the presidents of the old Congress. The presidents of Congress were almost solely presiding officers, possessing scarcely a shred of executive or administrative functions; whereas the president of the United States is almost solely an [[executive (government)|executive]] officer, with no presiding duties at all. Barring a likeness in social and diplomatic precedence, the two offices are identical only in the possession of the same title.<ref>{{harvnb|Burnett|1941}}, p. 34.</ref>}}

Nonetheless, the presidents of the Continental Congress and the presidents of the United States in Congress Assembled are sometimes claimed to have been president before [[George Washington]] as if the offices were equivalent.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.historyisnowmagazine.com/blog/2017/11/5/did-you-know-about-the-many-us-presidents-before-george-washington|title=Did you know about the many US 'presidents' before George Washington?|website=History is Now Magazine, Podcasts, Blog and Books &#124; Modern International and American history|date=5 November 2017 }}</ref> The continuous nature of the Continental Congresses and Congress under the Articles also allows for multiple claims of being the "first president of the United States." This would include Peyton Randolph as president of the First Continental Congress, John Hancock as president when the [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]] was signed, Samuel Huntington as president when the Articles were ratified and took effect, Thomas McKean as the first president elected under the Articles, and John Hanson as the first president under the Articles to serve the prescribed one-year term. Hanson's grandson's campaign to name Hanson the "first president of the United States" was successful in having Hanson's statue placed in [[Statuary Hall]] in the [[United States Capitol|US Capitol]], even though, according to historian Gregory Stiverson, Hanson was not one of Maryland's foremost leaders of the Revolutionary era.<ref name="ANB-Hanson" /> Presumably due to this campaign, Hanson is often still dubiously listed as the first president of Congress under the Articles.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.constitutionfacts.com/us-articles-of-confederation/presidents-who-served/|title=Articles of Confederation, US Constitution, Constitution Day Materials, Pocket Constitution Book, Bill of Rights|website=www.constitutionfacts.com}}</ref>

The function of the president of the Continental Congress may be more akin to that of a [[Vice President of the United States|vice president's]] constitutional role as the president of the [[United States Senate]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theconstitutional.com/blog/2020/12/30/john-hanson-one-americas-founding-fathers|title=John Hanson - One of America's Founding Fathers|website=The Constitutional Walking Tour of Philadelphia|date=December 30, 2020|access-date=January 1, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Prakash|first=Saikrishna Bangalore|title=Imperial from the Beginning: The Constitution of the Original Executive|url=https://academic.oup.com/yale-scholarship-online/book/35643|url-access=registration|date=May 26, 2015|publisher=Yale University Press}} "While subsequent chapters consider the extent of presidential authority, it must be noted that not all presidents have meaningful authority. The Constitution proves as much. The vice president serves as the Senate’s “president,” meaning that he may chair its meetings. Additionally, he may break ties in Senate votes. If the president presided in the manner of the president of the Senate, the Article II presidency would be more about procedures and ceremony than about the exercise of power. The nation’s first “presidents” had more in common with our vice president. As early as 1774, the Continental Congress appointed a delegate to serve as “president.” He presided over deliberations, handled official communications, received and entertained foreign ambassadors, and took ceremonial precedence over other delegates. Despite the office’s narrow scope of authority, the Articles imposed term limits. No delegate could serve as president for more than one year in every three, a curb that likely reflected an acute (and excessive) concern with monarchy."</ref>

==Seal==
{{See also|Great Seal of the United States}}
[[File:US Great Seal 1782 drawing.png|thumb|upright=.70|Drawing of the original 1782 [[Great Seal of the United States]]]] 
Shortly after the creation of the first die for the [[Great Seal of the United States]], the [[Congress of the Confederation]] ordered a smaller seal for the use of the President of the Congress. It was a small oval, with the [[Crest (heraldry)|crest]] from the Great Seal (the radiant constellation of thirteen stars surrounded by clouds) in the center, with the [[United States national motto|motto]] ''[[E pluribus unum|E Pluribus Unum]]'' above it. [[Benson John Lossing|Benson Lossing]] claimed it was used by all the Presidents of the Congress after 1782, probably to seal envelopes on correspondence sent to the Congress, though only examples from Thomas Mifflin are documented.<ref name="totten">{{cite book |last = Totten |first = C.A.L. |author-link = C. A. L. Totten |title = The Seal of History |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=UTJHAAAAIAAJ |year = 1897 |publisher = The Our Race Publishing Co. |location = New Haven, Connecticut }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last = Lossing |first = Benson J. |author-link = Benson John Lossing |title = Great Seal of the United States |magazine = [[Harper's Magazine|Harper's New Monthly Magazine]] |volume = 13 |issue = 74 |pages = 184–5 |date = July 1856 |hdl = 2027/uc1.c065162776?urlappend=%3Bseq=200 |url = https://hdl.handle.net/2027/uc1.c065162776?urlappend=%3Bseq=200|quote=They also ordered a smaller seal for the use of the President of the Congress. It was small oval about an inch in length, the centre covered with clouds surrounding a space of open sky, on which were seen thirteen stars.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://archive.org/stream/TheEagleAndTheShield/The+Eagle+and+the+Shield#page/n607/mode/2up|title=The eagle and the shield : a history of the great seal of the United States|website=archive.org|year=1978}}</ref> This seal's use did not pass over to the new government in 1789.{{cn|date=April 2025}}

==See also==
*[[Confederation period]]
*[[History of the United States (1776–1789)]]
*[[Founding Fathers of the United States]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

===Works cited===
* {{cite book| last=Burnett| first=Edmund Cody| date=1941| title=The Continental Congress| publisher=Norton| location=New York City, New York| oclc=1467233| url=https://archive.org/details/continentalcongr0000burn_y9p2/page/n3/mode/2up}}
* {{cite book| last=Ellis| first=Richard J.| title=Founding the American Presidency| publisher=Rowman & Littlefield| location=Lanham, Maryland| date=1999| isbn=0-8476-9499-2| oclc=40856998 | url={{google books|ybmeEcpEvlsC|plainurl=y}}}}
* {{cite book| last=Fowler| first=William M. Jr. | title=The Baron of Beacon Hill: A Biography of John Hancock| location=Boston| publisher=Houghton Mifflin| date=1980| isbn=0-395-27619-5| oclc=5493800 | url={{google books|st92AAAAMAAJ|plainurl=y}}}}
* {{cite book| last1=Jillson| first1=Calvin C.| last2=Wilson| first2=Rick K.| title=Congressional Dynamics: Structure, Coordination, and Choice in the First American Congress, 1774–1789| publisher=Stanford University Press| location=Palo Alto, California| date=1994| isbn=0-8047-2293-5| oclc=28963682 | url={{google books|82_KQwDU5eYC|plainurl=y}}}}
* {{cite book| last=Morris| first=Richard B.| date=1987| title=The Forging of the Union, 1781–1789| publisher=Harper & Row| location=New York City, New York| isbn=978-0060157333| oclc=1005621076 | url={{google books|lJF2AAAAMAAJ|plainurl=y}}}}
* {{cite book| last=Sanders| first=Jennings Bryans| date=1930| title=The Presidency of the Continental Congress, 1774-89: A Study in American Institutional History| location=Chicago| oclc=492768915 | url={{google books|X21DAAAAIAAJ|plainurl=y}}}}

==External links==
* Presidentsusa.net articles{{snd}}[https://www.presidentsusa.net/befgw.html "Other" Presidents]
* United States House of Representatives article{{snd}}[http://history.house.gov/HistoricalHighlight/Detail/35332 The Articles of Confederation]

{{Presidents of the Continental Congress}}
{{USAConfGov}}
{{John Hancock}}
{{John Jay}}
{{Richard Henry Lee}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:1774 introductions]]
[[Category:Continental Congress]]
[[Category:Continental Congressmen]]
[[Category:Heads of state of the United States|Continental Congress]]
[[Category:John Hancock]]
[[Category:John Jay]]
[[Category:Legislative speakers|United States Continental Congress]]
[[Category:Presidents|United States Continental Congress]]
[[Category:United States presidential history|Continental Congress]]
[[Category:Confederation period]]