View source for Pratihara dynasty

{{Short description|Mid-8th to 11th century northern India dynasty}}
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{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2015}}
{{Infobox dynasty
| name                 = Pratihāras
| coat_of_arms         = Pratihara bhoja.JPG
| coat_of_arms_size    = 250
| coat_of_arms_caption = Pratihara coinage of [[Mihira Bhoja]], King of Kannauj. '''Obverse:''' Boar, incarnation of [[Vishnu]], and solar symbol.<br>'''Reverse''': Traces of [[Indo-Sasanian coinage|Sasanian type]]. Legend: ''Srímad Ādi Varāha'' "The fortunate primaeval boar".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Vincent Arthur |last2=Edwardes |first2=Stephen Meredyth |authorlink2=Stephen Edwardes |title=The early history of India : from 600 B.C. to the Muhammadan conquest, including the invasion of Alexander the Great |date=1924 |publisher=Oxford : Clarendon Press |page=Plate 2 |url=https://archive.org/details/earlyhistoryofi00smit/page/76}}</ref><ref name="HPR164">{{cite book |last1=Ray |first1=Himanshu Prabha |title=Negotiating Cultural Identity: Landscapes in Early Medieval South Asian History |date=2019 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=9781000227932 |pages=164 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qkyfDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT162 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Flood |first1=Finbarr B. |title=Objects of Translation: Material Culture and Medieval "Hindu-Muslim" Encounter |date=20 March 2018 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-18074-8 |page=40 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8MhJDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA40 |language=en}}</ref>
| origin               = [[Bhinmal|Bhinamala]], [[Gurjaratra]]
| country              = [[Kingdom of Gurjara]]<br>'''Branches''':<br>[[Nagod State]]
| founded              = 730
| founder              = [[Nagabhata I]]
| final_ruler          = [[Yasahpala]]
| seat                 = [[Ujjain]]<br>[[Kannauj]]
| branches             = {{blist
|[[Pratiharas of Mandavyapura]]
|[[#Baddoch branch|Pratiharas of Baddoch]]
|[[#Rajogarh branch|Pratiharas of Rajogarh]]
|[[Nagod State#Rulers|Pratiharas of Nagod]]
}}
| titles               = [[Maharajadhiraja]] of [[Āryāvarta]]<br>Maharajadhiraja of Kannauj
}}

The '''Pratihara dynasty''', also called the '''Gurjara-Pratiharas''', the '''Pratiharas of Kannauj''' or the '''Imperial Pratiharas''', was a prominent [[medieval India]]n [[dynasty]] which ruled over the Kingdom of Kannauj. It initially ruled the [[Gurjaradesa]] until its victory in the [[Tripartite Struggle]] in 816 which secured its right to the throne of Kannauj. [[Cadet branch]]es of the dynasty ruled other minor states in the subcontinent.

The Pratiharas were instrumental in containing Arab armies moving east of the [[Indus River]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Al-Hind: Early Medieval India and the Expansion of Islam, 7th–11th Centuries |first=André |last=Wink |location=Leiden |publisher=BRILL |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-391-04173-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g2m7_R5P2oAC&pg=PA284 |page=284}}</ref> [[Nagabhata I]] defeated the Arab army under Junaid and Tamin in the [[Caliphate campaigns in India]]. Under [[Nagabhata II]], the Pratiharas became the most powerful dynasty in northern India. He was succeeded by his son [[Ramabhadra]], who ruled briefly before being succeeded by his son, [[Mihira Bhoja]]. Under Bhoja and his successor [[Mahendrapala I]], the Pratihara dynasty reached its peak of prosperity and power. By the time of Mahendrapala, the extent of its territory rivalled that of the [[Gupta Empire]] stretching from the border of [[Sindh]] in the west to [[Bengal]] in the east and from the [[Himalayas]] in the north to areas past the [[Narmada]] in the south.{{sfn|Avari|2007|p=303}}{{sfn|Sircar|1971|p=146}} The expansion triggered a [[Tripartite Struggle|tripartite power struggle]] with the [[Rashtrakuta]] and [[Pala Empire|Pala]] empires for control of the [[Indian subcontinent]]. During this period, Imperial Pratihara took the title of ''[[Maharaja]]dhiraja of [[Āryāvarta]]'' (''Great King of Kings of [[Aryan]] Lands'').

Pratihara are known for their sculptures, carved panels and open pavilion style temples. The greatest development of their style of temple building was at [[Khajuraho Group of Monuments|Khajuraho]], now a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]].<ref name="Partha Mitter pp.66">Partha Mitter, Indian art, Oxford University Press, 2001 pp.66</ref>

The power of the Pratihara dynasty was weakened by dynastic strife. It was further diminished as a result of a great raid led by the Rashtrakuta ruler [[Indra III]] who, in about 916, sacked Kannauj. Under a succession of rather obscure rulers, the dynasty never regained its former influence. Their feudatories became more and more powerful, one by one throwing off their allegiance until, by the end of the tenth century, the dynasty controlled little more than the Gangetic [[Doab]]. Their last important king, Rajyapala, was driven from Kannauj by [[Mahmud of Ghazni]] in 1018.{{sfn|Sircar|1971|p=146}}

== Etymology and origin ==
{{Main|Origin of the Gurjara-Pratiharas}}
[[File:A panel depicting the Saptamatrikas , Kannauj,9th-10 century, Pratihara dynasty.jpg|thumb|A panel depicting the [[Saptamatrikas]], [[Kannauj]], 9th-10 century, Pratihara dynasty]]
The origin of the dynasty and the meaning of the term "Gurjara" in its name is a topic of debate among historians. The rulers of this dynasty used the self-designation "Pratihara" for their clan, and never referred to themselves as Gurjaras.{{sfn|Sanjay Sharma|2006|p=188}} They claimed descent from the legendary hero [[Lakshmana]], who is said to have acted as a ''pratihara'' ("door-keeper") for his brother [[Rama]].{{sfn|Tripathi|1959|p=223}}{{sfn|Puri|1957|p=7}} <ref>{{cite book |last=Agnihotri |first=V. K. |year=2010 |title=Indian History |volume=26 |page=B8 |quote=Modern historians believed that the name was derived from one of the kings of the line holding the office of Pratihara in the Rashtrakuta court}}</ref>

Multiple inscriptions of their neighbouring dynasties describe the Pratiharas as "Gurjara".{{sfn|Puri|1957|p=9-13}} The term "Gurjara-Pratihara" occurs only in the Rajor inscription of a feudatory ruler named Mathanadeva, who describes himself as a "Gurjara-Pratihara". According to one school of thought, Gurjara was the name of the territory (see [[Gurjaradesa|Gurjara-desha]]) originally ruled by the Pratiharas; gradually, the term came to denote the people of this territory. An opposing theory is that [[Gurjar]]a was the name of the tribe to which the dynasty belonged, and Pratihara was a clan of this tribe.{{sfn|Majumdar|1981|pp=612–613}}

Among those who believe that the term Gurjara was originally a tribal designation, there are disagreements over whether they were native Indians or foreigners.{{sfn|Puri|1957|p=1-2}} The proponents of the foreign origin theory point out that the Pratihars suddenly emerged as a political power in north India around sixth century CE, shortly after the [[Hunas]] invasion of that region.{{sfn|Puri|1957|p=2}} According to them Gujara-Pratihara were "likely" formed from a fusion of the [[Alchon Huns]] ("White Huns") and native Indian elements, and can probably be considered as a [[Hunas|Hunnic state]], although its precise origins remain unclear.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kim |first1=Hyun Jin |title=The Huns |date=19 November 2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-34091-1 |pages=62–64 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bnv4CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA62 |language=en|quote="Although it is not certain, it also seems likely that the formidable Gurjara Pratihara regime (ruled from the seventh-eleventh centuries AD) of northern India,may had a powerful [[Hephthalite|White Hunnic]] element. The Gurjara Pratiharas who were likely created from a fusion of White Hunnic and native Indian elements, ruled a vast Empire in northern India, and they also halted Arab Muslim expansion in India through Sind for centuries..."}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Wink |first1=André |title=Al-hind: The Making of the Indo-islamic World |date=1991 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-09249-5 |page=279 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bCVyhH5VDjAC&pg=PA279 |language=en}}</ref> Critics of the foreign origin theory argue that there is no conclusive evidence of their foreign origin: they were well-assimilated in the Indian culture. Moreover, if they invaded India through the north-west, it is inexplicable why would they choose to settle in the semi-arid area of present-day Rajasthan, rather than the fertile [[Indo-Gangetic Plain]].{{sfn|Puri|1957|pp=4–6}} While scholars such as R.K. Gupta and S.R Bakshi who have doubted the theory of foreign origin for Gurjaras have also opined that Gurjara-Pratiharas were among the first Rajput dynasties. <ref name="heritageofrajputs" >{{cite book|series=Studies In Indian History: Rajasthan Through The Ages|title=The Heritage Of Rajputs|volume=1|publisher=Sarup & Sons|year=2008|first1=R.K.|last1=Gupta|first2=S.R.|last2= Bakshi|publication-place=New Delhi|isbn=9788176258418|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gHNoU2zcDnIC|chapter=Origin of Rajputs|quote=The Gurjara-Pratiharas were chronologically the earliest, and  historically the most important of the Rajput dynasties.|page=3}}</ref>

The [[Agnivansha]] legend first recorded in the 11th century ''Navasahananka charita'' by [[Padmagupta]] narrates the official origin for the Parmara dynasty. This legend was later appropriated by other dynasties including Chaulukyas, eventually making its way into Prithviraj Raso.<ref name="heritageofrajputs"/>{{rp|6-8}}According to the legend, the Pratiharas, Parmar, Chauhan and Chaulukya dynasties originated from a sacrificial fire-pit (agnikunda) at [[Mount Abu]]. Some [[British India|colonial-era]] historians interpreted this myth to suggest a foreign origin for these dynasties. According to this theory, the foreigners were admitted in the [[Hindu caste system]] after performing a fire ritual.{{sfn|Yadava|1982|p=35}} However, this legend is not found in the earliest available copies of ''Prithviraj Raso''. It is based on a [[Paramara dynasty|Paramara]] legend composed when the threat of Muslim invasions was not considered serious by Rajput states of North West and Central India.<ref name="heritageofrajputs"/>{{rp|9-10}} This legend was utilised in the 16th century by [[bard]]s to claim a heroic descent of clans in order to foster Rajput unity against the [[Mughal Emperor|Mughals]].{{sfn|Singh|1964|pp=17–18}}

== History ==
[[File:Pashupatinath, uttar pradesh, 9th -10th century ,pratihara dynasty.jpg|thumb|Pashupatinath, Uttar Pradesh, 9th -10th century, Pratihara dynasty]] [[File:Vishnu and Lakshmi bronze, 10th-11th Century, Pratihara dynasty.jpg|thumb|[[Vishnu]] and [[Lakshmi]] bronze, 10th-11th century, Pratihara dynasty]]
[[File:Map of the Gurjara-Pratiharas (circa 800-950 CE).png|thumb|300x300px|Extent of the Pratihara Empire at its peak ({{circa|800—950}} CE) and neighbouring polities.]]
The original centre of Pratihara power is a matter of controversy. R. C. Majumdar, on the basis of a verse in the Harivamsha-Purana, 783 CE, the interpretation of which he conceded was not free from difficulty, held that Vatsaraja ruled at Ujjain.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Majumdar|first1=R.C.|title=The Age of Imperial Kanauj|date=1955|publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan|location=Bombay|pages=21–22|edition=First}}</ref> Dasharatha Sharma, interpreting it differently located the original capital in the Bhinmala Jalor area.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Sharma|first1=Dasharatha|title=Rajasthan through the Ages|date=1966|publisher=Rajasthan State Archives|location=Bikaner|pages=124–30}}</ref> M. W. Meister<ref>{{cite book|last1=Meister|first1=M.W|title=Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture, Vol. 2, pt.2, North India: Period of Early Maturity, c. AD 700–900|date=1991|publisher=American Institute of Indian Studies|location=Delhi|isbn=0195629213|page=153|edition=first}}</ref> and Shanta Rani Sharma<ref>{{cite book|last1=Sharma|first1=Shanta Rani|title=Origin and Rise of the Imperial Pratihāras of Rajasthan: Transitions, Trajectories and Historical Chang|date=2017|publisher=University of Rajasthan|location=Jaipur|isbn=978-93-85593-18-5|pages=77–78|edition=First}}</ref> concur with his conclusion since the writer of the Jaina narrative ''[[Kuvalayamala]]'' states that it was composed at Jalor in the time of Vatsaraja in 778 CE, which is five years before the composition of Harivamsha-Purana.

=== Early rulers ===
[[File:Trivikrama, Pratihara, 11th c. CE, Kashipur- UP.jpg|thumb|Trivikrama, Pratihara, 11th c. CE, Kashipur- UP]] Nagabhata I (739–760), was originally perhaps a feudatory of the [[Chavda dynasty|Chavdas]] of Bhillamala. He gained prominence after the downfall of the Chavda kingdom in the course of resisting the invading forces led by the Arabs who controlled Sindh. [[Nagabhata I|Nagabhata Pratihara I]] (730–756) later extended his control east and south from Mandor, conquering [[Malwa]] as far as [[Gwalior]] and the port of Bharuch in Gujarat. He established his capital at [[Ujjain|Avanti]] in Malwa, and checked the expansion of the Arabs, who had established themselves in [[History of Sindh|Sind]]. In this battle (738 CE), Nagabhata led a confederacy of Pratiharas to defeat the Muslim Arabs who had till then been pressing on victorious through [[West Asia]] and [[Iran]]. An inscription by [[Mihira Bhoja]] ascribes Nagabhata with having appeared like [[Vishnu]] "in response to the prayers of the oppressed people to crush the large armies of the powerful [[Mleccha]] ruler, the destroyer of virtue".<ref>A New History of Rajasthan, Rima Hooja pg – 270–274 University of Rajasthan</ref> Nagabhata I was followed by two weak successors, his nephews Devraj and Kakkuka, who were in turn succeeded by [[Vatsraj]]a (775–805).

=== Resistance to the Caliphate ===
{{Main|Caliphate campaigns in India|Caliphal province of Sind}}
In the Gwalior inscription, it is recorded that Pratihara emperor Nagabhata "crushed the large army of the powerful Mlechcha king." This large army consisted of cavalry, infantry, siege artillery, and probably a force of camels. Since Tamin was a new governor he had a force of [[Syria]]n cavalry from [[Damascus]], local Arab contingents, converted Hindus of Sindh, and foreign mercenaries like the [[Turkic peoples|Turkics]]. All together the invading army may have had anywhere between 10 and 15,000 cavalry, 5000 infantry, and 2000 camels.{{citation needed|date=April 2016}}

The Arab chronicler Sulaiman describes the army of the Pratiharas as it stood in 851 CE, "The ruler of Gurjara maintains numerous forces and no other Indian prince has so fine a cavalry. He is unfriendly to the Arabs, still he acknowledges that the king of the Arabs is the greatest of rulers. Among the princes of India there is no greater foe of the Islamic faith than he. He has got riches, and his camels and horses are numerous."<ref name="Chaurasia">{{cite book |title=History of Ancient India: Earliest Times to 1000 A. D. |first=Radhey Shyam |last=Chaurasia |publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Distributors |year=2002 |page=207 |isbn=978-81-269-0027-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cWmsQQ2smXIC&pg=PA207}}</ref>

===Conquest of Kannauj and further expansion===
[[File:Indian Kanauj triangle map.svg|thumb|300px|The Kanauj triangle.]]
After bringing much of [[Rajasthan]] under his control, Vatsaraja embarked to become "master of all the land lying between the two seas." Contemporary Jijasena's ''Harivamsha Purana'' describes him as "master of western quarter".<ref name="8129108909_p274-278">{{cite book|title=A History of Rajasthan |first1=Rima |last1=Hooja |publisher=Rupa & Company |year=2006 |location=Rajasthan |pages=274–278 |isbn=8129108909}}</ref>

According to the Radhanpur Plate and [[Prithviraja Vijaya]], Vatsaraja led an expedition against the Palas under Dharmapala of Bengal As such, the Palas came into conflict from time to time with the Imperial Pratiharas. According to the above inscription [[Dharmapala (emperor)|Dharmapala]], was deprived of his two white Royal Umbrellas, and fled, followed by the Pratihara forces under general [[Durlabharaja I|Durlabharaja Chauhan]] of [[Chahamanas of Shakambhari|Shakambhari]]. The Prithviraja Vijaya mentions Durlabhraj I as having "washed his sword at the confluence of the river Ganga and the ocean, and savouring the land of the Gaudas". The [[Baroda]] Inscription (AD 812) states [[Nagabhata II|Nagabhata]] defeated the Dharmapala. Through vigorous campaigning, [[Vatsraj]] had extended his dominions to include a large part of northern India, from the [[Thar Desert]] in the west up to the frontiers of [[Bengal]] in the east.<ref name="8129108909_p274-278"/>

The metropolis of Kannauj had suffered a power vacuum following the death of [[Harsha]] without an heir, which resulted in the disintegration of the [[Empire of Harsha]]. This space was eventually filled by [[Yashovarman]] around a century later but his position was dependent upon an alliance with [[Lalitaditya Muktapida]]. When Muktapida undermined Yashovarman, a tri-partite struggle for control of the city developed, involving the Pratiharas, whose territory was at that time to the west and north, the [[Pala Empire|Palas]] of [[Bengal]] in the east and the [[Rashtrakutas]], whose base lay at the south in the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Chopra |first=Pran Nath |title=A Comprehensive History of Ancient India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gE7udqBkACwC&pg=PA194|year=2003 |isbn=978-81-207-2503-4 |publisher=Sterling Publishers |pages=194–195}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Hermann |last1=Kulke |author1-link=Hermann Kulke |last2=Rothermund |first2=Dietmar |author2-link=Dietmar Rothermund |title=A History of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V73N8js5ZgAC&pg=PA114 |isbn=978-0-415-32920-0 |publisher=Routledge |orig-year=1986 |year=2004 |edition=4th |page=114}}</ref> [[Vatsraja|Vatsaraja]] successfully challenged and defeated the Pala ruler [[Dharmapala (emperor)|Dharmapala]] and [[Dantidurga]], the Rashtrakuta king, for control of Kannauj.

Around 786, the Rashtrakuta ruler Dhruva (c. 780–793) crossed the [[Narmada River]] into Malwa, and from there tried to capture Kannauj. Vatsraja was defeated by the [[Dhruva Dharavarsha]] of the Rashtrakuta dynasty around 800. Vatsaraja was succeeded by [[Nagabhata II]] (805–833), who was initially defeated by the Rashtrakuta ruler [[Govinda III]] (793–814), but later recovered Malwa from the Rashtrakutas, conquered Kannauj and the [[Indo-Gangetic Plain]] as far as [[Bihar]] from the Palas, and again checked the [[Muslim]]s in the west. He rebuilt the great [[Shiva]] temple at [[Somnath]] in Gujarat, which had been demolished in an Arab raid from [[Sindh]]. Kannauj became the center of the Pratihara state, which covered much of northern India during the peak of their power, c. 836–910.{{citation needed|date=June 2014}}

=== Mihira Bhoja ===
{{Main|Mihira Bhoja}}

[[File:Teli ka mandir fort Gwalior - panoramio - Gyanendrasinghchauha… (1).jpg|thumb|[[Teli ka Mandir]] is a Hindu Temple built by [[Mihira Bhoja]].<ref name="Bajpai2006">{{cite book|author=K. D. Bajpai|title=History of Gopāchala|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q3KcwLKuRnYC&pg=PA31|year=2006|publisher=Bharatiya Jnanpith|isbn=978-81-263-1155-2|page=31}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Jain |first1=Kailash Chand |title=Malwa Through The Ages |date=31 December 1972 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ. |isbn=978-81-208-0824-9 |pages=429–430 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_3O7q7cU7k0C&pg=PA429 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Rajan |first1=K. V. Soundara |title=Early Kalinga Art and Architecture |date=1984 |publisher=Sundeep |page=103 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ydojAAAAMAAJ |language=en|quote="When we have to compare a khākhärä temple of Kalinga with anything outside its borders, the most logical analogue coming to our mind will be that of Teli ka Mandir at Gwalior of the time of Pratihara Mihira Bhoja."}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Sharma |first1=Dr Shiv |title=India – A Travel Guide |date=2008 |publisher=Diamond Pocket Books (P) Ltd. |isbn=978-81-284-0067-4 |page=531 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=COHI7LlpkSAC&pg=PA531 |language=en}}</ref>]]

Mihira Bhoja first consolidated his territories by crushing the rebellious feudatories in Rajasthan, before turning his attention against the old enemies the Palas and Rastrakutas.<ref name="8129108909 p277-285">{{cite book|title=A History of Rajasthan |first1=Rima |last1=Hooja |publisher=Rupa & Company |year=2006 |location=Rajasthan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tosMAQAAMAAJ |pages=277–280|isbn=8129108909}}</ref>

After consolidating his rule, he stepped into a [[war of succession]] for the throne of Gujarat between [[Branches of Rashtrakuta dynasty#Rashtrakutas of Lata (Gujarat)|Dhruva II]] of the [[Branches of Rashtrakuta dynasty#Rashtrakutas of Lata (Gujarat)|Gujarat Rashtrakuta dynasty]] and his younger brother. Bhoja led a cavalry raid into Gujarat against the Dhruva while supporting his Dhruva's younger brother. Although the raid was repulsed by Dhruva II, Bhoja was able to retain dominion over parts of Gujarat and Malwa.<ref>{{cite book|title=A History of Rajasthan |first1=Rima |last1=Hooja |publisher=Rupa & Company |year=2006 |location=Rajasthan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tosMAQAAMAAJ|pages=187|quote=Perhaps after initially consolidating his inheritance, Bhoja I then turned towards Central India, the Deccan and Gujarat. Stepping into a struggle for the throne of Gujarat between Dhruva Il of the Gujarat Rashtrakuta dynasty and his younger brother, Bhoja led a cavalry raid into Gujarat, with the stated objective of supporting the claim of the latter. The raid was repulsed by Dhruva II. Amoghavarsha's army may also have taken up arms against the Imperial Pratiharas at this point. Bhoia I was able to retain dominion over parts of Gujarat and Malwa , but further expansion in that direction was effectively checked. This may have led Bhoja to concentrate on the lands other than those under the Rashtrakutas for the time being.|isbn=8129108909}}</ref>

Bhoja's feudatory, the‌ [[Sisodia dynasty|Guhilas]] [[Samanta]] named Harsha of [[Chaksu|Chatsu]], is described as :
{{blockquote|“defeating the northern rulers with the help of the mighty elephant force”, and “loyally presenting to Bhoja the special ‘Shrivamsha’ breed of horses, which could easily cross seas of sand."<ref name="8129108909 p277-285"/>}} 
Besides being a conqueror, Bhoja was a great diplomat.<ref name="RSC_207">{{cite book
 | title =History of Ancient India: Earliest Times to 1000 A. D.
 | author = Radhey Shyam Chaurasia
 | publisher =Atlantic Publishers & Distributors
 | year =2002
 | page =207
 | isbn=978-81-269-0027-5| url  =https://books.google.com/books?id=cWmsQQ2smXIC&pg=PA207
 | quote=He was undoubtedly one of the outstanding political figures of India in ninth century and ranks with Dhruva and Dharmapala as a great general and empire builder.
}}</ref> The kingdoms which were conquered and acknowledged his suzerainty includes Travani, Valla, Mada, Arya, Gujaratra, Lata Parvarta and [[Chandela]]s of [[Bundelkhand]]. Bhoja's [[Daulatpura]]-[[Dausa]] Inscription (AD 843), confirms his rule in Dausa region. Another inscription states that,"Bhoja's territories extended to the east of the [[Sutlej]] river." [[Kalhana]]'s [[Rajatarangini]] states that the territories of Bhoja extended to [[Kashmir]] in the north, and Bhoja had conquered [[Punjab]] by defeating ruling 'Thakkiyaka' dynasty .<ref name="8129108909 p277-285"/><ref>[[Dasharatha Sharma]], Rajasthan Through the Ages "a comprehensive and authentic history of Rajasthan" Bikaner , Rajasthan State Archives 1966, pp.144–54</ref> After Devapala's death, Bhoja defeated the [[Pala Empire|Pala]] emperor [[Narayanapala]] and expanded his boundaries eastward into Pala-held territories near [[Gorakhpur]].

In the early 8th century, [[Abbasid Caliphate|Arabs]] fought on and off to take over [[Sindh]]. Imran ibn-Musa, who governed Sindh, tried to expand Arab rule to nearby areas. When Bhoja became powerful the [[Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty|Pratiharas]] fought back repulsed them from fort of Sindan, pushing the Arabs out of Kutch between 833 and 842 AD. Later on, the Arabs lost a best part of [[Sindh]]. This was the major conflict between the forces of Mihirbhoja and Imran ibn-musa <ref>{{Cite book |last=Majumdar |first=Ramesh Chandra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s1WgAAAAMAAJ |title=The Age of Imperial Kanauj |date=1955 |publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan |pages=xi-xii |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ray |first=Hem Chandra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zAduAAAAMAAJ |title=The Dynastic History of Northern India (early Mediaeval Period) |date=1973 |publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers |pages=12–13 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=http://archive.org/details/early-Hindu-islamic-conflict-richards |title=early-Hindu-islamic-conflict-richards |pages=96 |language=English}}</ref>

Around 880, the [[Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty|Gurjara-Pratiharas]] were defeated in large battle in [[Ujjain]] by Krishna II, the Rastrakuta king of Gujarat. However, retribution likely soon followed on the part of the Pratiharas, as by the end of his reign, Bhoja had successfully exterminated the Gujarat Rashtrakuta line.<ref>{{cite book|title=A History of Rajasthan |first1=Rima |last1=Hooja |publisher=Rupa & Company |year=2006 |location=Rajasthan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tosMAQAAMAAJ|pages=187|isbn=8129108909}}</ref>

Hudud-ul-Alam, a tenth-century [[Persian language|Persian]] geographic text, states that most of the kings of India acknowledged the supremacy of the powerful 'Rai of Qinnauj', ([[Kannauj]] was the capital of the Imperial Pratiharas) whose mighty army had 150,000 strong cavalry and 800 war elephants.<ref name="8129108909 p277-285"/>

===Decline===
{{See also|Pratihara War of Succession}}
{{South Asia in 1000||Much reduced territory of the Gurjara-Pratihara in 1000, and neighbouring South Asian polities, on the eve of the [[Ghaznavid Empire|Ghaznavid]] invasions of the subcontinent.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Chandra |first1=Satish |title=Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals-Delhi Sultanat (1206–1526) – Part One |date=2004 |publisher=Har-Anand Publications |isbn=978-81-241-1064-5 |pages=19–20 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L5eFzeyjBTQC&pg=PA19 |language=en|author-link=Satish Chandra (historian)}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Schwartzberg |first1=Joseph E. |title=A Historical atlas of South Asia |date=1978 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |pages=32, 146|isbn=0226742210 |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=069}}</ref>|{{Annotation|128|86|[[File:Long Rectangle (plain).png|50px]]}}}}
[[Bhoja II (Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty)|Bhoja II]] (910–912) was overthrown by [[Mahipala I]] (912–944). Several feudatories of the empire took advantage of the temporary weakness of the Pratiharas to declare their independence, notably the [[Paramara dynasty|Paramara]]s of Malwa, the [[Chandela]]s of [[Bundelkhand]], the [[Kalachuris of Tripuri|Kalachuris]] of [[Mahakoshal]], the [[Tomaras]] of [[Haryana]], and the [[Chahamanas of Shakambhari]].<ref name="SC19" /> The south Indian Emperor [[Indra III]] (c. 914–928) of the Rashtrakuta dynasty briefly captured Kannauj in 916, and although the Pratiharas regained the city, their position continued to weaken in the tenth century, partly as a result of the drain of simultaneously fighting off [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] attacks from the west, the attacks from the Rashtrakuta dynasty from the south and the Pala advances in the east.<ref name="SC19" /> The Pratiharas lost control of Rajasthan to their feudatories, and the Chandelas captured the strategic fortress of Gwalior in central India around 950.<ref name="SC19" /> By the end of the tenth century the Pratihara domains had dwindled to a small state centered on Kannauj.<ref name="SC19">{{cite book |last1=Chandra |first1=Satish |title=Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals-Delhi Sultanat (1206–1526) – Part One |date=2004 |publisher=Har-Anand Publications |isbn=978-81-241-1064-5 |pages=19–20 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L5eFzeyjBTQC&pg=PA19 |language=en|author-link=Satish Chandra (historian)}}</ref>

[[Mahmud of Ghazni]] captured [[Kannauj]] in 1018, and the Pratihara ruler Rajapala fled. He was subsequently captured and killed by the Chandela ruler [[Vidyadhara (Chandela ruler)|Vidyadhara]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a9j9ZJGJOV0C&pg=PA25 |title=The Candellas of Jejākabhukti |first=R. K. |last=Dikshit |publisher=Abhinav |year=1976 |isbn=9788170170464 |page=72 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=irHN2UA_Z7gC&pg=PA27 |title=The Early Rulers of Khajurāho |first=Sisirkumar |last=Mitra |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1977 |isbn=9788120819979 |pages=72–73 }}</ref><ref name="SC19" /> The Chandela ruler then placed Rajapala's son Trilochanpala on the throne as a proxy. Jasapala, the last Pratihara ruler of Kannauj, died in 1036.<ref name="SC19" />

The Imperial Pratihara dynasty broke into several small states after the [[Ghaznavid]] invasions. These branches fought each other for territory and one of the branches ruled Mandore till the 14th century. This Pratihara branch had marital ties with [[Chunda of Mandore|Rao Chunda]] of the Rathore clan and gave [[Mandore]] in dowry to Chunda. This was specifically done to form an alliance against the Turks of the [[Tughlaq Empire]].<ref name=DQ>{{Cite book|first=Melia|last=Belli|title=Royal Umbrellas of Stone: Memory, Politics, and Public Identity in Rajput funerary arts|publisher=Brill|year=2005|pages=142|isbn=9789004300569|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6dR0CgAAQBAJ&dq=rao+chunda+of+mandore&pg=PA142}}</ref>

==Pratihara art==
There are notable examples of architecture from the Pratihara era, including sculptures and carved panels.<ref>{{cite book|title=Epic scenes in Indian plastic art|first=Jayantika |last=Kala|publisher=Abhinav Publications|year=1988|isbn=978-81-7017-228-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MLcGKezqdDIC&pg=PA5|page=5}}</ref> Their temples, constructed in an open pavilion style. One of the most notable Pratihara style of architecture was [[Khajuraho Group of Monuments|Khajuraho]], built by their vassals, the [[Chandelas]] of [[Bundelkhand]].<ref name="Partha Mitter pp.66"/>

=== Māru-Gurjara architecture ===
[[Māru-Gurjara architecture]] was developed during Pratihara Empire.

* [[Mahavira Jain temple, Osian]] temple was constructed in 783 CE,{{Sfn|Kalia|1982|p=2}} making it the oldest surviving Jain temple in western India.{{sfn|Cort|1998|p=112}}
* [[Bateshwar Hindu temples, Madhya Pradesh]] was constructed during the Pratihara Empire between 8th to 11th century.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/asi-to-resume-restoration-of-bateshwar-temple-complex-in-chambal/story-kBaxGfcRWVsrNbw3Vw8dLN.html |title=ASI to resume restoration of Bateshwar temple complex in Chambal |date=21 May 2018 |website=[[Hindustan Times]]}}</ref>
* [[Baroli Temples|Baroli temples complex]] are eight temples, built by the Pratiharas, is situated within a walled enclosure.

<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px" perrow="4">
File:Teli ka Mandir (15702266503).jpg|One of the four entrances of the [[Teli ka Mandir]]. This Hindu temple was built by the Pratihara emperor [[Mihira Bhoja]].<ref name="Bajpai2006"/>
File:Jain statues, Gwalior.jpg|Jainism-related cave monuments and statues carved into the rock face inside [[Siddhachal Caves]], Gwalior Fort.
File:Baroli Temple Complex1.jpg|Ghateshwara Mahadeva temple at [[Baroli Temples|Baroli Temples complex]]. The complex of eight temples, built by the Pratiharas, is situated within a walled enclosure.
File:Bateshwar Temples (15695822503).jpg|[[Bateshwar Hindu temples, Madhya Pradesh|Bateshwar Hindu temples]] in Madhya Pradesh was built by the Pratiharas.
</gallery>

==Legacy==
{{Continental Asia in 800 CE|right|{{center|The Gurjara-Pratihara and contemporary Asian polities, circa 800.}}|{{Annotation|119|114|[[File:Long Rectangle (plain).png|40px]]}} }}
Historians of India, since the days of [[Lord Elphinstone|Elphinstone]], have wondered at the slow progress of Muslim invaders in India, as compared with their rapid advance in other parts of the world. The Arabs possibly only stationed small invasions independent of the Caliph. Arguments of doubtful validity have often been put forward to explain this unique phenomenon. Currently it is believed that it was the power of the Pratihara army that effectively barred the progress of the Muslims beyond the confines of Sindh, their first conquest for nearly three hundred years. In the light of later events this might be regarded as the "Chief contribution of the Pratiharas to the history of India".<ref name="Chaurasia"/>

== List of rulers ==
{| class="wikitable"
|+List of Imperial Pratihara dynasty rulers
! Serial No.
! Ruler
! Reign (CE)
|-
|1
|[[Nagabhata I]]
|730–760
|-
|2
|[[Kakustha (Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty)|Kakustha]] and [[Devaraja (Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty)|Devaraja]]
|760–780
|-
|3
|[[Vatsaraja]]
|780–800
|-
|4
|[[Nagabhata II]]
|800–833
|-
|5
|[[Ramabhadra]]
|833–836
|-
|6
|[[Mihira Bhoja]] or Bhoja I
|836–885
|-
|7
|[[Mahendrapala I]]
|885–910
|-
|8
|[[Bhoja II (Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty)|Bhoja II]]
|910–913
|-
|9
|[[Mahipala I]]
|913–944
|-
|10
|[[Mahendrapala II]]
|944–948
|-
|11
|Devapala
|948–954
|-
|12
|Vinayakapala
|954–955
|-
|13
|Mahipala II
|955–956
|-
|14
|Vijayapala II
|956–960
|-
|15
|Rajapala
|960–1018
|-
|16
|Trilochanapala
|1018–1027
|-
|17
|[[Yasahpala (king)|Yasahpala]]
|1024–1036
|-
|}

== Mandavyapura branch ==
{{main|Pratiharas of Mandavyapura}}

== Baddoch branch ==
{{Expand section|date=August 2024}}
Known Baddoch rulers are-

*Dhaddha I (600 – 627 CE)
*Dhaddha II (627 – 655 CE)
*Jaibhatta (655 – 700 CE)

== Rajogarh branch ==
{{Expand section|date=August 2024}}
Badegujar were rulers of Rajogarh

*Parmeshver Manthandev, (885 – 915 CE)
*No records found after Parmeshver Manthandev

== See also ==
* [[History of Rajasthan]]
* [[List of battles of Rajasthan]]
* [[List of Rajput dynasties and states]]
* [[List of Hindu empires and dynasties]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

=== Bibliography ===
{{Commons category}}
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Refbegin}}
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* {{cite book|last1=Sircar|first1=Dineschandra|title=Studies in the Geography of Ancient and Medieval India|date=1971|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=9788120806900|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AqKw1Mn8WcwC|language=en }}
* {{citation |first=D. C. |last=Ganguly |title=Origin of the Pratihara Dynasty |editor=Narendra Nath Law |journal=The Indian Historical Quarterly |volume=XI |publisher=Caxton |year=1935 |pages=167–168 }}
* {{citation |first=R. C. |last=Majumdar |chapter=The Gurjara-Pratiharas |editor=R. S. Sharma and K. K. Dasgupta |title=A Comprehensive history of India: A.D. 985–1206 |volume=3 (Part 1) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ahFuAAAAMAAJ |year=1981 |publisher=Indian History Congress / People's Publishing House | isbn=978-81-7007-121-1 }}
*Majumdar, R.C. (1955). The Age of Imperial Kanauj (First ed.). Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.
* {{citation |first=V. B. |last=Mishra |title=Who were the Gurjara-Pratīhāras? |journal=Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute |volume=35 |number=¼ |year=1954 |pages=42–53 |jstor=41784918 }}
*Meister, M.W (1991). Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture, Vol. 2, pt.2, North India: Period of Early Maturity, c. AD 700–900 (first ed.). Delhi: American Institute of Indian Studies. p.&nbsp;153. {{ISBN|0195629213}}
* {{citation |first=Baij Nath |last=Puri |author-link=Baij Nath Puri |title=The history of the Gurjara-Pratihāras |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=szkhAAAAMAAJ |year=1957 |publisher=[[Munshiram Manoharlal]] }}
** {{citation |last=Puri |first=Baij Nath |author-link=Baij Nath Puri |title=The History of the Gurjara-Pratiharas |publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal |location=Delhi |year=1986 |orig-year=first published 1957}} 
*Sharma, Dasharatha (1966). Rajasthan through the Ages. Bikaner: Rajasthan State Archives
* {{citation |last=Sharma |first=Sanjay |title=Negotiating Identity and Status Legitimation and Patronage under the Gurjara-Pratīhāras of Kanauj |journal=Studies in History |volume=22 |number=22 |year=2006 |pages=181–220 |doi=10.1177/025764300602200202 |s2cid=144128358 |ref={{sfnref|Sanjay Sharma|2006}}}}
* {{citation |last=Sharma |first=Shanta Rani |title=Exploding the Myth of the Gūjara Identity of the Imperial Pratihāras |journal=Indian Historical Review |volume=39 |number=1 |year=2012 |pages=1–10 |doi=10.1177/0376983612449525 |s2cid=145175448 |ref={{sfnref|Shanta Rani Sharma|2012}}}}
* {{citation |title=History of the Chāhamānas |first=R. B. |last=Singh |publisher=N. Kishore |year=1964 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TKs9AAAAIAAJ }}
*Sharma, Shanta Rani (2017). Origin and Rise of the Imperial Pratihāras of Rajasthan: Transitions, Trajectories and Historical Change (First ed.). Jaipur: University of Rajasthan. p.&nbsp;77–78. {{ISBN|978-93-85593-18-5}}.
* {{cite book |first=Rama Shankar |last=Tripathi |title=History of Kanauj: To the Moslem Conquest |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U8GPENMw_psC&pg=PA231 |year=1959 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0478-4 }}
* {{citation |last=Yadava |first=Ganga Prasad |title=Dhanapāla and His Times: A Socio-cultural Study Based Upon His Works |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aY_I3zgxfpsC&pg=PA32 |publisher=Concept |year=1982 }}
{{Refend}}
* {{Citation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3n-sycLo3XQC|title=Art of Osian Temples: Socio-economic and Religious Life in India, 8th–12th Centuries A.D.|first=Asha |last=Kalia|date=1982|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn= 9780391025585}}
* {{Citation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WWfnXbVWjKcC|title=Open Boundaries: Jain Communities and Cultures in Indian History|first=John E. |last= Cort | author-link=John E. Cort |date=1998|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn= 9780791437865}}

{{Gurjara-Pratihara kings}}
{{Middle Kingdoms of India}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Pratihara Empire| ]]
[[Category:States and territories established in the 8th century]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1036]]
[[Category:History of Rajasthan]]
[[Category:History of Gujarat]]
[[Category:Medieval Indian dynasties]]
[[Category:History of Malwa]]
[[Category:Agnivansha]]
[[Category:8th-century establishments in India]]
[[Category:1036 disestablishments in Asia]]
[[Category:11th-century disestablishments in India]]