View source for Postmodern art

{{short description|Art movement}}
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{{Postmodernism}}
'''Postmodern art''' is a body of art movements that sought to contradict some aspects of [[modernism]] or some aspects that emerged or developed in its aftermath. In general, movements such as [[intermedia]], [[installation art]], [[conceptual art]] and [[multimedia]], particularly involving video are described as [[Postmodernism|postmodern]].

There are several characteristics which lend art to being postmodern; these include the recycling of past styles and themes in a modern-day context, [[bricolage]], the use of text prominently as the central artistic element, [[collage]], [[abstract art|simplification]], [[appropriation art|appropriation]], [[performance art]], as well as the break-up of the barrier between [[fine arts|fine]] and [[high culture|high arts]] and [[low culture|low art]] and [[popular culture]].<ref>''Ideas About Art'', Desmond, Kathleen K. [https://books.google.com/books?id=iP4sA3kwcFsC&q=ideas+about+art] John Wiley & Sons, 2011, p.148</ref><ref>''International postmodernism: theory and literary practice'', Bertens, Hans [https://books.google.com/books?id=n_Eqx2Gr1vUC&q=international+postmodernism:+theory+and+literary+practice], Routledge, 1997, p.236</ref>

==Use of the term==
The predominant term for art produced since the 1950s is "[[contemporary art]]". Not all art labeled as contemporary art is postmodern, and the broader term encompasses both artists who continue to work in modernist and [[Late modernity|late modernist]] traditions, as well as artists who reject postmodernism for other reasons. [[Arthur Danto]] argues "contemporary" is the broader term, and postmodern objects represent a "subsector" of the contemporary movement.<ref>''After the End of Art: Contemporary Art and the Pale of History'' [[Arthur C. Danto]]</ref> Some postmodern artists have made more distinctive breaks from the ideas of modern art and there is no consensus as to what is "late-modern" and what is "post-modern." Ideas rejected by the modern aesthetic have been re-established. In painting, postmodernism reintroduced representation.<ref>Wendy Steiner, ''Venus in Exile: The Rejection of Beauty in 20th-Century Art'', New York: The Free Press, 2001, {{ISBN|978-0-684-85781-7}}</ref> Some critics argue much of the current "postmodern" art, the latest avant-gardism, should still classify as modern art.<ref>''Post-Modernism: The New Classicism in Art and Architecture'' [[Charles Jencks]]</ref>

As well as describing certain tendencies of contemporary art, postmodern has also been used to denote a phase of [[modern art]]. Defenders of modernism, such as [[Clement Greenberg]],<ref>[http://www.sharecom.ca/greenberg/postmodernism.html Clement Greenberg: Modernism and Postmodernism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190901163630/http://www.sharecom.ca/greenberg/postmodernism.html |date=2019-09-01 }}, 1979. Retrieved June 26, 2007.</ref> as well as radical opponents of modernism, such as [[Félix Guattari]], who calls it modernism's "last gasp,<ref name="Guattari109">Félix Guattari, ''the Postmodern Impasse'' in ''The Guattari Reader'', Blackwell Publishing, 1996, pp109-113. {{ISBN|978-0-631-19708-9}}</ref>" have adopted this position. The neo-conservative [[Hilton Kramer]] describes postmodernism as "a creation of modernism at the end of its tether."<ref>Quoted in Oliver Bennett, ''Cultural Pessimism: Narratives of Decline in the Postmodern World'', Edinburgh University Press, 2001, p131. {{ISBN|978-0-7486-0936-9}}</ref> [[Jean-François Lyotard]], in [[Fredric Jameson]]'s analysis, does not hold there is a postmodern stage radically different from the period of [[high modernism]]; instead, postmodern discontent with this or that high modernist style is part of the experimentation of high modernism, giving birth to new modernisms.<ref>Fredric Jameson, ''Foreword'' to Jean-François Lyotard, ''The Postmodern Condition'', Manchester University Press, 1997, pxvi. {{ISBN|978-0-7190-1450-5}}</ref> In the context of [[aesthetics]] and [[art]], Jean-François Lyotard is a major philosopher of postmodernism.

Many critics hold postmodern art emerges from modern art. Suggested dates for the shift from modern to postmodern include 1914 in Europe,<ref name=McEvilly27/> and 1962<ref name=McEvilly29/> or 1968<ref name=Krauss287/> in America. [[James Elkins (art critic)|James Elkins]], commenting on discussions about the exact date of the transition from modernism to postmodernism, compares it to the discussion in the 1960s about the exact span of [[mannerism]] and whether it should begin directly after the [[High Renaissance]] or later in the century. He makes the point these debates go on all the time with respect to art movements and periods, which is not to say they are not important.<ref name="Elkins16">James Elkins, ''Stories of Art'', Routledge, 2002, p16. {{ISBN|978-0-415-93942-3}}</ref> The close of the period of postmodern art has been dated to the end of the 1980s, when the word postmodernism lost much of its critical resonance, and art practices began to address the impact of [[globalization]] and [[new media]].<ref>Zoya Kocur and Simon Leung, ''Theory in Contemporary Art Since 1985'', Blackwell Publishing, 2005, pp2-3. {{ISBN|978-0-631-22867-7}}</ref>

[[Jean Baudrillard]] has had a significant influence on postmodern-inspired art and emphasised the possibilities of new forms of creativity.<ref>Nicholas Zurbrugg, Jean Baudrillard, ''Jean Baudrillard: Art and Artefact'', Sage Publications, 1997, p150. {{ISBN|978-0-7619-5580-1}}</ref> The artist [[Peter Halley]] describes his day-glo colours as "hyperrealization of real color", and acknowledges Baudrillard as an influence.<ref name="Genosko154">Gary Genosko, ''Baudrillard and Signs: Signification Ablaze'', Routledge, 1994, p154. {{ISBN|978-0-415-11256-7}}</ref> Baudrillard himself, since 1984, was fairly consistent in his view that contemporary art, and postmodern art in particular, was inferior to the modernist art of the post World War II period,<ref name=Genosko154/> while Jean-François Lyotard praised Contemporary painting and remarked on its evolution from Modern art.<ref>Grebowicz, Margaret, ''Gender After Lyotard'', State University of New York Press, 2007. {{ISBN|978-0-7914-6956-9}}</ref> Major [[women artists]] in the Twentieth Century are associated with postmodern art since much theoretical articulation of their work emerged from French psychoanalysis and [[feminist theory]] that is strongly related to post modern philosophy.<ref>[[Catherine de Zegher|de Zegher, Catherine]] (ed.) ''Inside the Visible'', MIT Press, 1996</ref><ref>[[Carol Armstrong|Armstrong, Carol]] and de Zegher, Catherine, ''Women Artists at the Millennium'', October Books / The MIT Press, 2006, {{ISBN|978-0-262-01226-3}}</ref>
	 
As with all uses of the term postmodern, there are critics of its application. [[Kirk Varnedoe]], for instance, stated that there is no such thing as postmodernism, and that the possibilities of modernism have not yet been exhausted.<ref>William R. Everdell, ''The First Moderns: Profiles in the Origins of Twentieth-century Thought'', University of Chicago Press, 1997, p4. {{ISBN|978-0-226-22480-0}}</ref> Though the usage of the term as a kind of shorthand to designate the work of certain Post-war "schools" employing relatively specific material and generic techniques has become conventional since the early to mid-1980s, the theoretical underpinnings of Postmodernism as an epochal or epistemic division are still very much in controversy.<ref>''The Citadel of Modernism Falls to Deconstructionists,'' – 1992 critical essay, The Triumph of Modernism, 2006, [[Hilton Kramer]], pp218-221.</ref>

== Characteristics ==
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Postmodernism describes movements which both arise from, and react against or reject, trends in [[modernism]].<ref>The Originality of the Avant Garde and Other Modernist Myths [[Rosalind E. Krauss]], Publisher: The MIT Press; Reprint edition (July 9, 1986), Part I, ''Modernist Myths,'' pp.8–171</ref> General citations for specific trends of modernism are formal purity, [[medium specificity]], [[art for art's sake]], [[Authenticity (art)|authenticity]], [[Universality (philosophy)|universality]], [[originality]] and revolutionary or reactionary tendency, i.e. the [[avant-garde]]. However, paradox is probably the most important modernist idea against which postmodernism reacts. Paradox was central to the modernist enterprise, which [[Manet]] introduced. Manet's various violations of representational art brought to prominence the supposed mutual exclusiveness of reality and representation, design and representation, abstraction and reality, and so on. The incorporation of paradox was highly stimulating from Manet to the conceptualists.

The status of the avant-garde is controversial: many institutions argue being visionary, forward-looking, cutting-edge, and progressive are crucial to the mission of art in the present, and therefore postmodern art contradicts the value of "art of our times". Postmodernism rejects the notion of advancement or progress in art per se, and thus aims to overturn the "myth of the [[avant-garde]]". [[Rosalind Krauss]] was one of the important enunciators of the view that avant-gardism was over, and the new artistic era is post-liberal and post-progress.<ref>The Originality of the Avant Garde and Other Modernist Myths [[Rosalind E. Krauss]], Publisher: The MIT Press; Reprint edition (July 9, 1986), Part I, ''Modernist Myths,'' pp.8–171, Part II, ''Toward Post-modernism,'' pp. 196–291.</ref> [[Griselda Pollock]] studied and confronted the avant-garde and modern art in a series of groundbreaking books, reviewing modern art at the same time as redefining postmodern art.<ref>Fred Orton and Griselda Pollock, ''Avant-Gardes and Partisans reviewed''. Manchester University Press, 1996. {{ISBN|978-0-7190-4399-4}}.</ref><ref>Griselda Pollock, ''Differencing the Canon''. Routledge, London & N.Y., 1999. {{ISBN|978-0-415-06700-3}}.</ref><ref>Griselda Pollock, ''Generations and Geographies in the Visual Arts''. Routledge, London, 1996. {{ISBN|978-0-415-14128-4}}.</ref>

One characteristic of postmodern art is its conflation of high and low culture through the use of industrial materials and pop culture imagery. The use of low forms of art were a part of modernist experimentation as well, as documented in [[Kirk Varnedoe]] and [[Adam Gopnik]]'s 1990–91 show ''High and Low: Popular Culture and Modern Art'' at New York's [[Museum of Modern Art]],<ref>Maria DiBattista and Lucy McDiarmid, ''High and Low Moderns: literature and culture, 1889–1939'', Oxford University Press, 1996, pp6-7. {{ISBN|978-0-19-508266-1}}</ref> an exhibition that was universally panned at the time as the only event that could bring [[Douglas Crimp]] and [[Hilton Kramer]] together in a chorus of scorn.<ref>[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1248/is_10_91/ai_109667921 ''Kirk Varnedoe, 1946–2003'' – Front Page – Obituary – ''Art in America'', Oct, 2003 by Marcia E. Vetrocq]</ref> Postmodern art is noted for the way in which it blurs the distinctions between what is perceived as fine or high art and what is generally seen as low or kitsch art.<ref name="purdue1">[http://www.cla.purdue.edu/english/theory/postmodernism/modules/introduction.html General Introduction to Postmodernism]. Cla.purdue.edu. Retrieved on 2013-08-02.</ref> While this concept of "blurring" or "fusing" high art with low art had been experimented during modernism, it only ever became fully endorsed after the advent of the postmodern era.<ref name="purdue1"/> Postmodernism introduced elements of commercialism, kitsch and a general [[camp (style)|camp]] aesthetic within its artistic context; postmodernism takes styles from past periods, such as [[Gothic art|Gothicism]], the [[Renaissance]] and the [[Baroque]],<ref name="purdue1"/> and mixes them so as to ignore their original use in their corresponding artistic movement. Such elements are common characteristics of what defines postmodern art. [[Art Spiegelman]], when discussing his selection of a specific style for ''[[Maus]]'', described a postmodernist's ability to develop a wide "palette" of varying styles that they can draw from at will, where their predecessors would instead focus on improving and maintaining a single "trademark" style.<ref>Spiegelman. ''[[Metamaus]]'', p. 141.</ref>

[[Fredric Jameson]] suggests postmodern works abjure any claim to spontaneity and directness of expression, making use instead of pastiche and discontinuity. Against this definition, Art and Language's Charles Harrison and Paul Wood maintained pastiche and discontinuity are endemic to modernist art, and are deployed effectively by modern artists such as Manet and [[Picasso]].<ref name="Harrison1014">Charles Harrison and Paul Wood, ''Art in Theory, 1900–2000: An Anthology of Changing Ideas'', Blackwell Publishing, 1992, p1014. {{ISBN|978-0-631-22708-3}}</ref>

One compact definition is postmodernism rejects modernism's [[metanarrative|grand narratives]] of artistic direction, eradicating the boundaries between high and low forms of art, and disrupting genre's conventions with collision, collage, and fragmentation. Postmodern art holds all stances are unstable and insincere, and therefore [[irony]], [[parody]], and [[humor]] are the only positions [[Art criticism|critique]] or [[Historical revisionism|revision]] cannot overturn. "Pluralism and diversity" are other defining features.<ref>Michael Woods: Art of the Western World, Summit Books, 1989, p323. {{ISBN|978-0-671-67007-8}}</ref>

==Avant-garde precursors==
Radical movements and trends regarded as influential and potentially as precursors to postmodernism emerged around [[World War I]] and particularly in its aftermath. With the introduction of the use of industrial artifacts in art and techniques such as [[collage]], [[avant-garde]] movements such as [[Cubism]], [[Dada]] and [[Surrealism]] questioned the nature and value of art. New artforms, such as cinema and the rise of [[reproduction]], influenced these movements as a means of creating artworks. The ignition point for the definition of modernism, [[Clement Greenberg]]'s essay, ''[[Avant-Garde and Kitsch]]'', first published in ''[[Partisan Review]]'' in 1939, defends the avant-garde in the face of popular culture.<ref>''[http://www.sharecom.ca/greenberg/kitsch.html Avant-Garde and Kitsch] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071013040305/http://www.sharecom.ca/greenberg/kitsch.html |date=2007-10-13 }}''</ref> Later, Peter Bürger would make a distinction between the historical avant-garde and modernism, and critics such as Krauss, Huyssen, and Douglas Crimp, following Bürger, identified the historical avant-garde as a precursor to postmodernism. Krauss, for example, describes [[Pablo Picasso]]'s use of collage as an avant-garde practice anticipating postmodern art with its emphasis on language at the expense of autobiography.<ref>Rosalind E. Krauss, ''In the Name of Picasso'' in ''The Originality of the Avant-Garde and other Modernist Myths'', MIT Press, 1985, p39. {{ISBN|978-0-262-61046-9}}</ref> Another point of view is avant-garde and modernist artists used similar strategies and postmodernism repudiates both.<ref>John P. McGowan, ''Postmodernism and its Critics'', Cornell University Press, 1991, p10. {{ISBN|978-0-8014-2494-6}}</ref>

===Dada===
{{Main|Dada}}
[[File:Duchamp Fountaine.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Marcel Duchamp]], ''[[Fountain (Duchamp)|Fountain]],'' 1917. Photograph by [[Alfred Stieglitz]]]]
In the early 20th century, [[Marcel Duchamp]] exhibited a urinal as a sculpture. His point was to have people look at the urinal as if it were a work of art just because he said it was a work of art.<ref name="Tate">{{cite web|url=https://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/duchamp-fountain-t07573|title=''Fountain'', Marcel Duchamp, 1917, replica, 1964|publisher=Tate|website=tate.org.uk|access-date=5 October 2018}}</ref><ref name="Parkinson">[https://books.google.com/books?id=42zyAHflrxcC Gavin Parkinson, ''The Duchamp Book: Tate Essential Artists Series''], Harry N. Abrams, 2008, p. 61, {{ISBN|1854377663}}</ref><ref name="Judovitz">[https://books.google.es/books?isbn=0520213769 Dalia Judovitz, ''Unpacking Duchamp: Art in Transit''], University of California Press, 1998, pp. 124, 133, {{ISBN|0520213769}}</ref> He referred to his work as "[[Readymades of Marcel Duchamp|Readymades]]".<ref name="Tomkins page 158">Tomkins: ''Duchamp: A Biography'', page 158.</ref> The ''[[Fountain (Duchamp)|Fountain]]'' was a urinal signed with the pseudonym R. Mutt, which shocked the art world in 1917.<ref>[http://www.golob-gm.si/5-marcel-duchamp-as-rectified-readymade/f-marcel-duchamp-fountain.htm#FNanchor_17 William A. Camfield, ''Marcel Duchamp's Fountain, Its History and Aesthetics in the Context of 1917'' (Part 1)], Dada/Surrealism 16 (1987): pp. 64-94.</ref> This and Duchamp's other works are generally labelled as [[Dada]]. Duchamp can be seen as a precursor to [[conceptual art]]. Some critics question calling Duchamp—whose obsession with [[paradox]] is well known—postmodernist on the grounds he eschews any specific medium, since paradox is not medium-specific, although it arose first in Manet's paintings.<ref>[https://www.artforum.com/print/201402/thierry-de-duve-on-the-salon-des-refuses-45017 ''THE INVENTION OF NON-ART: A HISTORY'' ArtForum International]</ref>

[[Dadaism]] can be viewed as part of the modernist propensity to challenge established styles and forms, along with [[Surrealism]], [[Futurism]] and Abstract Expressionism.<ref>Simon Malpas, ''The Postmodern'', Routledge, 2005. p17. {{ISBN|978-0-415-28064-8}}</ref> From a chronological point of view, Dada is located solidly within modernism, however a number of critics hold it anticipates postmodernism, while others, such as [[Ihab Hassan]] and [[Steven Connor]], consider it a possible changeover point between modernism and postmodernism.<ref>Mark A. Pegrum, ''Challenging Modernity: Dada Between Modern and Postmodern'', Berghahn Books, 2000, pp2-3. {{ISBN|978-1-57181-130-1}}</ref> For example, according to McEvilly, postmodernism begins with realizing one no longer believes in the myth of progress, and Duchamp sensed this in 1914 when he changed from a modernist practice to a postmodernist one, "abjuring aesthetic delectation, transcendent ambition, and tour de force demonstrations of formal agility in favor of aesthetic indifference, acknowledgement of the ordinary world, and the found object or readymade."<ref name="McEvilly27">Thomas McEvilly in Richard Roth, Jean Dubuffet, Susan King, ''Beauty Is Nowhere: Ethical Issues in Art and Design'', Routledge, 1998. p27. {{ISBN|978-90-5701-311-9}}</ref>

==Radical movements in modern art==
In general, [[Pop Art]] and [[Minimalism]] began as modernist movements: a [[paradigm shift]] and philosophical split between [[Formalism (art)|formalism]] and anti-formalism in the early 1970s caused those movements to be viewed by some as precursors or transitional postmodern art. Other modern movements cited as influential to postmodern art are [[conceptual art]] and the use of techniques such as [[Assemblage (art)|assemblage]], [[Photomontage|montage]], [[bricolage]], and [[Appropriation (art)|appropriation]].

===Jackson Pollock and abstract expressionism===
{{Main|Jackson Pollock|Abstract expressionism|Western painting}}
During the late 1940s and early 1950s, [[Jackson Pollock|Pollock]]'s radical approach to painting revolutionized the potential for all [[Contemporary art]] following him. Pollock realized the journey toward making a work of art was as important as the work of art itself. Like [[Pablo Picasso]]'s innovative reinventions of painting and sculpture near the turn of the century via [[Cubism]] and constructed sculpture, Pollock redefined artmaking during the mid-century. Pollock's move from easel painting and conventionality liberated his contemporaneous artists and following artists. They realized Pollock's process&nbsp;— working on the floor, unstretched raw canvas, from all four sides, using artist materials, industrial materials, imagery, non-imagery, throwing linear skeins of paint, dripping, drawing, staining, brushing&nbsp;- blasted artmaking beyond prior boundaries. [[Abstract expressionism]] expanded and developed the definitions and possibilities artists had available for the creation of new works of art. In a sense, the innovations of Jackson Pollock, [[Willem de Kooning]], [[Franz Kline]], [[Mark Rothko]], [[Philip Guston]], [[Hans Hofmann]], [[Clyfford Still]], [[Barnett Newman]], [[Ad Reinhardt]] and others, opened the floodgates to the diversity and scope of following artworks.<ref>De Zegher, Catherine, and Teicher, Hendel (eds.), ''3 X Abstraction''. New Haven: Yale University Press. 2005.</ref>

===After abstract expressionism===
{{Main|Post-painterly abstraction|Color Field painting|Lyrical Abstraction|Arte Povera|Process Art|Western painting}}
In [[Abstract art|abstract painting]] during the 1950s and 1960s several new directions like [[Hard-edge painting]] and other forms of [[Geometric abstraction]] like the work of [[Frank Stella]] popped up, as a reaction against the subjectivism of Abstract expressionism began to appear in artist studios and in radical [[avant-garde]] circles. [[Clement Greenberg]] became the voice of ''Post-painterly abstraction;'' by curating an influential exhibition of new painting touring important art museums throughout the [[United States]] in 1964. [[Color field painting]], [[Hard-edge painting]] and [[Lyrical Abstraction]]<ref>Aldrich, Larry. Young Lyrical Painters, Art in America, v.57, n6, November–December 1969, pp.104–113.</ref> emerged as radical new directions.

By the late 1960s, [[Postminimalism]], [[Process Art]] and [[Arte Povera]]<ref name="douglas2007">''Movers and Shakers, New York'', "Leaving C&M", by Sarah Douglas, Art and Auction, March 2007, V.XXXNo7.</ref> also emerged as revolutionary concepts and movements encompassing painting and sculpture, via [[Lyrical Abstraction]] and the [[Postminimalist]] movement, and in early [[Conceptual Art]].<ref name="douglas2007"/> Process art as inspired by Pollock enabled artists to experiment with and make use of a diverse encyclopedia of style, content, material, placement, sense of time, and plastic and real space. [[Nancy Graves]], [[Ronald Davis]], [[Howard Hodgkin]], [[Larry Poons]], [[Jannis Kounellis]], [[Brice Marden]], [[Bruce Nauman]], [[Richard Tuttle]], [[Alan Saret]], [[Walter Darby Bannard]], [[Lynda Benglis]], [[Dan Christensen]], [[Larry Zox]], [[Ronnie Landfield]], [[Eva Hesse]], [[Keith Sonnier]], [[Richard Serra]], [[Sam Gilliam]], [[Mario Merz]], [[Peter Reginato]], [[Lee Lozano]], were some of the younger artists emerging during the era of [[Late Modernism|late modernism]] spawning the heyday of the art of the late 1960s.<ref>Martin, Ann Ray, and Howard Junker. The New Art: It's Way, Way Out, Newsweek 29 July 1968: pp.3,55–63.</ref>

===Performance art and happenings===
{{Main|Performance art|Happenings}}

[[File:Schneemann-Interior Scroll.gif|thumb|200px|left|[[Carolee Schneemann]] performing her piece ''[[Interior Scroll]] 1975.'' [[Yves Klein]] in [[France]], and [[Carolee Schneemann]], [[Yayoi Kusama]], [[Charlotte Moorman]], and [[Yoko Ono]] in [[New York City]] were pioneers of performance based works of art that often entailed nudity.<ref>[http://www.caroleeschneemann.com/interiorscroll.html Interior Scroll, 1975]. Carolee Schneemann. Retrieved on 2013-08-02.</ref>]]
During the late 1950s and 1960s, artists with a wide range of interests began pushing the boundaries of [[Contemporary art]]. [[Yves Klein]] in [[France]], and [[Carolee Schneemann]], [[Yayoi Kusama]], [[Charlotte Moorman]], and [[Yoko Ono]] in [[New York City]] were pioneers of performance based works of art. Groups like The [[Living Theater]] with [[Julian Beck]] and [[Judith Malina]] collaborated with sculptors and painters creating environments; radically changing the relationship between audience and performer especially in their piece ''Paradise Now''.<ref>[The Living Theatre (1971). ''Paradise Now''. New York: Random House.]</ref><ref>[[Gary Botting]], ''The Theatre of Protest in America'', Edmonton: Harden House, 1972.</ref> The [[Judson Dance Theater]] located at the [[Judson Memorial Church]], [[New York City|New York]], and the Judson dancers, notably [[Yvonne Rainer]], [[Trisha Brown]], [[Elaine Summers]], [[Sally Gross (choreographer)|Sally Gross]], Simonne Forti, [[Deborah Hay]], [[Lucinda Childs]], [[Steve Paxton]] and others collaborated with artists [[Robert Morris (artist)|Robert Morris]], [[Robert Whitman]], [[John Cage]], [[Robert Rauschenberg]], and engineers like [[Billy Klüver]].<ref>[Janevsky, Ana and Lax, Thomas (2018) ''Judson Dance Theater: The Work Is Never Done'' (exhibition catalog) New York: [[Museum of Modern Art]]. {{isbn|978-1-63345-063-9}}]</ref> These performances were often designed to be the creation of a new art form, combining sculpture, dance, and music or sound, often with audience participation. The reductive philosophies of [[minimalism]], spontaneous improvisation, and expressivity of [[Abstract expressionism]] characterized the works.<ref>[Banes, Sally (1993) ''Democracy's Body: Judson Dance Theater, 1962-1964''. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press. {{ISBN|0-8223-1399-5}}]</ref>

During the same period&nbsp;— the late 1950s through the mid-1960s&nbsp;- various [[avant-garde]] artists created [[Happenings]]. Happenings were mysterious and often spontaneous and unscripted gatherings of artists and their friends and relatives in varied specified locations. Often incorporating exercises in absurdity, physical exercise, costumes, spontaneous [[nudity]], and various random and seemingly disconnected acts. [[Allan Kaprow]], [[Joseph Beuys]], [[Nam June Paik]], [[Wolf Vostell]], [[Claes Oldenburg]], [[Jim Dine]], [[Red Grooms]], and [[Robert Whitman]] among others were notable creators of Happenings.<ref>Michael Kirby, ''Happenings: An Illustrated Anthology'', scripts and productions by Jim Dine, Red Grooms, Allan Kaprow, Claes Oldenburg, Robert Whitman (New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., Inc., 1965), p.&nbsp;21.</ref>

===Assemblage art===
{{Main|Assemblage art}}
Related to [[Abstract expressionism]] was the emergence of combined manufactured items&nbsp;— with artist materials, moving away from previous conventions of painting and sculpture. The work of [[Robert Rauschenberg]], whose "combines" in the 1950s were forerunners of Pop Art and [[Installation art]], and made use of the assemblage of large physical objects, including stuffed animals, birds and [[commercial photography]], exemplified this art trend.{{Citation needed|date=June 2019}}

[[Leo Steinberg]] uses the term postmodernism in 1969 to describe Rauschenberg's "flatbed" picture plane, containing a range of cultural images and artifacts that had not been compatible with the pictorial field of premodernist and modernist painting.<ref>Douglas Crimp in Hal Foster (ed), ''Postmodern Culture'', Pluto Press, 1985 (first published as ''The Anti-Aesthetic'', 1983). p44. {{ISBN|978-0-7453-0003-0}}</ref> [[Craig Owens (critic)|Craig Owens]] goes further, identifying the significance of Rauschenberg's work not as a representation of, in Steinberg's view, "the shift from nature to culture", but as a demonstration of the impossibility of accepting their opposition.<ref>Craig Owens, ''Beyond Recognition: Representation, Power, and Culture'', London and Berkeley: University of California Press (1992), pp74-75.</ref>

[[Steven Best]] and [[Douglas Kellner]] identify Rauschenberg and [[Jasper Johns]] as part of the transitional phase, influenced by [[Marcel Duchamp]], between modernism and postmodernism. These artists used images of ordinary objects, or the objects themselves, in their work, while retaining the abstraction and painterly gestures of high modernism.<ref>Steven Best, Douglas Kellner, ''The Postmodern Turn'', Guilford Press, 1997, p174. {{ISBN|978-1-57230-221-1}}</ref>

[[Anselm Kiefer]] also uses elements of assemblage in his works, and on one occasion, featured the bow of a fishing boat in a painting.

===Pop art===
{{Main|Pop art|Western painting}}
[[Lawrence Alloway]] used the term "Pop art" to describe paintings celebrating [[consumerism]] of the post [[World War II]] era. This movement rejected [[Abstract expressionism]] and its focus on the hermeneutic and psychological interior, in favor of art which depicted, and often celebrated, material consumer culture, advertising, and iconography of the mass production age. The early works of [[David Hockney]] and the works of [[Richard Hamilton (artist)|Richard Hamilton]], [[John McHale (artist)|John McHale]], and [[Eduardo Paolozzi]] were considered seminal examples in the movement. While later American examples include the bulk of the careers of [[Andy Warhol]] and [[Roy Lichtenstein]] and his use of [[Benday dots]], a technique used in commercial reproduction. There is a clear connection between the radical works of [[Duchamp]], the rebellious [[Dada]]ist&nbsp;— with a sense of humor; and [[Pop Art]]ists like [[Claes Oldenburg]], [[Andy Warhol]], [[Roy Lichtenstein]] and the others.

Thomas McEvilly, agreeing with [[Dave Hickey]], says U.S postmodernism in the visual arts began with the first exhibitions of Pop art in 1962, "though it took about twenty years before postmodernism became a dominant attitude in the visual arts."<ref name="McEvilly29">Thomas McEvilly in Richard Roth, Jean Dubuffet, Susan King, ''Beauty Is Nowhere: Ethical Issues in Art and Design'', Routledge, 1998. p29. {{ISBN|978-90-5701-311-9}}</ref> [[Fredric Jameson]], too, considers pop art to be postmodern.<ref>Fredric Jameson in Hal Foster, ''Postmodern Culture'', Pluto Press, 1985 (first published as ''The Anti-Aesthetic'', 1983). p111. {{ISBN|978-0-7453-0003-0}}</ref>

One way Pop art is postmodern is it breaks down what [[Andreas Huyssen]] calls the "Great Divide" between high art and popular culture.<ref>Simon Malpas, ''The Postmodern'', Routledge, 2005. p20. {{ISBN|978-0-415-28064-8}}</ref> Postmodernism emerges from a "generational refusal of the categorical certainties of high modernism."<ref>Stuart Sim, ''The Routledge Companion to Postmodernism'', Routledge, 2001. p148. {{ISBN|978-0-415-24307-0}}</ref>

===Fluxus===
{{Main|Fluxus}}
[[File:BrechtViolinSolo.jpg|thumb|200px|''Solo For Violin • Polishing'' as performed by [[George Brecht]], New York, 1964. Photo by G Maciunas]]
Fluxus was named and loosely organized in 1962 by [[George Maciunas]] (1931–78), a Lithuanian-born American artist. Fluxus traces its beginnings to [[John Cage]]'s 1957 to 1959 Experimental Composition classes at the [[New School for Social Research]] in New York City. Many of his students were artists working in other media with little or no background in music. Cage's students included Fluxus founding members [[Jackson Mac Low]], [[Al Hansen]], [[George Brecht]] and [[Dick Higgins]].
In 1962 in Germany Fluxus started with the: FLUXUS Internationale Festspiele Neuester Musik in [[Wiesbaden]] with, [[George Maciunas]], [[Joseph Beuys]], [[Wolf Vostell]], [[Nam June Paik]] and others. And in 1963 with the: Festum Fluxorum Fluxus in [[Düsseldorf]] with [[George Maciunas]], [[Wolf Vostell]], [[Joseph Beuys]], [[Dick Higgins]], [[Nam June Paik]], [[Ben Patterson]], [[Emmett Williams]] and others.{{Citation needed|date=June 2019}}

Fluxus encouraged a do it yourself aesthetic, and valued simplicity over complexity. Like [[Dada]] before it, Fluxus included a strong current of anti-commercialism and an [[anti-art]] sensibility, disparaging the conventional market-driven art world in favor of an artist-centered creative practice. Fluxus artists preferred to work with whatever materials were at hand, and either created their own work or collaborated in the creation process with their colleagues.

Fluxus can be viewed as part of the first phase of postmodernism, along with Rauschenberg, Johns, Warhol and the [[Situationist International]].<ref>Richard Sheppard, ''Modernism-Dada-Postmodernism'', Northwestern University
Press, 2000. p359. {{ISBN|978-0-8101-1492-0}}</ref> [[Andreas Huyssen]] criticises attempts to claim Fluxus for postmodernism as, "either the master-code of postmodernism or the ultimately unrepresentable art movement&nbsp;– as it were, postmodernism's sublime." Instead he sees Fluxus as a major [[Neo-Dada]]ist phenomenon within the avant-garde tradition. It did not represent a major advance in the development of artistic strategies, though it did express a rebellion against, "the administered culture of the 1950s, in which a moderate, domesticated modernism served as ideological prop to the [[Cold War]]."<ref>Andreas Huyssen, ''Twilight Memories: Marking Time in a Culture of Amnesia'', Routledge, 1995. p192, p196. {{ISBN|978-0-415-90934-1}}</ref>

===Minimalism===
{{Main|Minimalism}}
[[File:Tonysmith freeride sculpture.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Tony Smith (sculptor)|Tony Smith]], ''Free Ride,'' 1962, 6'8 x 6'8 x 6'8 (the height of a standard US door opening), [[Museum of Modern Art]], [[New York City|New York]]]]
By the early 1960s, [[Minimalism]] emerged as an abstract movement in art (with roots in [[geometric abstraction]] via [[Kazimir Malevich|Malevich]], the [[Bauhaus]] and [[Piet Mondrian|Mondrian]]) which rejected the idea of relational, and subjective painting, the complexity of [[Abstract expressionist]] surfaces, and the emotional zeitgeist and polemics present in the arena of [[Action painting]]. [[Minimalism]] argued extreme simplicity could capture the sublime representation art requires. Associated with painters such as [[Frank Stella]], minimalism in painting, as opposed to other areas, is a modernist movement and depending on the context can be construed as a precursor to the postmodern movement.

[[Hal Foster (art critic)|Hal Foster]], in his essay ''The Crux of Minimalism'', examines the extent to which [[Donald Judd]] and [[Robert Morris (artist)|Robert Morris]] both acknowledge and exceed Greenbergian modernism in their published definitions of minimalism.<ref>Hal Foster, ''The Return of the Real: The Avant-garde at the End of the Century'', MIT Press, 1996, pp44-53. {{ISBN|978-0-262-56107-5}}</ref> He argues minimalism is not a "dead end" of modernism, but a "paradigm shift toward postmodern practices that continue to be elaborated today."<ref name=Foster36/>

===Postminimalism===
{{Main|Postminimalism}}
[[File:Spiral-jetty-from-rozel-point.png|thumb|200px|left|[[Robert Smithson]], "[[Spiral Jetty]]" in mid-April 2005. It was created in 1970.]]
[[Robert Pincus-Witten]] coined the term [[Post-minimalism]] in 1977 to describe minimalist derived art which had content and contextual overtones minimalism rejected. His use of the term covered the period 1966 – 1976 and applied to the work of [[Eva Hesse]], [[Keith Sonnier]], [[Richard Serra]] and new work by former minimalists [[Robert Smithson]], [[Robert Morris (artist)|Robert Morris]], [[Sol LeWitt]], and Barry Le Va, and others.<ref name="douglas2007"/> [[Process art]] and anti-form art are other terms describing this work, which the space it occupies and the process by which it is made determines.<ref>[[Erika Doss]], ''Twentieth-Century American Art'', Oxford University Press, 2002, p174. {{ISBN|978-0-19-284239-8}}</ref>

[[Rosalind Krauss]] argues by 1968 artists such as Morris, LeWitt, Smithson and Serra had "entered a situation the logical conditions of which can no longer be described as modernist."<ref name="Krauss287">The Originality of the Avant Garde and Other Modernist Myths [[Rosalind E. Krauss]], Publisher: The MIT Press; Reprint edition (July 9, 1986), ''Sculpture in the Expanded Field'' pp.287</ref> The expansion of the category of sculpture to include [[land art]] and [[architecture]], "brought about the shift into postmodernism."<ref>The Originality of the Avant Garde and Other Modernist Myths [[Rosalind E. Krauss]], Publisher: The MIT Press; Reprint edition (July 9, 1986), ''Sculpture in the Expanded Field'' (1979). pp.290</ref>

Minimalists like [[Donald Judd]], [[Dan Flavin]], [[Carl Andre]], [[Agnes Martin]], [[John McCracken (artist)|John McCracken]] and others continued to produce their late [[modernist]] paintings and sculpture for the remainder of their careers.

==Movements==

===Conceptual art===
{{Main|Conceptual Art}}
[[File:WeinerText.JPG|thumb|[[Lawrence Weiner]], ''Bits & Pieces Put Together to Present a Semblance of a Whole,'' The Walker Art Center, Minneapolis, 2005]]
Conceptual art is sometimes labelled as postmodern because it is expressly involved in [[deconstruction]] of what makes a work of art, "art". Conceptual art, because it is often designed to confront, [[wikt:offend|offend]] or attack notions held by many of the people who view it, is regarded with particular controversy.

Precursors to conceptual art include the work of Duchamp, [[John Cage]]'s [[4' 33"]], in which the music is said to be "the sounds of the environment that the listeners hear while it is performed," and Rauschenberg's ''[[Erased De Kooning Drawing]]''. Many conceptual works take the position that art is created by the viewer viewing an object or act as art, not from the intrinsic qualities of the work itself. Thus, because ''[[Fountain (Duchamp)|Fountain]]'' was exhibited, it was a sculpture.

===Figurative painting===
Some currents of post-war [[Figurative art|figurative painting]] have been analyzed as postmodern. The Italian painter [[Carlo Maria Mariani]] was described as a postmodernist by American critics. According to [[Charles Jencks]], Mariani's group portrait ''[[The Constellation of Leo]]'' (1980–1981), which depicts people from Italy's art world with references to mythology and art history, came to define a trope of postmodern art: "an ironic comment on a comment on a comment which signals the distance; a new myth thrice removed from its originating ritual".<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ebony |first=David |year=2001 |url=https://www.classicist.org/workspace/pdf/Classicist6_content.pdf |title=Readymade Ideals: Elements of Architecture in the Paintings of Carlo Maria Mariani |journal=The Classicist |volume=6 |page=94 |issn=1076-2922 |access-date=26 October 2023 }}</ref>

===Installation art===
{{Main|Installation art}}
An important series of movements in art which have consistently been described as postmodern involved [[installation art]] and creation of artifacts that are conceptual in nature. One example being the signs of [[Jenny Holzer]] which use the devices of art to convey specific messages, such as "Protect Me From What I Want". Installation Art has been important in determining the spaces selected for museums of contemporary art in order to be able to hold the large works which are composed of vast collages of manufactured and found objects. These installations and [[collage]]s are often electrified, with moving parts and lights.

They are often designed to create environmental effects, as [[Christo and Jeanne-Claude]]'s ''Iron Curtain, Wall of 240 Oil Barrels, Blocking Rue Visconti, Paris, June 1962'' which was a poetic response to the Berlin Wall built in 1961.

===Lowbrow art===
{{Main|Lowbrow (art movement)}}
Lowbrow is a widespread populist art movement with origins in the underground comix world, punk music, [[Hot rod|hot-rod]] street culture, and other California subcultures. It is also often known by the name pop surrealism. Lowbrow art highlights a central theme in postmodernism in that the distinction between "high" and "low" art are no longer recognized.

===Performance art===
{{Main|Performance art|List of performance artists}}

===Digital art===
{{Main|Digital art}}
[[File:BOtv2002.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Joseph Nechvatal]] ''birth Of the viractual'' 2001 computer-robotic assisted acrylic on canvas]]
Digital art is a general term for a range of artistic works and practices that use digital technology as an essential part of the creative and/or presentation process. The impact of digital technology has transformed  activities such as [[painting]], [[drawing]], [[sculpture]] and music/[[sound art]], while new forms, such as [[net art]], digital [[installation art]], and [[virtual reality]], have become recognized artistic practices.

Leading art theorists and historians in this field include [[Christiane Paul]], [[Frank Popper]], [[Christine Buci-Glucksmann]], [[Dominique Moulon]], [[Robert C. Morgan]], [[Roy Ascott]], [[Catherine Perret]], [[Margot Lovejoy]], [[Edmond Couchot]], [[Fred Forest]] and [[Edward A. Shanken]].

===Intermedia and multi-media===
{{Main|Intermedia}}
[[File:Transmediale-2010-Ryoji Ikeda-Data-Tron-1.jpg|thumb|200px|Data.Tron [8K Enhanced Version] by [[Ryoji Ikeda]] on show in [[transmediale]] 10]]
Another trend in art which has been associated with the term postmodern is the use of a number of different media together. [[Intermedia]], a term coined by [[Dick Higgins]] and meant to convey new artforms along the lines of [[Fluxus]], [[Concrete Poetry]], [[Found objects]], [[Performance art]], and [[Computer art]]. Higgins was the publisher of the [[Something Else Press]], a [[Concrete poet]], married to artist [[Alison Knowles]] and an admirer of [[Marcel Duchamp]]. [[Ihab Hassan]] includes, "Intermedia, the fusion of forms, the confusion of realms," in his list of the characteristics of postmodern art.<ref>Ihab Hassan in Lawrence E. Cahoone, ''From Modernism to Postmodernism: An Anthology'', Blackwell Publishing, 2003. p13. {{ISBN|978-0-631-23213-1}}</ref> One of the most common forms of "multi-media art" is the use of video-tape and CRT monitors, termed [[Video art]]. While the theory of combining multiple arts into one art is quite old, and has been revived periodically, the postmodern manifestation is often in combination with [[performance art]], where the dramatic subtext is removed, and what is left is the specific statements of the artist in question or the conceptual statement of their action.
Higgin's conception of Intermedia is connected to the growth of [[multimedia]] digital practice such as [[immersive virtual reality]], [[digital art]] and [[computer art]].

===Telematic Art===
{{Main|Telematic art}}
Telematic art is a descriptive of art projects using computer mediated telecommunications networks as their medium. Telematic art challenges the traditional relationship between active viewing subjects and passive art objects by creating interactive, behavioural contexts for remote aesthetic encounters. [[Roy Ascott]] sees the telematic art form as the transformation of the viewer into an active participator of creating the artwork which remains in process throughout its duration. Ascott has been at the forefront of the theory and practice of telematic art since 1978 when he went online for the first time, organizing different collaborative online projects.

===Appropriation art and neo-conceptual art===
{{Main|Appropriation art|Neo-conceptual art}}
[[File:Taaffe - We Are Not Afraid.jpg|thumb|200px|''[[Philip Taaffe]], We Are Not Afraid'', 1985]]
In his 1980 essay ''The Allegorical Impulse: Toward a Theory of Postmodernism,'' [[Craig Owens (critic)|Craig Owens]] identifies the re-emergence of an [[allegorical]] impulse as characteristic of postmodern art. This impulse can be seen in the [[appropriation art]] of artists such as [[Sherrie Levine]] and [[Robert Longo]] because, "Allegorical imagery is appropriated imagery."<ref>Craig Owens, ''Beyond Recognition: Representation, Power, and Culture'', London and Berkeley: University of California Press (1992), p54</ref> Appropriation art debunks modernist notions of artistic genius and originality and is more ambivalent and contradictory than modern art, simultaneously installing and subverting ideologies, "being both critical and complicit."<ref>Steven Best and Douglas Kellner, ''The Postmodern Turn'', Guilford Press, 1997. p186. {{ISBN|978-1-57230-221-1}}</ref>

===Neo-expressionism and painting===
{{Main|Neo-expressionism}}
The return to the traditional art forms of sculpture and [[painting]] in the late 1970s and early 1980s seen in the work of [[Neo-expressionism|Neo-expressionist]] artists such as [[Georg Baselitz]] and [[Julian Schnabel]] has been described as a postmodern tendency,<ref>Tim Woods, ''Beginning Postmodernism'', Manchester University Press, 1999. p125. {{ISBN|978-0-7190-5211-8}}</ref> and one of the first coherent movements to emerge in the postmodern era.<ref>Fred S. Kleiner, Christin J. Mamiya, ''Gardner's Art Through the Ages: The Western Perspective'', Thomson Wadsworth, 2006, p842. {{ISBN|978-0-495-00480-6}}</ref> Its strong links with the commercial art market has raised questions, however, both about its status as a postmodern movement and the definition of postmodernism itself. Hal Foster states that neo-expressionism was complicit with the conservative cultural politics of the Reagan-Bush era in the U.S.<ref name="Foster36">Hal Foster, ''The Return of the Real: The Avant-garde at the End of the Century'', MIT Press, 1996, p36. {{ISBN|978-0-262-56107-5}}</ref> [[Félix Guattari]] disregards the "large promotional operations dubbed 'neo-expressionism' in Germany," (an example of a "fad that maintains itself by means of publicity") as a too easy way for him "to demonstrate that postmodernism is nothing but the last gasp of modernism."<ref name=Guattari109/> These critiques of neo-expressionism reveal that money and public relations really sustained contemporary art world credibility in America during the same period that conceptual artists, and practices of [[women artists]] including painters and feminist theorists like [[Griselda Pollock]],<ref>Griselda Pollock & Penny Florence, ''Looking Back to the Future: Essays by Griselda Pollock from the 1990s''. New York: G&B New Arts Press, 2001. {{ISBN|978-90-5701-132-0}}</ref><ref>Griselda Pollock, ''Generations and Geographies in the Visual Arts'', Routledge, London, 1996. {{ISBN|978-0-415-14128-4}}</ref> were systematically reevaluating modern art.<ref>[[Erika Doss]], ''Twentieth-Century American Art'', Oxford University Press, 2002, p210. {{ISBN|978-0-19-284239-8}}</ref><ref>Lyotard, Jean-François (1993), ''Scriptures: Diffracted Traces'', reprinted in: ''Theory, Culture and Society, Volume 21 Number 1'', 2004. ISSN 0263-2764</ref><ref>Pollock, Griselda, ''Inscriptions in the Feminine'', in: de Zegher, Catherine, Ed.) ''Inside the Visible''. Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1996</ref> [[Brian Massumi]] claims that [[Deleuze]] and [[Guattari]] open the horizon of new definitions of [[Beauty]] in postmodern art.<ref>Massumi, Brian (ed.), ''A Shock to Thought: Expression after Deleuze and Guattari''. London: Routledge, 2002. {{ISBN|978-0-415-23804-5}}</ref> For Jean-François Lyotard, it was painting of the artists [[Valerio Adami]], [[Daniel Buren]], [[Marcel Duchamp]], [[Bracha Ettinger]], and [[Barnett Newman]] that, after the avant-garde's time and the painting of [[Paul Cézanne]] and [[Wassily Kandinsky]], was the vehicle for new ideas of the [[wikt:sublime|sublime]] in contemporary art.<ref>Buci-Glucksmann, Christine, "Le differend de l'art". In: ''Jean-François Lyotard: L'exercise du differend''. Paris: PUF, 2001. {{ISBN|978-2-13-051056-7}}</ref><ref>Lyotard, Jean-François, "L'anamnese". In: ''Doctor and Patient: Memory and Amnesia''. Porin Taidemuseo,1996. {{ISBN|978-951-9355-55-9}}. Reprinted as: Lyotard, Jean-François, "Anamnesis: Of the Visible." In: ''Theory, Culture and Society, Vol. 21(1)'', 2004. 0263–2764</ref>

===Institutional critique===

{{Main|Institutional Critique}}
Critiques on the institutions of art (principally museums and galleries) are made in the work of [[Andrea Fraser]], [[Michael Asher (artist)|Michael Asher]], [[Marcel Broodthaers]], [[Daniel Buren]] and [[Hans Haacke]].

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
* [[Anti-art]]
* [[Anti-anti-art]]
* [[Artificial intelligence art]]
* [[Classificatory disputes about art]]
* [[Cyborg art]]
* [[Electronic art]]
* [[Experiments in Art and Technology]]
* [[Gaze]]
* [[Late Modernism]]
* [[Modern art]]
* [[Modernist project]]
* [[Neo-minimalism]]
* [[Net.art]]
* [[New European Painting]]
* [[New Media art]]
* [[Post-conceptual]]
* [[Superflat]]
* [[Superstroke]]
* [[Remodernism]]
* [[Irving Sandler]]
* [[Virtual art]]
{{div col end}}

==Sources==
* ''The Triumph of Modernism'': The Art World, 1985–2005, [[Hilton Kramer]], 2006, {{ISBN|978-0-15-666370-0}}
* ''Pictures of Nothing: Abstract Art since Pollock'' (A.W. Mellon Lectures in the Fine Arts), [[Kirk Varnedoe]], 2003
* ''Art of the Postmodern Era'': From the Late 1960s to the Early 1990s, [[Irving Sandler]]
* ''Postmodernism (Movements in Modern Art)'' Eleanor Heartney
* ''Sculpture in the Age of Doubt'' Thomas McEvilley 1999

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
*{{Commons category-inline}}

{{Western art movements}}

[[Category:Postmodern art| ]]
[[Category:Postmodern works| Art]]
[[Category:Science fiction themes]]
[[Category:Contemporary art movements]]
[[Category:Art by period of creation]]