View source for Portuguese Empire

{{Short description|Colonial empire between 1415 and 1999}}
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{{Use shortened footnotes|date=April 2023}}{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2024}}{{Use British English|date=November 2024}}
{{Infobox former country
| conventional_long_name = Portuguese Empire
| common_name            = Portuguese Empire
| native_name            = {{native name|pt|Império Português}}
| image_flag             = Flag of Portugal (1830).svg
| flag_caption           = Top: Flag from 1830 to 1910
Bottom: Flag from 1910 to 1999
| image_flag2            = Flag of Portugal (official).svg
| image_coat             = Brasão de armas do reino de Portugal (1485).svg
| coat_alt               = Portuguese shield
| motto                  = {{Native name|la|[[In hoc signo vinces]]}}<br />"In this sign thou shalt conquer" (until 1910)
| image_map              = PortugueseColonialEmpire02.png
| image_map_caption      = Areas of the world that were part of the Portuguese Empire at some point in history
| capital                = [[Lisbon]] <br/> [[Rio de Janeiro]] ([[Transfer of the Portuguese court to Brazil|''de facto'' from 1808 to 1821]])
| common_languages       = [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]
| government_type        = {{bulleted list|[[Monarchy]] (until 1910)|[[Republic]] (from 1910)}}
| religion               = [[Catholic Church in Portugal|Roman Catholicism]] (majority religion, state religion until 1911)
| title_leader           = [[List of Portuguese monarchs|Monarchs]]
| leader1                = [[John I of Portugal|John I]]
| year_leader1           = 1415–1433 (first)
| leader2                = [[Manuel II of Portugal|Manuel II]]
| year_leader2           = 1908–1910 (last)
| title_representative   = [[List of Presidents of Portugal|Presidents]]
| representative1        = [[Manuel de Arriaga]]
| year_representative1   = 1911–1915  (first)
| representative2        = [[Jorge Sampaio]]
| year_representative2   = 1996–1999  (last)
| life_span              = 1415–1999
| event_pre              = [[Conquest of Ceuta]]
| date_pre               = 1415
| event_start            = [[Portuguese discovery of the sea route to India|Sea route to India]]
| year_start             = 1498
| event1                 = [[Discovery of Brazil]]
| date_event1            = 1500
| event2                 = [[Iberian Union]]
| date_event2            = 1580–1640
| event4                 = [[Dutch–Portuguese War|Dutch-Portuguese War]]
| date_event4            = 1588–1654
| event5                 = [[Portuguese Restoration War]]
| date_event5            = 1640–1668
| event6                 = [[Siege of Mazagan (1769)|End of Moroccan territories]]
| date_event6            = 1769
| event7                 = [[Independence of Brazil]]
| date_event7            = 1822
| event8                 = [[Invasion of Goa|Loss of Indian provinces]]
| date_event8            = 1961
| event9                 = [[Portuguese Colonial War]]
| date_event9            = 1961–1974
| event10                = [[Carnation Revolution]]
| date_event10           = 1974–1975
| event_end              = [[Transfer of sovereignty over Macau|Handover of Macau]]
| year_end               = 1999
| title_deputy           = [[List of prime ministers of Portugal|Prime Ministers]]
| deputy1                = [[Pedro de Sousa Holstein, 1st Duke of Palmela|Pedro de Sousa Holstein]]
| year_deputy1           = 1834–1835  (first)
| deputy2                = [[António Guterres]]
| year_deputy2           = 1995–1999 (last)
| p1                     = 
| s1                     = 
| event11                = [[Indonesian Occupation of East Timor]]
| date_event11           = 1974-1999
| today                  = 
}}
{{History of Portugal}}
{{Portuguese colonial campaigns}}

The '''Portuguese Empire{{efn|{{langx|pt|Império Português}}, {{IPA|pt|ĩˈpɛɾju puɾtuˈɣeʃ|pron}}; also known as the Portuguese Overseas (Ultramar Português) or the [[Portuguese Colonial Empire]] (Império Colonial Português)|name=name}}''' was a [[colonial empire]] that existed between 1415 and 1999. In conjunction with the [[Spanish Empire]], it ushered in the European [[Age of Discovery]]. It achieved a global scale, controlling vast portions of the [[Americas]], [[Africa]] and various islands in [[Asia]] and [[Oceania]]. It was one of the most powerful empires of the [[early modern period]], while at its greatest extent in 1820, covering 5.5 million square km ({{Convert|5.5|km2|sqmi|disp=output number only}} million square miles),<ref name="Taagepera502">{{cite journal |author=Rein Taagepera |date=September 1997 |title=Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia |url=https://escholarship.org/content/qt3cn68807/qt3cn68807.pdf |url-status=live |journal=[[International Studies Quarterly]] |volume=41 |issue=3 |page=502 |doi=10.1111/0020-8833.00053 |jstor=2600793 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241228155503/https://escholarship.org/content/qt3cn68807/qt3cn68807.pdf |archive-date=2024-12-28 |authorlink=Rein Taagepera |accessdate=2025-01-29}}</ref> making it among the [[List of largest empires|largest empires]] in history. Composed of [[colonialism|colonies]], [[Factory (trading post)#Portuguese feitorias (c. 1445)|factories]], and later [[Territory#Overseas territory|overseas territories]], it was the longest-lived [[colonial empire]] in history, from the [[conquest of Ceuta]] in North Africa in 1415 to the [[handover of Macau]] to [[China]] in 1999.<ref name="PageSonnenburg481">{{harvnb|Page|Sonnenburg|2003|p=481}}</ref><ref name="Brockeyxv">{{harvnb|Brockey|2008|p=xv}}</ref><ref name="JuangMorrissette894">{{harvnb|Juang|Morrissette|2008|p=894}}</ref>

The power and influence of the [[Kingdom of Portugal]] would eventually expand across the globe. In the wake of the [[Reconquista]], [[Portuguese maritime exploration|Portuguese sailors began exploring]] the coast of Africa and the Atlantic archipelagos in 1418–1419, using recent developments in navigation, cartography, and maritime technology such as the [[caravel]], with the aim of finding a sea route to the source of the lucrative [[spice trade]]. In 1488, [[Bartolomeu Dias]] rounded the [[Cape of Good Hope]] and [[Cape Agulhas]], and in 1498 [[Vasco da Gama]] reached India. In 1500, [[Pedro Álvares Cabral]], while on a voyage to India, [[Discovery of Brazil|reached what would later be Brazil]].

Over the following decades, Portuguese sailors continued to explore the coasts and islands of East Asia, establishing [[list of Portuguese colonial forts|forts]] and factories as they went. By 1571, a string of naval outposts connected [[Lisbon]] to [[Nagasaki]] along the coasts of Africa, the [[Middle East]], and [[South Asia]]. This commercial network and the colonial trade had a substantial positive impact on Portuguese economic growth (1500–1800) when it accounted for about a fifth of Portugal's per-capita income.

When King [[Philip II of Spain]] (Philip I of Portugal) [[War of the Portuguese Succession|seized the Portuguese crown]] and Portuguese territories such as Brazil in 1580, there began a 60-year union between Spain and Portugal known to subsequent [[historiography]] as the [[Iberian Union]], although the realms continued to have separate administrations. As the King of Spain was also King of Portugal, Portuguese colonies became the subject of attacks by three rival European powers hostile to Spain: the [[Dutch colonial empire|Dutch Republic]], [[English overseas possessions|England]], and [[French colonial empire|France]]. With its smaller population, Portugal found itself unable to effectively defend its overstretched network of trading posts, and the empire began a long and gradual decline. Eventually, Brazil became the most valuable colony of the second era of empire (1663–1825), until, as part of the wave of [[Decolonization of the Americas|independence movements]] that swept the Americas during the early 19th century, it [[Independence of Brazil|declared its independence]] in 1822.

The third era of empire covers the final stage of Portuguese colonialism after the independence of Brazil in the 1820s. By then, the colonial possessions had been reduced to [[Portuguese Africa (disambiguation)|forts and plantations along the African coastline]] (expanded inland during the [[Scramble for Africa]] in the late 19th century), [[Portuguese Timor]], and [[Enclave and exclave|enclaves]] in [[Portuguese India|India]] and [[Portuguese Macau|Macau]]. The [[1890 British Ultimatum]] led to the contraction of [[Pink Map|Portuguese ambitions in Africa]].

Under [[António de Oliveira Salazar]] (in office 1932–1968), the [[Estado Novo (Portugal)|''Estado Novo'' dictatorship]] made some ill-fated attempts to cling on to its last remaining colonies. Under the ideology of [[pluricontinentalism]], the regime renamed its colonies "[[overseas province]]s" while retaining the [[Chibalo|system of forced labour]], from which only a small [[Assimilado|indigenous élite]] was normally exempt. In August 1961, the [[Republic of Dahomey|Dahomey]] annexed the [[Fort of São João Baptista de Ajudá]], and in December that year [[Annexation of Goa|India annexed Goa, Daman, and Diu]]. The [[Portuguese Colonial War]] in Africa lasted from 1961 until the final overthrow of the ''Estado Novo'' regime in 1974. The [[Carnation Revolution]] of April 1974 in Lisbon led to the hasty [[Decolonisation of Africa|decolonisation of Portuguese Africa]] and to the [[Indonesian occupation of East Timor|1975 annexation of Portuguese Timor]] by Indonesia. Decolonisation prompted an exodus of [[Processo Revolucionário Em Curso#The retornados|Portuguese colonial settlers]] and [[Luso-Africans|mixed-race people]] from the colonies. Portugal returned [[Portuguese Macau|Macau]] to China in 1999. The only overseas possessions to remain under Portuguese rule, the [[Macaronesian Portugal|Azores and Madeira]], whose native inhabitants were overwhelmingly Portuguese, had their [[Political status of the Azores|constitutional status]] changed from "[[overseas province]]s" to "[[autonomous regions]]". The [[Community of Portuguese Speaking Countries]] (CPLP) is the cultural successor of the Empire, analogous to the [[Commonwealth of Nations]] for countries formerly part of the [[British Empire]].

== Origins (1139–1415) ==
{{Main|History of Portugal (1139–1415)}}
[[File:Porto April 2019-7.jpg|left|thumb|The [[Portuguese conquest of Ceuta|Conquest of Ceuta]] on 21 August 1415, led by [[Prince Henry the Navigator|Henry the Navigator]] (1394–1460), marked the beginning of the Portuguese Empire.]]



The origin of the [[Kingdom of Portugal]] lay in the ''[[reconquista]]'', the gradual reconquest of the [[Iberian Peninsula]] from the [[Al-Andalus|Moors]].<ref name="DiffieWinius301">{{harvnb|Diffie|Winius|1977|p=301}}</ref> After establishing itself as a separate kingdom in 1139, Portugal completed its reconquest of Moorish territory by reaching [[Algarve]] in 1249, but its independence continued to be threatened by neighbouring [[Crown of Castile|Castile]] until the signing of the [[Treaty of Ayllón]] in 1411.<ref name="Newitt2005p15-17">{{harvnb|Newitt|2005|pp=15–17}}</ref>

Free from threats to its existence and unchallenged by the wars fought by other European states, Portuguese attention turned overseas and towards a military expedition to the Muslim lands of North Africa.<ref name=" Newitt19">{{harvnb|Newitt|2005|p=19}}</ref> There were several probable motives for their first attack, on the [[Marinid Dynasty|Marinid Sultanate]] (in present-day Morocco). It offered the opportunity to continue the Christian [[crusade]] against Islam; to the military class, it promised glory on the battlefield and the spoils of war;<ref name=" Boxer19">{{harvnb|Boxer|1969|p=19}}</ref> and finally, it was also a chance to expand Portuguese trade and to address Portugal's economic decline.<ref name="Newitt19"/>

In 1415 an attack was made on [[Ceuta]], a strategically located North African Muslim enclave along the Mediterranean Sea, and one of the terminal ports of the trans-Saharan gold and slave trades. The [[Conquest of Ceuta|conquest]] was a military success, and marked one of the first steps in Portuguese expansion beyond the Iberian Peninsula,<ref>[[#refAbernethy|Abernethy]], p.&nbsp;4</ref> but it proved costly to defend against the Muslim forces that soon besieged it. The Portuguese were unable to use it as a base for further expansion into the hinterland,<ref name="Newitt21">{{harvnb|Newitt|2005|p=21}}</ref> and the trans-Saharan caravans merely shifted their routes to bypass Ceuta and/or used alternative Muslim ports.<ref name="DiffieWinius55">{{harvnb|Diffie|Winius|1977|p=55}}</ref>

== Portuguese Empire (1415–1663) ==
{{Main|History of Portugal (1415–1578)|Portuguese discoveries}}

{{See also|European enclaves in North Africa before 1830}}
Although Ceuta proved to be a disappointment for the Portuguese, the decision was taken to hold it while exploring along the Atlantic African coast.<ref name="DiffieWinius55"/> A key supporter of this policy was [[Infante]] [[Dom (title)|Dom]] [[Henry the Navigator]], who had been involved in the [[Conquest of Ceuta|capture of Ceuta]], and who took the lead role in promoting and financing Portuguese maritime exploration until his death in 1460.<ref name="DiffieWinius56">{{harvnb|Diffie|Winius|1977|p=56}}: Henry, a product of 15th-century Portugal, was inspired by both religious and economic factors.</ref> At the time, Europeans did not know what lay beyond [[Cape Bojador]] on the African coast. Henry wished to know how far the Muslim territories in Africa extended, and whether it was possible to reach Asia by sea, both to reach the source of the lucrative [[spice trade]] and perhaps to join forces with the fabled Christian kingdom of [[Prester John]] that was rumoured to exist somewhere in the "Indies".<ref name="Boxer19"/><ref name="Anderson50">{{harvnb|Anderson|2000|p=50}}</ref> Under his sponsorship, soon the Atlantic islands of [[Madeira]] (1419) and [[Azores]] (1427) were reached and started to be settled, producing wheat for export to Portugal.<ref name="Coates60">{{harvnb|Coates|2002|p=60}}</ref>

Soon its ships were bringing into the European market highly valued gold, ivory, pepper, cotton, sugar, and slaves. The slave trade, for example, was conducted by a few dozen merchants in Lisbon. In the process of expanding the trade routes, Portuguese navigators mapped unknown parts of Africa, and began exploring the Indian Ocean. In 1487, an overland expedition by [[Pêro da Covilhã]] made its way to India, exploring trade opportunities with the Indians and Arabs, and winding up finally in Ethiopia. His detailed report was eagerly read in Lisbon, which became the best-informed centre for global geography and trade routes.<ref>L.S. Stavrianos, ''The World since 1500: a Global history'' (1966) pp. 92–93</ref>

=== Initial African coastline excursions ===
Fears of what lay beyond [[Cape Bojador]], and whether it was possible to return once it was passed, were assuaged in 1434 when it was rounded by one of Infante Henry's captains, [[Gil Eanes]]. Once this psychological barrier had been crossed, it became easier to probe further along the coast.<ref name="DiffieWinius68">{{harvnb|Diffie|Winius|1977|p=68}}</ref> In 1443, [[Infante Pedro, Duke of Coimbra|Infante Dom Pedro]], Henry's brother and by then regent of the Kingdom, granted him the monopoly of navigation, war and trade in the lands south of Cape Bojador. Later this monopoly would be enforced by the [[papal bull]]s ''[[Dum Diversas]]'' (1452) and ''[[Romanus Pontifex]]'' (1455), granting Portugal the trade monopoly for the newly discovered lands.<ref name="Daus33">{{harvnb|Daus|1983|p=33}}</ref> A major advance that accelerated this project was the introduction of the [[caravel]] in the mid-15th century, a ship that could be sailed closer to the wind than any other in operation in Europe at the time.<ref name="Boxer29">{{harvnb|Boxer|1969|p=29}}</ref> Using this new maritime technology, Portuguese navigators reached ever more southerly [[latitude]]s, advancing at an average rate of one degree a year.<ref name="Russell-Wood1998p9">{{harvnb|Russell-Wood|1998|p=9}}</ref> [[Senegal]] and [[Cape Verde Peninsula]] were reached in 1445.<ref name="Rodriguez79">{{harvnb|Rodriguez|2007|p=79}}</ref>
[[File:Amina.jpg|thumb|16th century map showing Portuguese claims to Guinea and the castle [[Elmina Castle|São Jorge da Mina]]]]
The first [[feitoria]] trade post overseas was established in 1445 on the island of [[Arguin]], off the coast of Mauritania, to attract Muslim traders and monopolise the business in the routes travelled in North Africa. In 1446, [[Álvaro Fernandes]] pushed on almost as far as present-day [[Sierra Leone]], and the [[Gulf of Guinea]] was reached in the 1460s.<ref name="DiffieWinius469">{{harvnb|Diffie|Winius|1977|p=469}}</ref> The [[Cape Verde]] Islands were discovered in 1456 and settled in 1462.

Expansion of [[sugarcane]] in Madeira started in 1455, using advisers from [[Sicily]] and (largely) [[Republic of Genoa|Genoese]] capital to produce the "sweet salt" that was rare in Europe. Already cultivated in [[Algarve]], the accessibility of Madeira attracted Genoese and Flemish traders keen to bypass Venetian monopolies. Slaves were used, and the proportion of imported slaves in Madeira reached 10% of the total population by the 16th century.<ref>Godinho, V. M. ''Os Descobrimentos e a Economia Mundial'', Arcádia, 1965, Vol 1 and 2, Lisboa</ref> By 1480 [[Antwerp]] had some seventy ships engaged in the Madeira sugar trade, with the refining and distribution concentrated in Antwerp. By the 1490s Madeira had overtaken Cyprus as a producer of sugar.<ref name="Ponting482">{{harvnb|Ponting|2000|p=482}}</ref> The success of sugar merchants such as [[Bartolomeo Marchionni]] would propel the investment in future travels.<ref name="Davis84">{{harvnb|Davis|2006|p=84}}</ref>

In 1469, after prince Henry's death and as a result of meagre returns of the African explorations, King [[Afonso V of Portugal|Afonso V]] granted the monopoly of trade in part of the [[Gulf of Guinea]] to merchant [[Fernão Gomes]].<ref name="BethencourtCurto232">{{harvnb|Bethencourt|Curto|2007|p=232}}</ref> Gomes, who had to explore {{convert|100|mi|km}} of the coast each year for five years, discovered the islands of the Gulf of Guinea, including [[São Tomé and Príncipe]], and found a thriving [[alluvial]] gold trade among the natives and visiting Arab and Berber traders at the port then named [[Elmina|Mina]] (the mine), where he established a trading post.<ref name="White138">{{harvnb|White|2005|p=138}}</ref> Trade between Elmina and Portugal grew throughout a decade. During the [[War of the Castilian Succession]], a large [[Crown of Castile|Castilia]]n fleet attempted to wrest control of this lucrative trade, but were decisively defeated in the 1478 [[Battle of Guinea]], which firmly established an exclusive Portuguese control. In 1481, the recently crowned [[John II of Portugal|João II]] decided to build [[São Jorge da Mina]] in order to ensure the protection of this trade, which was held again as a royal monopoly. The equator was crossed by navigators sponsored by Fernão Gomes in 1473 and the [[Congo River]] by [[Diogo Cão]] in 1482. It was during this expedition that the Portuguese first encountered the [[Kingdom of Kongo]], with which it soon developed a rapport.<ref name="GannDuignan273">{{harvnb|Gann|Duignan|1972|p=273}}</ref> During his 1485–86 expedition, Cão continued to [[Cape Cross]], in present-day [[Namibia]], near the [[Tropic of Capricorn]].<ref name="DiffieWinius156">{{harvnb|Diffie|Winius|1977|p=156}}</ref>
[[File:Portuguese Morocco.PNG|thumb|[[Morocco–Portugal relations|Portuguese possessions in Morocco]] (1415–1769)|left]]

In 1488, [[Bartolomeu Dias]] rounded the southern tip of Africa and reached [[Great Fish River]] on the coast of Africa,{{sfn|Diffie|Winius|1977|p=161}} proving false the view that had existed since [[Ptolemy]] that the Indian Ocean was [[land-locked]]. Simultaneously [[Pêro da Covilhã]], travelling secretly overland, had reached [[Ethiopia]], suggesting that a sea route to the Indies would soon be forthcoming.<ref name="Anderson59">{{harvnb|Anderson|2000|p=59}}</ref>

As the Portuguese explored the coastlines of Africa, they left behind a series of [[Padrão|padrões]], stone crosses engraved with the Portuguese coat of arms marking their claims,<ref name="Newitt47">{{harvnb|Newitt|2005|p=47}}</ref> and built forts and trading posts. From these bases, they engaged profitably in the slave and gold trades. Portugal enjoyed a virtual monopoly on the African seaborne slave trade for over a century, importing around 800 slaves annually. Most were brought to the Portuguese capital Lisbon, where it is estimated black Africans came to constitute 10 percent of the population.<ref name="Anderson55">{{harvnb|Anderson|2000|p=55}}</ref>

=== Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) ===
[[File:Spain and Portugal.png|thumb|The 1494 [[Treaty of Tordesillas]] meridian divided the world between the crowns [[Kingdom of Portugal|of Portugal]] and [[Crown of Castile|of Castile]].]]
{{Main|Treaty of Tordesillas}}

[[Christopher Columbus]]'s 1492 discovery for Spain of the [[New World]], which he believed to be Asia, led to disputes between the Spanish and the Portuguese.<ref name="McAlister73-75">{{harvnb|McAlister|1984|pp=73–75}}</ref> These were eventually settled by the [[Treaty of Tordesillas]] in 1494, which divided the world outside of Europe in an exclusive [[duopoly]] between the Portuguese and the Spanish along a north–south meridian 370 [[League (unit)|leagues]], or {{convert|970|mi|km|-1}}, west of the Cape Verde islands.<ref name="BethencourtCurto165">{{harvnb|Bethencourt|Curto|2007|p=165}}</ref> However, as it was not possible at the time to correctly measure [[longitude]], the exact boundary was disputed by the two countries until 1777.<ref name="DiffieWinius174">{{harvnb|Diffie|Winius|1977|p=174}}</ref>

The completion of these negotiations with Spain is one of several reasons proposed by historians for why it took nine years for the Portuguese to follow up on Dias's voyage to the Cape of Good Hope, though it has also been speculated that other voyages were in fact taking place in secret during this time.<ref name="DiffieWinius176">{{harvnb|Diffie|Winius|1977|p=176}}</ref><ref name="Boxer36">{{harvnb|Boxer|1969|p=36}}</ref> Whether or not this was the case, the long-standing Portuguese goal of finding a sea route to Asia was finally achieved in a [[Discovery of the sea route to India|ground-breaking voyage]] commanded by [[Vasco da Gama]].<ref name="DiffieWinius176-185">{{harvnb|Diffie|Winius|1977|pp=176–185}}</ref>

=== The Portuguese enter the Indian Ocean ===
{{Main|Portuguese discovery of the sea route to India|Portuguese India|Portuguese India Armadas|Indian Ocean trade#Portuguese period|Portuguese presence in Asia}}

[[File:Ignoto portoghese, ritratto di un cavaliere dell'ordine di cristo, 1525-50 ca. 02.jpg|thumb|[[Vasco da Gama]] (1469–1524)]]

The squadron of [[Vasco da Gama]] left Portugal in 1497, rounded the Cape and continued along the coast of East Africa, where a local pilot was brought on board who guided them across the Indian Ocean, reaching [[Kozhikode|Calicut]] ([[Kozhikode]]), the capital of the kingdom ruled by [[Zamorin]]s, in south-western India in May 1498.<ref>[[#refScammell|Scammell]], p.&nbsp;13</ref> The second voyage to India was dispatched in 1500 under [[Pedro Álvares Cabral]]. While following the same south-westerly route as Gama across the Atlantic Ocean, Cabral made landfall on the Brazilian coast. This was probably an accidental discovery, but it has been speculated that the Portuguese secretly knew of Brazil's existence and that it lay on their side of the Tordesillas line.<ref name="McAlister75">{{harvnb|McAlister|1984|p=75}}</ref> Cabral recommended to the Portuguese King that the land be settled, and two follow up voyages were sent in 1501 and 1503. The land was found to be abundant in ''[[Paubrasilia|pau-brasil]]'', or brazilwood, from which it later inherited its name, but the failure to find gold or silver meant that for the time being Portuguese efforts were concentrated on India.<ref name="McAlister76">{{harvnb|McAlister|1984|p=76}}</ref> In 1502, to enforce its trade monopoly over a wide area of the [[Indian Ocean]], the Portuguese Empire created the [[cartaz]] licensing system, granting merchant ships protection against pirates and rival states.<ref name="DiffieWinius274,320-323">{{harvnb|Diffie|Winius|1977|pp=274, 320–323}}</ref>

Profiting from the rivalry between the [[Cochin kingdom|ruler of Kochi]] and the [[Zamorin]] of [[History of Kozhikode|Calicut]], the Portuguese were well-received and seen as allies, as they obtained a permit to build the [[Fort Emmanuel|fort ''Immanuel'']] ([[Fort Kochi]]) and a trading post that was the first European settlement in India. They established a trading hub at [[Tangasseri]], [[Quilon]] (''Coulão'', [[Kollam]]) city in (1503) in 1502, which became the centre of trade in pepper,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.keralatourism.org/destination/thangasseri-kollam/296|title=Thangasseri, Kollam, Dutch Quilon, Kerala|website=Kerala Tourism|access-date=2014-09-01|archive-date=2014-05-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140514011139/https://www.keralatourism.org/destination/thangasseri-kollam/296|url-status=live}}</ref> and after founding manufactories at [[Cochin]] (''Cochim'', Kochi) and [[Kannur|Cannanore]] (''Canonor'', Kannur), built a factory at [[Quilon]] in 1503. In 1505 King [[Manuel I of Portugal]] appointed [[Francisco de Almeida]] first [[Viceroy]] of Portuguese India, establishing the Portuguese government in the east. That year the Portuguese also conquered [[Kannur]], where they founded [[St. Angelo Fort]], and [[Lourenço de Almeida]] arrived in [[Ceylon]] (modern Sri Lanka), where he discovered the source of [[cinnamon]].<ref name="BethencourtCurto207">{{harvnb|Bethencourt|Curto|2007|p=207}}</ref> Although [[Cankili I]] of [[Jaffna]] initially resisted contact with them, the [[Jaffna kingdom]] came to the attention of Portuguese officials soon after for their resistance to missionary activities as well as logistical reasons due to its proximity with [[Trincomalee]] harbour among other reasons.<ref name="Abeyasinghe2">{{harvnb|Abeyasinghe|1986|p=2}}</ref> In the same year, Manuel I ordered Almeida to fortify the Portuguese fortresses in Kerala and within eastern Africa, as well as probe into the prospects of building forts in Sri Lanka and Malacca in response to growing hostilities with Muslims within those regions and threats from the Mamluk sultan.<ref name="Disney2009b128">{{harvnb|Disney|2009b|p=128}}</ref>

[[File:Portuguese Carracks off a Rocky Coast.jpg|thumb|The carrack ''[[Santa Catarina do Monte Sinai]]'' epitomised the might and the force of the [[Portuguese Navy|Portuguese Armada]].]]

A Portuguese fleet under the command of [[Tristão da Cunha]] and [[Afonso de Albuquerque]] conquered [[Socotra]] at the entrance of the [[Red Sea]] in 1506 and [[Muscat, Oman|Muscat]] in 1507. Having failed to conquer [[Ormus|Ormuz]], they instead followed a strategy intended to close off commerce to and from the Indian Ocean.<ref name="DiffieWinius233,235">{{harvnb|Diffie|Winius|1977|pp=233, 235}}</ref> [[Madagascar]] was partly explored by Cunha, and [[Mauritius]] was discovered by Cunha whilst possibly being accompanied by Albuquerque.<ref name="Macmillan11">{{harvnb|Macmillan|2000|p=11}}</ref> After the capture of Socotra, Cunha and Albuquerque operated separately. While Cunha travelled India and Portugal for trading purposes, Albuquerque went to India to take over as governor after Almeida's three-year term ended. Almeida refused to turn over power and soon placed Albuquerque under house arrest, where he remained until 1509.<ref name="DiffieWinius237-239">{{harvnb|Diffie|Winius|1977|pp=237–239}}</ref>

Although requested by Manuel I to further explore interests in Malacca and Sri Lanka, Almeida instead focused on western India, in particular the [[Sultanate of Gujarat]] due to his suspicions of traders from the region possessing more power. The [[Mamluk|Mamlûk Sultanate]] sultan [[Al-Ashraf Qansuh al-Ghawri]] along with the Gujarati sultanate attacked Portuguese forces in the harbor of [[Battle of Chaul|Chaul]], resulting in the death of [[Lourenço de Almeida|Almeida's son]]. In retaliation, the Portuguese fought and destroyed the Mamluks and Gujarati fleets in the sea [[Battle of Diu (1509)|Battle of Diu]] in 1509.<ref name="Disney2009b128-29">{{harvnb|Disney|2009b|pp=128–129}}</ref>

Along with Almeida's initial attempts, Manuel I and his council in Lisbon had tried to distribute power in the Indian Ocean, creating three areas of jurisdiction: Albuquerque was sent to the Red Sea, [[Diogo Lopes de Sequeira]] to South-east Asia, seeking an agreement with the Sultan of Malacca, and Jorge de Aguiar followed by Duarte de Lemos were sent to the area between the Cape of Good Hope and Gujarat.<ref name="DiffieWinius245-247">{{harvnb|Diffie|Winius|1977|pp=245–247}}</ref> However, such posts were centralised by Afonso de Albuquerque after his succession and remained so in subsequent ruling.<ref name="Subrahmanyam67-83">{{harvnb|Subrahmanyam|2012|pp=67–83}}</ref>

<gallery mode="packed">
File:Portuguese discoveries and explorationsV2en.png|[[Portuguese discoveries]] and explorations: first arrival places and dates; main Portuguese [[spice trade]] routes (blue)
File:Codice Casanatense Portuguese Nobleman.jpg|16th century Portuguese illustration from the [[Códice Casanatense]], depicting a Portuguese nobleman with his retinue in India
File:Portuguese Nau.png|16th century heavy Portuguese carrack
</gallery>

=== Trade with Maritime Asia, Africa and the Indian Ocean ===
{{Main|Portuguese Macao|History of Goa|Portuguese Chittagong|Portuguese Malacca|Portuguese Empire in the Indonesian Archipelago}}

==== Goa, Malacca and Southeast Asia ====
{{See also|Adil Shahi–Portuguese conflicts|Malay-Portuguese conflicts|Acehnese-Portuguese conflicts}}
[[File:Retrato de Afonso de Albuquerque (após 1545) - Autor desconhecido.png|thumb|Second viceroy of India [[Afonso de Albuquerque]], credited with laying the foundations of Portuguese power in Asia]]

By the end of 1509, Albuquerque became viceroy of the [[East Indies]] with the capital at [[Velha Goa]], after the [[Cape route]] was discovered by Vasco da Gama. In contrast to Almeida, Albuquerque was more concerned with strengthening the navy,<ref name="Disney2009b129">{{harvnb|Disney|2009b|p=129}}</ref> as well as being more compliant with the interests of the kingdom.<ref name="DiffieWinius238">{{harvnb|Diffie|Winius|1977|p=238}}</ref> His first objective was to conquer Goa, due to its strategic location as a defensive fort positioned between Kerala and Gujarat, as well as its prominence for [[Arabian horse]] imports.<ref name="Disney2009b128-29"/>

[[Portuguese Conquest of Goa (1510)|The initial capture of Goa]] from the [[Adil Shahi dynasty|Bijapur sultanate]] in 1510 was soon countered by the Bijapuris, but with the help of Hindu [[privateer]] [[Timoji]], on 25 November of the same year it was recaptured.<ref name="Shastry34-45">{{harvnb|Shastry|2000|pp=34–45}}</ref><ref name="Disney2009b130">{{harvnb|Disney|2009b|p=130}}</ref> In Goa, Albuquerque began the first Portuguese [[Mint (coin)|mint]] in India in 1510.<ref name="deSouza220">{{harvnb|de Souza|1990|p=220}}</ref> He encouraged Portuguese settlers to marry local women, built a church in honor of [[St. Catherine of Alexandria|St. Catherine]] (as it was recaptured on her feast day), and attempted to build rapport with the Hindus by protecting their temples and reducing their tax requirements.<ref name="Disney2009b130" /> The Portuguese maintained friendly relations with the south Indian Emperors of the [[Vijayanagara Empire]].<ref name="Mehta291">{{harvnb|Mehta|1980|p=291}}</ref>

In April 1511, Albuquerque sailed to [[Malacca]] on the [[Malay Peninsula]],<ref name="Ricklefs23">{{harvnb|Ricklefs|1991|p=23}}</ref> the largest spice market of the period.<ref name="Kratoska2004p98">{{harvnb|Kratoska|2004|p=98}}</ref> Though the trade was largely dominated by the Gujarati, other groups such as the Turks, Persians, Armenians, Tamils and [[People of Ethiopia|Abyssinians]] traded there.<ref name="Kratoska2004p98"/> Albuquerque targeted Malacca to impede the Muslim and Venetian influence in the spice trade and increase that of Lisbon.<ref name="Gipouloux2011p301-302">{{harvnb|Gipouloux|2011|pp=301–302}}</ref> By July 1511, Albuquerque had captured Malacca and sent [[António de Abreu]] and [[Francisco Serrão]] (along with Ferdinand Magellan) to explore the Indonesian archipelago.<ref name="Newitt2005p78">{{harvnb|Newitt|2005|p=78}}</ref>

[[File:Iberian mare clausum claims.svg|thumb|left|Iberian '[[mare clausum]]' in the Age of Discovery. Albuquerque's strategy to encircle the Indian Ocean is shown.]]

The Malacca peninsula became the strategic base for Portuguese trade expansion with China and Southeast Asia. A strong gate, called the [[A Famosa]], was erected to defend the city and remains.<ref name="Ooi2009p202">{{harvnb|Ooi|2009|p=202}}</ref> Learning of Siamese ambitions over Malacca, Albuquerque immediately sent [[Duarte Fernandes]] on a diplomatic mission to the [[Ayutthaya Kingdom|Kingdom of Siam]] (modern Thailand), where he was the first European to arrive, establishing amicable relations and trade between both kingdoms.<ref name="Lach520-521">{{harvnb|Lach|1994|pp=520–521}}</ref><ref>Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania by Barbara A. West. Infobase Publishing, 2009. p.&nbsp;800</ref>

The Portuguese empire pushed further south and proceeded to discover Timor in 1512. [[Jorge de Menezes|Jorge de Meneses]] discovered [[New Guinea]] in 1526, naming it the "Island of the Papua".<ref name="QuanchiRobson2005">{{cite book |last1=Quanchi |first1=Max |last2=Robson |first2=John |title=Historical Dictionary of the Discovery and Exploration of the Pacific Islands |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FUwDzM94jGUC |year=2005 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0-8108-6528-0 |page=xliii}}</ref> In 1517, [[João da Silveira]] commanded a fleet to [[Chittagong]],<ref>de Silva Jayasuriya, p. 86</ref> and by 1528, the Portuguese had established a [[Portuguese settlement in Chittagong|settlement in Chittagong]].<ref name="Harris225">{{cite book|last=Harris|first=Jonathan Gil|title=The First Firangis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y4i7BwAAQBAJ&pg=PT225|year=2015|publisher=Aleph Book Company|isbn=978-93-83064-91-5|page=225}}{{Dead link|date=August 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The Portuguese eventually based their centre of operations along the [[Hugli River]], where they encountered Muslims, Hindus, and Portuguese deserters known as ''Chatins''.<ref>de Silva Jayasuriya, p. 87</ref>

==== China and Japan ====
{{See also|Chinese people in Portugal|Nanban trade|Slavery in Portugal|Portuguese Nagasaki|}}Jorge Álvares was the first European to reach China by sea, while the Romans were the first overland via Asia Minor.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Twitchett |first1=Denis Crispin |last2=Fairbank |first2=John King |title=The Cambridge History of China |year=1978 |isbn=978-0-521-24333-9 |page=336|publisher=Cambridge University Press }}</ref><ref name="Edmonds2002">{{cite book |editor-last=Edmonds |editor-first=Richard L. |title=China and Europe Since 1978: A European Perspective |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mXoFscQ2QwsC |date=September 2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-52403-2 |page=1}}</ref><ref name="Ward2008">{{cite book |last=Ward |first=Gerald W.R. |title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Materials and Techniques in Art |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mkJfbdTS--UC |year=2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-531391-8 |page=37}}</ref><ref name="Gleason2007">{{cite book |last=Gleason |first=Carrie |title=The Biography of Tea |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o-54TjlhrfIC |year=2007 |publisher=Crabtree Publishing Company |isbn=978-0-7787-2493-3 |page=12}}</ref> He was also the first European to discover Hong Kong.<ref>Hong Kong & Macau 14 By Andrew Stone, Piera Chen, Chung Wah Chow Lonely Planet, 2010. pp.&nbsp;20–21</ref><ref>Hong Kong & Macau by Jules Brown Rough Guides, 2002. p.&nbsp;195</ref> In 1514, Afonso de Albuquerque, the viceroy of the Estado da India, dispatched [[Rafael Perestrello]] to sail to China in order to pioneer European trade relations with the nation.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://algarvedailynews.com/features/history/4372-tne-portuguese-in-the-far-east |title={{as written|Tne}} Portuguese in the Far East |publisher=Algarvedailynews.com |access-date=2013-04-18 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130130144843/http://algarvedailynews.com/features/history/4372-tne-portuguese-in-the-far-east |archive-date=2013-01-30 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/culture/119676.htm|title='Portugal's Discovery in China' on Display|website=www.china.org.cn|access-date=2013-05-03|archive-date=2022-05-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220515055412/http://www.china.org.cn/english/culture/119676.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

In their first attempts at obtaining trading posts by force, the Portuguese were defeated by the Ming Chinese at the [[Battle of Tunmen]] in [[Tamão]] or [[Tuen Mun]]. In 1521, the Portuguese lost two ships at the [[Battle of Sincouwaan]] in [[Lantau Island]]. The Portuguese also lost two ships at [[Shuangyu]] in 1548 where several Portuguese were captured and near the [[Dongshan County|Dongshan Peninsula]]. In 1549 two Portuguese junks and [[Galeote Pereira]] were captured. During these battles the Ming Chinese captured weapons from the defeated Portuguese which they then reverse engineered and mass-produced in China such as [[matchlock]] [[musket]] [[arquebus]]es which they named [[Gun control in China#History|bird guns]] and [[breech-loading swivel gun]]s which they named as Folangji ([[Franks#Crusaders and other Western Europeans as "Franks"|Frankish]]) cannon because the Portuguese were known to the Chinese under the name of Franks at this time. The Portuguese later returned to China peacefully and presented themselves under the name Portuguese instead of Franks in the [[Luso-Chinese agreement (1554)]] and rented Macau as a trading post from China by paying annual lease of hundreds of silver [[taels]] to Ming China.<ref>p. 343–344, Denis Crispin Twitchett, John King Fairbank, [https://books.google.com/books?id=tVhvh6ibLJcC&dq=Leonel+de+Sousa+Macau&pg=PA344 The Cambridge history of China, Volume 2; Volume 8] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221213141214/https://books.google.com/books?id=tVhvh6ibLJcC&lpg=PA344&dq=Leonel%20de%20Sousa%20Macau&pg=PA344#v=onepage&q=Leonel%20de%20Sousa%20Macau&f=false |date=2022-12-13 }}, Cambridge University Press, 1978, {{ISBN|0-521-24333-5}}</ref>

Despite initial harmony and excitement between the two cultures, difficulties began to arise shortly afterwards, including misunderstanding, bigotry, and even hostility.<ref name="smithsonianmag.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/portugal_exhibit.html |title=When Portugal Ruled the Seas &#124; History & Archaeology &#124; Smithsonian Magazine |publisher=Smithsonianmag.com |access-date=2013-04-18 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121225010332/http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/portugal_exhibit.html |archive-date=2012-12-25 }}</ref> The Portuguese explorer [[Fernão Pires de Andrade#Andrade's brother and spoiled relations|Simão de Andrade]] incited poor relations with China due to his pirate activities, raiding Chinese shipping, attacking a Chinese official, and kidnappings of Chinese. He based himself at Tamao island in a fort. The Chinese claimed that Simão kidnapped Chinese boys and girls to be molested and cannibalised.<ref name="Jesus5">{{harvnb|Jesus|1902|p=5}}</ref> The Chinese sent a squadron of junks against Portuguese caravels that succeeded in driving the Portuguese away and reclaiming Tamao. As a result, the Chinese posted an edict banning men with Caucasian features from entering Canton, killing multiple Portuguese there, and driving the Portuguese back to sea.<ref name="Dodge226">{{harvnb|Dodge|1976|p=226}}</ref><ref name="Whiteway339">{{harvnb|Whiteway|1899|p=339}}</ref>

After the Sultan of Bintan detained several Portuguese under Tomás Pires, the Chinese then executed 23 Portuguese and threw the rest into prison where they resided in squalid, sometimes fatal conditions. The Chinese then massacred Portuguese who resided at [[Ningbo]] and [[Fujian]] trading posts in 1545 and 1549, due to extensive and damaging raids by the Portuguese along the coast, which irritated the Chinese.<ref name="Dodge226"/> Portuguese pirating was second to [[Japanese pirates|Japanese pirating]] by this period. However, they soon began to shield Chinese junks and a cautious trade began. In 1557 the Chinese authorities allowed the Portuguese to settle in Macau, creating a warehouse in the trade of goods between China, Japan, Goa and Europe.<ref name="Dodge226"/><ref name="Disney2009b175,184">{{harvnb|Disney|2009b|pp=175, 184}}</ref>

==== Spice Islands (Moluccas) and Treaty of Zaragoza ====
{{Main|Portuguese Empire in the Indonesian Archipelago}}

[[File:Attributed to Kano Sanraku - Important Cultural Property Namban Screens - Google Art Project2.jpg|thumb|Portugal was the first European nation to [[Nanban trade|establish trade routes with Japan]] and [[Fernão Pires de Andrade|China]]. A significant portion of the crews on Portuguese ships on the [[Japan voyage]] were [[Catholic Church in India|Indian Catholics]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Interracial Intimacy in Japan|first=Gary P.|last=Leupp|publisher=[[Continuum International Publishing Group]]|year=2003|isbn=978-0-8264-6074-5|page=35}}</ref>]]

Portuguese operations in Asia did not go unnoticed, and in 1521 [[Ferdinand Magellan|Magellan]] arrived in the region and claimed the Philippines for Spain. In 1525, Spain under Charles V sent an expedition to colonise the [[Moluccas islands]], claiming they were in his zone of the [[Treaty of Tordesillas]], since there was no set limit to the east. The expedition of [[García Jofre de Loaísa]] reached the Moluccas, docking at [[Tidore]]. With the Portuguese already established in nearby Ternate, conflict was inevitable, leading to nearly a decade of skirmishes. A resolution was reached with the [[Treaty of Zaragoza]] in 1529, attributing the Moluccas to Portugal and the Philippines to Spain.<ref name="Ooi2004p1340">{{harvnb|Ooi|2004|p=1340}}</ref> The Portuguese traded regularly with the [[Bruneian Empire]] from 1530 and described the capital of Brunei as surrounded by a stone wall.

==== South Asia, Persian Gulf and Red Sea ====
{{See also|Persian–Portuguese war|Capture of Ormuz (1507)|Portuguese invasion of Bahrain|History of Kuwait|History of Qatar|Qeshm Island|Bandar Abbas|Portuguese Oman|Portuguese Socotra|Portuguese Ceylon|Gujarati-Portuguese conflicts}}The Portuguese empire expanded into the Persian Gulf, contesting control of the spice trade with the [[Ajuran Sultanate|Ajuran Empire]] and the [[Ottoman Empire]]. Albuquerque [[Capture of Ormuz (1507)|conquered]] the [[Huwala]] state of [[Ormus|Hormuz]] at the head of the Persian Gulf in 1515, establishing it as a vassal state. [[Aden]], however, [[Siege of Aden|resisted]] Albuquerque's expedition in that same year and another attempt by Albuquerque's successor [[Lopo Soares de Albergaria]] in 1516. In 1521 a force led by [[António Correia (admiral)|António Correia]] captured [[Bahrain]], defeating the [[Jabrid]] King, [[Muqrin ibn Zamil]].<ref>Juan Cole, Sacred Space and Holy War, IB Tauris, 2007 p.&nbsp;37</ref> In a shifting series of alliances, the Portuguese dominated much of the southern Persian Gulf for the next hundred years. With the regular maritime route linking Lisbon to Goa since 1497, the [[island of Mozambique]] became a strategic port, and there was built [[Fort São Sebastião (Mozambique)|Fort São Sebastião]] and a hospital. In the Azores, the Islands Armada protected the ships en route to Lisbon.<ref name="O'Flanagan125">{{harvnb|O'Flanagan|2008|p=125}}</ref>

In 1534, Gujarat faced attack from the [[Mughals]] and the Rajput states of [[Chitor]] and [[Mandu, Madhya Pradesh|Mandu]]. The Sultan [[Bahadur Shah of Gujarat]] was forced to sign the [[Treaty of Bassein (1534)|Treaty of Bassein]] with the Portuguese, establishing an alliance to regain the country, giving in exchange [[Daman, Daman and Diu|Daman]], [[Diu, India|Diu]], [[Mumbai]] and [[Vasai|Bassein]]. It also regulated the trade of Gujarati ships departing to the [[Red Sea]] and passing through Bassein to pay duties and allow the horse trade.<ref name="Pearson1976pp74-82">{{harvnb|Pearson|1976|pp=74–82}}</ref> After Mughal ruler [[Humayun]] had success against Bahadur, the latter signed another treaty with the Portuguese to confirm the provisions and allowed the fort to be built in Diu. Shortly afterward, Humayun turned his attention elsewhere, and the Gujarats allied with the Ottomans to regain control of Diu and lay siege to the fort. The two failed sieges of [[Siege of Diu (1538)|1538]] and [[Siege of Diu (1546)|1546]] put an end to Ottoman ambitions, confirming the Portuguese hegemony in the region,<ref name="Pearson1976pp74-82"/><ref name="Malekandathil116-118">{{harvnb|Malekandathil|2010|pp=116–118}}</ref> as well as gaining superiority over the Mughals.<ref name="Mathew138">{{harvnb|Mathew|1988|p=138}}</ref> However, the Ottomans fought off attacks from the Portuguese in the Red Sea and in the [[Sinai Peninsula]] in 1541, and in the northern region of the Persian Gulf in 1546 and 1552. Each entity ultimately had to respect the sphere of influence of the other, albeit unofficially.<ref>{{cite book|first1=Mesut|last1=Uyar|first2=Edward|last2=J. Erickson|title=A Military History of the Ottomans: From Osman to Atatürk|publisher=ABC-CLIO| year=2003|isbn=0275988767|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JgfNBKHG7S8C&pg=PA76 }}</ref><ref>D. João de Castro [http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00generallinks/kerr/vol06chap03sect01to05.html ''The Voyage of Don Stefano de Gama from Goa to Suez, in 1540, with the intention of Burning the Turkish Galleys at that port''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061014142159/http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00generallinks/kerr/vol06chap03sect01to05.html |date=2006-10-14 }} (Volume 6, Chapter 3, eText)</ref>

==== Sub-Saharan Africa ====
[[File:Theodore de Bry - Harbour scene (colorized).jpg|thumb|Portuguese [[carracks]] unload cargo in Lisbon. Original engraving by [[Theodor de Bry]], 1593, coloured at a later date]]

After a series of prolonged contacts with Ethiopia, the Portuguese embassy made contact with the [[Ethiopian Empire|Ethiopian (Abyssinian) Kingdom]] led by Rodrigo de Lima in 1520.<ref name=Abir86>Abir, p. 86</ref><ref>Appiah; Gates, p. 130</ref> This coincided with the Portuguese search for Prester John, as they soon associated the kingdom as his land.<ref>Chesworth; Thomas p. 86</ref> The fear of Turkish advances within the Portuguese and Ethiopian sectors also played a role in their alliance.<ref name=Abir86/><ref>Newitt (2004), p. 86</ref> The [[Adal Sultanate]] defeated the Ethiopians in the [[battle of Shimbra Kure]] in 1529, and Islam spread further in the [[Ethiopian Highlands|region]]. Portugal responded by aiding king [[Gelawdewos of Ethiopia|Gelawdewos]] with Portuguese soldiers and muskets. Though the Ottomans responded with support of soldiers and muskets to the Adal Sultanate, after the death of the Adali sultan [[Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi]] in the [[battle of Wayna Daga]] in 1543, the joint Adal-Ottoman force retreated.<ref>Black, p. 102</ref><ref name="Stapleton2013p121">{{harvnb|Stapleton|2013|p=121}}</ref><ref>Cohen, pp. 17–18</ref>

The Portuguese also made direct contact with the [[Kingdom of Kongo|Kongolose]] vassal state [[Kingdom of Ndongo|Ndongo]] and its ruler Ngola Kiljuane in 1520, after the latter requested missionaries.<ref name="Mancall2007p207">{{harvnb|Mancall|2007|p=207}}</ref> Kongolese king [[Afonso I of Kongo|Afonso I]] interfered with the process with denunciations, and later sent a Kongo mission to Ndongo after the latter had arrested the Portuguese mission that came.<ref name="Mancall2007p207"/> The growing official and unofficial slave trading with Ndongo strained relations between Kongo and the Portuguese, and even had Portuguese ambassadors from São Tomé support Ndongo against the Kingdom of Kongo.<ref name="Thornton2000pp100-101">{{harvnb|Thornton|2000|pp=100–101}}</ref><ref name="HeywoodThornton2007p83">{{harvnb|Heywood|Thornton|2007|p=83}}</ref> However, when the [[Jaga (Kongo)|Jaga]] attacked and conquered regions of Kongo in 1568, Portuguese assisted Kongo in their defeat.<ref name="Stapleton2013p175">{{harvnb|Stapleton|2013|p=175}}</ref> In response, the Kongo allowed the colonisation of Luanda Island; Luanda was established by [[Paulo Dias de Novais]] in 1576 and soon became a slave port.<ref name="Stapleton2013p175"/><ref>Goodwin, p. 184</ref> De Novais' subsequent alliance with Ndongo angered Luso-Africans who resented the influence from the Crown.<ref name="HeywoodThornton2007p86">{{harvnb|Heywood|Thornton|2007|p=86}}</ref> In 1579, Ndongo ruler Ngola Kiluanje kia Ndamdi massacred Portuguese and Kongolese residents in the Ndongo capital [[Kingdom of Ndongo|Kabasa]] under the influence of Portuguese renegades. Both the Portuguese and Kongo fought against Ndongo, and off-and-on warfare between the Ndongo and Portugal would persist for decades.<ref name="Mancall2007pp208-211">{{harvnb|Mancall|2007|pp=208–211}}</ref>

In east-Africa, the main agents acting on behalf of the Portuguese Crown, exploring and settling the territory of what would become Mozambique were the ''{{lang|pt|[[prazeiros]]}}'', to whom vast estates around the Zambezi River were leased by the King as a reward for their services. Commanding vast armies of [[chikunda]] warrior-slaves, these men acted as feudal-like lords, either levying tax from local chieftains, defending them and their estates from marauding tribes, participating in the ivory or slave trade, and becoming involved in the politics of the [[Kingdom of Mutapa]], to the point of installing client kings upon its throne.

==== Missionary expeditions ====
[[File:Saint Francis Xavier taking leave of King John III (1635) - José Avelar Rebelo.png|thumb|[[St. Francis Xavier]] requesting [[John III of Portugal]] for a missionary expedition in Asia]]

In 1542, Jesuit missionary [[Francis Xavier]] arrived in Goa at the service of João III of Portugal, in charge of an [[Apostolic Nunciature]]. At the same time [[Francisco Zeimoto]], [[António Mota]], and other traders arrived in Japan for the first time. According to [[Fernão Mendes Pinto]], who claimed to be in this journey, they arrived at [[Tanegashima]], where the locals were impressed by [[Tanegashima (Japanese matchlock)|firearms]], that would be immediately made by the Japanese on a large scale.<ref name="Pacey1991">{{cite book |last=Pacey |first=Arnold |title=Technology in World Civilization: A Thousand-year History |url=https://archive.org/details/technologyinworl0000pace |url-access=registration |year=1991 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0-262-66072-3}}</ref> By 1570 the Portuguese bought part of a Japanese port where they founded a small part of the city of [[Nagasaki]],<ref>Yosaburō Takekoshi, "The Economic Aspects of the History of the Civilization of Japan", {{ISBN|0-415-32379-7}}.</ref> and it became the major trading port in Japan in the triangular trade with China and Europe.<ref name="Disney2009b195">{{harvnb|Disney|2009b|p=195}}</ref>

Guarding its trade from both European and Asian competitors, Portugal dominated not only the trade between Asia and Europe, but also much of the trade between different regions of Asia and Africa, such as India, Indonesia, China, and Japan. [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] missionaries, followed the Portuguese to spread [[Catholicism]]<ref>{{cite book |last=C. Bloomer |first=Kristin |title=Possessed by the Virgin: Hinduism, Roman Catholicism, and Marian Possession in South India |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2018 |isbn=9780190615093 |page=14}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=J. Russo |first=David |title=American History from a Global Perspective: An Interpretation |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |year=2000 |isbn=9780275968960 |page=314 |quote=the Church of England was a " state church " in the colonies the way it indisputably was in England, and as the Roman Catholic Church was in the neighboring Spanish and Portuguese empires.}}</ref> to Asia and Africa with mixed success.<ref name="BethencourtCurto262-265">{{harvnb|Bethencourt|Curto|2007|pp=262–265}}</ref>

=== Colonisation efforts in the Americas ===
{{Main|Portuguese colonisation of the Americas}}

==== Canada ====
[[File:Terra Nova e Labrador 01.png|thumb|The Portuguese mapped and claimed [[Portugal Cove-St. Philip's|Canada]] in 1499 and the 1500s.]]
Based on the [[Treaty of Tordesillas]], the Portuguese Crown, under the kings Manuel I, João III and Sebastão, also claimed territorial rights in North America (reached by [[John Cabot]] in 1497 and 1498). To that end, in 1499 and 1500, [[João Fernandes Lavrador]] explored [[Greenland]] and the north Atlantic coast of Canada, which accounts for the appearance of "Labrador" on topographical maps of the period.<ref name="DiffieWinius464">{{harvnb|Diffie|Winius|1977|p=464}}</ref> Subsequently, in 1500–1501 and 1502, the brothers [[Gaspar Corte-Real|Gaspar]] and [[Miguel Corte-Real]] explored what is today the Canadian province of [[Newfoundland and Labrador]], and Greenland, claiming these lands for Portugal. In 1506, King Manuel I created taxes for the cod fisheries in Newfoundland waters.{{citation needed|date=November 2019}} Around 1521, [[João Álvares Fagundes]] was granted [[Donatário|donatary]] rights to the inner islands of the [[Gulf of St. Lawrence]] and also created a settlement on [[Cape Breton Island]] to serve as a base for cod fishing. Pressure from natives and competing European fisheries prevented a permanent establishment and it was abandoned five years later. Several attempts to establish settlements in Newfoundland over the next half-century also failed.<ref name="Disney2009a116">{{harvnb|Disney|2009a|p=116}}</ref>

==== Brazil ====
Within a few years after Cabral arrived from Brazil, competition came along from France. In 1503, an expedition under the command of [[Gonçalo Coelho]] reported French raids on the Brazilian coasts,<ref name="HerringHerring214">{{harvnb|Herring|Herring|1968|p=214}}</ref> and explorer [[Binot Paulmier de Gonneville]] traded for brazilwood after making contact in southern Brazil a year later.<ref>Metcalf (2006), p.&nbsp;60</ref> Expeditions sponsored by [[Francis I of France|Francis I]] along the North American coast directly violated of the [[Treaty of Tordesilhas]].<ref name="PickettPickett14">{{harvnb|Pickett|Pickett|2011|p=14}}</ref> By 1531, the French had stationed a trading post off of an island on the Brazilian coast.<ref name="PickettPickett14"/>

The increase in brazilwood smuggling from the French led [[João III]] to press an effort to establish effective occupation of the territory.<ref name="Marley2008p76">{{harvnb|Marley|2008|p=76}}</ref> In 1531, a royal expedition led by [[Martim Afonso de Sousa]] and his brother Pero Lopes went to patrol the whole Brazilian coast, banish the French, and create some of the first colonial towns – among them [[São Vicente, São Paulo|São Vicente]], in 1532.<ref name="Marley2008pp76-78">{{harvnb|Marley|2008|pp=76–78}}</ref> Sousa returned to Lisbon a year later to become [[List of governors of Portuguese India|governor of India]] and never returned to Brazil.<ref name="DeOliveira254">{{harvnb|de Oliveira Marques|1972|p=254}}</ref><ref name="Marley2008p78">{{harvnb|Marley|2008|p=78}}</ref> The French attacks did cease to an extent after retaliation led to the Portuguese paying the French to stop attacking Portuguese ships throughout the Atlantic,<ref name="PickettPickett14"/> but the attacks would continue to be a problem well into the 1560s.<ref name="Marley2005pp694-696">{{harvnb|Marley|2005|pp=694–696}}</ref>

[[File:Capitanias.jpg|thumb|A map from 1574 showing the 15 hereditary [[Colonial Brazil|captaincy colonies of Brazil]]]]

Upon Sousa's arrival and success, fifteen latitudinal tracts, theoretically to span from the coast to the Tordesillas limit, were decreed by João III on 28 September 1532.<ref name="DeOliveira254"/><ref name="Marley2005p694">{{harvnb|Marley|2008|p=694}}</ref> The plot of the lands formed the hereditary [[Colonial Brazil#Captaincies|captaincies]] (Capitanias Hereditárias) to grantees rich enough to support settlement, as had been done successfully in [[Madeira]] and [[Colonial Cape Verde|Cape Verde]] islands.<ref name="DiffieWinius310">{{harvnb|Diffie|Winius|1977|p=310}}</ref> Each [[captain-major]] was to build settlements, grant allotments and administer justice, being responsible for developing and taking the costs of colonisation, although not being the owner: he could transmit it to offspring, but not sell it. Twelve recipients came from Portuguese gentry who become prominent in Africa and India and senior officials of the court, such as [[João de Barros]].<ref name="deAbreu1998">{{cite book |last=de Abreu |first=João Capistrano |others=trans. by Arthur Irakel |title=Chapters of Brazil's Colonial History 1500–1800 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=73CsasKb1CgC |access-date=10 July 2012 |year=1998 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-802631-0 |pages=35, 38–40}}</ref>

Of the fifteen original captaincies, only two, [[Captaincy of Pernambuco|Pernambuco]] and [[Captaincy of São Vicente|São Vicente]], prospered.<ref name="DeOliveira255-56">{{harvnb|de Oliveira Marques|1972|pp=255–56}}</ref> Both were dedicated to the crop of [[sugar cane]], and the settlers managed to maintain alliances with [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]]. The rise of the sugar industry came about because the Crown took the easiest sources of profit (brazilwood, spices, etc.), leaving settlers to come up with new revenue sources.<ref name="DeOliveira255">{{harvnb|de Oliveira Marques|1972|p=255}}</ref> The establishment of the sugar cane industry demanded intensive labour that would be met with Native American and, later, African slaves.<ref name="BethencourtCurto111-119">{{harvnb|Bethencourt|Curto|2007|pp=111–119}}</ref> Deeming the ''capitanias'' system ineffective, João III decided to centralise the government of the colony in order to "give help and assistance" to grantees. In 1548 he created the first General Government, sending in [[Tomé de Sousa]] as first governor and selecting a capital at the [[Bay of All Saints]], making it at the [[Captaincy of Bahia]].<ref name="Lockhart190-191">{{harvnb|Lockhart|1983|pp=190–191}}</ref><ref name="Bakewell496">{{harvnb|Bakewell|2009|p=496}}</ref>

Tomé de Sousa built the capital of Brazil, [[Salvador, Bahia|Salvador]], at the Bay of All Saints in 1549.<ref name="Mahoney246">{{harvnb|Mahoney|2010|p=246}}</ref> Among Sousa's 1,000 man expedition were soldiers, workers, and six [[Society of Jesus|Jesuits]] led by [[Manuel da Nóbrega]].<ref name="Russell-Wood1968p47">{{harvnb|Russell-Wood|1968|p=47}}</ref> The Jesuits would have an essential role in the settlement of Brazil, including the cities of São Vicente, and [[São Paulo]], the latter co-founded by Nóbrega.<ref name="Ladle185">{{harvnb|Ladle|2000|p=185}}</ref> Along with the Jesuit missions later came disease among the natives, among them [[plague (disease)|plague]] and [[smallpox]].{{Comment|Are we sure it was the Jesuits in particular who brought smallpox with them}}<ref>Metcalf (2005), pp.&nbsp;36–37</ref> Subsequently, the French would resettle in Portuguese territory at [[Guanabara Bay]], which would be called [[France Antarctique]].<ref name="Marley2008p86">{{harvnb|Marley|2008|p=86}}</ref> While a Portuguese ambassador was sent to [[Paris]] to report the French intrusion, João III appointed [[Mem de Sá]] as new Brazilian governor general, and Sá left for Brazil in 1557.<ref name="Marley2008p86"/> Sá and his forces had by 1560 expelled the combined [[Huguenot]], Scottish [[Calvinist]], and slave forces from France Antarctique, but left survivors after burning their fortifications and villages. These survivors would settle [[Glória, Rio de Janeiro|Gloria Bay]], [[Flamengo, Rio de Janeiro|Flamengo Beach]], and [[Governador Island|Parapapuã]] with the assistance of the [[Tupí people|Tamoio]] natives.<ref name="Marley2008p90">{{harvnb|Marley|2008|p=90}}</ref>

The Tamoio had been allied with the French since the settlement of France Antarctique, and despite the French loss in 1560, the Tamoio were still a threat.<ref name="Treece31">{{harvnb|Treece|2000|p=31}}</ref> They launched two attacks in 1561 and 1564 (the latter event was assisting the French), and were nearly successful with each.<ref name="Marley2008pp91-92">{{harvnb|Marley|2008|pp=91–92}}</ref><ref>Metcalf (2005), p.&nbsp;37</ref> By this time period, Manuel de Nóbrega, along with fellow Jesuit [[Joseph of Anchieta|José de Anchieta]], took part as members of attacks on the Tamoios and as spies for their resources.<ref name="Treece31"/><ref name="Marley2008pp91-92" /> From 1565 through 1567 Mem de Sá and his forces eventually destroyed France Antarctique at Guanabara Bay. He and his nephew, [[Estácio de Sá]], then established the city of [[Rio de Janeiro]] in 1567, after Mem de Sá proclaimed the area "São Sebastião do Rio de Janeiro" in 1565.<ref name="Marley2008p96">{{harvnb|Marley|2008|p=96}}</ref> By 1575, the Tamoios had been subdued and essentially were extinct,<ref name="Treece31"/> and by 1580 the government became more of an ''ouvidor general'' rather than the ''ouvidores''.{{Clarify|date=December 2024}}<ref name="Schwartz1973p41">{{harvnb|Schwartz|1973|p=41}}</ref>

=== Iberian Union, Protestant rivalry, and colonial stasis (1580–1663) ===
{{Main|Iberian Union|Council of Portugal|Dutch-Portuguese War|Portuguese Restoration War}}

{{See also|War of the Portuguese Succession}}
[[File:Philip II's realms in 1598.png|thumb|The [[Iberian Union]] in 1598, during the reign of [[Philip II of Spain|Philip I and II]], King of Portugal and Spain]]

In 1580, King [[Philip II of Spain]] invaded Portugal after a [[1580 Portuguese succession crisis|crisis of succession]] brought about by king [[Sebastian, King of Portugal|Sebastião of Portugal]]'s death during a disastrous [[Battle of Alcácer Quibir|Portuguese attack on Alcácer Quibir]] in [[Morocco]] in 1578. At the Cortes of Tomar in 1581, Philip was crowned Philip I of Portugal, uniting the two crowns and overseas empires under [[Spanish Habsburgs|Spanish Habsburg]] rule in a [[Dynastic union|dynastic]] [[Iberian Union]].<ref name="Kamen177">{{harvnb|Kamen|1999|p=177}}</ref> At Tomar, Philip promised to keep the empires legally distinct, leaving the administration of the Portuguese Empire to Portuguese nationals, with a [[List of Viceroys of Portugal during the Iberian Union|Viceroy of Portugal]] in Lisbon seeing to his interests.<ref name="Boyajian11">{{harvnb|Boyajian|2008|p=11}}</ref> Philip even had the capital moved to Lisbon for a two-year period (1581–83) due to it being the most important city in the [[Iberian peninsula]].<ref name="Gallagher8">{{harvnb|Gallagher|1982|p=8}}</ref> All the Portuguese colonies accepted the new state of affairs except for the [[Azores]], which held out for [[António, Prior of Crato|António]], a Portuguese rival claimant to the throne who had garnered the support of [[Catherine de Medici]] of France in exchange for the promise to cede Brazil. Spanish forces eventually captured the islands in 1583.<ref name="Anderson104-105">{{harvnb|Anderson|2000|pp=104–105}}</ref>

The Tordesillas boundary between Spanish and Portuguese control in South America was then increasingly ignored by the Portuguese, who pressed beyond it into the heart of Brazil,<ref name="Boyajian11" /> allowing them to expand the territory to the west. Exploratory missions were carried out both ordered by the government, the "entradas" (entries), and by private initiative, the "bandeiras" (flags), by the "[[bandeirantes]]".<ref name="Boxer386">{{harvnb|Boxer|1969|p=386}}</ref> These expeditions lasted for years venturing into unmapped regions, initially to capture natives and force them into slavery, and later focusing on finding gold, silver and diamond mines.<ref name="BethencourtCurto111,117">{{harvnb|Bethencourt|Curto|2007|pp=111, 117}}</ref>

[[File:La recuperación de Bahía, Maíno.jpg|thumb|left|[[The Recovery of Bahía de Todos los Santos|The Recovery of São Salvador da Bahia de Todos os Santos]], by [[Philip III of Portugal]], from the [[Dutch Republic]]]]

However, the union meant that Spain dragged Portugal into its conflicts with England, France and the [[Dutch Republic]], countries which were beginning to establish their own overseas empires.<ref name="Anderson105">{{harvnb|Anderson|2000|p=105}}</ref> The primary threat came from the Dutch, who had been engaged in a [[Eighty Years War|struggle for independence]] against Spain since 1568. In 1581, the [[Dutch Republic|Seven Provinces]] gained independence from the [[House of Habsburg|Habsburg rule]], leading Philip II to prohibit commerce with Dutch ships, including in Brazil where Dutch had invested large sums in financing sugar production.<ref name="Thomas159">{{harvnb|Thomas|1997|p=159}}</ref>

Spanish imperial trade networks now were opened to Portuguese merchants, which was particularly lucrative for Portuguese slave traders who could now sell slaves in Spanish America at a higher price than could be fetched in Brazil.<ref name="Lockhart250">{{harvnb|Lockhart|1983|p=250}}</ref> In addition to this newly acquired access to the Spanish ''[[asiento]]s'', the Portuguese were able to solve their bullion shortage issues with access to the production of the silver mining in Peru and Mexico.<ref name="Newitt163">{{harvnb|Newitt|2005|p=163}}</ref> [[Manila]] was also incorporated into the Macau-Nagasaki trading network, allowing Macanese of Portuguese descent to act as trading agents for Philippine Spaniards and use Spanish silver from the Americas in trade with China, and they later drew competition with the Dutch East India Company.<ref name="Disney2009b186">{{harvnb|Disney|2009b|p=186}}</ref>

In 1592, during the [[Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)|war with Spain]], an English fleet [[Battle of Flores (1592)|captured]] a large Portuguese carrack off the Azores, the [[Madre de Deus]], which was loaded with 900 tons of merchandise from India and China estimated at half a million [[Pound sterling|pounds]] (nearly half the size of English Treasury at the time).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Smith |first=Roger |year=1986 |title=Early Modern Ship-types, 1450–1650 |url=http://www.newberry.org/smith/slidesets/ss06.html |access-date=2009-05-08 |publisher=The Newberry Library |archive-date=2008-07-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080720094650/http://www.newberry.org/smith/slidesets/ss06.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> This foretaste of the riches of the East galvanised English interest in the region.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Puga |first=Rogério Miguel |author-link=Rogerio Miguel Puga |date=December 2002 |title=The Presence of the "Portugals" in Macau and Japan in Richard Hakluyt's ''Navigations'' |url=https://redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=36100506 |journal=Bulletin of Portuguese/Japanese Studies |language=en |volume=5 |pages=81–116 |issn=0874-8438 |access-date=2022-03-26 |via=[[Redalyc]] |archive-date=2023-03-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330201013/http://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=36100506 |url-status=live }}</ref> That same year, [[Cornelis de Houtman]] was sent by Dutch merchants to Lisbon, to gather as much information as he could about the Spice Islands.<ref name="Disney2009b186" /><ref name="Lach200">{{harvnb|Lach|1994|p=200}}</ref>

[[File:Rua Direita na Cidade de Goa.jpg|thumb|right|[[Joannes van Doetecum the Elder|Joannes van Doetecum]]'s 1596 print of "[[Market of Goa (Van Doetecum)|The Market of Goa]]" in [[Jan Huygen van Linschoten|Linschoten]]'s ''Itinerario'', showing the main street of Portuguese Goa in the 1580s]]

The Dutch eventually came to acknowledge the importance of Goa in breaking up the Portuguese empire in Asia. In 1583, merchant and explorer [[Jan Huyghen van Linschoten]] (1563{{nbsp}}– 8 February 1611), formerly the Dutch secretary of the Archbishop of Goa, had acquired information while serving in that position that contained the location of secret Portuguese trade routes throughout Asia, including those to the East Indies and Japan. It was published in 1595 and then greatly expanded the next year as his ''Itinerario''.<ref>{{citation |language=nl |last=Van Linschoten |first=Jan Huygen |url=https://archive.org/details/itinerariovoyage00lins/page/n5/mode/2up |title=Itinerario, Voyage ofte Schipvaert |date=1596 |location=Amsterdam |publisher=Cornelis Claesz. }}</ref><ref>{{citation |editor-last=Burnell |editor-first=Arthur Coke |editor2=Pieter Anton Tiele |display-editors=1 |author=Jan Huygen van Linschoten |display-authors=0 |url=https://archive.org/details/voyagejohnhuygh02tielgoog/page/n7/mode/2up |title=The Voyage of John Huyghen van Linschoten to the East Indies... |location=London |publisher=Hakluyt Society |date=1885 }}.</ref> Dutch and English interests used this new information, leading to their commercial expansion, including the foundation of the English [[East India Company]] in 1600, and the Dutch East India Company in 1602. These developments allowed the entry of [[chartered companies]] into the East Indies.<ref name="Crow1992">{{Cite book |last=Crow |first=John A. |url=https://archive.org/details/epicoflatinameri00crow |title=The Epic of Latin America |publisher=University of California Press |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-520-07723-2 |edition=4th |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles, California |page=[https://archive.org/details/epicoflatinameri00crow/page/241 241] |access-date=10 July 2012 |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name="BowenLincoln2002">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UmN4ZOgCbsIC&pg=PA2 |title=The Worlds of the East India Company |publisher=Boydell & Brewer |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-84383-073-3 |editor-last=Bowen |editor-first=H. V. |page=2 |access-date=10 July 2012 |editor-last2=Lincoln |editor-first2=Margarette |editor-last3=Rigby |editor-first3=Nigel}}</ref>

[[File:Meirelles-guararapes.jpg|thumb|The Portuguese victory at the [[Second Battle of Guararapes]] ended Dutch presence in [[Pernambuco]].]]

The Dutch took their fight overseas, attacking Spanish and Portuguese colonies and beginning the [[Dutch–Portuguese War]], which would last for over sixty years (1602–1663). Other European nations, such as Protestant England, assisted the [[Dutch Empire]] in the war. The Dutch attained victories in Asia and Africa with assistance of various indigenous allies, eventually wrenching control of [[Portuguese Malacca|Malacca]] (1641), [[Portuguese Gold Coast]] (1642; [[Elmina Castle]] seized by the Dutch already in 1637), [[Portuguese Ceylon|Ceylon]] (1658), and [[Kochi]] (1663). The Dutch also had regional control of the lucrative sugar-producing region of [[Dutch Brazil|northeast Brazil]] as well as [[Portuguese Angola|Luanda]], but the Portuguese regained these territories after considerable struggle.<ref name="Disney2009b73-74,168-171,226-231">{{harvnb|Disney|2009b|pp=73–74, 168–171, 226–231}}</ref><ref>Charles R. Boxer, ''The Dutch in Brazil, 1624–1654''. Oxford: Clarendon Press 1957.</ref>

Meanwhile, in the Persian Gulf region, the Portuguese also lost control of [[Bahrain]] in 1602, [[Capture of Ormuz (1622)|Ormuz]] was captured by a joint alliance of the [[Safavid Empire|Safavids]] and the English in 1622, and [[Muscat, Oman|Muscat]] was captured by [[Oman]] under the [[Yaruba dynasty|Al-Ya'arubs]] in 1650.<ref name="Disney2009b169">{{harvnb|Disney|2009b|p=169}}</ref> The [[Battle off Hormuz (1625)|1625 Battle off Hormuz]], one of the most important of the [[Portuguese–Safavid wars]], would result in a draw.<ref name="WF">Willem Floor, "Dutch Relations with the Persian Gulf", in Lawrence G. Potter (ed.), ''The Persian Gulf in History'' (Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), p. 240.</ref> They would continue to use Muscat as a base for repetitive incursions within the Indian Ocean, [[Siege of Fort Jesus|including capturing Fort Jesus in 1698]], which resulted in a loss of [[Zanzibar]] in 1698.<ref name="Disney2009b350">{{harvnb|Disney|2009b|p=350}}</ref> In Ethiopia and Japan in the 1630s, the ousting of missionaries by local leaders severed influence in the respective regions.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uyqepNdgUWkC&q=Ethiopia+Portuguese+1630s&pg=PA204 |title=Historical Dictionary of European Imperialism |publisher=Greenwood Press |year=1991 |isbn=978-0313262579 |editor-last=Olson |editor-first=James Stuart |page=204 |access-date=2017-08-27}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SzPs4rb2TN0C&q=Portuguese+Japan+1639&pg=PA13 |title=Japan and the Dutch 1600-1853 |publisher=Routledge |year=1991 |isbn=978-0700712205 |editor-last=Goodman |editor-first=Grant K. |page=13 |access-date=2017-08-27}}</ref>

== Portuguese Empire (1663–1822) ==
{{Further|History of Portugal (1640–1777)|History of Portugal (1777–1834)}}The loss of colonies was one of the reasons that contributed to the end of the personal union with Spain. João IV was proclaimed king of Portugal in 1640 and the [[Portuguese Restoration War]] began. Even before the war's final resolution, the crown established the Overseas Council, conceived in 1642 on the short-lived model of the Council of India (1604–1614), and established in 1643, it was the governing body for most of the Portuguese overseas empire. The exceptions were North Africa, Madeira, and the Azores. All correspondence concerning overseas possessions were funneled through the council. When the Portuguese court fled to Brazil in 1807, following the Napoleonic invasion of Iberia, Brazil was removed from the jurisdiction of the council. It made recommendations concerning personnel for the administrative, fiscal, and military, as well as bishops of overseas dioceses.<ref>Francis A. Dutra. "Overseas Council (Portugal)" in ''Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture'', vol. 4, pp. 254–255. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons 1996.</ref> A distinguished seventeenth-century member was [[Salvador de Sá]].<ref>Francis A. Dutra, "Salvador Correia de Sá e Benavides" in ''Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture'', vol. 5, p. 2. New York: Charles A. Scribner's Sons 1996.</ref>

[[File:Nau Rainha de Portugal.jpg|thumb|Portuguese warship ''Rainha de Portugal'' saluting the squadron of Admiral Ball at Malta in 1798. In the 18th century the [[Portuguese Navy]] was among the most powerful in the world.]]
In 1661 the Portuguese offered [[Bombay]] and [[Portuguese Tangier|Tangier]] to England as part of a dowry, and over the next hundred years the English gradually became the dominant trader in India, gradually excluding the trade of other powers. Spain recognised the end of the [[Iberian Union]] in 1668, with Portugal in exchange ceding [[Ceuta]] to the Spanish crown.<ref name="Cowans2003">{{cite book |editor-last=Cowans |editor-first=Jon |title=Early Modern Spain: A Documentary History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ksf_tz5x5FwC&pg=PA180 |access-date=10 July 2012 |year=2003 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=0-8122-1845-0 |page=180}}</ref>

After the Portuguese were defeated by the Indian rulers [[Chimnaji Appa]] of the [[Maratha Confederacy|Maratha Empire]]<ref>History of the Konkan by Alexander Kyd Nairne pp.&nbsp;84–85</ref><ref name="Ahmed330">{{harvnb|Ahmed|2011|p=330}}</ref> and by [[Shivappa Nayaka]] of the [[Keladi Nayaka Kingdom]]<ref>Portuguese Studies Review {{ISSN
|1057-1515}} (Baywolf Press) p.&nbsp;35</ref> and at the end of confrontations with the Dutch, Portugal was only able to cling onto [[Goa]] and several minor bases in India, and managed to regain territories in Brazil and Africa, but lost forever to prominence in Asia as trade was diverted through increasing numbers of English, Dutch and French trading posts. In 1787, in [[Goa]] the [[Conspiracy of the Pintos]], also known as the Pinto Revolt, known in Portuguese as ''A Conjuração dos Pintos'' occurred, this was a rebellion against [[Portugal|Portuguese]] rule.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://goemkarponn.com/cm-places-wreath-at-pintos-revolt-memorial/ | title=Cm Places Wreath at Pinto's Revolt Memorial | date=13 December 2022 }}</ref>

The leaders of the plot were three prominent priests from the village of [[Candolim]] in the ''{{lang|pt|[[concelho]]}}'' of [[Bardez]], Goa. They belonged to the noble Pinto clan, hence the name of the rebellion.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/pinto-revolt-murals-to-adorn-candolim-road/articleshow/56129402.cms | title='Pinto Revolt' murals to adorn Candolim road | newspaper=The Times of India | date=23 December 2016 }}</ref>

This was fought due to the Portuguese refusing to create bishops and other officials from the colonies and demanded equality. The family was one of the first [[People from India|Indian]] families to be considered as a [[Fidalgo]] by the Portuguese crown and two brothers were granted a coat of arms in 1770, and included in the [[Portuguese nobility]]

This was the first anti-colonial revolt in [[India]] and one of the first by [[Catholic]] subjects in all European colonies. 

Thus, throughout the century, Brazil gained increasing importance to the empire, which exported [[brazilwood]] and sugar.<ref name="BethencourtCurto111,117"/>

=== Minas Gerais and the gold industry ===
In 1693, the Bandeirante Antônio Rodrigues de Arzão, [[Caipiras|Caipira]] from [[Taubaté]], discovered gold in the interior of the [[Captaincy of São Vicente]], an area currently corresponding to [[Minas Gerais]], in Brazil.<ref>{{Cite book |last=PAULA |first=João Antônio de |url=https://repositorio.ufmg.br/server/api/core/bitstreams/b3d792a0-9dd2-4ab0-9697-506edf30e9a6/content |title=Minas Gerais: Visão de conjunto e perpectivas |pages=41}}</ref> Major discoveries of gold and, later, diamonds in Minas Gerais, Mato Grosso and Goiás led to a "[[Brazil Gold Rush|gold rush]]", with a large influx of migrants.<ref name="Boxer168">{{harvnb|Boxer|1969|p=168}}</ref> The village became the new economic focal point of the empire, with rapid settlement and some conflicts. This gold cycle led to the creation of an internal market and attracted a large number of immigrants. In 1739, when Minas Gerais was already separated as a captaincy, its population was somewhere between 200,000 and 250,000.<ref name="Disney2009b268-69">{{harvnb|Disney|2009b|pp=268–269}}</ref>

The gold rush considerably increased the revenue of the Portuguese crown, who charged a fifth of all the ore mined, or the "fifth". Diversion and smuggling were frequent, along with altercations between [[Paulistas]] and ''Emboabas'' (Term of the [[Paulista General Language]] and [[Caipira dialect]] that refers to 'foreigner', used at the time to refer to immigrants from Portugal and other regions in Brazil). In 1709, after the defeat of the Bandeirantes in the [[War of the Emboabas]], which culminated in the bankruptcy and sale of the Captaincy of São Vicente to the Portuguese crown, which would reorganize it as the Captaincy of São Paulo and Minas de Ouro, a whole set of bureaucratic controls began.<ref name="Bethell203">{{harvnb|Bethell|1985|p=203}}</ref><ref name="Disney2009b267-68">{{harvnb|Disney|2009b|pp=267–268}}</ref> The crown also restricted the diamond mining within its jurisdiction and to private contractors.<ref name="Disney2009b267-68"/> In spite of gold increasing global commerce, the plantation industry became the leading export for Brazil during this period; sugar constituted at 50% of the exports (with gold at 46%) in 1760.<ref name="Disney2009b268-69" />

Africans became the largest group of people in Minas Gerais. Slaves labeled as {{Lang|pt|[[Mina (Brazil)|Minas]]}} and {{Lang|pt|Angolas}} rose in high demand during the boom. The [[Akan peoples|Akan]] within the {{Lang|pt|Minas}} group had a reputation to have been experts in extrapolating gold in their native regions, and became the preferred group. In spite of the high death rate associated with the slaves involved in the mining industry, the owners that allowed slaves that extracted above the minimum amount of gold to keep the excesses, which in turn led to the possibility of [[manumission]]. Those that became free partook in artisan jobs such as cobblers, tailors, and blacksmiths. In spite of free blacks and [[mulattoes]] playing a large role in Minas Gerais, the number of them that received marginalisation was greater there than in any other region in Brazil.<ref name="Disney2009b273-275">{{harvnb|Disney|2009b|pp=273–275}}</ref>

Gold discovered in Mato Grosso and Goiás sparked an interest to solidify the western borders of the colony. In the 1730s contact with Spanish outposts occurred more frequently, and the Spanish threatened to launch a military expedition in order to remove them. This failed to happen and by the 1750s the Portuguese were able to implant a political stronghold in the region.<ref name="Disney2009b288">{{harvnb|Disney|2009b|p=288}}</ref>

In 1755 Lisbon suffered a catastrophic [[1755 Lisbon earthquake|earthquake]], which together with a subsequent [[tsunami]] killed between 40,000 and 60,000 people out of a population of 275,000.<ref name="KozakCermak131">{{harvnb|Kozák|Cermák|2007|p=131}}</ref> This sharply checked Portuguese colonial ambitions in the late 18th century.<ref name="Ramasamy2006">{{cite book |editor1-last=Ramasamy |editor1-first=SM. |editor2-last=Kumanan |editor2-first=C.J. |editor3-last=Sivakumar |editor3-first=R. |display-editors = 3 |editor4-last=Singh |editor4-first=Bhoop |title=Geomatics in Tsunami |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5gEBfvCBclUC&pg=PA8 |access-date=10 July 2012 |year=2006 |publisher=New India Publishing |isbn=978-81-89422-31-8 |page=8}}</ref>

According to economic historians, Portugal's colonial trade had a substantial positive impact on Portuguese economic growth, 1500–1800. Leonor Costa et al. conclude:

<blockquote>intercontinental trade had a substantial and increasingly positive impact on economic growth. In the heyday of colonial expansion, eliminating the economic links to empire would have reduced Portugal's per capita income by roughly a fifth. While the empire helped the domestic economy it was not sufficient to annul the tendency towards decline in relation to Europe's advanced core which set in from the 17th century onwards.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Costa|first1=Leonor Freire|last2=Palma|first2=Nuno|last3=Reis|first3=Jaime|date=2015|title=The great escape? The contribution of the empire to Portugal's economic growth, 1500–1800|journal=European Review of Economic History|volume=19|issue=1|pages=1–22|doi=10.1093/ereh/heu019|doi-access=free|hdl=10400.5/26870|hdl-access=free}}</ref></blockquote>

=== Pombaline and post-Pombaline Brazil ===
[[File:Mapa da cidade do Rio de Janeiro.jpg|thumb|Plan of the city of São Sebastião (Rio de Janeiro) in 1820]]

Unlike Spain, Portugal did not divide its [[Colonial Brazil|colonial territory in America]]. The [[capitania|captaincies]] created there functioned under a centralised administration in [[Salvador da Bahia|Salvador]], which reported directly to the Crown in Lisbon. The 18th century was marked by increasing centralisation of royal power throughout the Portuguese empire. The [[Jesuits]], who protected the natives against slavery, were brutally suppressed by the [[Marquis of Pombal]], which led to the dissolution of the order in the region by 1759.<ref name="Disney2009a298-302">{{harvnb|Disney|2009a|pp=298–302}}</ref> Pombal wished to improve the status of the natives by declaring them free and increasing the [[mestizo]] population by encouraging intermarriage between them and the white population. Indigenous freedom decreased in contrast to its period under the Jesuits, and the response to intermarriage was lukewarm at best.<ref name="Disney2009b288-89">{{harvnb|Disney|2009b|pp=288–289}}</ref> The crown's revenue from gold declined and plantation revenue increased by the time of Pombal, and he made provisions to improve each. Although he failed to spike the gold revenue, two short-term companies he established for the plantation economy drove a significant increase in production of cotton, rice, cacao, tobacco, and sugar. Slavery increased as well as involvement from the textile economy. The economic development as a whole was inspired by elements of the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] in mainland Europe.<ref name="Disney2009b277-79, 283-84">{{harvnb|Disney|2009b|pp=277–279, 283–284}}</ref> However, the diminished influence from states such as the United Kingdom increased the Kingdom's dependence upon Brazil.<ref>Paquette, p.&nbsp;67</ref>

Encouraged by the example of the United States of America, which had won its independence from Britain, the colonial province of [[Minas Gerais]] attempted to achieve the same objective in 1789. However, the [[Inconfidência Mineira]] failed, its leaders were arrested, and of the participants in the insurrections, the one of lowest social position, [[Tiradentes]], was hanged.<ref name="Bethell163-164">{{harvnb|Bethell|1985|pp=163–164}}</ref> Among the conspiracies led by the African population was the Bahian revolt in 1798, led primarily by João de Deus do Nascimento. Inspired by the [[French Revolution]], leaders proposed a society without slavery, food prices would be lowered, and trade restriction abolished. Impoverished social conditions and a high cost of living were among reasons of the revolt. Authorities diffused the plot before major action began; they executed four of the conspirators and exiled several others to the Atlantic Coast of Africa.<ref name="Disney2009b296-297">{{harvnb|Disney|2009b|pp=296–297}}</ref> Several more smaller-scale slave rebellions and revolts would occur from 1801 and 1816 and fears within Brazil were that these events would lead to a [[Haitian Revolution|"second Haiti"]].<ref>Paquette, p.&nbsp;104</ref>

In spite of the conspiracies, the rule of Portugal in Brazil was not under serious threat. Historian A. R. Disney states that the colonists did not until the transferring of the Kingdom in 1808 assert influence of policy changing due to direct contact,<ref name="Disney2009b298">{{harvnb|Disney|2009b|p=298}}</ref> and historian Gabriel Paquette mentions that the threats in Brazil were largely unrealised in Portugal until 1808 because of effective policing and espionage.<ref>Pequette, p.&nbsp;106</ref> More revolts would occur after the arrival of the court.<ref>Pequette, pp.&nbsp;106–114</ref>

=== Brazilian Independence ===
{{Further|Independence of Brazil|Transfer of the Portuguese Court to Brazil|United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves}}[[File:Independence of Brazil 1888.jpg|thumb|[[Independence of Brazil|Brazilian independence]] crippled the Portuguese Empire, both economically and politically, for a long time]]

In 1808, [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] invaded Portugal, and [[John VI of Portugal|Dom João]], [[prince regent]] in place of his mother, [[Maria I of Portugal|Queen Maria I]], ordered the transfer of the royal court to Brazil. In 1815 Brazil was elevated to the status of Kingdom, the Portuguese state officially becoming the [[United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves]] (''Reino Unido de Portugal, Brasil e Algarves''), and the capital was transferred from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro, the only instance of a European country being ruled from one of its colonies. There was also the election of Brazilian representatives to the [[Portuguese Cortes|Cortes Constitucionais Portuguesas]] (Portuguese Constitutional Courts), the Parliament that assembled in Lisbon in the wake of the [[Liberal Revolution of 1820]].<ref name="Bethell177-178">{{harvnb|Bethell|1985|pp=177–178}}</ref>

Although the royal family returned to Portugal in 1821, the interlude led to a growing desire for independence amongst Brazilians. In 1822, the son of Dom João VI, then prince-regent [[Dom Pedro I]], proclaimed the independence of Brazil on 7 September 1822, and was crowned Emperor of the new [[Empire of Brazil]]. Unlike the Spanish colonies of South America, Brazil's independence was achieved without significant bloodshed.<ref name="Angus1837">{{cite book |editor-last=Angus |editor-first=William |title=History of England: From the Roman Invasion to the Accession of Queen Victoria I |url=https://archive.org/details/historyenglandf00angugoog |access-date=10 July 2012 |year=1837 |location=Glasgow |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyenglandf00angugoog/page/n264 254]–255}}</ref><ref name="Levine2003">{{cite book |last=Levine |first=Robert M. |title=The History of Brazil |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pi56Cw3yGfcC&pg=PA59 |access-date=10 July 2012 |year=2003 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-1-4039-6255-3 |pages=59–61}}</ref>

== Third empire (1822–1999) ==
{{Main|Portuguese Mozambique|Portuguese Angola|Portuguese Guinea|Portuguese Timor}}

{{Further|Liberal Wars|History of Portugal (1834–1910)|Campaigns of Pacification and Occupation}}
[[File:Jesuit Convent, Macao.jpg|thumb|The façade of [[St. Paul's College, Macau|St. Paul's College]] in [[Macau]], 1854]]

At the height of [[European colonialism]] in the 19th century, Portugal had lost its territory in [[South America]] and all but a few bases in Asia. During this phase, Portuguese colonialism focused on expanding its outposts in Africa into nation-sized territories to compete with other European powers there. Portugal pressed into the hinterland of Angola and Mozambique, and explorers [[Alexandre de Serpa Pinto|Serpa Pinto]], [[Hermenegildo Capelo]] and [[Roberto Ivens]] were among the first Europeans to cross Africa west to east.<ref name="Newitt1995pp335-336">{{harvnb|Newitt|1995|pp=335–336}}</ref><ref name="Corrado18">{{harvnb|Corrado|2008|p=18}}</ref>

Slavery was officially abolished in the Portuguese Empire in 1878. However, this did not end [[forced labour]] or imply equality between "civilized" and "indigenous" subjects of the empire. This distinction would even be legally codified in a more explicit way by the [[First Portuguese Republic|First Republic]] which [[5 October 1910 revolution|took power]] in 1910.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Enders |first1=Armelle |last2=Cahen |first2=Michel |date=2025 |title=Histoire de l'Afrique lusophone |location=Paris |publisher=Chandeigne & Lima |page=68 |isbn=9782367322735}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Cahen |first=Michel |date=2015 |title= Seis teses sobre o trabalho forçado no império português continental em África |url=https://shs.hal.science/halshs-02469896v1/document |journal=África: Revista do Centro de Estudos Africanos |volume=35 |pages=129-155 |doi=10.11606/issn.2526-303X.v0i35p129-155 |access-date=27 September 2025}}</ref>

=== British Ultimatum and end of Portuguese monarchy (1890–1910) ===
[[File:Chaimite.jpg|thumb|In the 19th century, Portugal launched campaigns to solidify Portuguese Africa.]]

The project to connect the two colonies, the [[Pink Map]], was the main objective of Portuguese policy in the 1880s.<ref name="Lisboa134">{{harvnb|Lisboa|2008|p=134}}</ref> However, the idea was unacceptable to the British, who had their own aspirations of contiguous British territory running from [[Cairo]] to [[Cape Town]]. The [[1890 British Ultimatum]] was reluctantly accepted by [[Carlos I of Portugal]] and the Pink Map came to an end.<ref name="Lisboa134"/>

The King's reaction to the ultimatum was exploited by republicans.<ref name="Lisboa134"/> On 1 February 1908, King Carlos and Prince [[Luís Filipe, Prince Royal of Portugal|Luís Filipe]] were [[Lisbon Regicide|assassinated]] in Lisbon by two Portuguese republican activist revolutionaries, [[Alfredo Luís da Costa]] and [[Manuel Buíça]]. Luís Filipe's brother, Manuel, became King [[Manuel II of Portugal]]. Two years later, on 5 October 1910, he was overthrown and fled into exile in England in Fulwell Park, Twickenham near London and Portugal became a [[republic]].<ref name="Wheeler48-61">{{harvnb|Wheeler|1998|pp=48–61}}</ref>

=== World War I ===
{{Main|German campaign in Angola|East African Campaign (World War I)|Portugal during World War I|Battle of the Lys (1918)|}}

In 1914, the German Empire formulated plans to usurp Angola from Portuguese control.<ref name="Vincent-Smith1974">{{cite journal |title=The Anglo-German Negotiations over the Portuguese Colonies in Africa, 1911–14 |last=Vincent-Smith |first=J. D. |journal=The Historical Journal |volume=17 |issue=3 |date=Sep 1974 |issn=0018-246X |jstor=2638392 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=620–629 |doi=10.1017/s0018246x0000532x|s2cid=162822016 }}</ref> Skirmishes between Portuguese and German soldiers ensued, resulting in reinforcements being sent from the mainland.<ref>{{cite news |title=Portugal enters the war |url=https://archive.org/stream/independen79v80newy#page/121/mode/1up |newspaper=The Independent |date=Oct 26, 1914 |access-date=July 24, 2012}}</ref> The main objective of these soldiers was to recapture the [[Kionga Triangle]], in northern Mozambique, the territory having been subjugated by Germany.
In 1916, after Portugal interned German ships in Lisbon, Germany declared war on Portugal. Portugal followed suit, thus entering World War I.<ref name="Wheeler128">{{harvnb|Wheeler|1998|p=128}}</ref>
Early in the war, Portugal was involved mainly in supplying the Allies positioned in France. In 1916, there was only one attack on the Portuguese territory, in [[Madeira]].<ref>{{cite Uboat.net
|id=1531
|name=Dacia
|type=1ship
}}</ref> In 1917, one of the actions taken by Portugal was to assist Britain in its timber industry, imperative to the war effort. Along with the [[Canadian Forestry Corps]], Portuguese personnel established logging infrastructure in an area now referred to as the "[[Portuguese Fireplace]]".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.newforestexplorersguide.co.uk/sitefolders/faqs/portuguesefireplace/portuguesefireplacepage.html |title=Portuguese Fireplace |publisher=Newforestexplorersguide.co.uk |access-date=2014-08-06 |archive-date=2023-06-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230627155129/http://www.newforestexplorersguide.co.uk/sitefolders/faqs/portuguesefireplace/portuguesefireplacepage.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Throughout 1917 Portugal dispatched contingents of troops to the Allied front in France. Midway in the year, Portugal suffered its first World War I casualty. In Portuguese Africa, Portugal and the British fought numerous battles against the Germans in both Mozambique and Angola. Later in the year, [[U-boats]] entered Portuguese waters again and once more attacked Madeira, sinking multiple Portuguese ships. Through the beginning of 1918, Portugal continued to fight along the Allied front against Germany, including participation in the infamous [[Battle of La Lys]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.worldwar1.com/france/portugal.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070603044406/http://www.worldwar1.com/france/portugal.htm|url-status=dead|title=Battle of La Lys|archive-date=June 3, 2007}}</ref> As autumn approached, Germany found success in both Portuguese Africa and against Portuguese vessels, sinking multiple ships. After nearly three years of fighting (from a Portuguese perspective), World War I ended, with an armistice being signed by Germany. At the [[Paris Peace Conference, 1919|Versailles Conference]], Portugal regained control of all its lost territory, but did not retain possession (by the principle of [[uti possidetis]]) of territories gained during the war, except for [[Kionga]], a port city in modern-day [[Tanzania]].<ref>Thomas, H.B., "The Kionga Triangle", ''Tanganyika Notes and Records'' Volume 31 1951, pp.&nbsp;47–50.</ref>

Portuguese territories in Africa eventually included the modern nations of [[Cape Verde]], [[São Tomé and Príncipe]], [[Guinea-Bissau]], [[Angola]], and [[Mozambique]].<ref name="Koffi2012">{{cite book |last=Koffi |first=Ettien |title=Paradigm Shift in Language Planning and Policy: Game-Theoretic Solutions |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2C1TGbN5R84C&pg=PA98 |access-date=12 July 2012 |year=2012 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter, Inc. |location=Boston/Berlin |isbn=978-1-934078-10-5 |page=98}}</ref>

== Decolonisation and decline (1954–1999) ==
{{Main|Portuguese Colonial War|Carnation Revolution|Transfer of sovereignty over Macau|Annexation of Goa}}

{{Multiple image
| image1            = António de Oliveira Salazar portrait (by Manuel Alves San Payo) – Lisboa.jpg
| image2            = António Guterres 2021.jpg
| perrow            = 2
| caption1          = Dictatorial prime minister [[António de Oliveira Salazar]] ({{reign|1932|1968}}) sought the preservation of a [[Pluricontinentalim|pluricontinental]] Portugal
| caption2          = [[António Guterres]] ({{reign|1995|2002}}), prime minister by the time of the 1999 [[handover of Macau]]; the Empire's end
| total_width       = 350
| caption_align     = center
}}
[[File:Portuguese Empire 20th century.png|thumb|By the 20th century, Portugal no longer called itself an empire, but a [[pluricontinental]] nation with overseas provinces.|left]]In the wake of [[World War II]], decolonisation movements began to gain momentum in the empires of the European powers. The ensuing [[Cold War]] also created instabilities among Portuguese overseas populations, as the United States and Soviet Union vied to increase their spheres of influence. Following the granting of independence to India by Britain in 1947, and the decision by France to allow its [[French India|enclaves in India]] to be incorporated into the newly independent nation, pressure was placed on Portugal to do the same.<ref>[[#refPearson|Pearson 1987, p.&nbsp;158]]</ref> This was resisted by [[António de Oliveira Salazar]], who had taken power in 1933. Salazar rebuffed a request in 1950 by [[Prime Minister of India|Indian Prime Minister]] [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] to return the enclaves, viewing them as integral parts of Portugal.<ref>[[#refPearson|Pearson 1987, p.&nbsp;160]]</ref> The following year, the Portuguese constitution was amended to change the status of the colonies to overseas provinces. In 1954, a local uprising resulted in the overthrow of the Portuguese authorities in the Indian enclave of [[Dadra and Nagar Haveli]]. The existence of the remaining Portuguese colonies in India became increasingly untenable and Nehru enjoyed the support of almost all the Indian domestic political parties as well as the Soviet Union and its allies. In 1961, shortly after an uprising against the Portuguese in Angola, Nehru ordered the Indian Army into [[Goa]], [[Daman and Diu]], which were quickly [[1961 Indian Annexation of Goa|captured]] and formally annexed the following year. Salazar refused to recognise the transfer of sovereignty, considering the territories merely occupied. The Province of Goa continued to be represented in the Portuguese National Assembly until 1974.<ref name="Anderson153">{{harvnb|Anderson|2000|p=153}}</ref>

The outbreak of violence in February 1961 in Angola was the beginning of the end of Portugal's empire in Africa. Portuguese army officers in Angola held the view that it would be incapable of dealing militarily with an outbreak of guerilla warfare and therefore that negotiations should begin with the independence movements. However, Salazar publicly stated his determination to keep the empire intact, and by the end of the year, 50,000 troops had been stationed there. The same year, the tiny Portuguese fort of São João Baptista de Ajudá in [[Ouidah]], a remnant of the West African slave trade, was annexed by the new government of Dahomey (now [[Benin]]) that had gained its independence from France. Unrest spread from Angola to Guinea, which rebelled in 1963, and Mozambique in 1964.<ref name="Anderson153"/> Oil deposits found of the coast of [[Cabinda Province|Cabinda]] in the 1966 were used to fund the wars against independence movements.<ref name=":8">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Angola: New colonial period: Economics of colonialism |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of African History |publisher=[[Fitzroy Dearborn]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=umyHqvAErOAC&pg=PA636 |last=Shantz |first=Jeff |date=2005 |editor-last1=Shillington |editor-first1=Kevin |pages= |isbn=1-57958-245-1 }}</ref>

According to one historian, Portuguese rulers were unwilling to meet the demands of their colonial subjects in part because Portuguese elites believed that "Portugal lacked the means to conduct a successful "exit strategy" (akin to the "neocolonial" approach followed by the British, the French, or the Belgians)" and in part due to the lack of "a free and open debate [in Salazar's dictatorial state] on the costs of upholding an empire against the anti-colonial consensus that had prevailed in the United Nations since the early 1960s".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Oliveira|first=Pedro Aires|date=2017-05-24|chapter=Decolonization in Portuguese Africa|chapter-url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-41|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.41|title=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|isbn=9780190277734|access-date=2022-03-22|archive-date=2021-05-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210513215825/https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-41|url-status=live}}</ref>
The rise of Soviet influence among the [[Movimento das Forças Armadas]]'s military (MFA) and working class, and the cost and unpopularity of the [[Portuguese Colonial War]] (1961–1974), in which Portugal resisted to the emerging nationalist guerrilla movements in some of its African territories, eventually led to the collapse of the [[Estado Novo (Portugal)|Estado Novo]] regime in 1974. Known as the "[[Carnation Revolution]]", one of the first acts of the MFA-led government which then came into power – the [[National Salvation Junta]] (''Junta de Salvação Nacional'') – was to end the wars and negotiate Portuguese withdrawal from its African colonies. These events prompted a mass exodus of Portuguese citizens from Portugal's African territories (mostly from [[Overseas Province of Angola|Angola]] and [[Overseas Province of Mozambique|Mozambique]]), creating over a million Portuguese refugees – the ''retornados''.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090113204408/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,913229-1,00.html Dismantling the Portuguese Empire], [[Time Magazine]] (July 7, 1975)</ref> Portugal's new ruling authorities also recognised Goa and other Portuguese India's territories [[Invasion of Goa|invaded by India's military forces]], as Indian territories. Benin's claims over [[São João Baptista de Ajudá]] were accepted by Portugal in 1974.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.geographictravels.com/2012/07/the-geographical-oddity-of-fortaleza-de.html|title=The Geographical Oddity of Fortaleza de Sao Joao Baptista de Ajuda|first=Geographic|last=Travels|work=Geographic Travels |date=July 8, 2012|access-date=February 27, 2021|archive-date=May 29, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230529060932/https://geographictravels.com/2012/07/the-geographical-oddity-of-fortaleza-de.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

Civil wars in [[Angolan Civil War|Angola]] and [[Mozambican Civil War|Mozambique]] promptly broke out, with incoming communist governments formed by the former rebels (and backed by the Soviet Union, Cuba, and other communist countries) fighting against insurgent groups supported by nations like [[Zaire]], South Africa, and the United States.<ref name="ArnoldWiener11-12">{{harvnb|Arnold|Wiener|2012|pp=11–12}}</ref> [[East Timor]] also declared independence in 1975 by making an exodus of many Portuguese refugees to Portugal, which was also known as ''retornados''. However, East Timor was almost immediately [[Indonesian invasion of East Timor|invaded by Indonesia]], which later [[Indonesian occupation of East Timor|occupied]] it until 1999. A [[East Timor Special Autonomy Referendum|United Nations-sponsored referendum]] resulted in a majority of East Timorese choosing independence, which was finally achieved in 2002.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/1996673.stm|title=East Timor: Birth of a nation|access-date=12 July 2012|archive-date=26 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230426192838/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/1996673.stm|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 1987, Portugal signed the [[Joint Declaration on the Question of Macau|Sino-Portuguese Joint Declaration]] with the People's Republic of China to establish the process and conditions for the transfer of sovereignty of [[Portuguese Macau|Macau]], its last remaining overseas possession. While this process was similar to [[Sino-British Joint Declaration|the agreement between the United Kingdom and China]] two years earlier regarding [[British Hong Kong|Hong Kong]], the Portuguese transfer to China was met with less resistance than that of Britain regarding Hong Kong, as Portugal had already recognised Macau as Chinese territory under Portuguese administration in 1979.<ref>{{cite web
|title=Joint declaration of the Government of the People's Republic of China and The Government of the Republic of Portugal on the question of Macao
|url=http://bo.io.gov.mo/bo/i/88/23/dc/en/
|publisher=Government Printing Bureau (Macao SAR)
|year=1987
|access-date=2010-04-26
|archive-date=2011-07-20
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720014340/http://bo.io.gov.mo/bo/i/88/23/dc/en/
|url-status=live
}}</ref> Under the transfer agreement, Macau is to be governed under a [[one country, two systems]] policy, in which it will retain a high degree of autonomy and maintain its capitalist way of life for at least 50 years after the handover, until 2049. The [[Transfer of sovereignty over Macau|handover of Macau]] on 20 December 1999 officially marked the end of the Portuguese Empire and the end of colonialism in Asia.<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/566301.stm Macau and the end of empire] , 18 December 1999. ''[[BBC News]]''</ref>

==Legacy==
[[File:Belem - Padrao dos Descobrimentos.jpg|thumb|[[Monument of the Discoveries]] in Lisbon]]
Presently, the [[Community of Portuguese Language Countries]] (CPLP) serves as the cultural and [[intergovernmental organization|intergovernmental]] successor of the Empire.<ref name="CPLP_NewsID46">{{cite web |url=http://www.cplp.org/id-2752.aspx |title=CPLP Histórico – Como surgiu? |language=pt |publisher=CPLP |access-date=16 December 2015 |archive-date=27 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220627025943/https://www.cplp.org/id-2752.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref>

Macau was returned to China on 20 December 1999, under the terms of an agreement negotiated between People's Republic of China and Portugal twelve years earlier. Nevertheless, the Portuguese language remains co-official with [[Cantonese Chinese]] in Macau.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.loc.gov/catdir/cpso/macau.html|title=Cataloging Policy and Support Office: Macau|website=[[Library of Congress]]|access-date=12 July 2012|archive-date=28 June 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220628084516/https://www.loc.gov/catdir/cpso/macau.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

Currently, the [[Azores]] and [[Madeira]] (the latter administering the uninhabited [[Savage Islands]]) are the only [[Autonomous Regions of Portugal|overseas territories]] that remain politically linked to Portugal. Although Portugal began the process of decolonising [[Portuguese Timor|East Timor]] in 1975, during 1999–2002 was sometimes considered Portugal's last remaining colony, as the [[Indonesian invasion of East Timor]] was not justified by Portugal.<ref>de Almeida, p. 92</ref>

Eight of the former colonies of Portugal have [[Geographic distribution of Portuguese|Portuguese as their official language]]. Together with Portugal, they are now members of the [[Community of Portuguese Language Countries]], which when combined total 10,742,000&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>, or 7.2% of the Earth's landmass (148 939 063&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>).<ref>{{cite web|title=CPLP|url=http://www.cplp.org/id-22.aspx|access-date=2010-08-12|archive-date=2009-11-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091127143711/http://www.cplp.org/id-22.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref> As at 2023, there are 32 associate observers of the CPLP, reflecting the global reach and influence of Portugal's former empire. Moreover, twelve candidate countries or regions have applied for membership to the CPLP and are awaiting approval.<ref>[[:pt:CPLP]]</ref>

Today, Portuguese is one of the world's major languages, ranked sixth overall with approximately 240&nbsp;million speakers around the globe.<ref name="língua portuguesa">{{cite web|title=língua portuguesa|url=http://diario.iol.pt/sociedade/lingua-portuguesa-portugues-ensino-governo-alunos/972503-4071.html|access-date=2010-08-12|archive-date=2010-10-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101012031633/http://diario.iol.pt/sociedade/lingua-portuguesa-portugues-ensino-governo-alunos/972503-4071.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> It is the third most spoken language in the Americas, mainly due to Brazil, although there are also significant communities of Lusophones in nations such as Canada, the US and Venezuela. In addition, there are numerous [[Portuguese-based creole languages]], including the one spoken by the [[Kristang people|Kristang]] people in [[Malacca]].<ref>Velupillai, p. 519</ref>

For instance, as Portuguese merchants were presumably the first to introduce the [[sweet orange]] in Europe, in several modern [[Indo-European languages]] the fruit has been named after them. Some examples are Albanian [[wikt:portokall#Albanian|portokall]], Bulgarian [[wikt:портокал#Bulgarian|портокал]] (''portokal''), Greek [[wikt:πορτοκάλι#Greek|πορτοκάλι]] (''portokali''), Macedonian [[wikt:портокал#Macedonian|портокал]] (''portokal''), Persian [[wikt:پرتقال#Persian|پرتقال]] (''porteghal''), and Romanian [[wikt:portocală#Romanian|portocală]].<ref name="plantname">{{cite web |title=Multilingual Multiscript Plant Name Database: Sorting Citrus Names |url=http://www.plantnames.unimelb.edu.au/Sorting/Citrus_2.html |publisher=[[University of Melbourne]] (www.search.unimelb.edu.au) |access-date=11 December 2012 |archive-date=15 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130515001035/http://www.plantnames.unimelb.edu.au/Sorting/Citrus_2.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="OstergrenBosse2011">{{cite book |last1=Ostergren |first1=Robert C. |last2=Le Bossé |first2=Mathias |title=The Europeans: A Geography of People, Culture, and Environment |edition=2nd |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y-1fwix23zMC&pg=PA129 |year=2011 |publisher=[[Guilford Press]] |isbn=978-1-60918-140-6 |page=129}}</ref> Related names can be found in other languages,<!--"[[Amharic language|Amharic]] birtukan": NOT in sources--> such as Arabic [[wikt:البرتقال#Arabic|البرتقال]] (''bourtouqal''), [[Georgian language|Georgian]] [[wikt:ფორთოხალი#Georgian|ფორთოხალი]] (''p'ort'oxali''), Turkish [[wikt:portakal#Turkish|portakal]] and [[Amharic]] ''birtukan''.<ref name="plantname"/> Also, in [[Regional Italian|southern Italian dialects]] (e.g., [[Neapolitan language|Neapolitan]]), an orange is ''[[:wikt:portogallo|portogallo]]'' or ''[[:wikt:it:purtuallo|purtuallo]]'', literally "(the) Portuguese (one)", in contrast to [[standard Italian]] ''arancia''.

In light of its international importance, Portugal and Brazil are leading a movement to include Portuguese as one of the [[official languages of the United Nations]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://diario.iol.pt/noticia.html?id=611263&div_id=4071 |title=ONU: Petição para tornar português língua oficial |publisher=Diario.iol.pt |date=2005-11-17 |access-date=2010-04-21 |archive-date=2009-01-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090109230440/http://diario.iol.pt/noticia.html?id=611263&div_id=4071 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

<gallery>
File:Sé de Santa Catarina.jpg|The [[Se Cathedral]] in [[Goa]], India, an example of Portuguese architecture and one of Asia's largest churches
File:IGLESIA DEL SANTÍSIMO SACRAMENTO COLONIA DEL SACRAMENTO.jpg|[[Basílica del Santísimo Sacramento, Colonia del Sacramento|Basílica del Santísimo Sacramento]] in [[Colonia del Sacramento]], Uruguay, another example of Portuguese architecture and one of South America's largest churches
File:CidadeVelha-SaoFelipe1.jpg|[[Forte Real de São Filipe]] in the island of [[Santiago, Cape Verde|Santiago]], Cape Verde
File:Dom Pedro V Theatre appearance. Aug. 2015.JPG|[[Dom Pedro V Theatre]] in [[Macau]], China, one of the first western-style theatres in [[East Asia]]
File:Pillar of Vasco da Gama.jpg|[[Vasco da Gama Pillar, Malindi|Pillar of Vasco da Gama]] at [[Malindi]], Kenya
File:Mapa da CPLP.png|Map of the [[Community of Portuguese Language Countries]]; member states (blue), associate observers (green), and officially-interested countries & territories (gold)
File:Portugal Império total.png|alt=Actual possessions  Explorations  Areas of influence and trade  Claims of sovereignty  Trading posts  Main sea explorations, routes and areas of influence|{{color box|red}} Actual possessions<br />{{color box|Olive}} Explorations<br />{{color box|Orange}} Areas of influence and trade<br />{{color box|Pink}} Claims of sovereignty<br />{{color box|Green}} Trading posts<br />{{color box|SkyBlue}} Main sea explorations, routes and areas of influence
</gallery>

==See also==
{{Div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Portuguese colonial architecture]]
* [[Edict of Expulsion]]
* [[Evolution of the Portuguese Empire]]
* [[Goan Inquisition]]
* [[Lusotropicalism]]
* [[Persecution of Jews and Muslims by Manuel I of Portugal]]
* [[Portuguese Armadas]]
* [[Portuguese in Africa]]
* [[Portuguese Inquisition]]
* [[Portuguese inventions]]
* [[Portuguese Surinamese]]
* [[Strait of Magellan]]{{Div col end}}

== References ==

=== Notes ===
<references group="lower-alpha" />
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}
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=== General and cited sources ===
{{Refbegin|40em}}
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* {{cite book |last=Scammell |first=Geoffrey Vaughn |title=The First Imperial Age, European Overseas Expansion c. 1400–1715 |publisher=Routledge |year=1997 |isbn=0-415-09085-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G5DGygQdNp0C |ref=refScammell }}
* {{Cite book |last=Scarano |first=Julita |url=http://www.anpocs.org/portal/index.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_view&gid=4795&Itemid=357 |title=Migração Sob Contrato: A Opinião de Eça de Queiroz |publisher=[[Unesp]] - Ceru |year=2009 |language=pt-BR |access-date=2012-11-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130204093900/http://www.anpocs.org/portal/index.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_view&gid=4795&Itemid=357 |archive-date=2013-02-04 |url-status=dead}}
* {{cite book |last=Schwartz |first=Stuart B. |title=Sovereignty and Society in Colonial Brazil: The High Court of Bahia and Its Judges, 1609–1751 |year=1973 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0520021952 |url=https://archive.org/details/sovereigntysocie0000unse |url-access=registration }}
* {{cite book |last=Shastry |first=Bhagamandala Seetharama |title=Goa-Kanara Portuguese Relations, 1498–1763 |publisher=Concept Publishers |year=2000 |isbn=978-8170228486 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=raLL0A3Pb_0C&pg=PA41 }}
* {{cite book|last=de Silva Jayasuriya|first=Shihan|title=The Portuguese in the East: A Cultural History of a Maritime Trading Empire|publisher=I.B. Taurus|year=2008|isbn=978-1845115852|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bkoBAwAAQBAJ&q=Portuguese+Chittagong+1517&pg=PA85}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=de Souza |editor-first=Teotonio R. |title=Goa Through the Ages: An Economic History, Issue 6 of Goa University publication series Volume 2 |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |year=1990 |isbn=81-7022-259-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dwYDPnEjTb4C&pg=PP1 }}
* {{cite book |last=Stapleton |first=Timothy J. |title=A Military History of Africa |year=2013 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-0-313-39569-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XvtDAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA165 }}
* {{cite book |last=Subrahmanyam |first=Sanjay |title=The Portuguese Empire in Asia, 1500–1700: A Political and Economic History |edition=2 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-118-27401-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K7RlmNEzqf4C }}
* {{cite book |last=Thomas |first=Hugh |title=The Slave Trade: The Story of the Atlantic Slave Trade: 1440–1870 |url=https://archive.org/details/slavetradestoryo00thom |url-access=registration |access-date=10 July 2012 |year=1997 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-0-684-83565-5 }}
* {{cite book |last=Thornton |first=John K. |title=Warfare in Atlantic Africa, 1500–1800 |year=2000 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-36584-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7_qNAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA101 }}
* {{cite book |last=Treece |first=Dave |title=Exiles, Allies, Rebels: Brazil's Indianist Movement, Indigenist Politics, and the Imperial Nation-State |year=2000 |publisher=Praeger |isbn=978-1-85109-549-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s50JnG7BzLAC&pg=PA31 }}
* {{cite book |last=Velupillai |first=Viveka |title=Pidgins, Creoles and Mixed Languages: An Introduction|year=2015 |publisher=John Benjamins |isbn=978-1-85109-549-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Wheeler |first=Douglas L. |title=Republican Portugal: A Political History, 1910–1926 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PkH9wfKMqHwC |access-date=12 July 2012 |year=1998 |publisher=University of Wisconsin Press |isbn=0-299-07450-1 }}
* {{cite book |last=White |first=Paula |editor1-last=Bowman |editor1-first=John Stewart |editor2-last=Isserman |editor2-first=Maurice |title=Exploration in the World of the Middle Ages, 500–1500 |publisher=Facts on File, Inc. |year=2005 |url=https://archive.org/details/explorationinwor0000whit |url-access=registration |page=[https://archive.org/details/explorationinwor0000whit/page/138 138] |isbn=3-87294-202-6 }}
* {{cite book |last=Whiteway |first=Richard Stephen |title=The Rise of Portuguese Power in India, 1497–1550 |publisher=Archibald Constable & Co. |year=1899 |url=https://archive.org/details/riseportuguesep00whitgoog }}
* {{cite book |last=Yamashiro |first=José |title=Choque Luso No Japão Dos Séculos XVI e XVII |publisher=Ibrasa |year=1989 |isbn=1-74059-421-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l2qSNQnlQGcC }}
{{Refend}}<!--Don't delete!-->

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
{{Wikivoyage}}
{{Library resources box|onlinebooks=yes}}
*[http://www.timelines.info/history/empires_and_civilizations/portuguese_empire/ Portuguese Empire Timeline]
*[http://www.colonialvoyage.com/ Dutch Portuguese Colonial History]: history of the Portuguese and the Dutch in Ceylon, India, Malacca, Bengal, Formosa, Africa, Brazil. Language Heritage, lists of remains, maps.
*[http://www.wdl.org/en/item/4397/ "The Present State of the West-Indies: Containing an Accurate Description of What Parts Are Possessed by the Several Powers in Europe"] by [[Thomas Kitchin]]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20130217055451/http://www.spiceislandsforts.com/ Forts of the Spice Islands of Indonesia]
* Senaka Weeraratna, 2005, [http://vgweb.org/unethicalconversion/port_rep.htm "Repression of Buddhism in Sri Lanka by the Portuguese (1505–1658)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200225130354/http://vgweb.org/unethicalconversion/port_rep.htm |date=25 February 2020 }}, Australian Centre for Sri Lankan Unity

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