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{{Short description|Roman general and statesman (106–48 BC)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2024}}
{{hatnote group|
{{Other uses|Pompey (disambiguation)|Gnaeus Pompeius (disambiguation)}}
{{Confuse|Pompeii|Pompei}}
}}
{{Infobox person
| name               = Pompey
| image              = (Venice) Pompey the Great, Museo Archeologico Nazionale.jpg
| image_upright      = 
| alt                = White bust
| caption            = Bust of Pompey, copy of an original from 70–60 BC, [[Venice National Archaeological Museum]]
| native_name        = Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus
| native_name_lang   = la
| birth_date         = 29&nbsp;September 106&nbsp;BC
| birth_place        = [[Picenum]], Italy
| death_date         = {{nowrap|28&nbsp;September 48&nbsp;BC (aged 57)}}
| death_place        = [[Pelusium]], Egypt
| death_cause        = [[Assassination]]
| resting_place      = [[Albano Laziale|Albanum]], Italy
| father             = [[Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo]]
| spouse             = {{ubl|[[Antistia (wife of Pompey)|Antistia]] (86–82&nbsp;BC, divorced) |[[Wives of Pompey the Great#Aemilia (82/81 BCE)|Aemilia]] (82&nbsp;BC, her death) |[[Mucia Tertia]] (79–61&nbsp;BC, divorced) |[[Julia (wife of Pompey)|Julia]] (59–54&nbsp;BC, her death) |[[Cornelia Metella]] (52–48&nbsp;BC, his death)}}
| children           = {{hlist|[[Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (son of Pompey)|Gnaeus]] |[[Pompeia Magna|Pompeia]] |[[Sextus Pompey|Sextus]]}}
| relations          = [[Pompeia gens]]
| occupation         = {{hlist|Soldier|politician}}
| net_worth          = <!-- Net worth should be supported with a citation from a reliable source -->
| office             = [[Roman consul|Consul]] (70, 55, 52 BC)
| module             = {{infobox military person |embed=yes
| battles             =
{{tree list}}
* [[Social War (91–87 BC)|Social War]]
* [[Sulla's civil war]]
** [[Battle of the Asio River (82 BC)|Battle of the Asio River]]
** [[Battle of Utica (81 BC)|Battle of Utica]]
* [[Sertorian War]]
** [[Battle of Lauron]]
** [[Battle of Valentia (75 BC)|Battle of Valentia]]
** [[Battle of Sucro]]
** [[Battle of Saguntum (75 BC)|Battle of Saguntum]]
** [[Battle near Osca]]
* [[Third Servile War]]
* [[Pompey's campaign against the pirates|Campaign against the pirates]]
** [[Battle of Korakesion]]
* [[Hasmonean civil war]]
** [[Siege of Jerusalem (63 BC)|Siege of Jerusalem]]
* [[Third Mithridatic War]]
** [[Battle of the Lycus]]
** [[Battle of the Pelorus]]
** [[Battle of the Abas]]
* [[Caesar's civil war]]
** [[Siege of Brundisium]]
** [[Battle of Dyrrhachium (48 BC)|Battle of Dyrrhachium]]
** [[Battle of Pharsalus]]
{{tree list/end}}
| awards              = 3 [[Roman triumph|Triumphs]]}}
}}
{{Ancient Rome and the fall of the Republic}}
'''Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus''' ({{IPA|la|ˈŋnae̯.ʊs pɔmˈpɛjjʊs ˈmaŋnʊs|lang}}; 29&nbsp;September 106&nbsp;BC&nbsp;– 28&nbsp;September 48&nbsp;BC), known in English as '''Pompey''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|p|ɒ|m|p|i}} {{respell|POM|pee}}) or '''Pompey the Great''', was a [[Roman people|Roman]] general and statesman who was prominent in the last decades of the [[Roman Republic]]. As a young man, he was a partisan and protégé of the dictator [[Sulla]], after whose death he achieved much military and political success himself. 

A member of the senatorial nobility, Pompey entered into a military career while still young. He rose to prominence serving Sulla as a commander in [[Sulla's civil war|the civil war of 83–81 BC]]. Pompey's success as a general while young enabled him to advance directly to his first [[Roman consul|consulship]] without following the traditional ''[[cursus honorum]]'' (the required steps to advance in a political career). He was elected as consul on three occasions (70, 55, 52 BC). He celebrated three [[Roman triumph|triumphs]], served as a commander in the [[Sertorian War]], the [[Third Servile War]], the [[Third Mithridatic War]], and in various other military campaigns. Pompey's early success led dictator Sulla to give him the [[cognomen]] ''[[Magnus]]'' – "the Great" – after his boyhood hero [[Alexander the Great]]. His adversaries gave him the nickname ''adulescentulus carnifex'' ("teenage butcher") for his ruthlessness.{{sfn|Leach|1978|p=29}}

In 60&nbsp;BC, Pompey joined [[Marcus Licinius Crassus|Crassus]] and Caesar in the informal political alliance known as the [[First Triumvirate]], cemented by Pompey's marriage with Caesar's daughter, [[Julia (wife of Pompey)|Julia]]. After the deaths of Julia and Crassus (in 54 and 53 BC), Pompey switched to the political faction known as the ''[[optimates]]''—a conservative faction of the [[Roman Senate]]. Pompey and Caesar then began contending for leadership of the Roman state in its entirety, eventually leading to [[Caesar's civil war]]. Pompey was defeated at the [[Battle of Pharsalus]] in 48&nbsp;BC, and he sought refuge in [[Ptolemaic Egypt]], where he was assassinated by the courtiers of [[Ptolemy XIII]].

==Early life and career==
[[File:PompeoMagno.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|left|Reputed statue of Pompey, now held at the [[Villa Arconati, Bollate]], brought from Rome in 1627 by Galeazzo Arconati]]

Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus was born in [[Picenum]] on 29 September 106 BC, eldest son of a provincial noble called [[Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo]]. Although the [[Pompeia gens|dominant family]] in Picenum, Strabo was the first of his branch to achieve senatorial status in [[Rome]]; he completed the traditional ''[[cursus honorum]]'', becoming [[Roman Consul|consul]] in 89 BC, and acquired a reputation for greed, political duplicity, and military ruthlessness. Pompey began his career serving with his father in the [[Social War (91–87 BC)]].{{sfn|Leach|1978|p=13}}

Strabo died in 87 BC during the short-lived civil war known as the {{Lang|la|[[Bellum Octavianum]]}}, although sources differ on whether he succumbed to disease, or was murdered by his own soldiers.{{sfn|Collins|1953|p=98}} Prior to his death, Strabo was accused of [[embezzlement]]; as his legal heir, Pompey was held responsible for the alleged crime and put on trial.{{sfn|Beesley|1892|pp=167–170}} He was acquitted, supposedly after agreeing to marry the [[Publius Antistius|judge's]] daughter, [[Antistia (wife of Pompey)|Antistia]].{{sfn|Collins|1953|p=100}}

One of the main issues at stake in 87 BC was the appointment of the consul [[Sulla]] as commander of the [[Roman army]] in the ongoing [[First Mithridatic War]], an opportunity to amass enormous wealth.{{sfn|Beard|2015|pp=241–242}} During his absence in the East, his political rivals led by [[Lucius Cornelius Cinna]], [[Gnaeus Papirius Carbo (consul 85 BC)|Gnaeus Papirius Carbo]] and [[Gaius Marius the Younger]] regained control of the [[Roman Senate]].{{sfn|Boak|1921|pp=145–146}} Sulla's return in 83 BC sparked [[Sulla's civil war|a civil war]] within the Roman world.{{sfn|Beard|2015|p=272}}

==Pompey during Sulla's civil war==
{{main|Sulla's civil war}}
In the year prior to Sulla's return Pompey had raised and equipped a full [[Roman legion|legion]] from amongst his father's old clients and veterans in [[Picenum]]. In the spring of 83 Sulla landed in [[Brindisi|Brundisium]]. As he marched north-west towards [[Campania]], Pompey led his own legion south to join him. The government in Rome sent out three separate armies in an attempt to prevent the union between Pompey's and Sulla's army. Pompey attacked one of these armies and routed it. The three enemy commanders, unable to agree on a course of action, withdrew. Soon after Pompey arrived at Sulla's camp. He was greeted by Sulla with the official title of [[Imperator]] (General).{{sfn|Leach|1978|pp=24–25}}

At some point in 83 BC, it is not clear when but definitely before the onset of winter, Sulla sent Pompey back to Picenum to raise more troops. When fighting broke out once more in 82 Sulla advanced towards Rome, while [[Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius|Metellus]] (one of his lieutenants), supported by Pompey, campaigned against the consul Gaius Papirius Carbo in [[Cisalpine Gaul]]. During this campaign Pompey acted as Metellus's cavalry commander.{{sfn|Leach|1978|pp=25–26}}

Metellus and Pompey defeated Carbo's lieutenant, the [[praetor]] [[Gaius Carrinas (praetor 82 BC)|Gaius Carrinas]], in a six-hour battle at the river Aesis, only to be blockaded by Carbo himself. When word of Sulla's victory at the [[Battle of Sacriportus]] reached them, Carbo retreated to his base at [[Rimini|Ariminium]], severely harassed by Pompey's cavalry. Some time later Metellus defeated [[Gaius Marcius Censorinus (Marian)|Gaius Marcius Censorinus]], another of Carbo's lieutenants, Pompey's cavalry caught Censorinus's fleeing troops outside their base at [[Senigallia|Sena Gallica]], defeating them and plundering the town. While Metellus remained in the north-west, Pompey seems to have transferred to Sulla's command in the south.{{sfn|Leach|1978|p=26}}

Pompey advanced south-west along the [[Via Flaminia]] towards [[Spoleto|Spoletium]], where he joined Marcus Licinius Crassus, together they defeated Carrinas once again. Pompey laid siege to Carrinas in Spoletium but the latter managed to escape. Pompey resumed his march to join Sulla's command. Not long afterwards Pompey successfully ambushed another large force under Censorinus, which was trying to get through to [[Palestrina|Praeneste]] where Carbo's consular colleague, Marius the Younger (who was the figurehead of the struggle against Sulla), was blockaded. It was the failure of these attempts to get through the Sullan blockade in [[Umbria]] and [[Etruria]], added to Metellus's success in winning control of the north, which broke the back of the government's resistance.{{sfn|Leach|1978|pp=26–27}} 

At the end of the campaigning season of 82, the government forces made one final effort to march to the relief of Praeneste. They mustered 10,000 legionaries and marched to join forces with the [[Samnites]] and the [[Lucanians]], fierce enemies of Sulla, who had campaigned against them in the Social War.{{efn|[[Samnium]] and [[Lucania]] had remained virtually neutral during the war, but now decided to throw their lot in with the Roman government – their hatred for Sulla probably being the deciding factor.{{sfn|Leach|1978|p=27}}}} Pursued by Pompey they united their forces and made for Praeneste. Unable to break through Sulla's blockade, they marched for undefended Rome, only to be caught just in time and defeated by Sulla at the [[Battle of the Colline Gate]]. Pompey, who was pursuing the government forces, arrived just after the battle.{{sfn|Leach|1978|p=27}}

By the end of 82 BC, Sulla had expelled his opponents from Italy, and engineered his nomination as Dictator by the Senate.{{sfn|Beard|2015|p=245}} Either through admiration of his abilities, or concern at his ambition,{{sfn|Haley|1985|p=49}} Sulla sought to consolidate his alliance with Pompey by persuading him to divorce Antistia, and marry his stepdaughter Aemilia.{{sfn|Collins|1953|p=99}} [[Plutarch]] claims she was already pregnant by her former husband, and died in childbirth soon after.{{sfn|Haley|1985|p=50}}

==Sicily, Africa and Lepidus' rebellion==
The surviving Marians escaped to Sicily, where their ally [[Marcus Perperna Veiento|Marcus Perperna]] was [[Promagistrate|propraetor]]. They were supported by a fleet under Carbo, while [[Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (died 81 BC)|Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus]] occupied the [[Roman province of Africa]]. Perperna abandoned Sicily after Pompey landed on the island with a large force,{{efn|Six legions and a navy of 120 warships and 800 transport ships. Both men and ships were immediately available: the men and ships from Sulla's armies{{sfn|Leach|1978|p=28}}}} while Carbo was captured and later executed. Pompey claimed this was justified by Carbo's alleged crimes against Roman citizens, but his opponents nicknamed him ''adulescentulus carnifex'', or "young butcher", as a result.{{sfn|Collins|1953|p=100}} 

[[File:Roman Province of Africa in 146 BC.png|thumb|left|upright=1.0|Roman Province of Africa]]

Pompey now sailed for Africa, leaving Sicily in the hands of his brother-in-law, [[Gaius Memmius (brother-in-law to Pompey)|Gaius Memmius]].{{sfn|Leach|1978|p=30}} After defeating and killing Ahenobarbus at the [[Battle of Utica (81 BC)|Battle of Utica]], Pompey subdued [[Numidia]] and executed its king [[Hiarbas (king)|Hiarbas]], a Marian ally.{{sfn|Collins|1953|p=100}} He restored the deposed [[Hiempsal II|Hiempsal]] to the Numidian throne.{{sfn|Leach|1978|p=30–31}} Around this time, his troops began referring to him as ''Magnus'', or "the Great", after [[Alexander the Great]], a figure much admired by the Romans. Shortly thereafter, Pompey formally made this part of his [[Cognomen|name]].{{sfn|Gray}}

On returning to Rome, he asked for a triumph to celebrate his victories, an unprecedented demand for someone so young.{{sfn|Seager|2002|p=28}} Pompey refused to disband his army until Sulla agreed, although the latter tried to offset the impact by awarding simultaneous triumphs to [[Lucius Licinius Murena (praetor 88 BC)|Lucius Licinius Murena]] and [[Gaius Valerius Flaccus (consul 93 BC)|Gaius Valerius Flaccus]].{{sfn|Leach|1978|pp=31–32}} Sometime during this period, Pompey married Mucia Tertia, a member of the powerful [[Caecilii Metelli family tree|Metellus]] family. They had three children before their divorce in 61 BC; [[Pompey the younger]], usually known as Gnaeus, a daughter, [[Pompeia Magna]], and a younger son, [[Sextus Pompey|Sextus]].{{sfn|Haley|1985|p=50}}

{{Location map many|Italy|caption =The Lepidan rebellion; key locations|relief=yes|border = black| width = 200| float = right
|label =  Cosa|pos=left|coordinates={{coord|42|25|N|11|17|E}}
|label2 = Rome|pos2=right|coordinates2={{coord|41|52|N|12|29|E}}
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|label6 = Picenum|pos6=top|coordinates6={{coord|42|51|N|12|35|E}}
}} 

Pompey supported [[Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (consul 78 BC)|Marcus Aemilius Lepidus]] as consul for 78 BC; Plutarch claims he did so against Sulla's advice, but some modern historians reject the idea.{{sfn|Rosenblitt|2014|pp=415–16}} When Sulla died in 78 BC, Lepidus sought to block his state funeral and roll back some of Sulla's laws, then became [[proconsul]] of Cisalpine and [[Transalpine Gaul]] in January 77 BC.{{sfn|Collins|1953|p=101}} When the Senate ordered him back to Rome, Lepidus refused to comply unless granted another term as consul, a proposal that was rapidly rejected.{{sfn|Gruen|1995|p=15}} Assembling an army, he began marching on Rome; the Senate responded with a series of measures, one of which was to appoint Pompey to a military command.{{sfn|Gruen|1995|p=16}}

While Lepidus continued south, Pompey raised troops from among his veterans in Picenum, and moved north to besiege [[Mutina]], capital of Cisalpine Gaul. The town was held by Lepidus' ally [[Marcus Junius Brutus (tribune 83 BC)|Marcus Junius Brutus]], who surrendered after a lengthy siege, and was assassinated next day, allegedly on Pompey's orders.{{sfn|Leach|1978|p=42}} Catulus then defeated Lepidus outside Rome, while Pompey marched against his rear, catching him near Cosa. Lepidus and the remnants of his army retreated to [[Sardinia]], where he died.{{sfn|Leach|1978|pp=41–43}}

==Sertorian War==
{{Main|Sertorian War}}
The Sertorian War began in 80&nbsp;BC when [[Quintus Sertorius]], a prominent [[Sulla's proscription|proscribed]] Marian general, initiated a rebellion in [[Hispania]], where he was joined by other Roman exiles like Perperna. Supported by local [[Iberians|Iberian]] tribes, he took control of [[Hispania Ulterior]] and repeatedly defeated Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius through skillful use of [[guerrilla warfare]]. Sertorius defeated other Roman generals sent to oust him and soon conquered [[Hispania Citerior]] as well. Backed by his allies in the Senate, Pompey was appointed military commander in Spain with proconsular authority in order to defeat Sertorius. This act was technically illegal as he had yet to hold public office, illustrating Pompey's preference for military glory, and disregard for traditional political constraints.{{sfn|Holland|2004|pp=141–142}}

Pompey recruited 30,000 infantry and 1,000 cavalry, evidence of the threat posed by Sertorius.{{sfn|Leach|1978|p=44}} En route to Hispania, he subdued a rebellion in [[Gallia Narbonensis]], after which his army entered winter quarters near [[Narbo Martius]].{{sfn|Leach|1978|p=45}} In early 76&nbsp;BC, he crossed the [[Col de Portet]] and entered the Iberian peninsula,{{sfn|Leach|1978|p=46}} where he would remain for the next five years. His arrival boosted the morale of Metellus' troops, while some rebels changed sides, but soon after he was defeated by Sertorius at the [[Battle of Lauron]],<ref>Appian, ''Bellum Civile'', 1.109</ref> losing one third of his army while inflicting next to no losses on Sertorius' army. This was a serious blow to Pompey's prestige, who spent the rest of the year re-organising his army.<ref name=":5">Plutarch, ''Life of Sertorius'', p. 18</ref> Metellus' failure to dislodge Sertorius and Pompey's defeat meant the senatorial generals made no progress in the year.

{{Location map many|Spain|caption =Sertorian War in Spain; key locations mentioned in article|relief=yes|border = black| width = 400| float = left
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}}

In 75&nbsp;BC, Sertorius led the campaign against Metellus, while Pompey defeated his subordinates Perperna and Gaius Herennius outside [[Battle of Valentia 75 BC|Valencia]].{{sfn|Leach|1978|p=48}}{{sfn|Matyszak|2013|pp=117-118}} When Sertorius took over operations against Pompey, Metellus defeated his deputy [[Lucius Hirtuleius]] at the [[Battle of Italica]].{{sfn|Leach|1978|p=47}}{{sfn|Matyszak|2013|p=118}} Pompey faced Sertorius in the indecisive [[Battle of Sucro]],{{sfn|Leach|1978|p=49}}{{sfn|Matyszak|2013|pp=121-122}} in which Sertorius defeated Pompey's right flank and nearly captured Pompey himself, but his legate [[Lucius Afranius (consul)|Lucius Afranius]] defeated the Sertorian right. Sertorius withdrew inland, then turned to fight at [[Battle of Saguntum (75 BC)|Saguntum]], where Pompey lost 6,000 men, including his brother-in-law Memmius, reputedly his most effective subordinate.{{sfn|Leach|1978|pp=49-50}}{{sfn|Matyszak|2013|p=126}} Sertorius himself suffered 3,000 casualties, one of whom was Hirtuleius.<ref name=ApCW1.110>Appian, ''Bellum Civile'', 1.110</ref>

Although Metellus defeated Perperna in a separate battle, Sertorius was able to withdraw to [[Clunia]] late in the year, where he repaired the walls to lure his opponents into a siege, while forming garrisons from other towns into a new field army. Once this was ready, he escaped from Clunia and used it to disrupt Roman logistics on land and by sea. Lack of supplies forced Metellus to quarter his troops in [[Gaul]], while Pompey wintered among the [[Vaccaei]].<ref>Plutarch, ''Parallel Lives'', ''Life of Pompey'', 18–20.1.</ref><ref>Plutarch, ''Life of Sertorius'', pp. 19–21</ref> Dire straits caused by this stretch of the campaign and Sertorius' guerrilla warfare led Pompey to write a letter to the Senate asking for funds and men, and scolding their lack of support for him and Metellus.<ref>Sallust, ''Histories,'' 1.2.82</ref>

Pompey's letter had the effect of galvanizing the Senate into sending him more men and funds. Reinforced by two more legions, in 74&nbsp;BC he and Metellus began a [[Attrition warfare|war of attrition]] against their enemy. As his chief opponent had lost most of his Roman legionaries and could no longer match him in the field, Pompey, along with Metellus, gained the upper hand, conquering more and more Sertorian cities, slowly grinding down Sertorius' revolt. By now, Sertorius was being undermined by internal divisions.{{sfn|Collins|1953|p=102}} Discontent in Sertorius' coalition of Iberian and Roman forces came to a head in 72 or 73&nbsp;BC when Perperna, leading a conspiracy with other prominent Sertorians, had Sertorius assassinated and assumed control of the rebel army.

Pompey engaged Perperna in battle and defeated him swiftly at the [[Battle near Osca]]. Perperna was captured and attempted to persuade Pompey to spare him by giving over Sertorius' correspondence, allegedly containing proof of communications between the rebel leader and leading men in Rome. Pompey burned the letters unread and executed Perperna, and then spent some time restructuring the local Roman administration, showing a lack of animosity towards his former opponents, which extended his patronage throughout Hispania and into southern Gaul.{{sfn|Holland|2004|p=142}} Pompey and his army remained in Hispania for a few years conquering the Sertorian remnants, and then marched back to Rome.

==First consulship==
During Pompey's absence, Marcus Licinius Crassus was charged with suppressing the slave rebellion led by [[Spartacus]] known as the [[Third Servile War]]. Pompey returned to Italy just before Crassus defeated the main rebel army in 71 BC, arriving in time to massacre 6,000 fugitives from the battle. His claim to have ended the war by doing so was a long-standing source of resentment for Crassus.<ref>Plutarch, ''Life of Crassus'', 11.7</ref><ref>Plutarch, ''Parallel Lives'', ''Life of Pompey'', 21.2.</ref>

[[File:Pompey,_aureus,_71_BC,_RRC_402-1.png|thumb|right|upright=1.15|[[Aureus]] minted by Pompey for his second triumph in 71&nbsp;BC, featuring the head of Africa on the obverse (celebrating his victory against [[Hiarbas (king)|Hiarbas]]). The reverse shows Pompey in his triumphal chariot, with his son [[Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (son of Pompey)|Gnaeus]] seated before and [[Victoria (mythology)|Victory]] flying above.{{sfn|Crawford|1974|pp=412–413}}]]

Pompey was granted a second triumph for his victory in Hispania and also stood for the consulship. Since he was both too young and technically ineligible according to the minimum ages for offices set in place by Sulla in the ''Lex Cornelia Annalis'', this required a special senatorial decree.<ref name="Livy, Periochae, 97.6">Livy, ''Periochae'', 97.6</ref> [[Plutarch]] suggests Pompey supported Crassus as his co-consul in order to put him under an obligation.<ref name=":7">Plutarch, ''Life of Crassus'', 12.1</ref> The two men were elected consuls for 70&nbsp;BC, but allegedly differed on almost every measure, rendering their term "politically barren and without achievement."<ref>Plutarch, ''Life of Crassus'', 12.2</ref>

However, their consulship did see the [[plebeian tribune]] recover powers removed by Sulla. One of the most significant was the ability to veto Senatorial bills, an act often seen as a turning point in the politics of the late Republic. Although popular with the people, the measure must have been opposed by the ''optimates'', and thus passing it required support from both consuls, although most extant sources barely mention Crassus.<ref name="Livy, Periochae, 97.6"/>

==Campaign against the pirates==
{{Main articles|Pompey's campaign against the pirates}}
Pirates operated throughout the Mediterranean, while their fleets often formed temporary alliances with enemies of Rome, including Sertorius and Mithridates. Their power and range had increased over the past fifty years, partly because of the decline of traditional naval powers like [[Rhodian Peraia|Rhodes]], while previous attempts to subdue them had been unsuccessful.{{sfn|Tröster|2009|pp=20–21}} However, Romans routinely referred to their opponents as "pirates" or "brigands", and some historians argue it is more accurate to see them as a conventional enemy, rather than disorganised outlaws.{{sfn|Tröster|2009|p=17}}

Principally based in [[Cilicia]], in 68 BC they raided as far as [[Ostia (Rome)|Ostia]], Rome's port, and kidnapped two senators, to general outrage.{{sfn|Leach|1978|p=66}}{{sfn|Seager|2002|pp=43–44}} Prompted by Pompey, [[Aulus Gabinius]], tribune of the plebs in 67 BC, proposed the ''[[Lex Gabinia de piratis persequendis]]'',  giving him a mandate for their suppression. It granted him proconsular authority for three years in any province within 50 miles of the Mediterranean, along with the power to appoint legates and significant financial resources.{{sfn|Flower|2014|pp=89–90}} Concerned by one man holding such wide-ranging powers, the Senate opposed the law but it was passed by the people.{{sfn|Leach|1978|p=68}} Most of the difficulties Pompey faced came from officials who resented his authority. In Gaul, [[Gaius Calpurnius Piso (consul 67 BC)|Piso]] hampered his recruitment efforts, while in [[Crete]], [[Quintus Caecilius Metellus Creticus|Quintus Metellus]] refused to comply with his instructions.{{sfn|Leach|1978|pp=71,74}}

Pompey spread his forces throughout the Mediterranean to prevent the pirates escaping a Roman fleet by moving elsewhere.{{sfn|Seager|2002|p=47}} Fifteen legates were given specific areas to patrol, while he secured the grain route to Rome. These measures won him control of the western Mediterranean in just 40 days, after which his fleets moved to the east, forcing the pirates back to their bases in Cilicia. Pompey led the decisive assault on their stronghold in [[Alanya|Coracaesium]], winning the [[Battle of Korakesion]] and concluding the war in only three months.{{sfn|Leach|1978|p=72}}

Most of his opponents surrendered without fighting, thanks to Pompey's reputation for clemency.{{sfn|Collins|1953|p=102}} They were granted lands in cities devastated during the [[Mithridatic War]], notably [[Soli (Cilicia)|Soli]], renamed Pompeiopolis, and [[Dyme]] in Greece, with others sent to towns in Libya and [[Calabria]]. These communities retained a strong attachment to both Rome and Pompey.{{sfn|Leach|1978|p=73}}{{Sfn|Seager|2002|pp=47–48}}

==Third Mithridatic War and re-organisation of the east==

=== Third Mithridatic War ===
{{main|Third Mithridatic War}}
[[File:1stMithritadicwar89BC.svg|thumb|left|upright=1.15|Asia Minor and surrounding region, first century BC]]

In 73 BC, [[Lucius Licinius Lucullus (consul 74 BC)|Lucius Licinius Lucullus]], formerly one of Sulla's chief lieutenants, was made proconsul of [[Cilicia (Roman province)|Cilicia]], and commander in the Third Mithridatic War. The war began in 74 BC, when the last ruler of [[Bithynia]] died and left his kingdom to Rome, sparking an invasion by [[Mithridates VI Eupator|Mithridates VI]] of [[Kingdom of Pontus|Pontus]], and [[Tigranes the Great]] of [[Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)|Armenia]]. Lucullus was a skilled general who won numerous victories, but claims he was protracting the war for "power and wealth" led to a Senate investigation, while by 69 BC his troops were weary and mutinous.<ref>Plutarch, ''Parallel Lives'', ''Life of Lucullus'', pp. 33–35.</ref>

In 68&nbsp;BC, [[Quintus Marcius Rex (consul 68 BC)|Quintus Marcius Rex]] replaced Lucullus in Cicilia, while [[Manius Acilius Glabrio (consul 67 BC)|Manius Acilius Glabrio]] received Bithynia. He also assumed leadership of the war against Mithridates, but failed to respond decisively when the latter re-occupied much of Pontus in 67 BC, then attacked [[Cappadocia]], a Roman ally.<ref>Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', 36.14.4, 17.1.</ref> Seeing an opportunity, in 66 BC Pompey used the [[Gaius Manilius|tribunate]] to pass the ''[[lex Manilia]]'', giving him extensive powers throughout Asia Minor in order to defeat Mithridates, in addition to those granted by the ''lex Gabinia''. The ''optimates'' were privately horrified that one man should hold so much influence, but fearful of his popularity allowed the measure to pass.<ref>Plutarch, ''Parallel Lives'', ''Life of Pompey'', 30.1–5.</ref>

Incensed at being replaced, Lucullus called Pompey a "vulture" who profited from the work of others, a reference both to his new command and claim to have finished the war against Spartacus.{{sfn|Greenhalgh|1981|p=107}} Pompey agreed an alliance with [[Phraates III]], king of [[Parthia]], whom he persuaded to invade Armenia. When Mithridates offered a truce, Lucullus argued the war was over, but Pompey demanded concessions which could not be accepted.<ref>Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', 36.45–46.</ref> Outnumbered, Mithridates withdrew into Armenia, followed by Pompey, who defeated him at [[Battle of the Lycus|Lycus]] near the end of 66 BC.<ref>Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', 36.47.</ref><ref>Plutarch, ''Parallel Lives'', ''Life of Pompey'', 32.1–3.</ref>

[[File:Mithridates VI Louvre.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|right|Bust of [[Mithridates VI Eupator|Mithridates]] of [[Kingdom of Pontus|Pontus]] in the [[Louvre]], Paris]]

According to contemporary sources, Mithridates and a small contingent escaped the battle, outstripped their pursuers, and reached [[Colchis]] on the [[Black Sea]].<ref>Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', 36.48–50.</ref><ref>Plutarch, ''Parallel Lives'', ''Life of Pompey'', 32.3–7.</ref> While there, he took control of the [[Cimmerian Bosporus]] from its Roman-backed ruler, his son [[Machares]], who later committed suicide.<ref>Appian, ''The Mithridatic Wars'', pp. 101–102.</ref> Meanwhile, Pompey invaded Armenia supported by [[Tigranes the Younger]], whose father quickly came to terms; in return for the restoration of Armenian territories taken by Lucullus, he paid a substantial cash indemnity{{efn|Reportedly 6,000 talents for Pompey, with [[tribunes]] getting 10,000 drachmas each, [[centurions]] 1,000, and enlisted men 50}} and allowed Roman troops to be based on his territory.

In 65 BC, Pompey set out to take Colchis, but to do so had first to [[Caucasian campaign of Pompey|subdue]] various local tribes and allies of Mithridrates. After winning a series of battles, he reached [[Phasis (town)|Phasis]] and linked up with Servilius, admiral of his Euxine fleet, before a fresh revolt in [[Caucasian Albania]] forced him to retrace his steps. Victory at the [[Battle of the Abas|Abas]] enabled him to impose terms on the Albanians and agree truces with other tribes on the northern side of the Caucasus.<ref>Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', 36.54, 37.2–5.1</ref> Pompey then wintered in Armenia, settling minor border contests and raids between his allies Phraates and Tigranes.<ref>Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', 37.5.2–5, 6.</ref>

Relying on his naval blockade to wear down Mithridates, Pompey spent 64 BC annexing the independent and wealthy cities of [[Roman Syria|Syria]], which were incorporated into a new Roman province. In the process, he acquired large amounts of money and prestige, as well as criticism from his opponents in Rome, who argued doing so exceeded his authority. Meanwhile, an ageing Mithridates had been cornered in [[Panticapaeum]] by another of his sons, [[Pharnaces II of Pontus]]. An attempt to commit suicide by taking poison allegedly failed due to his habit of taking "precautionary antidotes", and he was killed by the rebels. Pharnaces sent his embalmed body to Pompey, in return for which he was granted the [[Bosporan Kingdom]] and made an ally of Rome.<ref>Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', 37.11–14.2.</ref>

===Re-organisation of the East===
{{details|Pompey's eastern settlement}}
The final collapse of the [[Seleucid Empire]] allowed Pompey to annex [[Roman Syria|Syria]] in 64 BC, but its dissolution destabilised the region, while many of its cities had used the power vacuum to achieve independence.{{sfn|Leach|1978|p=93}} In early 63 BC, Pompey left [[Antioch]] and marched south, occupying coastal cities like [[Apamea, Syria|Apamea]], before crossing the [[Anti-Lebanon Mountains]] and capturing [[Pella, Jordan|Pella]] (in today's Jordan), and [[Damascus]].{{sfn|Leach|1978|p=96}}

[[File:Hyrcanus II Judea.png|thumb|upright=0.8|left|[[Judea]] (blue) in 63 BC, after losing the [[Decapolis]] (red) to the north]]

Pompey's incursion further south, into [[Judea]], was occasioned on account of its inhabitants, under the leadership of [[Hyrcanus II]] and [[Aristobulus II]], having ravaged [[Phoenicia]] and Pompey wanting to bring a stop to it.<ref>{{cite book |last=Cassius Dio |author-link=Cassius Dio|title=Dio's Roman History |publisher=Harvard University Press |editor=E.H. Warmington |series=The Loeb Classical Library |volume=3 |date=1969 |location=Cambridge |page=127 (book XXXVII)|language=en, Greek |oclc=264964964}}</ref> The initial onslaught was disrupted by the [[Hasmonean Civil War]], in which Pompey backed Hyrcanus&nbsp;II over his brother Aristobulus&nbsp;II. When he compelled the latter to surrender [[Jerusalem]], its defenders took refuge in the [[Second Temple|Temple]], which the [[Siege of Jerusalem (63 BC)|Romans first stormed]], then looted. Judea became a client kingdom ruled by Hyrcanus, while its northern section was incorporated into the [[Decapolis]], a league of semi-autonomous cities (see map). Both Judea and the League were made subordinate to the new province of Syria.<ref>Josephus, ''Jewish Antiquities'', 14.54.79</ref>

Other organisational changes included creating the province of [[Bithynia and Pontus]], with the rest of Mithridates' territories distributed among Roman allies. Elsewhere, [[Ariobarzanes I of Cappadocia]] was restored to his throne, while Lesser Armenia was taken from Tigranes and incorporated into [[Galatia]], with Pompey's client [[Deiotarus]] becoming ruler of the new kingdom. Finally, Cilicia received the coastal region of [[Pamphylia]], previously a centre of piracy, along with other inland areas and reorganised into six parts.{{efn|These were Cilicia Aspera, Cilicia Campestris, Pamphylia, [[Pisidia]], [[Isauria]], [[Lycaonia]], and [[Phrygia]]}} These actions significantly increased Roman state income and presented Pompey with multiple opportunities to increase his personal wealth and patronage base.{{sfn|Morrill|2017|pp=57–97}}

==Return to Rome and the First Triumvirate==
[[File:Faustus Cornelius Sulla, AR denarius, 56 BC, RRC 426-4a.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.15|Denarius minted in 56&nbsp;BC by Pompey's supporter [[Faustus Cornelius Sulla (quaestor 54 BC)|Faustus Sulla]]{{efn|The three wreaths on the reverse refer to the three triumphs of Pompey; the top wreath is the [[Roman military decorations and punishments|''corona aurea'']] he received in 62; the globe in the center is a copy of the one paraded during the third triumph; the aplustre on the lower left alludes to his victory against the pirates}}<ref>{{harvnb|Crawford|1974|pp=449–451}}, though he only links the aplustre with Pompey's ''[[Cura Annonae|cura annonae]]'' of 57.</ref>{{sfn|De Souza|2002|p=174}}]]

Before his return to Italy in 62 BC, Pompey paid his troops bonuses totalling around 16,000 [[Talent (measurement)|talents]],{{sfn|Leach|1978|p=101}}{{efn|A Roman talent was roughly 32 kilograms of gold, making this distribution worth over $32 billion using 2023 prices}} but despite fears he intended to follow Sulla's example, they were dismissed upon arrival at Brundisium.{{sfn|Mitchell|1973|p=1}} His journey to Rome drew huge crowds wherever he stopped, showing that although opinion in the Senate was divided, Pompey remained as popular as ever with the masses. He was awarded a third triumph for his achievements in Asia Minor, celebrated on his 45th birthday in 61&nbsp;BC.{{sfn|Beard|2015|p=273}}

Pompey claimed the new provinces established in the East had increased annual state income from 200 million to 340 million [[Sestertius|sesterces]], plus an additional payment of 480 million sesterces to the treasury.{{sfn|Leach|1978|p=118}} He refused to provide details of his personal fortune, but given the amounts declared publicly, this must have been enormous. Some of it was used to build one of the most famous structures of Ancient Rome, the [[Theatre of Pompey]].{{sfn|Kuritz|1987|p=48}}

However, the Senate then refused to ratify the treaties agreed by Pompey as part of his settlement of the East. Opposition was led by the ''optimates'' [[Cato the Younger]] and [[Quintus Caecilius Metellus Celer|Metellus Celer]], whose sister Mucia had recently been divorced by Pompey, for reasons still disputed.{{sfn|Haley|1985|p=53}}{{efn|The divorce may also have been a factor in the defection of [[Quintus Caecilius Metellus Nepos (consul 57 BC)|Metellus Nepos]], previously one of Pompey's main supporters, although the Metelli had their own political ambitions.{{sfn|Mitchell|1973|p=6}}}} They also defeated a bill to distribute farmland to his veterans, and landless members of the urban poor. A similar measure had been rejected in 63 BC, which arguably made the Senate over confident in their ability to control popular unrest.{{sfn|Mitchell|1973|p=2}}

[[File:First Triumvirate of Caesar, Crassius and Pompey.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|left|The [[First Triumvirate]]; left to right, [[Julius Caesar|Caesar]], [[Marcus Licinius Crassus|Crassus]], and Pompey]]

Although Pompey could not overcome ''optimate'' opposition on his own, the situation changed when Marius' nephew [[Julius Caesar]] sought his endorsement for the consulship in 59 BC. A skilled, unscrupulous, and ambitious politician, Caesar used this alliance to harness Pompey's influence with the urban electorate.{{sfn|Mitchell|1973|p=3}} With additional support from Crassus, Caesar became one of the two consuls for 59&nbsp;BC, the other being the ''optimate'' [[Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus]]. This meant Caesar could help pass legislation sponsored by Pompey and Crassus, while it was in his interest to keep them aligned, an important factor given the rivalry between his two patrons.{{sfn|Leach|1978|pp=120–121}}

Despite appearing to be the most junior, Caesar thus became central to the [[First Triumvirate]], an informal political alliance designed to counter-balance the ''optimates''. Pompey's influence was based on his reputation as a military commander, and popularity with the Roman people.{{sfn|Mitchell|1973|p=17}} Crassus' wealth allowed him to construct extensive patronage networks, but he lacked the military clout essential for political success in the [[Crisis of the Roman Republic|late Republican era]].{{sfn|Beard|2015|p=275}}

[[File:Bust of Cicero (1st-cent. BC) - Palazzo Nuovo - Musei Capitolini - Rome 2016.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|right|[[Marcus Tullius Cicero]], leader of ''optimate'' opposition to the triumvirate who became an ally of Pompey]]

Once elected, Caesar secured the passage of a new agrarian bill, helped by Pompey's veterans, who filled the streets of Rome and allegedly intimidated the Senate. When Bibulus opposed the measure, he was attacked in the [[Roman Forum|forum]], and spent the rest of his consulship under virtual house arrest.{{Sfn|Beard|2015|p=282}} Caesar then ensured ratification of Pompey's settlements in the east, while the ''[[Lex Vatinia]]'' made him governor of Gallia Cisalpina and [[Illyricum (Roman province)|Illyricum]]. He was also assigned [[Gallia Transalpina]] after its governor died in office, before leaving Rome to launch the [[Gallic Wars]] in 58 BC. His alliance with Pompey was strengthened when the latter married Caesar's daughter Julia.{{sfn|Haley|1985|p=53}}

Senatorial opposition to the triumvirate was led by [[Marcus Tullius Cicero|Cicero]], a long-standing Pompeian ally. Despite this, the latter supported the populist politician [[Publius Clodius Pulcher]] in an attack on Cicero for executing Roman citizens without trial during the [[Catilinarian conspiracy]].{{sfn|Holland|2004|pp=238–239}} Although Clodius succeeded in having Cicero exiled, he was recalled to Rome by Pompey eighteen months later in 57 BC.{{sfn|Holland|2004|p=254}} As a result, when shortages of grain caused popular unrest later that year, a grateful Cicero backed Pompey's appointment as ''[[praefectus annonae]]'', a temporary position set up for such occasions.{{sfn|Holland|2004|p=254}}

Pompey and Crassus were competing for command of a new expedition to Asia Minor, and in 56 BC they [[Luca Conference|met]] with Caesar to resolve these issues. Although Crassus was a long-standing rival, there are also indications Pompey felt his status as the foremost soldier of the Republic was threatened by Caesar's success in [[Gallic Wars|Gaul]].{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=253}} With this in mind, Pompey set aside his differences with Crassus to promote their joint candidature as consuls for 55&nbsp;BC. With Caesar's support, they were duly elected after prolonged periods of the violence which had become a feature of Roman political campaigns.{{sfn|Collins|1953|p=104}} 

Once in office, they ensured passage of a law giving Crassus the province of Syria and command of a punitive expedition against Parthia, providing him opportunities for both military glory and loot. Pompey was assigned the restive provinces of Hispania, along with Africa, while Caesar's governorships in Gaul were extended. All three men were given these positions for a period of five years, as well as the right to levy troops and "make peace and war with whomsoever they pleased."{{sfn|Collins|1953|p=104}}

==From confrontation to civil war==
[[File:Map of the Ancient Rome at Caesar time (with conquests)-en.svg|thumb|left|upright=1.25|The Roman Empire and satellite states, prior to the outbreak of civil war {{circa}} 49 BC]]

In 54 BC, Caesar continued his conquest of Gaul, Crassus opened his campaign against the Parthians, and Pompey remained in Rome, where his wife Julia died in child birth in September. Contemporary sources suggest that combined with the death of Crassus and his son [[Publius Licinius Crassus (son of triumvir)|
Publius]] at [[Battle of Carrhae|Carrhae]] in May 53 BC, this removed any obstacle to direct confrontation between Caesar and Pompey.<ref>Plutarch, ''Parallel Lives'', ''Life of Caesar'', 23.5–6</ref><ref>Plutarch, ''Parallel Lives'', ''Life of Pompey'', 53.4–6.</ref>{{efn|Historian [[Works attributed to Florus|Florus]] wrote "Pompey could not brook an equal, or Caesar a superior."<ref>Florus, ''Epitome of Roman History'', 2.13.14</ref>}}

Consular elections in 52 BC had to be suspended due to widespread violence. Seeking to end his alliance with Caesar, the ''optimate'' Bibulus proposed Pompey be elected sole consul, an unprecedented act backed by both Cato and the tribunate.{{sfn|Ramsey|2016|pp=307–308}} Having restored order, Pompey married Cornelia, widow of Publius Crassus and daughter of [[Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius Scipio Nasica|Metellus Scipio Nasica]], whom he appointed as his colleague for the last five months of the year.{{sfn|Ramsey|2016|p=299}} 

As consul, Pompey helped enact legislation which some historians view as crucial to understanding the drift to war in 49 BC. Accused of using violence during his consulship in 59 BC, Caesar had previously been shielded by his proconsular immunity. With private support from Pompey, new laws made such prosecutions retrospective, which meant Caesar would probably be put on trial the moment he left Gaul and lost his ''[[Imperium]]''.{{sfn|Stanton|2003|p=73}} To avoid this, he had secured approval to stand for the consulship in 48 BC while still in Gaul, but another law backed by Pompey required electoral candidates to be physically present in Rome.{{sfn|Stanton|2003|p=75}} 

Although the two continued to co-operate in public,{{sfn|Stanton|2003|p=67}} Pompey clearly viewed his colleague as a threat, as did much of the Senate. Both consuls for 50 BC, [[Lucius Aemilius Paullus (consul 50 BC)|Paullus]] and [[Gaius Claudius Marcellus (consul 50 BC)|Gaius Claudius]], were opponents of Caesar, as was [[Gaius Scribonius Curio (praetor 49 BC)|Curio]], a plebeian tribune. They initiated legislation to remove Caesar from his command in Gaul, who allegedly bypassed this by bribing Paullus and Curio.{{sfn|Drogula|2019|p=240}} For whatever reason, Curio came up with an alternative proposal; Caesar and Pompey should disarm at the same time, or be declared enemies of the state.{{sfn|Drogula|2019|pp=241–242}}

This was a clever move, since it was popular with those who wanted to avoid war, but unacceptable to the ''optimates'' who saw Caesar as a danger that had to be eliminated.{{sfn|Drogula|2019|p=243}} Rejection made open conflict more likely, and the Senate agreed to fund a consular army, organised by Pompey. When he fell ill while recruiting in [[Naples]], the celebrations that followed his recovery allegedly convinced Pompey his popularity was sufficient to see off any opponent.{{sfn|Collins|1953|p=104}} In December, Caesar crossed the Alps with a single veteran legion and arrived at [[Ravenna]], close to the border with the Roman Republic.{{sfn|Wylle|1992|p=558}}{{efn|Now in Northern Italy, Ravenna was then a federated ally of the [[Roman Republic]]}}

A significant number of senators opposed any concessions to Caesar, but many also mistrusted Pompey, who has been criticised for "weak and ineffectual leadership" in this period.{{sfn|Wylle|1992|pp=557–558}} On 1 January 49 BC, Caesar sent an ultimatum demanding acceptance of his compromise, failing which he would march on Rome "to avenge his country's wrongs". Confident their forces significantly outnumbered those available to Caesar, on 7 January the Senate declared him a public enemy; four days later, he crossed the [[Rubicon]] into Italy.{{sfn|Wylle|1992|p=558}}

==The Road to Pharsalus==
{{Main|Caesar's civil war}}

When the war began, Caesar was a rebel with no navy and three understrength legions, while Pompey was backed by all the resources of the Roman state and his clients in the East.{{sfn|Wylle|1992|p=557}} However, his position was weaker than it seemed, since he was simply an advisor to the Senate, many of whose members either preferred a negotiated solution, or regarded him with as much suspicion as Caesar. His military strategy had to be approved by the consuls, and he could only issue recommendations, which were not always followed. For example, Cicero rejected a request to help him with recruitment, and Cato refused to take command of Sicily, vital for control of Rome's grain supply.{{sfn|Wylle|1992|pp=558–559}}

[[File:La Fuite de Pompée.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|right|''The Flight of Pompey after Pharsalus'', by [[Jean Fouquet]]]]

Plans to defend Italy were undone by the speed with which Caesar moved, advancing directly on Rome with minimal resistance. Although outnumbered, his troops were experienced veterans, while many of Pompey's were new recruits, a weakness made worse by lack of co-ordination. Cato's brother-in-law, the ''optimate'' leader [[Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus (consul 54 BC)|Lucius Domitius]], was cut off and captured in a hopeless defence of [[Corfinium]], and his 13,000 men incorporated into Caesar's army.{{sfn|Wylle|1992|pp=558–559}} Led by [[Asinius Pollio]], they were later used to occupy Sicily.{{sfn|Leach|1978|p=183}}

Pompey had abandoned Rome, ordering all senators and public officials to accompany him as he withdrew south to [[Brindisi|Brundisium]]. From there, he transported his troops across the [[Adriatic]] to [[Dyrrhachium]] in [[Thessaly]], an operation performed with almost complete success.{{sfn|Leach|1978|pp=173–185}} Lacking ships to pursue him, Caesar first secured his rear by subduing Pompeian forces in Hispania, before returning to Rome in December 49 BC. This gave Pompey time to build an army nearly twice the size of his opponents', while his navy destroyed two fleets being built for Caesar, ensuring the Pompeians retained control of the sea lanes.{{sfn|Wylle|1992|p=559}}

Despite this, in January 48 BC Caesar managed to cross the Adriatic with seven legions and land in southern [[Albania]].{{sfn|Boak|1921|p=176}}{{sfn|Leach|1978|p=192}} After capturing [[Oricum]] and [[Apollonia (Illyria)|Apollonia]], he advanced on Pompey's main supply base at [[Dyrrhachium]]. The latter arrived in time to [[Battle of Dyrrhachium (48 BC)|block]] the attempt, and establish a fortified camp on the other side of the River [[Seman (river)|Apus]], where the two armies remained until spring.{{efn|Pompey was based at [[Petra (Illyria)|Petra]],{{sfn|Wylle|1992|p=560}} a small port north of Dyrrhachium, roughly on the site of modern [[Shkëmbi i Kavajës]] in Albania}} Neither commander was anxious to begin hostilities, since Caesar was too weak militarily, while as with Mithridates, Pompey preferred to starve his opponent into submission.{{sfn|Wylle|1992|p=560}} 

[[File:Map of Ancient Greece for Caesar%27s Civil War (Latin).png|thumb|left|upright=1.15|The Pharsalus campaign, 48 BC]]

In late March the stalemate was broken when [[Mark Antony]] finally managed to cross the Adriatic with four more legions and land at [[Nymphaeum (Illyria)|Nymphaeum]], some 57 kilometres north of Dyrrachium. Pompey tried to prevent the two Caesarian armies from linking up, by marching north-east and laying an ambush for Antony. The ambush, however, was revealed to Antony by some local Caesarian sympathisers, and he stayed in camp until Caesar approached. Unwilling to be caught between the two Caesarian forces, Pompey withdrew.{{sfn|Leach|1978|pp=192–193}}

Caesar, his army now united with Antony's force, redeployed his forces by sending one-and-a-half legion to win support and gather supplies in [[Aetolia]] and [[Thessaly]], and a further two legions under [[Gnaeus Domitius Calvinus|Domitius Calvinus]] to intercept [[Metellus Scipio]] in Macedonia. Meanwhile, [[Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (son of Pompey)|Gnaeus]], Pompey's oldest son, managed to destroy Caesar's fleet at Oricum and [[Lezhë|Lissus]], making sure no more reinforcements and supplies would reach Caesar from Italy. Caesar tried to lure Pompey into a [[pitched battle]] at Asparagium, but the latter refused. The next day Caesar outmaneuvred Pompey and marched for Dyrrachium again. When Pompey arrived at the city Caesar had already set up camp.{{sfn|Leach|1978|p=193}}

Caesar lacked the siege equipment needed to take Dyrrhachium, and could not risk leaving Pompey to threaten his rear. He solved this by [[Battle of Dyrrhachium (48 BC)|besieging Pompey in his camp]].{{sfn|Leach|1978|p=194}} Although the latter had enough food, water was scarce because Caesar had dammed the local rivers, and the Pompeian cavalry lacked forage for their horses. Ending the stalemate became a matter of urgency, and in late July Pompey finally managed to break through part of Caesar's defensive lines. Since this made the blockade pointless, Caesar cut his losses and withdrew to Apollonia.{{sfn|Wylle|1992|p=560}}{{sfn|Leach|1978|pp=193–198}}

At this point Metellus Scipio arrived in Thessaly. Caesar moved south to confront this threat and link up with Domitius Calvinus, allowing his men to sack [[Siege of Gomphi|Gomphi]] en route. Pursued by Pompey, he then withdrew to the area near [[Farsala|Pharsalus]], but failed to tempt Pompey into giving battle.{{sfn|Wylle|1992|p=561}}{{efn|The exact location of the battle is still disputed}} Although it was later claimed Pompey only did so after being pressured by his subordinates, the delay may simply have been a reflection of his natural caution.{{sfn|Wylle|1992|p=562}}

Regardless, in the ensuing [[Battle of Pharsalus]] Pompey's army of around 38,000 outnumbered the 22,000 men commanded by Caesar,{{efn|these numbers refer to legionaries and do not include the light-armed troops provided by allied rulers and nations{{sfn|Leach|1978|p=204}}}} with 7,000 cavalry to 1,000.{{sfn|Keppie|1984|p=109}} On 9 August he deployed his men in battle formation, planning to use his superior cavalry to outflank his opponent on his left. Caesar had anticipated this, and repulsed the cavalry which fled in confusion, exposing the infantry behind them. Under pressure from the left and in front, the Pompeian army collapsed.{{sfn|Wylle|1992|p=563}}

==Death==

[[File:Death of Pompey Magnus.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.0|Death of Pompey Magnus; 18th-century engraving]]

Pompey escaped from the battlefield and made his way to [[Mytilene]], where he was reunited with his wife Cornelia. Most of his Eastern allies were present at Pharsalus and had either been killed or captured. The main absentee was 14-year-old [[Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator|Ptolemy XIII]], ruler of the wealthy and strategically important kingdom of [[Ptolemaic Kingdom|Egypt]], making it an obvious destination. Cato announced his intention to continue the war from Africa, although most of his senatorial colleagues, including Cicero and [[Marcus Junius Brutus]], made their peace with Caesar and returned to Rome.{{sfn|Holland|2004|p=323}}

Pompey sailed from [[Cyprus]] with a small fleet, and on 28 September 48 BC arrived at [[Pelusium]] in Egypt, where Ptolemy was engaged in a bitter civil war with his co-ruler and elder sister, [[Cleopatra VII]]. When he went ashore to greet an official delegation, Pompey was killed by [[Lucius Septimius]], a Roman officer and former colleague serving in the Egyptian army. His body was cremated by two servants, while the head was kept as evidence.{{sfn|Beard|2015|p=290}} 

One suggestion is that Ptolemy and his advisors feared Pompey planned to seize control of Egypt, especially since many Egyptian army officers were Roman mercenaries like Septimius who had previously served with him. At the same time, it seemed an easy way to win Caesar's support against Cleopatra, although ultimately this proved not to be the case.{{sfn|Holland|2004|p=327}} Pompey's head was later returned to Cornelia for burial at his villa in the [[Alban Hills]], while his ignominious death prompted Cicero to write "his life outlasted his power".{{sfn|Beard|2015|p=290}}

==Marriages and issue==
{{main|Wives of Pompey the Great}}
Pompey had five wives:{{sfn|Haley|1985}}<ref>Plutarch, ''Parallel Lives'', ''Life of Pompey'', 5, 9, 15, 48.</ref>
* [[Antistia (wife of Pompey)|Antistia]]. They married in 86 BC and divorced in 82 BC. By her he had no issue.
* [[Wives of Pompey the Great#Aemilia (82/81 BCE)|Aemilia Scaura]]. When they married in 82 BC, Aemilia was pregnant by her former husband and died in childbirth in the same year.
* [[Mucia Tertia]]. They married in 79 BC and divorced in 61 BC. By her he had two sons and a daughter:
** [[Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (son of Pompey)|Gnaeus Pompeius]]
** [[Pompeia Magna|Pompeia]]
** [[Sextus Pompey|Sextus Pompeius]] 
* [[Julia (daughter of Caesar)|Julia]], the daughter of [[Julius Caesar]]. They married in 59 BC and she died in childbirth in 54 BC. The child died a few days after birth.
* [[Cornelia Metella]]. They married in 52 BC and had no children together.

==Generalship==

Pompey's military glory was second to none for two decades, yet his decisions were occasionally criticized by some of his contemporaries. Sertorius or Lucullus, for instance, were especially critical.<ref>Plutarch, ''Life of Sertorius'' and ''Life of Lucullus''</ref> Pompey's tactics were usually efficient, albeit not particularly innovative or imaginative, and they could prove insufficient against greater tacticians. However, Pharsalus was his only decisive defeat.{{sfn|Leach|1978|p={{pn|date=September 2023}}}} At times, he was reluctant to risk an open battle. While not extremely charismatic, Pompey could display tremendous bravery and fighting skills on the battlefield, which inspired his men.{{sfn|Leach|1978|p={{pn|date=September 2023}}}} While being a superb commander, Pompey also earned a reputation for stealing other generals' victories.{{sfn|Brice|2014|p=145}}

On the other hand, Pompey is usually considered an outstanding strategist and organizer, who could win campaigns without displaying genius on the battlefield, but simply by constantly outmaneuvering his opponents and gradually pushing them into a desperate situation.{{sfn|Leach|1978|p={{pn|date=September 2023}}}} Pompey was a great planner, and had tremendous organizational skill, which allowed him to devise grand strategies and operate effectively with large armies.<ref name=":8">Si Sheppard, ''Pharsalus''</ref> During his campaigns in the east, he relentlessly pursued his enemies, choosing the ground for his battles.<ref>{{Cite book |title=History of the Ancient & Medieval World Vol. 6 |publisher=Marshall Cavendish Corporation |year=1996 |isbn=0761403574 |edition=Revised |location=Tarrytown, NY |pages=731 |language=English}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Hazel |first=John |title=Who's Who in the Roman World |publisher=Routledge Taylor & Francis Group |year=2001 |isbn=0415224101 |edition=2nd |location=New York |pages=247–248 |language=English}}</ref>

Above all, he was often able to adapt to his enemies and showed determination. On many occasions, he acted very swiftly and decisively, as he did during his campaigns in Sicily and Africa, or against the Cilician pirates. During the Sertorian war, on the other hand, Pompey was beaten several times by Sertorius. Despite an abysmal first year of the war for Pompey in 76&nbsp;BC, he continued to campaign vigorously and as a result defeated many of Sertorius' subordinates. After Sertorius' army was greatly diminished, Pompey then decided to conduct a [[war of attrition]], in which he would avoid open battles against his chief opponent but instead tried to gradually regain the strategic advantage by capturing his fortresses and cities and defeating his junior officers.{{sfn|Leach|1978|p={{pn|date=September 2023}}}} This strategy was unspectacular, but it led to constant territorial gains and did much to demoralize the Sertorian forces. By 73 or 72&nbsp;BC, when he was assassinated, Sertorius was already in a desperate situation and his troops were deserting. Against Perperna, a tactician far inferior to his former commander-in-chief, Pompey decided to revert to a more aggressive strategy and he scored a decisive victory that effectively ended the war.

Against Caesar too, his strategy was sound. During the campaign in Greece, he managed to regain the initiative, join his forces to those of Metellus Scipio (something that Caesar wanted to avoid) and trap his enemy. His strategic position was therefore much better than that of Caesar and he could have starved Caesar's army to death.<ref name=":8"/> However, he was finally compelled to fight an open battle by his allies, and his conventional tactics proved no match to those of Caesar (who also commanded the more experienced troops).

== Literary heritage ==
Pompey was so striking a figure, and his fall so dramatic, that his story became the subject of frequent literary treatment. In the century after his death, the civil war between himself and Caesar was retold in [[Lucan]]'s epic ''De Bello Civili'', now known as the ''[[Pharsalia]]'' after the culminating battle. In the poem's final sections, however, Pompey's vengeful ghost returns to possess those responsible for his murder in Egypt and bring about their death.<ref>Sean Easton, "Why Pompey Is better off dead", ''The Classical Journal'' 107.2 (2011), [https://www.academia.edu/4653650/Why_Lucans_Pompey_is_Better_Off_Dead pp. 212–23]</ref>

In [[Renaissance]] Britain, too, several plays returned to the subject of "Caesar and Pompey", including [[George Chapman]]'s ''The Wars of Pompey and Caesar'' (c. 1604). Another contemporary treatment by [[Thomas Kyd]], ''Cornelia, or Pompey the Great, his faire Cornelia's tragedy'' (1594), was a translation from the French of [[Robert Garnier]].<ref>''A Manual of Old English Plays'' (1892), [https://books.google.com/books?id=Aj65AAAAIAAJ&dq=play+POMPEY+-Portsmouth&pg=PA33 pp. 33, 50]</ref> Later in France, Pompey's story was told without the character appearing onstage in [[Pierre Corneille]]'s ''La Mort de Pompée'' (1643) and this too had English adaptations: as ''Pompey'' (1663)  by [[Catherine Philips]], as ''Pompey the Great'' by [[Edmund Waller]] and others in 1664,<ref>Andrew Shifflett, ''Stoicism, Politics and Literature in the Age of Milton'', Cambridge University 1998, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ujbeD7IchA8C&q=%22Stoicism,+Politics+and+Literature+in+the+Age+of+Milton%22 pp. 76 ff]</ref> and later as ''[[The Death of Pompey]]'' (1724) by [[Colley Cibber]].

Later in the 18th century, Pompey is made the recipient of a [[Epistolary poem|'heroical epistle']] in rhyming couplets from a supposed former lover in [[John Hervey, 2nd Baron Hervey|John Hervey]]'s "Flora to Pompey".<ref>Joseph Wharton, ''An Essay on the Genius and Writings of Pope'', (London, 1756), [https://books.google.com/books?id=oyQJAAAAQAAJ&dq=%22Flora+to+Pompey%22&pg=PA296 vol. 1,  p. 296]</ref><ref>Robert Dodsley, ''A Collection of Poems by Several Hands'', (London 1755), [https://books.google.com/books?id=_iIJAAAAQAAJ&dq=%22Flora+to+Pompey%22&pg=PA90 vol. 4, pp. 90–94]</ref> He also figures in narrative poems of the 19th century. [[John Edmund Reade]]'s "The Vale of Tempe" records the fugitive's desperate appearance as glimpsed by a bystander in the Greek valley;<ref>''The Broken Heart, with other poems'', London 1825, [https://books.google.com/books?id=kSpcAAAAcAAJ&dq=Pompey++poem+++%22Vale+of+Tempe%22&pg=PA60 pp. 56–60]</ref> his arrival in Egypt is related by [[Alaric Watts]] in "The Death of Pompey the Great",<ref>Alaric A. Watts, ''Lyrics of the Heart'', London 1851, [https://books.google.com/books?id=MHlBAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA209 pp. 209–213]</ref> and the ruined column raised to mark the site of his killing outside Alexandria is described by [[Nicholas Michell]] in ''Ruins of Many Lands''.<ref> "Pompey’s Pillar", ''Ruins of Many Lands'', London 1849, [https://books.google.com/books?id=xDhcAAAAcAAJ pp. 61–2]</ref> These were followed by [[John Masefield]]'s prose drama ''[[The Tragedy of Pompey the Great]]'' of 1910, covering the period from his decision to fight Caesar to his assassination in Egypt.<ref>[https://ia800208.us.archive.org/27/items/tragedyofpompeyg00maserich/tragedyofpompeyg00maserich.pdf ''The Tragedy of Pompey the Great''], London, 1910</ref> The play was later filmed for television in 1950 for the ''[[BBC Sunday Night Theatre]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://explore.bfi.org.uk/4ce2b7f3044be |title=The Tragedy of Pompey the Great |website=BFI Film Forever |publisher=British Film Institute|date=20 July 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120720043235/http://explore.bfi.org.uk/4ce2b7f3044be |archive-date=20 July 2012}}</ref>

Pompey's career is recapitulated a century later in series of historical novels. In [[Colleen McCullough]]'s ''[[Masters of Rome]]'', Pompey is mainly featured in Books III-V, covering his rise to prominence through to his betrayal and murder in Egypt.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Rocío Gordillo Hervás |title=Historical Fiction and Ancient Rome: Colleen McCullough's ''Masters Of Rome'' Series |journal=Collection de l'Institut des Sciences et Techniques de l'Antiquité |date=9 February 2024 |volume=1476 |issue=1 |pages=206 ff |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/ista_0000-0000_2019_ant_1476_1_3780#ista_0000-0000_2019_ant_1476_1_T11_0198_0000}}</ref> Pompey is also a recurring character in [[Steven Saylor]]'s ''[[Roma Sub Rosa]]'' crime fiction novels, where he brushes shoulders with Gordianus, the main protagonist of the series.<ref>{{cite web |website=Crime Fiction Lover |url=https://crimefictionlover.com/2014/10/interview-steven-saylor |title=Interview: Steven Saylor |author=Keith Nixon |date=19 October 2014}}</ref> Another fiction series in which Pompey plays a part in the historical background is [[Robert Harris (novelist)|Robert Harris's]] trilogy of the life of [[Cicero]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thebookseller.com/author-interviews/robert-harris-interview-312032 |title=Robert Harris {{!}} 'Cicero had very good relations with Caesar but he was absolutely delighted to see him murdered before his own eyes' |website=The Bookseller |author=Benedicte Page |date=11 September 2015}}</ref>

==Chronology of Pompey's life and career==
* 29 September 106&nbsp;BC – Born in [[Picenum]];
* 86 BC – Marriage to Antistia;
* 89&nbsp;BC – Serves under his father at Asculum (during the [[Social War (91–87 BC)|Social War]]);
* 83&nbsp;BC – Aligns with [[Sulla]], after his return from the [[First Mithridatic War]] against King [[Mithridates VI of Pontus]], raising a legion and cavalry in hopes of joining him;{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2004|p=174}}
* 83–82&nbsp;BC – Fights for Sulla during the war in Italy. First as cavalry commander then joint-commands and finally commanding an independent army.
* 82&nbsp;BC – Divorce by Antistia and marriage to Aemilia at the behest of Sulla, but Aemilia is already pregnant and eventually dies during childbirth;{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2004|p=179}}
* 82–81&nbsp;BC – Defeats [[Gaius Marius]]' allies in Sicily and Africa;
* 81&nbsp;BC – Returns to Rome and celebrates first triumph;
* 79&nbsp;BC – Pompey marries [[Mucia Tertia]], of the [[Mucia gens|Mucii Scaevolae]] family;{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2004|p=179}}
* 79&nbsp;BC – Pompey supports the election of [[Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (consul 78 BC)|Marcus Aemilius Lepidus]], who openly revolts against the Senate a few months later. Pompey suppresses the rebellion with an army raised from [[Picenum]] and puts down the rebellion, killing the rebel [[Marcus Junius Brutus (tribune 83 BC)|Marcus Junius Brutus]], father of [[Marcus Junius Brutus|Brutus]], who would go on to assassinate [[Julius Caesar]];{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2004|p=180, 181}}
* 76–71&nbsp;BC – Campaign in [[Hispania]] against [[Sertorius]];
* 71&nbsp;BC – Returns to Italy and participates in the suppression of a [[Third Servile War|slave rebellion]] led by [[Spartacus]], obtaining his second triumph;
* 70&nbsp;BC – First consulship (with [[Marcus Licinius Crassus]]);
* 67&nbsp;BC – Defeats the pirates and goes to the province of Asia;
* 66–61&nbsp;BC – Defeats King Mithridates of Pontus, ending the Third Mithridatic War;
* 64–63&nbsp;BC – Marches through Syria, the Levant, and Judea;
* 61 BC – Divorce by Mucia Tertia;
* 29 September 61&nbsp;BC – Third triumph;
* April 59&nbsp;BC – The so-called first [[triumvirate (ancient Rome)|triumvirate]] is constituted. Pompey allies with [[Julius Caesar]] and Crassus, marrying Caesar's daughter [[Julia (daughter of Caesar)|Julia]];
* 58–55&nbsp;BC – Governs Hispania Ulterior by proxy, while the Theater of Pompey is constructed;
* 55&nbsp;BC – Second consulship (with Marcus Licinius Crassus), and the Theater of Pompey is finally inaugurated;
* 54&nbsp;BC – [[Julia (wife of Pompey)|Julia]] dies in childbirth, and the first triumvirate ends;
* 52&nbsp;BC – Serves as sole consul for an [[Mercedonius|intercalary month]],{{sfn|Abbott|1963|p=114}} but has a third ordinary consulship with Metellus Scipio for the rest of the year, marrying his daughter [[Cornelia Metella]];
* 51&nbsp;BC – Forbids Caesar (in Gaul) to stand for consulship ''in absentia'';
* 50&nbsp;BC – Falls dangerously ill with fever in Campania, but is saved "by public prayers";<ref>Juvenal, ''Satire X'', p. 283</ref>
* 49&nbsp;BC – Caesar crosses the Rubicon river and invades Italy, while Pompey retreats to Greece with the conservatives;
* 48&nbsp;BC – Caesar defeats Pompey's army near Pharsalus, Greece. Pompey retreats to Egypt and is killed at [[Pelusium]].

==Footnotes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|20em}}

==Bibliography==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |last1=Abbott |first1=Frank Frost |title=A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions |date=1963 |publisher=Biblo and Tannen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3aQgAQAAIAAJ |language=en}}
* {{cite book|last=Beard|first=Mary|title=SPQR: A History of Ancient Rome|publisher=Profile Press |year=2015|edition=2016|isbn=978-1846683817}}
* {{cite book|last=Beesley|first=A.|title=The Gracchi Marius and Sulla Epochs of Ancient History |publisher=Pinnacle Press|year=1892 |edition=2017|isbn=978-1374894761}}
* {{cite book|last=Boak|first=Edward|title=A History of Rome to 565 AD|publisher=Wentworth Publishing |year=1921|edition=2016|isbn=978-1363094448}}
*{{cite book |last1=Brice |first1=Lee |title=Warfare in the Roman Republic: from the Etruscan Wars to the Battle of Actium |date=2014 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |location=Santa Barbara, Calif. |isbn=978-1610692991}}
* {{cite journal|last=Collins|first=H.P. |title=Decline and Fall of Pompey the Great |journal=Greece and Rome|volume=22|issue=66 |year=1953|jstor=641489|pages=98–106 |doi=10.1017/S0017383500011888 |s2cid=161450990}}
* {{cite book |last=Crawford |first=Michael H. |title=Roman Republican coinage |publisher=Cambridge University Press |publication-place=London |date=1974 |isbn=0-521-07492-4 |oclc=1288923 |author-link=Michael Crawford (historian)}}
* {{cite book |last1=De Souza |first1=Philip |title=Piracy in the Graeco-Roman World |date=2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-01240-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SOK-Jh1Zuk4C |language=en}}
* {{cite book|last=Drogula|first=Fred K. |title=Cato the Younger: Life and death at the end of the Roman Republic |date=2019|isbn=978-0190869021|publisher=Oxford University Press}}
* {{Cite book|last=Flower|first=Harriet |title=The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic |date=2014 |publisher=CUP|isbn=978-1107032248}}
* {{cite book|last=Goldsworthy|first=Adrian |title=In the name of Rome: The Men Who Won the Roman Empire |publisher=Phoenix |place=London |year=2004|isbn=978-0753817896}}
* {{cite book|last=Goldsworthy|first=Adrian |title=Caesar; The Life of a Colossus |publisher=Orion |year=2006|edition=2013 |isbn=978-0297864004}}
* {{cite web|last=Gray|first=Eric William |title=Pompey the Great|website=Encyclopaedia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Pompey-the-Great|access-date=16 March 2023}}
* {{cite book|last=Greenhalgh|first=P. |title=Pompey: The Republican Prince|publisher=Littlehampton Book Services Ltd|year=1981|isbn=978-0297778813}}
* {{cite book|last=Gruen|first=Erich |title=The Last Generation of the Roman Republic|year=1995 |publisher=University of California|isbn=978-0520022386}}
* {{cite journal|last=Haley|first=Shelley|author-link=Shelley Haley|date=April 1985|title=The Five Wives of Pompey the Great |journal=Greece and Rome|volume=32|issue=1 |pages=49–59 |doi=10.1017/S0017383500030138 |jstor=642299 |s2cid=154822339 |issn=1477-4550}}
* {{cite book|last=Holland|first=Tom |title=Rubicon, The Triumph and Tragedy of the Roman Republic |publisher=Abacus|year=2004|isbn=978-0349115634}}
* {{cite book|last=Keppie|first=Lawrence |title=The Making of the Roman Army: From Republic to Empire |publisher=Routledge |date=1984|edition=2015|isbn=978-1138129139}}
* {{cite book |title =The Making of Theatre History |last=Kuritz| first=Paul |publisher=[[Prentice Hall]] |year=1987|isbn=978-0-13-547861-5}}
* {{cite book|last=Leach|first=John |title=Pompey the Great|publisher=Biddles Ltd|year=1978 |isbn=0-8476-6035-4}}
* {{cite book|last=Matyszak|first=Philip |title=Sertorius and the Struggle for Spain|year=2013 |publisher=Pen and Sword|isbn=978-1848847873}}
* {{cite journal|last=Mitchell|first=Thomas |title=Cicero, Pompey and the Rise of the First Triumvirate |journal=Traditio|volume=29 |year=1973|pages=1–26|jstor=641489 |doi=10.1017/S0362152900008953 |s2cid=152020610}}
* {{cite book|last=Morrill|first=Kit |title=Pompey, Cato, and the Governance of the Roman Empire|year=2017 |publisher=OUP|isbn=978-0198755142}}
* {{cite journal|last=Ramsey|first=John |title=How and why was Pompey Made Sole Consul in 52 BC? |journal=Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte|volume=65|issue=3|year=2016 |pages=298–324 |jstor=45019234}}
* {{cite journal|last=Rosenblitt|first=Alison |title=The Turning Tide: The Politics of the Year 79 B.C.E. |journal=Transactions of the American Philological Association |year=2014|pages=415–431|volume=144|issue=2 |doi=10.1353/apa.2014.0008 |jstor=43830445|s2cid=144556938}}
* {{cite book|last=Seager|first=R|title=Pompey the Great: A Political Biography|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |year=2002|isbn=978-0826203564}}
* {{cite journal|last=Stanton|first=John |title=Why Did Caesar Cross the Rubicon?|journal=Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte|volume=52|issue=1|year=2003|pages=67–94|jstor=4436678}}
* {{cite journal|last=Tröster|first=Manuel |title=Roman Hegemony and Non-State Violence: A Fresh Look at Pompey's Campaign against the Pirates|journal=Greece and Rome|volume=56 |issue=1|year=2009|jstor=40388852 |pages=14–33 |doi=10.1017/S0017383508000673 |s2cid=154000527}}
* {{cite journal|last=Wylle|first=Graham |title=The Road to Pharsalus|journal=Latomus|volume=51|issue=3 |year=1992|jstor=41541372|pages=557–565}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* Christ, Karl (2004). ''Pompeius. Der Feldherr Roms. Eine Biographie'' [Pompey. General of Rome. A biography]. Munich: C. H. Beck, {{ISBN|3-406-51543-6}}.
* Dingmann, Matthias (2007). ''Pompeius Magnus. Machtgrundlagen eines spätrepublikanischen Politikers'' [Pompeius Magnus. Power bases of a late republican politician]. Rahden: Leidorf, {{ISBN|978-3-89646-733-1}}.
* Hillman, T., P., ''The Reputation of Cn. Pompeius Magnus among His Contemporaries from 83 to 59 B.C.'', Diss. New York 1989.
* Nicols, Marianne Schoenlin. ''Appearance and Reality. A Study of the Clientele of Pompey the Great'', Diss. Berkeley/Cal. 1992.
* {{cite book |last=Rafferty |first=David |last2=Vervaet |first2=Frederik Juliaan |last3=Dart |first3=Christopher J |chapter=Competitive authoritarianism on the eve of empire: Pompeius's new republic of 52 BCE |date=2025 |title=How Republics Die: Creeping Authoritarianism in Ancient Rome and Beyond |pages=307–330 |editor-last=Vervaet |editor-first=Frederik Juliaan |display-editors=etal |chapter-url=https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783111705446-012/html |publisher=De Gruyter |doi=10.1515/9783111705446-012 |isbn=978-3-11-170544-6 }}
* Southern, P., Pompey the Great: Caesar's Friend and Foe, The History Press, 2003; {{ISBN|978-0752425214}}
* Stockton, D., ''The First Consulship of Pompey'', ''Historia'' 22 (1973), 205–18.
* Van Ooteghem, J., ''Pompée le Grand. Bâtisseur d’Empire''. Brussels 1954.
* Wylie, G., J., ''Pompey Megalopsychos'', ''Klio'' 72 (1990), 445–456.
{{refend}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-off}}
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{{s-ttl|title=[[List of Roman Republican consuls|Roman consul]]|years=70 BC|with=[[Marcus Licinius Crassus|M. Licinius Crassus]]}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Quintus Hortensius|Q. Hortensius Hortalus]]|after2=[[Quintus Caecilius Metellus Creticus|Q. Caecilius Metellus Creticus]]}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Marcellinus|Cn. Cornelius Lentulus Marcellinus]]|before2=[[Lucius Marcius Philippus (consul 56 BC)|L. Marcius Philippus]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of Roman Republican consuls|Roman consul]] II|years=55 BC|with=[[Marcus Licinius Crassus|M. Licinius Crassus]] II}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus (consul 54 BC)|L. Domitius Ahenobarbus]]|after2=[[Appius Claudius Pulcher (consul 54 BC)|Ap. Claudius Pulcher]]}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Gnaeus Domitius Calvinus|Cn. Domitius Calvinus]]|before2=[[Marcus Valerius Messalla Rufus|M. Valerius Messalla Rufus]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of Roman Republican consuls|Roman consul]] III|years=[[Mercedonius|Intercalary Month]], 52 BC<br />''without colleague''}}
{{s-aft|after=Himself|after2=[[Metellus Scipio]]}}
{{s-bef|before=Himself}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of Roman Republican consuls|Roman consul]]|years=52 BC|with=[[Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius Scipio|Metellus Scipio]]}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Servius Sulpicius Rufus|Ser. Sulpicius Rufus]]|after2=[[Marcus Claudius Marcellus (consul 51 BC)|M. Claudius Marcellus]]}}
{{s-end}}

{{Pompey}}
{{Plutarch}}
{{Pirates}}

{{authority control}}

[[Category:Pompey| ]]
[[Category:106 BC births]]
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[[Category:Pompeii (Romans)]]
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