View source for Polypore

{{Short description|Group of fungi}}
{{Use American English|date=March 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2025}}
{{cs1 config|name-list-style=vanc|display-authors=3}}
{{Redirect|Conks|the British submarine|HMS Conqueror (S48)|the hairstyle|Conk}}
{{More citations needed|date=November 2009}}
[[File:fungi in Borneo.jpg|thumb|Polypores (''[[Ganoderma]]'' sp.) growing on a tree in [[Borneo]]]]

'''Polypores''', also called '''bracket''' or '''shelf fungi,''' are a morphological group of [[basidiomycete]]-like [[gilled mushrooms]] and [[hydnoid fungi]] that form large [[fruiting bodies]] called '''conks''', which are typically woody, circular, shelf- or bracket-shaped, with pores or tubes on the underside.

Conks lie in a close planar grouping of separate or interconnected horizontal rows. Brackets can range from only a single row of a few caps, to dozens of rows of caps that can weigh several hundred pounds. They are mainly found on [[tree]]s (living and dead) and [[coarse woody debris]], and may resemble [[mushroom]]s. Some form annual fruiting bodies while others are perennial and grow larger year after year. Bracket fungi are typically tough and sturdy and produce their spores, called [[basidiospore]]s, within the pores that typically make up the undersurface.

Most polypores inhabit tree trunks or branches consuming the wood, but some soil-inhabiting species form [[mycorrhiza]] with trees. Polypores and the related [[corticioid fungi]] are the most important agents of wood decay, playing a very significant role in [[nutrient cycling]] and aiding carbon dioxide absorption by forest ecosystems. Several polypore species are serious pathogens of plantation trees and are major causes of timber spoilage.

As polypores are much more diverse in old natural forests with abundant [[Coarse woody debris|dead wood]] than in younger managed forests or plantations, a number of species have declined drastically and are under threat of extinction due to [[logging]] and [[deforestation]]. Polypores are used in traditional medicine, and they are actively studied for various industrial applications.

==Taxonomy==
[[File:stumpfungus.jpg|thumb|''[[Trametes versicolor]]'', a colorful bracket fungus, commonly known as turkey tail<ref name="Phillips">Phillips, Roger (2006), Mushrooms. Pub. McMilan, {{ISBN|0-330-44237-6}}. P. 314.</ref>]]
[[File:Fungi bracket reduced.jpg|thumb|A bracket fungus (''[[Pycnoporus]]'' sp.) with a tough, woody cap]]
[[File:Daedaleopsis confragrosa Eglinton.JPG|thumb|The [[blushing bracket]] showing the red bruising, which is one identification characteristic<ref name="Phillips"/>]]
[[File:Laetiporus sulphureus, Yellow mushroom on old oak tree1.jpg|thumb|''[[Laetiporus sulphureus]]'']]
[[File:Bracket fungus on tree.webm|thumb|Bracket fungus on tree in Tokyo, Japan]]

Because bracket fungi are defined by their growth form rather than [[Phylogenetics|phylogeny]], the group contains members of multiple [[clade]]s. The [[Fistulina hepatica|beefsteak fungus]], a well-known bracket fungus, is actually a member of the [[Agaricales|agarics]]. Other examples of bracket fungi include [[Laetiporus sulphureus|chicken of the woods (or sulphur shelf)]], [[birch bracket]], [[Polyporus squamosus|dryad's saddle]], [[Ganoderma applanatum|artist's conk]], and [[Trametes versicolor|turkey tail]].{{cn|date=March 2025}} The name polypores is often used for a group that includes many of the hard or leathery fungi, which often lack a [[stipe (mycology)|stipe]], growing straight out of wood. "Polypore" is derived from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] words ''poly'', meaning "much" or "many", and ''poros'', meaning "pore".<ref name="Bold et al. 1987"/>

=== Classification ===
For most of 20th century polypores were treated as a family, the Polyporaceae. Reconstructions of family trees of fungi show that the [[poroid]] fruiting body has evolved numerous times in the past. Modern DNA-based evolutionary classification places polypores to at least 12 orders.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hibbett |first1=David S. |last2=Binder |first2=Manfred |last3=Bischoff |first3=Joseph F. |last4=Blackwell |first4=Meredith |last5=Cannon |first5=Paul F. |last6=Eriksson |first6=Ove E. |last7=Huhndorf |first7=Sabine |last8=James |first8=Timothy |last9=Kirk |first9=Paul M. |last10=Lücking |first10=Robert |last11=Thorsten Lumbsch |first11=H. |last12=Lutzoni |first12=François |last13=Matheny |first13=P. Brandon |last14=McLaughlin |first14=David J. |last15=Powell |first15=Martha J |year=2007 |title=A higher-level phylogenetic classification of the Fungi |journal=Mycological Research |volume=111 |issue=5 |pages=509–547 |doi=10.1016/j.mycres.2007.03.004 |pmid=17572334 |s2cid=4686378 |last16=Redhead |first16=Scott |last17=Schoch |first17=Conrad L. |last18=Spatafora |first18=Joseph W. |last19=Stalpers |first19=Joost A. |last20=Vilgalys |first20=Rytas |last21=Aime |first21=M. Catherine |last22=Aptroot |first22=André |last23=Bauer |first23=Robert |last24=Begerow |first24=Dominik |last25=Benny |first25=Gerald L. |last26=Castlebury |first26=Lisa A. |last27=Crous |first27=Pedro W. |last28=Dai |first28=Yu-Cheng |last29=Gams |first29=Walter |last30=Geiser |first30=David M.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Binder |first1=Manfred |last2=Larsson |first2=Karl-Henrik |last3=Matheny |first3=P. Brandon |last4=Hibbett |first4=David S. |year=2010 |title=Amylocorticiales ord. Nov. And Jaapiales ord. Nov.: Early diverging clades of Agaricomycetidae dominated by corticioid forms |journal=Mycologia |volume=102 |issue=4 |pages=865–880 |doi=10.3852/09-288 |pmid=20648753 |s2cid=23931256}}</ref><ref>Ryvarden L, de Meijer AAR (2002) Studies in neotropical polypores 14. New species from the state of Paraná, Brazil. ''Synopsis Fungorum'' 15: 34–69.</ref> The orders containing most polypore species are the [[Polyporales]] (genera such as ''[[Fomes]]'', ''[[Polyporus]]'' and ''[[Trametes]]'') and [[Hymenochaetales]] (e.g. ''[[Oxyporus]]'', ''[[Phellinus]]'' and ''[[Trichaptum]]''). Economically perhaps the most significant polypores ''[[Heterobasidion]]'' spp., pests of conifer plantations, belong to the [[Russulales]].<ref name="Garbelotto 2013" /> Other polypore orders are the [[Agaricales]], [[Amylocorticiales]], [[Auriculariales]], [[Boletales]], [[Cantharellales]], [[Gloeophyllales]], [[Sebacinales]], [[Thelephorales]] and [[Trechisporales]].

The Polyporales in the modern sense are not only polypores but also other fruiting body types such as [[Corticioid fungi|crust fungi]], [[hydnoid fungi]] and [[agaricoid]] mushrooms.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=National Audubon Society |title=Mushrooms of North America |date=1 April 2023 |publisher=Knopf|isbn=9780593319994 |edition=1st |location=New York}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Das |first=Kanad |last2=Stalpers |first2=Joost A |last3=Stielow |first3=J Benjamin |date=2013-12-13 |title=Two new species of hydnoid-fungi from India |pmc=3905948|journal=IMA Fungus |language=en |volume=4 |issue=2 |doi=10.5598/imafungu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Justo |first=Alfredo |last2=Miettinen |first2=Otto |last3=Floudas |first3=Dimitrios |last4=Ortiz-Santana |first4=Beatriz |last5=Sjökvist |first5=Elisabet |last6=Lindner |first6=Daniel |last7=Nakasone |first7=Karen |last8=Niemelä |first8=Tuomo |last9=Larsson |first9=Karl-Henrik |last10=Ryvarden |first10=Leif |last11=Hibbett |first11=David S. |date=2017-09-01 |title=A revised family-level classification of the Polyporales (Basidiomycota) |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1878614617300685 |journal=Fungal Biology |volume=121 |issue=9 |pages=798–824 |doi=10.1016/j.funbio.2017.05.010 |issn=1878-6146}}</ref>

Currently polypores are divided into about 170 genera.<ref>Ryvarden L (1990) ''Genera of polypores''. Fungiflora, Oslo.</ref><ref name="Justo et al. 2017" />

==Description==
[[File:Pileate polypore2.svg|thumb|upright|Schematic drawing of a pileate polypore fruit body]]

The fungal individual that develops the fruit bodies that are identified as polypores resides in soil or wood as [[mycelium]]. Polypores are often restricted to either deciduous (angiosperm) or conifer ([[gymnosperm]]) host trees. Some species depend on a single tree genus (e.g. ''[[Piptoporus betulinus]]'' on [[birch]], ''Perenniporia corticola'' on [[Dipterocarpaceae|dipterocarps]]).{{Citation needed|date=March 2025}}

Forms of polypore fruit bodies range from mushroom-shaped to thin effused patches ([[corticioid fungi|crusts]]) that develop on dead wood. Perennial fruit bodies of some species growing on living trees can grow over 80 years old (e.g. ''[[Phellinus igniarius]]'').<ref name="Gäumann 1928"/> Most species of polypores develop new, short-lived fruit bodies annually or several times every year. Abundant fruit takes place during the autumn or rainy season.{{Citation needed|date=March 2025}}

Structure of the fruit bodies is simple. Effused or resupinate fruit bodies typically consist of two layers - a tube layer of vertically arranged tubes that open downwards, and supporting layer called subiculum that supports and attached the tubes to substrate. In fruit bodies with a cap (pileate fruit bodies) the tissue between upper surface and the pore layer is called context. A few polypores (e.g. ''[[Fomes fomentarius]]'' and ''[[Inocutis rhaedes]]'') also have a core between context and substrate. A minority of polypores also have a stalk ([[stipe (mycology)|stipe]]) that attach to the cap either laterally or centrally depending on the species.{{Citation needed|date=March 2025}}

Polypore tubes are a honeycomb-like structure, where the individual tubes have fused together. Their sides are covered with a spore-forming surface, the [[hymenium]]. The tubes offer shelter for developing spores and help to increase the area of the spore-producing surface. Pore size and shape vary a lot between species, but little within a species – some ''[[Hexagonia (fungus)|Hexagonia]]'' spp. have 5&nbsp;mm wide pores whereas pores of ''[[Antrodiella]]'' spp. are invisible to naked eye with 15 pores per mm. Generally the larger the pores, the larger the spores. A few polypores produce asexual spores ([[chlamydospore]]s or [[conidia]]) in the upper surface of their cap (e.g. ''[[Echinopora aculeifera]]'', ''[[Oligoporus ptychogaster]]'') or without the presence of a sexual fruit body (e.g. ''Inonotus rickii'', ''[[Heterobasidion]]'' spp.).<ref>Gilbertson RL, Ryvarden L (1986) ''North American polypores 1, ''Abortiporus'' to ''Lindtneria. Oslo,  Fungiflora.</ref>

<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px">
File:Polyporus sp.jpg|''Polyporus'' sp. fruit bodies with stalk (Indonesia)
File:Fomitopsis pinicola FI.jpg|Perennial conk of ''[[Fomitopsis pinicola]]'' on spruce
File:Gloeoporus taxicola.jpg|Effused fruit bodies of ''Meruliopsis taxicola'' on a pine log
File:Onderkant buisjeszwam.jpg|bottom side polypore with pores/tubes clearly visible
</gallery>

=== Delimitation (morphology) ===
Most polypores have a poroid hymenium, but not all species. A few, for instance ''Elmerina holophaea'' and ''[[Lenzites betulina]]'', form gills like [[agaric]]s but are still considered polypores, since in all other respects they are similar to closely related polypores, forming tough fruiting bodies on the wood. A couple of species where the tubes have not fused together in a honey-comb manner are variably classified as polypores or not (e.g. ''Porotheleum fimbriatum''). There's no clear distinction between polypores and hydnoid fungi - some polypores with irregularly poroid lower surface have been considered both polypores and hydnoid fungi (e.g. ''[[Echinodontium tinctorium]]'', ''[[Irpex lacteus]]'').

[[Bolete]] mushrooms are a separate morphological group not included in polypores even though they have tubes. Fleshy fruiting bodies with a stalk and microscopic characters separate boletes from polypores.

<gallery widths="200px" heights="140px">
File:Irpex lacteus2.jpg|''[[Irpex lacteus]]'' with irregular pores
File:Elmerina holophaea.jpg|''Elmerina holophaea'', a polypore with gills
</gallery>

==Ecology==
[[File:Trametes versicolor Bear Creek.jpg|thumb|''[[Trametes versicolor]]'' growing on a rotting log]]
Bracket fungi often grow in semi-circular shapes, looking like trees or wood.  They can be [[parasitism|parasitic]], [[saprotroph]]ic, or both.  One of the more common [[genera]], ''[[Ganoderma]]'', can grow large thick shelves that may contribute to the death of the tree, and then feed off the wood for years after.  Their hardiness means they are very resilient and can live for quite a long time, with many species even developing multi-coloured circles of colour that are actually annual growth rings.
Polypores are among the most efficient decomposers of [[lignin]] and [[cellulose]], the main components of wood. Due to this ability they dominate communities of wood-rotting organisms in land ecosystems along with [[corticioid fungi]]. Through decomposing tree trunks they recycle a major part of nutrients in forests.<ref name="Binder et al. 2013"/>

Most [[Wood-decay fungus#Brown rot|brown-rot]] fungi are polypores. Most of these species have lost their lignin degradation ability through evolution but are very efficient in degrading cellulose.<ref>{{Citation |last=Floudas |first=Dimitrios |title=Chapter Two - Evolution of lignin decomposition systems in fungi |date=2021-01-01 |work=Advances in Botanical Research |volume=99 |pages=37–76 |editor-last=Morel-Rouhier |editor-first=Mélanie |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0065229621000537 |access-date=2025-02-17 |series=Wood Degradation and Ligninolytic Fungi |publisher=Academic Press |editor2-last=Sormani |editor2-first=Rodnay}}</ref> Brown-rot fungi are prevalent on conifer hosts and open, sun-exposed habitats. The fungal community in any single trunk may include both white-rot and brown-rot species, complementing each other's wood degradation strategies.

Polypores and other decomposer fungi are the first step in food chains that feed on decomposed plant material. A rich fauna of insects, mites and other invertebrates feed on polypore mycelium and fruiting bodies, further providing food for birds and other larger animals. Woodpeckers and other hole nesting birds typically carve their nests in softer wood decomposed by polypores.<ref name="Kraus & Krumm 2013"/>

===Threats===
Almost all polypores are dependent on trees for their survival. Deforestation and intensive forest management cause declines in polypore abundance and diversity. For many species the changes can be too much, and they start a slow slide towards extinction. Since most polypore species are relatively widespread, this process is typically slow. Regional extinctions can happen relatively quickly and have been documented (for instance ''Antrodia crassa'' in North Europe<ref>Junninen K (2009) Conservation of ''Antrodia crassa''. ''Metsähallituksen luonnonsuojelujulkaisuja, sarja A'' 182: 1–51.</ref>).

Polypores can decline for many reasons. They can be dependent on a single host or a very special habitat. For instance ''[[Echinodontium ballouii]]'' has been found only in [[Atlantic white cedar]] swamps in the Northeastern USA.<ref>Gilbertson RL, Ryvarden L (1986) ''North American polypores 1, ''Abortiporus ''to'' Lindtneria. Oslo, Fungiflora.</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.mushroomhunter.net/ballouii.htm | title=査定の前にすべきこと – 鉄道模型の買取でBトレインショーティーの買取}}</ref> Species can be dependent on very old tree individuals like ''[[Bridgeoporus nobilissimus]]'' of the Northwestern USA.<ref name="Ledo 2007"/> Both of these species also have a rather restricted range, making them more vulnerable to extinction.

In addition to the host tree individual, the characteristics of the surrounding habitat also matter. Some species prefer closed-canopy forest with a moist, even microclimate that could be disturbed for instance by logging (e.g. ''[[Skeletocutis jelicii]]''). Others suffer from lack of open forest-fire habitat in areas where fire suppression is done (e.g. ''[[Gloeophyllum carbonarium]]'' in Nordic countries where forest fires are part of the natural forest dynamics).<ref name="Olson 2010"/>

For most declining species the main problem is lack of dead wood in the forest. When suitable tree trunks are too sparse in the landscape, not all species are able to spread to new trunks after old ones have been consumed, causing the population to decline and eventually vanish. Thus, species that are abundant in [[old-growth forests]] with abundant dead wood can be totally absent from managed forests. For instance ''[[Amylocystis lapponica]]'' and ''[[Fomitopsis rosea]]'' are dominant species in North European old-growth spruce forests from Poland to Norway, but absent in managed forests.

Climate change may cause a problem for polypores that are already dependent on a few fragments of old-growth forests and may be unable to migrate with changing vegetation.

===Indicator value===
Polypores have been used as indicator species of healthy natural forests or [[old-growth forests]] in Europe. They are good indicators of invertebrate diversity on dead wood and include many endangered species. Polypores make good indicators because they are relatively easy to find – many species produce conspicuous and long-lasting fruiting bodies – and because they can be identified in the field.<ref name="Parmasto 2001"/>

The first indicator list of polypores widely used in forest inventories and conservation work was developed in northern Sweden in 1992 ("Steget före" method).<ref>Karström M (1992) Steget före – en presentation. ''Svensk Botanisk Tidskrift'' 86: 103-114.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hkust.se/snf-ovik/Steget.htm |title=Steget Före-metoden |access-date=2013-04-13 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100811142826/http://www.hkust.se/snf-ovik/Steget.htm |archive-date=2010-08-11 }}</ref> "Steget före" list included six polypores in three value classes. In Finland, [[Indicator fungi in forest protection, Finland|a list of 30 species for spruce-dominated forests]] was published in 1993 and widely adopted.<ref>Kotiranta H, Niemelä T (1996) ''Uhanalaiset käävät Suomessa''. 2nd ed. Suomen ympäristökeskus, Helsinki.</ref> Later a similar list for pine-dominated forests was published. Longer lists of indicator species have since been published in Sweden.<ref>Nitare J (2000) ''Signalarter. Indikatorer på skyddsvärd skog. Flora över kryptogamer''. Skogsstyrelsen förlag, Jönköping.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.skogsstyrelsen.se/Myndigheten/Skog-och-miljo/Biologisk-mangfald/Signalarter/ |title=Signalarter - Skogsstyrelsen |access-date=2014-10-05 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006084033/http://www.skogsstyrelsen.se/Myndigheten/Skog-och-miljo/Biologisk-mangfald/Signalarter/ |archive-date=2014-10-06 }}</ref>

Many indicator species are [[red list|red-listed]], but not necessarily all. National red lists of fungi typically include many polypores and are used as indicator lists of conservation value in many European countries.

==Uses==
Some species of bracket fungi are edible, such as [[Laetiporus sulphureus|chicken of the woods]];<ref name="Kuo 2007">{{cite book |author=Kuo, Michael |title=100 Edible Mushrooms |publisher=The University of Michigan Press |location=Ann Arbor, Michigan |year=2007 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/100ediblemushroo00kuom/page/79 79–84] |isbn=978-0-472-03126-9 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/100ediblemushroo00kuom/page/79 }}</ref> the [[lingzhi mushroom]] is another, which is used in Chinese medicine.  They can also be used as a wick in an oil/fat lamp.

The tinder fungus (''[[Fomes fomentarius]]'') has been used as [[tinder]] since at least the time of [[Ötzi]] the Iceman. It has also been used to make a material similar to leather.

''[[Ganoderma applanatum]]'', the artist's conk, is used as a substrate for drawings. Fresh specimens develop dark brown lines when drawn upon with a stylus. The lines become permanent when the specimen is dried.<ref name="Roberts 2011"/>

===Traditional uses===
{{See also|Medicinal fungi}}
Most polypores are edible or at least non-toxic, although one genus of polypores has members that are [[Mushroom poisoning|poisonous]]. Polypores from the genus ''[[Hapalopilus]]'' have caused poisoning in several people with effects including kidney dysfunction and deregulation of central nervous system functions.<ref name="Saviuc 2006"/> Some polypores have been used in ritual and for utilitarian purposes for ages; [[Ötzi the Iceman]] was found carrying two different polypore species: ''[[Piptoporus betulinus]]''<ref name="Grienke 2014"/> and ''[[Fomes fomentarius]]''.<ref>{{Citation | doi = 10.1017/S0953756298006546 | title = The iceman's fungi | year = 1998 | last1 = Peintner | first1 = U. | last2 = Pöder | first2 = R. | last3 = Pümpel | first3 = T. | journal = Mycological Research | volume = 102 | issue = 10 | pages = 1153}}</ref>

Polypores used in [[traditional medicine]] are ''[[Lingzhi mushroom|Ganoderma lucidum coll.]]'' (reishi or lingzhi),<ref name="Bishop 2015"/> ''[[Trametes versicolor]]'' (turkey tail) and ''[[Ganoderma applanatum]]''.{{medcn|date=March 2025}}

==See also==
* [[Amadou]]
* [[Pleurotoid fungi]]
* [[Wood-decay fungus]]
* [[List of world's largest mushrooms and conks]]
*[[Amaropostia stiptica]]

==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em|refs=

<ref name="Binder et al. 2013">{{cite journal |first1=Manfred |last1=Binder |first2=Alfredo |last2=Justo |first3=Robert |last3=Riley |first4=Asaf |last4=Salamov |first5=Francesc |last5=Lopez-Giraldez |first6=Elisabet |last6=Sjökvist |first7=Alex |last7=Copeland |first8=Brian |last8=Foster |first9=Hui |last9=Sun |first10=Ellen |last10=Larsson |first11=Karl-Henrik |last11=Larsson |first12=Jeffrey |last12=Townsend |first13=Igor V. |last13=Grigoriev |first14=David S. |last14=Hibbett |year=2013 |title=Phylogenetic and phylogenomic overview of the Polyporales |journal=Mycologia |volume=105 |issue=6 |pages=1350–1373 |doi=10.3852/13-003 |pmid=23935031|s2cid=20812924 }}</ref>

<ref name="Bishop 2015">{{cite journal |author=Bishop, Karen S. |author2=Kao, Chi H. J. |author3=Xu, Yuanye |author4=Glucina, Marcus P. |author5=Paterson, R. Russell M. |author6=Ferguson, Lynnette R. |year=2015 |title=From 2000 years of ''Ganoderma lucidum'' to recent developments in nutraceuticals |journal=Phytochemistry |volume=114 |pages=56–65 |doi=10.1016/j.phytochem.2015.02.015 |pmid=25794896|bibcode=2015PChem.114...56B |url=http://repositorium.sdum.uminho.pt/bitstream/1822/35268/1/document_19875_1.pdf |hdl=1822/35268 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

<ref name="Bold et al. 1987">{{cite book |last1=Bold | first1=Harold C. |author-link=Harold Charles Bold |last2=Alexopoulos | first2=Constantine J. |last3=Delevoryas |first3=Theodore |year=1987 |title=Morphology of Plants and Fungi |edition=5th |location=New York |publisher=Harper & Row |isbn=978-0-06-040839-8 |page=773}}</ref>

<ref name="Gäumann 1928">{{cite book |author=Gäumann, Ernst Albert |year=1928 |title=Comparative Morphology of the Fungi |publisher=McGraw-Hill |location=New York |page=447 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/4694830}}</ref>

<ref name="Garbelotto 2013">{{cite journal |author1=Garbelotto, Matteo |author2=Gonthier, Paolo |year=2013 |title=Biology, epidemiology, and control of ''Heterobasidion'' species worldwide |journal=Annual Review of Phytopathology |volume=51 |pages=39–59 |doi=10.1146/annurev-phyto-082712-102225 |pmid=23642002|hdl=2318/141097 |s2cid=30033595 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

<ref name="Grienke 2014">{{cite journal |author=Grienke, Ulrike |author2=Zöll, Margit |author3=Peintner, Ursula |author4=Rollinger, Judith M. |year=2014 |title=European medicinal polypores—a modern view on traditional uses |journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology |volume=154 |issue=3 |pages=564–583 |doi=10.1016/j.jep.2014.04.030 |pmid=24786572}}</ref>

<ref name="Justo et al. 2017">{{cite journal |author1=Justo, Alfredo |author2=Miettinen, Otto |author3=Floudas, Dimitrios |author4=Ortiz-Santana, Beatriz |author5=Sjökvist, Elisabet |author6=Lindner, Daniel |author7=Nakasone, Karen |author8=Niemelä, Tuomo |author9=Larsson, Karl-Henrik |author10=Ryvarden, Leif |author11=Hibbett, David S. |year=2017 |title=A revised family-level classification of the Polyporales (Basidiomycota) |journal=Fungal Biology |volume=121 |issue=9 |pages=798–824 |doi=10.1016/j.funbio.2017.05.010|pmid=28800851 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2017FunB..121..798J }}</ref>

<ref name="Kraus & Krumm 2013">{{cite report |editor1=Kraus, D. |editor2=Krumm, F. |year=2013 |title=Integrative approaches as an opportunity for the conservation of forest biodiversity |publisher=European Forest Institute |chapter=2.6 Managing for target species |author1=Jonsson, Bengt Gunnar |author2=Siitonen, Juha |page=140 |isbn=978-952-5980-07-3 |chapter-url=http://www.integrateplus.org/uploads/images/Mediacenter/integrate_book_2013.pdf}}</ref>

<ref name="Ledo 2007">{{cite report |author=Ledo, D. |title=Species Fact Sheet: ''Bridgeoporus nobilissimus'' |year=2007 |publisher=Interagency Special Status/Sensitive Species Program. USDA Forest Service and USDI Bureau of Land Management |location=Portland, Oregon |url=http://www.fs.fed.us/r6/sfpnw/issssp/planning-documents/species-guides.shtml}}</ref>

<ref name="Olson 2010">{{cite journal |author1=Olsson, Jörgen |author2=Jonsson, Bengt Gunnar |title=Restoration fire and wood-inhabiting fungi in a Swedish ''Pinus sylvestris'' forest |volume=259 |journal=Forest Ecology and Management |issue=10 |pages=1971–1980 |doi=10.1016/j.foreco.2010.02.008|year=2010 |bibcode=2010ForEM.259.1971O }}</ref>

<ref name="Parmasto 2001">{{cite book |author=Parmasto, Erast |chapter=Fungi as indicators of primeval and old-growth forests deserving protection |year=2001 |title=Fungal Conservation. Issues and Solutions |editor1=Moore, David |editor2=Nauta, Marijke M. |editor3=Evans, Shelley E. |author4=Rotheroe, Maurice |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=81–88 |isbn=978-0521048187}}</ref>

<ref name="Roberts 2011">{{cite book |author1=Roberts, Peter |author2=Evans, Shelley |title=The Book of Fungi |year=2011 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago, Illinois |page=386 |isbn=978-0-226-72117-0}}</ref>

<ref name="Saviuc 2006">{{cite journal |author1=Saviuc, P. |author2=Danel, V. |title=New syndromes in mushroom poisoning |journal=Toxicological Reviews |year=2006 |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=199–209 |pmid=17192123 |doi=10.2165/00139709-200625030-00004|s2cid=24320633 }}</ref>

}}

== External links ==
* {{commons category inline|Bracket fungi}}
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Bracket-Fungi|display=Bracket-Fungi}}

[[Category:Basidiomycota]]
[[Category:Fungus common names]]
[[Category:Mushroom types]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]

[[ka:აბედა სოკოები]]