View source for Polo

{{short description|Equestrian team sport}}
{{about|the sport played on horseback|the clothing|polo shirt|5=Polo (disambiguation)}}
{{More citations needed|date=July 2022}}
{{Use British English|date=January 2012}} {{Use dmy dates|date=August 2021}}
{{Infobox sport
| name       = Polo
| image      = File:Varsity Polo 2013.jpg
|
| caption    = Players playing polo
| union      = [[Federation of International Polo]]
| nickname   = ''The Sport of Kings''<ref>[http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-18560_162-57410137/preview-the-sport-of-kings/ "Preview: The Sport of Kings", CBS News] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120410123852/http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-18560_162-57410137/preview-the-sport-of-kings/ |date=10 April 2012}}, 5 April 2012</ref><ref>[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/othersports/polo/7646542/Polo-the-sport-of-kings-that-anyone-can-play.html "Polo: the sport of kings that anyone can play"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180818040958/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/othersports/polo/7646542/Polo-the-sport-of-kings-that-anyone-can-play.html |date=18 August 2018 }}, ''The Telegraph'', 29 April 2010</ref>
| firstlabel =Origin
| first      =[[Greater Iran]]
* {{ubl|{{nowrap|{{BCE|6th C.}}{{snd}}{{CE|1st C.|link=y}}}} by [[Eurasian nomadic]] peoples of [[Central Asia]]<ref name="Laffaye"/><ref name="hong 2005"/>|Developed and formalised {{circa|1st C. BCE{{snd}}{{CE|7th C.}}}} by [[Persians]] of the [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]] and [[Sasanian Empire]]s.<ref name="brit 1998"/><ref name="Laffaye"/><ref name="poloODLA"/>}}
| registered = 
| clubs      = 90+
| contact    = Yes
| team       = {{ubl|Field polo: 4|Arena: 3}}
| mgender    = Yes
| category   = [[Equestrianism|Equestrian]], [[ball game]], [[team sport]]
| equipment  = [[Polo pony]], mallet, ball, protective wear
| venue      = [[#The field|Polo field]] or arena
| obsolete   =
| country/region = Worldwide
| olympic    = Formerly (1900, 1908, 1920–1924 and 1936)
| paralympic =
}}

'''Polo''' is a [[List of stick sports|stick]] and [[List of ball games|ball game]] that is played on [[Equestrianism|horseback]] as a traditional [[field sport]]. It is one of the world's oldest known [[team sport]]s,<ref>{{cite web |title=THE HISTORY OF POLO |url=http://www.argentinapolo.com/polohistory.html |website=argentinapolo.com |access-date=9 August 2018 |archive-date=18 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191218215355/http://www.argentinapolo.com/polohistory.html |url-status=live }}</ref> originating as [[Chovgan]] (Persian: چوگان) in ancient [[Iran|Persia]] over 2,000 years ago, and later adopted by the Western world from its modern form developed in [[India]].<ref name="HistoryOfPoloPoloMuseum">“History of Polo,” *Polo Museum* (Museum of Polo and Hall of Fame), accessed 8 October 2025, https://www.polomuseum.org/sport-polo/history-polo.</ref><ref name="IndianExpressPolo2024">{{cite web | last = Mohta | first = Nikita | title = Polo: The elite sport that India gave to its imperial rulers | website = The Indian Express | date = 19 July 2024 | access-date = 8 October 2025 | url = https://indianexpress.com/article/research/polo-the-elite-sport-that-india-gave-to-its-imperial-rulers-9463360/}}</ref><ref name="SportCulturalImperialism">{{cite journal |last=Mangan |first=J. A. |title=Sport, Cultural Imperialism and Colonial Response in the British Empire |journal=The International Journal of the History of Sport |volume=23 |issue=2 |year=2006 |pages=809–835 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.1080/17430430600916434 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17430430600916434 |access-date=8 October 2025}}</ref><ref name="LaffayeEvolutionOfPolo">{{cite book |last=Laffaye |first=Horace A. |title=The Evolution of Polo |publisher=McFarland & Company |location=Jefferson, North Carolina |year=2009 |isbn=978-0786438143}}</ref>

Polo has been called "The Sport of [[Shah|Kings]]"<ref>{{cite web |last1=Heitner |first1=Darren |title=The Economics of Polo, The Sport of Kings |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/darrenheitner/2015/05/17/the-economics-of-polo-the-sport-of-kings/ |website=Forbes |access-date=9 August 2018 |archive-date=9 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180809091217/https://www.forbes.com/sites/darrenheitner/2015/05/17/the-economics-of-polo-the-sport-of-kings/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and has become a [[spectator sport]] for equestrians and [[high society (social class)|high society]], often supported by [[sponsor (commercial)|sponsorship]]. The progenitor of polo and its variants existed from the 6th century BC to the 1st century AD, as an equestrian game played in Persia.<ref name="EI2">{{cite encyclopedia|last=Massé|first=H.|editor-last1=Bearman|editor-first1=P.|editor-last2=Bianquis|editor-first2=Th.|editor-last3=Bosworth|editor-first3=C.E.|editor-last4=van Donzel|editor-first4=E.|editor-last5=Heinrichs|editor-first5=W.P.|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition|publisher=Brill Online|volume=2|title=Čawgān|date=24 April 2012|url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/cawgan-SIM_1598?s.num=0&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.book.encyclopaedia-of-islam-2&s.q=cawgan|quote=The game originated in Persia, and was generally played on horseback (...)|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref name="The origins and history of Polo">{{Cite web|title=The origins and history of Polo|url=https://www.historic-uk.com/CultureUK/The-Origins-of-Polo/|access-date=2020-10-04|website=Historic UK|language=en-GB|quote=It is since these origins in Persia that the game has often been associated with the rich and noble of society; the game was played by Kings, Princes and Queens in Persia.}}</ref><ref name="hong 2005"/> From Iran,<ref>[https://www.yjc.ir/en/news/16581/chovgan-added-as-iran%E2%80%99s-intangible-cultural-heritage-to-unesco-lists Chovgan added as Iran’s intangible cultural heritage to UNESCO lists چوگان به عنوان میراث فرهنگی ناملموس ایران در فهرست یونسکو ثبت شد]</ref><ref>[https://ich.unesco.org/en/decisions/12.COM/11.B.14 Decision of the Intergovernmental Committee: 12.COM 11.B.14 تصمیم کمیته بین دولتی]</ref> where the sport evolved and developed, the game became popular around the world,<ref name="brit 1998">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Sport: Polo |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/sports/polo |access-date=23 August 2022 |date=20 July 1998 |language=en |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201127013327/https://www.britannica.com/sports/polo |archive-date=27 November 2020 |author1=Richard C. Latham}}</ref> with well over 100 member countries in the [[Federation of International Polo]], and is [[professional sport|played professionally]] in 16 countries; it was also an [[polo at the Summer Olympics|Olympic sport]] from 1900 to 1936.

Mastery in [[Equestrianism|horseriding]] is a must to play this game. There are also risks of injuries mainly from falling from the [[horse]]; therefore, one should be physically active and strong.

== History ==
=== Origins and etymology ===
[[File:Polo game from poem Guy u Chawgan.jpg|thumb|right|A [[Persian miniature]] from the poem ''Guy-o Chawgân'' ("the Ball and the Polo-mallet") during the [[Safavid dynasty]] of [[Safavid Iran|Persia]], showing courtiers on horseback playing polo, 1546 CE|alt=]]
The game was originally invented by Iranians<ref>[https://www.irna.ir/news/83000239/%DA%86%D9%88%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%86-%D8%A8%D9%87-%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%85-%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86-%D8%AB%D8%A8%D8%AA-%D8%AC%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A-%D8%B4%D8%AF%D9%87-%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA-%D9%86%D9%87-%D8%A2%D8%B0%D8%B1%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%86 چوگان به نام ايران ثبت جهاني شده است، نه آذربايجان Polo(Chogan) is registered worldwide in the name of Iran, not Azerbaijan]</ref><ref>[https://amordadnews.com/7317/ Polo World Record Document Unveiled سند ثبت جهانی چوگان رونمایی شد]</ref><ref>[https://www.tehrantimes.com/news/416958/Polo-to-become-Iran-s-UNESCO-s-list-of-Intangible-Cultural-Heritage Polo to become Iran’s UNESCO’s list of Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity: Official چوگان ایران در فهرست میراث فرهنگی ناملموس یونسکو قرار می‌گیرد]</ref><ref>[https://en.mehrnews.com/news/130022/UNESCO-lists-polo-as-Iran-s-intangible-cultural-heritage UNESCO lists polo as Iran’s intangible cultural heritage یونسکو چوگان را به عنوان میراث فرهنگی ناملموس ایران ثبت کرد]</ref><ref>[https://ifpnews.com/iran-celebrates-unescos-inscription-of-polo-as-iranian-heritage/ Iran Celebrates UNESCO’s Inscription of Polo as Iranian Heritage ایران ثبت چوگان در یونسکو به عنوان میراث ایرانی را جشن می‌گیرد]</ref> and its Persian name is "[[Chovgan]]" ({{Transliteration|fa|čowgān}}).<ref>[https://www.irna.ir/news/83000239/%DA%86%D9%88%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%86-%D8%A8%D9%87-%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%85-%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86-%D8%AB%D8%A8%D8%AA-%D8%AC%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A-%D8%B4%D8%AF%D9%87-%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA-%D9%86%D9%87-%D8%A2%D8%B0%D8%B1%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%86 چوگان به نام ايران ثبت جهاني شده است، نه آذربايجان Polo(Chogan) is registered worldwide in the name of Iran, not Azerbaijan]</ref><ref>[https://www.jahannews.com/news/571098/%DA%86%D9%88%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%86-%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%85-%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86-%D8%AB%D8%A8%D8%AA-%D8%AC%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C Polo registered in Iran's name worldwide چوگان به نام ایران ثبت جهانی شد]</ref><ref>[https://www.tarafdari.com/%D8%AE%D8%A8%D8%B1/859297/%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%B2%D8%B4-%DA%86%D9%88%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%86-%D8%A8%D9%87-%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%85-%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86-%D8%AF%D8%B1-%D9%81%D9%87%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%AA-%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AB-%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%86%D8%B3%DA%A9%D9%88-%D8%AB%D8%A8%D8%AA-%D8%AC%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C-%D8%B4%D8%AF Polo sport registered in the name of Iran on UNESCO World Heritage Listورزش چوگان به نام ایران در فهرست میراث یونسکو ثبت جهانی شد]</ref><ref>[https://www.irna.ir/news/83000272/%D8%AB%D8%A8%D8%AA-%DA%86%D9%88%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%86-%D9%86%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%D8%B1-%D8%B3%D9%87%D9%85-%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86-%D8%AF%D8%B1-%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%AE%D8%AA-%D8%AA%D9%85%D8%AF%D9%86-%D8%AC%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C-%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA Polo registration shows Iran's contribution to building global civilization چوگان نشانگر سهم ایران در ساخت تمدن جهانی است]</ref> The game's English name derives from the [[Balti language]],{{efn|''Balti'' is a [[Tibetic language]] spoken by the [[Balti people]] in Pakistani-administered [[Gilgit-Baltistan]] and in Indian-administered [[Ladakh]]}} from its word for 'ball', {{transliteration|bft|polo}}.<ref name="oed">{{OED|polo}}</ref> It is cognate with the [[Standard Tibetan]] {{transliteration|bo|pulu}}, also meaning 'ball'.<ref name="oed"/><ref name="crego 2003">{{cite book|author=Robert Crego|title=Sports and Games of the 18th and 19th Centuries|url=https://archive.org/details/sportsgamesof18t0000creg|url-access=registration|year=2003|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-313-31610-4|pages=25–27}}</ref>{{rp|pages=25-27}}

Many scholars<ref>Multiple references:
* {{cite web |title=Polo: The Emperor of Games |url=https://sites.asiasociety.org/arts/asiangames/power02.html |website=Asian Games: The Art of Contest |publisher=The Asia Society |access-date=27 November 2022 |archive-date=27 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221127140254/https://sites.asiasociety.org/arts/asiangames/power02.html |url-status=live }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Perry |first1=John R. |title=Introduction |journal=Asian Folklore Studies |date=2001 |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=191–202 |doi=10.2307/1179053 |jstor=1179053 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1179053 |issn=0385-2342 |access-date=27 November 2022 |archive-date=27 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221127140248/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1179053 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Willekes |first1=Carolyn |title=A Tale of Two Games: "Cirit, Buzkashi" and the Horsemen of the Asiatic Steppe |journal=Nomadic Peoples |date=2017 |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=286–301 |doi=10.3197/np.2017.210206 |jstor=44652688 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44652688 |access-date=27 November 2022 |issn=0822-7942 |archive-date=27 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221127140251/https://www.jstor.org/stable/44652688 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}
* {{cite book |last1=Milburn |first1=Frank |title=Polo, the emperor of games |date=1994 |publisher=Knopf |location=New York |isbn=978-0394571614 |edition=1st}}</ref> suggest it most likely began as a simple game played by the [[Iranian peoples|Iranian people]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mousavinia |first=Mehdi |date=2023-06-26 |title=The culture of polo players; Analyzing polo game among Iranian people |url=https://jis.ut.ac.ir/article_92883_en.html |journal=Iranian Studies |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=117–138 |language=en |doi=10.22059/jis.2023.355152.1187 |issn=2252-0643|quote=A part of the identity and culture of the people of Iran has been preserved in the framework of native and local games. In Iran land, many local and diverse sports are performed in various ceremonies. Among these games that have gained a national aspect in Iranian culture is the game of polo, which has been passed down from one generation to the next and continues to exist.}}</ref><ref name="Laffaye">{{cite book |last1=Laffaye |first1=Horace A. |title=The Evolution of Polo |date=19 January 2010 |publisher=McFarland |pages=5–6 |quote=It can be safely assumed that polo began as a simple folk game played by the nomadic tribes in central Asia (before turks) . Westward and eastward expansion followed, to Byzantium and China, most likely along the trail of the Silk Road.}}</ref><ref name="hong 2005">{{cite book |last1=Hong |first1=Fan |last2=Mangan|first2=J. A |title=Evolution of Sport in Asian Society: Past and Present |date=18 November 2005 |publisher=Routledge |pages=309–311 |quote=In all probability polo developed from rough equestrian games played by the mounted nomadic peoples of Central Asia, both Iranian and Turkic.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C0iQAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA309|isbn=978-1-135-76043-4|language=en}}</ref> An archaic variation of polo, regionally referred to as ''[[buzkashi]]'' or ''kokpar'', is still played in parts of Central Asia.<ref name="hong 2005"/> It was developed and formalised in [[Ancient Iran]] ([[Name of Iran|Persia]]) as "[[chovgan]]" ({{Transliteration|fa|čowgān}}), becoming a national sport played extensively by the nobility. Women played as well as men.<ref name="brit 1998"/> During the period of the [[Parthian Empire]] (247 BC to AD 224), the sport had great patronage under the kings and noblemen. According to ''[[The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity]]'', the Persian ball game was an important pastime in the court of the [[Sasanian Empire]] (AD 224–651).<ref name="poloODLA">{{ODLA|last1=Canepa|first1=Matthew|date=2018|title=polo|url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001/acref-9780198662778-e-3777?rskey=lisGUu&result=1}}</ref> It was also part of the royal education for the Sasanian ruling class.<ref name="poloODLA"/> Emperor [[Shapur II]] learnt to play polo at age seven in 316 AD.
{{wide image|Polo - Liao dinasztia, Kína.png|600|In China, [[Liao dynasty]] era}}

=== Middle Ages and Early Modern era ===
[[File:Naghshe Jahan Square Isfahan modified.jpg|thumb|[[Naqsh-e Jahan Square]] in [[Isfahan]], [[Iran]], is the site of a medieval royal polo field<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.payvand.com/news/07/oct/1296.html |title=Playing Polo in Historic Naqsh-e Jahan Square? |publisher=Payvand.com |date=29 October 2007 |access-date=25 January 2012 |archive-date=3 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200203141029/http://www.payvand.com/news/07/oct/1296.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>|alt=]]
Valuable for training cavalry, the game was played from [[Constantinople]], where Emperor [[Theodosius II]] constructed a polo ground early in the 5th century,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Herrin|first=Judith|title=Byzantium: The Surprising Life of a Medieval Empire|publisher=Penguin|year=2007|isbn=978-0713999976|pages=50–51}}</ref> to [[Japan]] by the [[Middle Ages]]. The game also spread south to [[Arabia]] and to India and Tibet.

[[Abbasid]] Baghdad had a large polo ground outside its walls, and one of the city's early 13th century gates, the Bab al Halba, was named after these nearby polo grounds. The game continued to be supported by Mongol rulers of Persia in the 13th century, as well as under the [[Safavid]] dynasty. In the 17th century, [[Naqsh-i Jahan Square]] in [[Isfahan]] was built as a polo field by King [[Abbas I of Iran|Abbas I]]. The game was also learned by the neighboring [[Byzantine Empire]] at an early date. A {{Transliteration|grc|[[tzykanisterion]]}} (stadium for playing {{Transliteration|grc|tzykanion}}, the Byzantine name for polo) was built by Emperor Theodosius II ({{reign|408|450}}) inside the [[Great Palace of Constantinople]].<ref>{{cite book |author-link=Christopher Kelly (historian) |last1=Kelly |first1=Christopher |title=Theodosius II: Rethinking the Roman Empire in Late Antiquity |date=2013 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-1107038585 |page=4}}</ref> Emperor [[Basil I]] ({{reign|867|886|show=none}}) excelled at it; Emperor [[Alexander (Byzantine emperor)|Alexander]] ({{reign|912|913|show=none}}) died from exhaustion while playing Polo. {{nowrap|[[John I of Trebizond]]}} ({{reign|1235|1238}}) died from a fatal injury during a game.<ref>{{cite book|editor-last=Kazhdan|editor-first=Alexander Petrovich|editor-link=Alexander Kazhdan|title=The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium|location=New York City and Oxford, United Kingdom|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1991|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q3u5RAAACAAJ|isbn=978-0-19-504652-6}}</ref>

After the [[Early Muslim conquests|Muslim conquests]] to the [[Ayyubid]] and [[Mamluk Sultanate|Mameluke]] dynasties of Egypt and the [[Levant]], their elites favoured it above all other sports. Notable [[sultan]]s such as [[Saladin]] and [[Baybars]] were known to play it and encourage it in their courts.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/baybars.htm |title=Touregypt.net |publisher=Touregypt.net |access-date=25 January 2012 |archive-date=22 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200922080137/http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/baybars.htm/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Saladin was known for being a skilled polo player, which contributed to his cavalry training.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Cartwright |first1=Mark |title=Saladin |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Saladin/ |website=[[World History Encyclopedia]] |date=30 August 2018 |access-date=13 August 2020 |archive-date=30 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430185352/https://www.worldhistory.org/Saladin/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Azzam |first1=Dr ‘Abd al-Raḥmān |title=Saladin: The Triumph of the Sunni Revival |year=2014 |publisher=Islamic Texts Society |isbn=978-1-903682-87-6 |pages=42, 50, 73 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ysElngEACAAJ |language=en}}</ref> Polo sticks were featured as one of the suits on the [[Mamluk playing cards|Mamluk precursor]] to modern-day [[playing cards]]. Europeans transformed the polo stick suit into the "clubs" of the [[Playing card suit#Origin and development of the Latin suits|"Latin" decks]], as polo was little known to them at that time.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pollett |first1=Andrea |title=Tûmân, or the 10,000 Cups of the Mamlûk Cards |journal=The Playing-Card |date=2002 |volume=31 |issue=1: July–August |pages=34–41}}</ref>
[[File:Georgians playing Polo by Castelli.jpg|thumb|''The [[Georgians]] Playing Polo in the [[Kingdom of Imereti]]'', by Italian missionary [[Teramo Castelli]], 1640.]]

The game spread to South Asia where it has had a strong presence in the northwestern areas of present-day [[Pakistan]] (including [[Gilgit]], [[Chitral]], [[Hunza (princely state)|Hunza]], and [[Baltistan]]) since at least the 15th to the 16th centuries.<ref>Malcolm D. Whitman, ''Tennis: Origins and Mysteries'', Published by Courier Dover Publications, 2004, {{ISBN|0-486-43357-9}}, p. 98.</ref>  [[Qutubuddin Aibak]] ({{reign|1206|1210}}), originally a [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] slave who later founded the [[Mamluk dynasty (Delhi)|Mamluk dynasty]] (1206–1290) [[Delhi Sultanate]], was accidentally killed during a game of polo when his horse fell and he was impaled on the pommel of his saddle.

Polo likely travelled via the [[Silk Road]] to China where it was popular in the [[Tang dynasty]] capital of [[Chang'an]], where it was played by women, who had to wear a male dress to do so; many [[Tang dynasty tomb figures]] of female players survive.<ref>Michaelson, Carol, ''Gilded Dragons'', pp. 72–73, 1999, British Museum Press, {{ISBN|0714114898}}; Medley, Margaret, ''T'ang Pottery and Porcelain'', pp. 49–50, 1981, Faber & Faber, {{ISBN|0571109578}}</ref> According to ''The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity'', the popularity of polo in Tang China was "bolstered, no doubt, by the presence of the Sasanian court in exile".<ref name="poloODLA"/> A "polo-obsessed" noblewoman was buried with her donkeys on 6 October 878 in [[Xi’an]], China.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Michael Price|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/polo-obsessed-chinese-noblewoman-buried-her-donkey-steed|title='Polo-obsessed' Chinese noblewoman buried with her donkey steed|journal=Science|publisher=sciencemag.org|date=16 March 2020|doi=10.1126/science.abb7559|s2cid=216498085|access-date=30 June 2022|archive-date=25 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220725093724/https://www.science.org/content/article/polo-obsessed-chinese-noblewoman-buried-her-donkey-steed|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

=== Modern era ===
==== India and Britain ====
In use in Manipur were the game's Tibetic names, {{Transliteration|bft|polo}} or {{Transliteration|bo|pulu}}, referring to the wooden ball, and it was these terms, anglicised, which were adopted for the sport's name in its slow spread to the west. A European polo club was established in the town of [[Silchar]] in [[Colonial Assam|Assam]], India, in 1859, the English tea planters having learnt it from Manipuri incomers.<ref name="manipurpolo">{{Cite web |title=The Mists of Time: Origins of Polo |url=http://www.indiapolo.com/Polopedia/History/history.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090328122313/http://www.indiapolo.com/Polopedia/History/history.html |archive-date=28 March 2009 |access-date=28 September 2008 |website=Indianpolo.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Stephen |first=J. K. |date=25 March 2007 |title=Manipur Polo: History of Polo in Imphal |url=http://www.indianpolo.com/manipurpolo/history.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190211023839/http://www.indianpolo.com/manipurpolo/history.asp |archive-date=11 February 2019 |access-date=25 January 2012 |website=Indianpolo.com}}</ref>

[[File:Manipur Polo Players 1875.jpg|thumb|Manipuri polo players in 1875]]

{{Transliteration|mni|Sagol kangjei}} was one of three forms of hockey in Manipur, the other ones being [[field hockey]] (called {{Transliteration|mni|[[khong kangjei]]}}) and wrestling-hockey (called {{Transliteration|mni|[[mukna kangjei]]}}).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=L.Joychandra |url=https://search.lib.umich.edu/catalog/record/990141923980106381 |title="Origin of Polo game" |publisher=Guinness Publishing |year=1991 |isbn=9780851123745 |edition=1st |location=Enfield, Middlesex, UK |language=English |access-date=22 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230722175615/https://search.lib.umich.edu/catalog/record/990141923980106381 |archive-date=22 July 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref> Local rituals such as those connected to the {{Transliteration|mni|[[Ibudhou Marjing]]}}, the winged-pony god of polo and the creation-ritual episodes of the {{Transliteration|mni|[[Lai Haraoba]]}} festival enacting the life of his son, {{Transliteration|mni|[[Meitei deities|Khoriphaba]]}}, the polo-playing god of sports. These may indicate an origin earlier than the historical records of Manipur. Later, according to {{Transliteration|mni|[[Cheitharol Kumbaba]]}}, a royal chronicle of King Kangba, who ruled Manipur much earlier than Nongda Lairen Pakhangba ({{CE|33}}) introduced {{Transliteration|mni|sagol kangjei}} ({{Transliteration|mni|'kangjei}} on horseback'). Further regular playing of this game commenced in 1605, during the reign of King [[Khagemba]] under newly framed rules of the game.

[[File:Polo-field old kangla imphal.JPG|thumb|Old polo field in [[Imphal]], Manipur]]
In Manipur, polo was and is still played with seven players to a side. The players are mounted on the indigenous [[Manipuri Pony]], which stands less than {{hands|13}}. There are no goal posts, and a player scores simply by hitting the ball out of either end of the field. Players strike the ball with the long side of the mallet head, not the end.<ref>J. del Carril editions:
* {{Cite book |last=Carril |first=Justo del |title=Essential Tips: Polo |date=March 2009 |isbn=978-987-02-7039-3 |page=9 |chapter=Introduction |access-date=3 December 2022 |chapter-url=https://issuu.com/hcpgroup/docs/polo_tips |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203045317/https://issuu.com/hcpgroup/docs/polo_tips |archive-date=3 December 2022 |url-status=live |via=Issu}}
* {{cite book |last1=Carril |first1=Justo del |title=Essentials Tips: Polo |date=1 November 2013 |publisher=Editorial Dunken |location=Ayacucho, Buenos Aires, Argentina |isbn=978-987-02-7039-3 |page=13 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GNRGAgAAQBAJ |access-date=3 December 2022 |language=en |chapter=Introduction: The equipment |archive-date=15 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230715003716/https://books.google.com/books?id=GNRGAgAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> Players are not permitted to carry the ball, although blocking the ball with any part of the body except the open hand is permitted.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rule F12 International Rules for Polo |url=http://www.fippolo.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/THE-INTERNATIONAL-RULES-FOR-POLO-August-2010.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180818041007/http://www.fippolo.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/THE-INTERNATIONAL-RULES-FOR-POLO-August-2010.pdf |archive-date=18 August 2018 |access-date=8 December 2018 |publisher=Federation of International Polo}}</ref> The sticks are made of [[Cane (grass)|cane]], and the balls are made from the roots of [[bamboo]].  Players protected their legs by attaching leather shields to their [[saddle]]s and [[Girth (tack)|girths]].<ref name="crego 2003"/>{{rp|26}}

[[File:Traditional Polo in Manipur India.jpg|thumb|Polo players of Manipur in {{Transliteration|mni|Mapal Kangjeibung}}, the world's oldest polo playground]]

In Manipur, the game was played even by commoners who owned a pony.<ref name="crego 2003"/>{{rp|25}} The kings of Manipur had a royal polo ground within the ramparts of their [[Kangla Fort]]. Here they played on the {{Transliteration|mni|manung kangjei bung}} ({{lit|inner polo ground}}). Public games were held, as they still are today, at the {{Transliteration|mni|mapan kangjei bung}} ({{lit|outer polo ground|lk=no}}), a polo ground just outside the Kangla. Weekly games called {{Transliteration|mni|hapta kangjei}} ({{lit|weekly polo|lk=no}}) were also played in a polo ground outside the current palace.

The oldest polo ground in the world is the [[Imphal Polo Ground]] in [[Manipur]]. The history of this polo ground is contained in the royal chronicle {{Transliteration|mni|Cheitharol Kumbaba}} starting from {{CE|33}}. Lieutenant (later Major General) Joseph Ford Sherer, the father of modern polo, visited the state and played on this polo ground in the 1850s. [[Lord Curzon]], the [[Viceroy of India]] visited the state in 1901 and measured the polo ground as "225 yards long and 110 yards wide" ({{convert|225|x|110|yard|disp=output only}}).<ref>{{Cite web |title=History of polo |url=http://royalpoloclubrasnov.ro/history-of-polo/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171203231600/http://royalpoloclubrasnov.ro/history-of-polo/ |archive-date=3 December 2017 |access-date=2 December 2017 |website=Royal Polo Club Rasnov}}</ref>

The [[Cachar Club]], established in 1859,<ref name="brit 1998"/><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Pony Returns - Indian Express |url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/the-pony-returns/1040905/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728085542/http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/the-pony-returns/1040905/ |archive-date=28 July 2020 |access-date=6 January 2020}}</ref> is located on Club Road in the heart of [[Silchar]] city in Assam. In 1862, the oldest polo club still in existence, [[Calcutta Polo Club]], was established by two British soldiers, Sherer and Captain Robert Stewart.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Polo Club |url=http://www.calcuttapolo.com/about.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200903221104/http://www.calcuttapolo.com/about.html |archive-date=3 September 2020 |access-date=2 December 2017 |website=calcuttapolo.com}}</ref> Later they spread the game to their peers in England. Polo was first played in England by the [[10th Hussars]] in 1869.<ref name="EB1911">{{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Polo |volume=22 |page=11 |first=Thomas Francis |last=Dale |author-link=Thomas Francis Dale}}</ref> The British are credited with spreading polo worldwide in the late 19th century and the early 20th century at the height of its [[British Empire|empire]]. Military officers imported the game to Britain in the 1860s. The establishment of polo clubs throughout England and western Europe followed after the formal codification of rules.<ref name="crego 2003"/>{{rp|26}} The 10th [[Hussars]] at [[Aldershot]], Hants, introduced polo to England in 1834. The game's governing body in the United Kingdom is the [[Hurlingham Polo Association]], which drew up the first set of formal British rules in 1874, many of which are still in existence.

This version of polo played in the 19th century was different from the faster form that was played in Manipur. The game was slow and methodical, with little passing between players and few set plays that required specific movements by participants without the ball. Neither players nor horses were trained to play a fast, non-stop game. This form of polo lacked the aggressive methods and required fewer [[equestrianism|equestrian]] skills. From the 1800s to the 1910s, a host of teams representing [[princely state|Indian principalities]] dominated the international polo scene.<ref name="crego 2003"/>{{rp|26}} The game had reached [[Samoa]] by the 1890's.<ref>{{Cite news |date=22 April 1893 |title=Polo Tournament - The Final |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/samoa-times-and-south-sea-advertiser-pol/150170729/ |work=[[Samoa Times and South Sea Advertiser]] |location=[[Apia, Samoa]] |page=2 |via=[[Newspapers.com]]}}</ref>

==== Ireland ====
Polo first began its Irish history in 1870 with the first official game played on Gormanstown Strand, Co. Meath. Three years later the All Ireland Polo Club was founded by Mr. Horace Rochford in the [[Phoenix Park]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.allirelandpoloclub.com/index.html |title=All Ireland Polo Club news|access-date=26 May 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707113715/http://www.allirelandpoloclub.com/index.html |archive-date=7 July 2011}}</ref> 

==== Argentina ====
[[File:Campeonato Argentino de Polo 2010 - 5237109478 e7ed034169 o.jpg|thumb|Argentine Polo Open Championship]]

Polo was brought to many parts of the Americas, but found its greatest popularity in Argentina. [[Irish Argentines|Irish]], [[Scottish Argentines|Scottish]], [[Welsh Argentine|Welsh]], and [[English Argentines|English]] immigrants in the Argentine [[pampas]] started practising polo during their free time, and eventually some of them began to put together games. Among them, David Shennan is credited with having organised the first formal polo game of the country in 1875, at Estancia El Negrete, located in [[Buenos Aires Province]].

The sport spread quickly among the skillful [[gaucho]]s, and several clubs opened in the following years in the towns of [[Venado Tuerto]], [[Cañada de Gómez]], [[Quilmes Atlético Club|Quilmes]], [[Flores Athletic Club|Flores]] and later (1888) [[Hurlingham Club (Argentina)|Hurlingham]]. In 1892 The River Plate Polo Association was founded and constituted the basis for the current [[Argentine Polo Association|Asociación Argentina de Polo]]. In the [[1924 Olympics|Olympic Games held in Paris in 1924]] a team composed of [[Juan Miles]], [[Enrique Padilla (polo)|Enrique Padilla]], [[Juan Nelson]], [[Arturo Kenny]], G. Brooke Naylor and A. Peña achieved the first gold medal in the nation's Olympic history. The title was defended at the [[1936 Summer Olympics|1936 Berlin Games]] with players [[Manuel Andrada]], [[Andrés Gazzotti]], [[Roberto Cavanagh]], [[Luis Duggan]], Juan Nelson, [[Diego Cavanagh]], and Enrique Alberdi.

==== United States ====
[[File:Polo At the Kentucky HOrse Park (5995905109).jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.15|A polo match at the [[Kentucky Horse Park]]]]
[[James Gordon Bennett Jr.]] on 16 May 1876 organised what was billed as the first polo match in the United States at Dickel's Riding Academy at [[39th Street (Manhattan)|39th Street]] and [[Fifth Avenue]] in New York City.<ref>{{cite web|title=Polo In The United States And The Ascension Of The Polo Giant: USPA|url=https://www.lapolo.in/blog/polo-united-states-ascension-polo-giant-uspa/|access-date=19 March 2021|website=www.lapolo.in|archive-date=17 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210517182801/https://www.lapolo.in/blog/polo-united-states-ascension-polo-giant-uspa/|url-status=live}}</ref> The historical record states that [[James Gordon Bennett Jr.|James Gordon Bennett]] established the [[Westchester Polo Club]] on 6 May 1876, and on 13 May 1876, the [[Jerome Park Racetrack]] in [[Westchester County, New York|Westchester County]] (now [[The Bronx|Bronx County]]) was the site of the "first" American outdoor polo match.

H. L. Herbert, James Gordon Bennett and [[August Belmont Jr.]] financed the original [[New York Polo Grounds]]. Herbert stated in a 1913 article<ref>{{cite news|newspaper=The New York Times|date=19 May 1913 |url=http://gracytravel.com/may%2019%201913%20westchester%20established%20after%20mid%20may%20game%20at%20jerome%20park.pdf |title=Polo in America has Advanced: H.L. Herbert Tells of the Game from Its Start in This Country |access-date=2 July 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120326121018/http://gracytravel.com/may%2019%201913%20westchester%20established%20after%20mid%20may%20game%20at%20jerome%20park.pdf |archive-date=26 March 2012}}</ref> that they formed the Westchester Club ''after'' the "first" outdoor game was played on 13 May 1876. This contradicts the historical record of the club being established before the Jerome Park game.

There is ample evidence that the first to play polo in America were actually the English Texans. ''[[The Galveston News]]'' reported on 2 May 1876 that [[Denison, Texas]] had a polo club which was before James Gordon Bennett established his Westchester Club or attempted to play the "first" game.<ref>{{cite news|work=The Galveston News|url=http://gracytravel.com/may%202nd%201876%20denison%20has%20a%20polo%20club.pdf |title=State News: Grayson County |date=2 May 1876|access-date=2 July 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120326120937/http://gracytravel.com/may%202nd%201876%20denison%20has%20a%20polo%20club.pdf |archive-date=26 March 2012|quote= Mr Lane, living near Denison, has 25-acres of wheat headed up and nearly ripe{{nbsp}}... Denison has a Polo Club; also counterfeit metal dimes, base ball players and lightning rod men{{nbsp}}... This section was visited by the hardest storm of the season Thursday night.}}</ref> The Denison team sent a letter to James Gordon Bennett challenging him to a match. The challenge was published 2 June 1876, in ''The Galveston Daily News''. By the time the article came out on 2 June, the Denison Club had already received a letter from Bennett indicating the challenge was offered before the "first" games in New York.<ref>{{cite news|quote=Grayson County:<p>"At Denison Monday evening while Messers Harold Gooch and Will Lowe were practicing at the game of polo, quite a serious accident happened to former. Mr. Gooch's saddle turned throwing him into the ground when his horse gave him a severe kick, cutting a gash about five inches long across his head over the right ear. Dr. Berry rendered the necessary medical attention, and Mr. Gooch is doing well.</p>"Will Lowe, Secretary of the Denison Polo Club, wrote James Gordon Bennett asking him if arrangements could be made for a match game between the Denison and New York Clubs. Mr. Lowe received a letter from Mr. Bennett Monday, in which he says he will lay the matter before the club at the next meeting. There is little doubt the New York club will invite our boys to play them. The Denison club will go into training at once, as they are confident the game will come off.|url=http://gracytravel.com/jun%202nd%201876%20gooch%20playing%20polo%20in%20denison%20highlight.pdf |date=2 June 1876 |title=State News: Grayson County|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120326121007/http://gracytravel.com/jun%202nd%201876%20gooch%20playing%20polo%20in%20denison%20highlight.pdf|work=The Galveston News |archive-date=26 March 2012}}</ref>

There is an [[urban legend]] that the first game of polo in America was played in [[Boerne, Texas]], at retired British officer Captain Glynn Turquand's famous Balcones Ranch.<ref name="gracytravel">{{cite web |url=http://gracytravel.com/balcones%20peculiar%20in%20the%20newspaper.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120326121102/http://gracytravel.com/balcones%20peculiar%20in%20the%20newspaper.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=26 March 2012 |title=Gracy Travel – Balcones Ranch |publisher=gracytravel.com |access-date=28 July 2016}}</ref> The Boerne, Texas, legend also has plenty of evidence pointing to the fact that polo was played in Boerne before James Gordon Bennett Jr. ever picked up a polo mallet.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://texaspoloclub.net/Amenities.php|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120326120937/http://texaspoloclub.net/Amenities.php|url-status=dead|title=The Texas Polo Club|archive-date=26 March 2012}}</ref>

During the early part of the 20th century, under the leadership of [[Harry Payne Whitney]], polo changed to become a high-speed sport in the United States, differing from the game in England, where it involved short passes to move the ball towards the opposition's goal. Whitney and his teammates used the fast break, sending long passes downfield to riders who had broken away from the pack at a full gallop. In 1909 a United States team defeated an English team with ease.<ref name=EB1911/>

In the late 1950s, champion polo player and Director of the Long Island Polo Association, Walter Scanlon, introduced the "short form", or "European" style, four period match, to the game of polo.<ref>Newspaper article from the 1950s – the actual article uploaded on Wiki commons</ref>
[[File:Director Walter Scanlon. Bethpage, LI - Newspaper polo article..jpg|thumb|Director Walter Scanlon, Bethpage, Long Island]]

== Contemporary polo ==
Polo is played professionally in many countries, notably Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Dominican Republic, France, Germany, Iran, India, New Zealand, Mexico, Pakistan, Jamaica, Spain, South Africa, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, and the United States, and is now an active sport in 77 countries.<ref>{{cite web|title=Polo Today {{!}} Polo Museum|url=https://www.polomuseum.com/sport-polo/polo-today|access-date=15 May 2021|website=www.polomuseum.com|archive-date=15 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210515092839/https://www.polomuseum.com/sport-polo/polo-today|url-status=live}}</ref> Although [[Polo at the Summer Olympics|its tenure]] as an Olympic sport was limited to 1900–1939, in 1998 the [[International Olympic Committee]] recognised it as a sport with a bona fide international governing body, the [[Federation of International Polo]]. The [[World Polo Championship]] is held every three years by the Federation.

Polo is unique among team sports in that amateur players, often the team patrons, routinely hire and play alongside the sport's top professionals.

=== Argentina ===
Following spread of the sport across Argentina, the country is often credited as the capital of polo;<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-09-19 |title=Polo in Argentina: Where Tradition Meets Excellence |url=https://vakiano.com/blogs/press/polo-in-argentina-where-tradition-meets-excellence |access-date=2024-02-10 |website=Vakiano |language=en |archive-date=30 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230930093521/https://vakiano.com/blogs/press/polo-in-argentina-where-tradition-meets-excellence |url-status=live }}</ref> Even with the global spread of the sport Argentina has remained the largest producer of the highest quality horses and players. The country's fertile farmland around Buenos Aires and its long standing tradition of polo has made Argentina the center of the polo world. Every major polo tournament in the world is filled with players and horses hailing from Argentina.{{citation needed|date=November 2025}}

Argentina is also noted for having the largest contingent of [[Polo handicap#Ten-goal players, highest handicap achieved in outdoor polo|10 handicap]] players out of any other country.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Handicaps |url=https://poloplus10.com/polosport/handicaps/ |access-date=2024-02-10 |website=POLO+10 |language=en-US |archive-date=10 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230610074955/https://poloplus10.com/polosport/handicaps/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Five teams were able to gather four 10 handicap players each, to make 40 handicap teams: [[Coronel Suárez]], 1975, 1977–1979 (Alberto Heguy, [[Juan C. Harriott Jr.|Juan Carlos Harriott Jr.]], Alfredo Harriot and Horacio Heguy); La Espadaña, 1989–1990 (Carlos Gracida, Gonzalo Pieres, Alfonso Pieres y Ernesto Trotz Jr.); Indios [[Chapaleufú Department|Chapaleufú]], 1992–1993 (Bautista Heguy, Gonzalo Heguy, Horacio Heguy Jr. and Marcos Heguy); [[La Dolfina Polo Team|La Dolfina]], 2009–2010 ([[Adolfo Cambiaso]] Jr., [[Lucas Monteverde]], [[Mariano Aguerre]] y [[Bartolomé Castagnola]]); Ellerstina, 2009 ([[Facundo Pieres]], [[Gonzalo Pieres Sr.|Gonzalo Pieres Jr.]], [[Pablo Mac Donough]] and Juan Martín Nero).

The three major polo tournaments in Argentina, known as "Triple Corona" ("Triple Crown"), are [[Campeonato Abierto de Hurlingham|Hurlingham Polo Open]], [[Tortugas Polo Open]] and [[Argentine Polo Open|Palermo Polo Open]]. Polo season usually lasts from October to December.<ref name="palosantohotel">{{cite web|url=http://www.blog.palosantohotel.com/2013/11/15/polo-basics-quick-facts-polo/|title=Polo Basics: Quick facts about Polo|publisher=blog.palosantohotel.com|access-date=28 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160406214033/http://www.blog.palosantohotel.com/2013/11/15/polo-basics-quick-facts-polo/|archive-date=6 April 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==== High season vs. Low season ====
Argentina Polo School in Mar del Plata<ref>{{Cite web |title=Argentina Polo School - Escuela de Polo |url=https://poloschoolargentina.com/esp |access-date=2024-12-06 |website=poloschoolargentina.com |language=es}}</ref> reflects the rhythms of the region’s climate and tourism. The high season typically aligns with the Argentine summer, from November to March, when the weather is warm and ideal for outdoor events. During this time, polo tournaments and social gatherings attract players and enthusiasts, creating a vibrant atmosphere. Conversely, the low season falls in the winter months, from May to September, when activities slow down, allowing fields and players a period of rest and maintenance. This seasonal flow highlights Mar del Plata’s dual role as a sports hub and a seaside retreat.

=== East and Southeast Asia ===
[[File:seagamespolo.jpg|thumb|Indonesia plays against Thailand in [[SEA Games]] Polo 2007|alt=]]
Polo has been played in Malaysia and Singapore, both of which are former British colonies, since being introduced to Malaya during the late 19th century. Royal Johor Polo Club was formed in 1884 and [[Singapore Polo Club]] was formed in 1886. The oldest polo club in the modern country of Malaysia is Selangor Polo Club, founded in 1902.<ref>{{cite web|title=About the Club|url=http://theroyalselangorpoloclub.com/the-club/|publisher=Royal Selangor Polo Club|access-date=30 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181019212143/http://www.theroyalselangorpoloclub.com/the-club/|archive-date=19 October 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> It was largely played by royalty and the political and business elite.<ref>{{cite web|title=History of Polo in Malaysia|url=http://rmpa.org.my/history/|publisher=Royal Malaysian Polo Association|access-date=30 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160323102234/http://rmpa.org.my/history/|archive-date=23 March 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Polo was played at the [[Polo at the 2007 Southeast Asian Games|2007 Southeast Asian Games]], [[Polo at the 2017 Southeast Asian Games|2017 Southeast Asian Games]] and [[Polo at the 2019 Southeast Asian Games|2019 Southeast Asian Games]]. Nations that competed in the tournament were Indonesia, Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, and Philippines (2007), Brunei, Malaysia, Singapore, and Thailand (2017) and Indonesia, Brunei, Philippines, and Malaysia (2019). The 2007 tournament's gold medal was won by the Malaysian team, followed by Singapore with silver and Thailand with bronze while the 2017 tournament's gold medal was won by Malaysia, followed by Thailand with silver and Brunei with bronze. The 2019 tournament's gold medal was won by Malaysia, followed by the Philippines with silver, and Brunei receiving bronze.<ref>{{cite web |title=Men's water polo: Indonesians win SEA Games gold, break Singapore's 54-year reign |url=https://www.todayonline.com/world/water-polo-indonesia-mens-team-beats-malaysia-ends-singapores-gold-streak-sea-games |website=Today Online |access-date=29 July 2024}}</ref>
The recent resurgence in south-east Asia has resulted in its popularity in cities such as [[Pattaya]], Kuala Lumpur and [[Jakarta]]. In Pattaya alone, there are three active polo clubs: Polo Escape, Siam Polo Park, and the Thai Polo and Equestrian Club. Indonesia has a polo club (Nusantara Polo Club). More recently, Janek Gazecki and Australian professional Jack "Ruki" Baillieu have organised polo matches in parks "around metropolitan Australia, backed by wealthy sponsors."<ref>{{cite news |last=David |first=Ceri |title=Going Polo |newspaper=[[Sunday Herald Sun]] |pages=Sunday magazine supplement (pp. 20–21) |date=23 November 2008}}</ref>

A Chinese Equestrian Association has been formed with two new clubs in China itself: the Beijing Sunny Time Polo Club, founded by Xia Yang in 2004<ref>{{cite web|last=Eimer |first=David |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/china/3260092/Chinese-tycoon-Xia-Yang-inspired-by-Prince-Charles-to-restore-polo-to-Communist-China.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/china/3260092/Chinese-tycoon-Xia-Yang-inspired-by-Prince-Charles-to-restore-polo-to-Communist-China.html |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=The Daily Telegraph |location=UK |date=25 October 2008 |access-date=25 January 2012}}{{cbignore}}</ref> and the Nine Dragons Hill Polo Club in Shanghai, founded in 2005.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ndhpolo.com/ |title=NDPpolo.com |publisher=Ndhpolo.com |access-date=25 January 2012 |archive-date=5 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201205111454/http://www.ndhpolo.com/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== West Asia ===
Polo is not widely spread in West Asia, but still counts five active clubs in Iran, four active polo clubs in the [[Polo in the United Arab Emirates|UAE]], one club in Bahrain<ref name="countryclubbahrain">{{cite web|url=http://www.countryclubbahrain.com/|title=The Country Club, Bahrain|publisher=countryclubbahrain.com|access-date=28 July 2016|archive-date=12 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112024543/http://www.countryclubbahrain.com/|url-status=live}}</ref> and The Royal Jordanian Polo Club in [[Amman]], Jordan.<ref name="RJPC">{{cite web|url=http://sites.google.com/site/lifeinjordan/fitness/polo|title=Polo & Riding – Life in Jordan &#124; The Royal Jordanian Polo Club|access-date=28 July 2016|archive-date=4 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201104192708/https://sites.google.com/site/lifeinjordan/fitness/polo|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Polo in Iran is governed by the Polo Federation of Iran. There are five polo clubs in Iran: Ghasr-e Firoozeh, Nowroozabad, Army Ground Forces, Kanoon-e Chogan and Nesf-e Jahan. Iran possesses some of the best grass polo fields in the region. The country currently has over 100 registered players of which approximately 15% are women. Historically, Kurdish and Persian Arabian horses were the most widely used for polo. This was probably also the case in ancient times. Today Thoroughbreds are being increasingly used alongside the Kurdish and Persian Arabian horses. Some players have also been experimenting with Anglo-Arabians. Iranians still refer to the game of polo by its original Persian name of "Chogan", which means mallet. Iranians still maintain some of the ancient rituals of the game in official polo matches.{{citation needed|date=September 2022}}

=== India ===
The world's oldest polo club is the [[Calcutta Polo Club]] in [[Kolkata]], founded in the 19th century. It hosts the [[Ezra Cup]], the oldest polo tournament.

The governing body of [[polo in India]] is the [[Indian Polo Association]].

The World Champions Polo League was launched in [[Jaipur]] in 2016. It is a new version of polo, similar to the [[Twenty20]] format of cricket. The pitch was made smaller and accommodated a large audience. The first event of the World Champions Polo League took place in [[Bhavnagar]], Gujarat, with six teams and room for 10,000 spectators. The rules were changed<ref>{{Cite news |last=Das |first=Deepika |date=19 December 2016 |title=Polo league to kick off in March |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/sports/in-other-news/191216/polo-league-to-kick-off-in-march.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220811110449/https://www.deccanchronicle.com/sports/in-other-news/191216/polo-league-to-kick-off-in-march.html |archive-date=11 August 2022 |access-date=11 August 2022 |work=Deccan Chronicle |language=en}}</ref> and the duration of matches made shorter.<ref>{{Cite press release |title=India's First Official Polo League Announced in Jaipur |date=17 December 2016 |url=https://www.prnewswire.com/in/news-releases/indias-first-official-polo-league-announced-in-jaipur-607190876.html |language=en |access-date=11 August 2022 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220811110632/https://www.prnewswire.com/in/news-releases/indias-first-official-polo-league-announced-in-jaipur-607190876.html |archive-date=11 August 2022 |author1=Champions Polo League |agency=PRNewswire}}</ref>

=== Ireland ===
Since its instigation, the sport has continued to grow with seven clubs opening around the country. The sport has also been made more accessible to these clubs by the creation of more affordable training programmes, such as the beginner to pro programme at Polo Wicklow.<ref name="polowicklow">{{cite web|url=http://www.polowicklow.com/home.aspx|title=Polo Wicklow – Index – Polo in Ireland – Polo Wicklow|publisher=polowicklow.com|access-date=28 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160630071109/http://www.polowicklow.com/home.aspx|archive-date=30 June 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Pakistan ===
[[File:Thoksikhar 03.jpg|thumb|View of the Shabshi (Yabgo) Polo Ground in Khaplu Valley, as seen from Thoksikhar Mosque, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan]]
The annual [[Shandur Polo Festival]] at [[Shandur Top]] in [[Chitral District]] is an international event attended by enthusiasts from all over the world.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/6901691.stm|title=Polo match draws all the performers|date=18 July 2007|work=BBC News|access-date=17 June 2019|archive-date=17 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190617065408/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/6901691.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> The Shandur polo ground at [[Shandur Pass]] is the world's highest, at approximately {{convert|3734|m}}.<ref name="tourism">{{cite web|url=http://www.tourism.gov.pk/shandoor_polo_festival.htm|title=Pakistan Tourism Department notice|publisher=tourism.gov.pk|access-date=28 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181231035758/http://www.tourism.gov.pk/shandoor_polo_festival.htm|archive-date=31 December 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> The governing body of [[polo in Pakistan]] is the [[Pakistan Polo Association]]. There are more than twenty-one polo clubs in Pakistan<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.polomagazine.com.au/polo-clubs-by-region/222-asia/829-zaafir-lone|title=Polo Clubs in Pakistan|access-date=14 September 2022|archive-date=14 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220914060821/http://www.polomagazine.com.au/polo-clubs-by-region/222-asia/829-zaafir-lone|url-status=live}}</ref> and over forty polo championships held all over the country every year.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sports.gov.pk/Detail/NTQ2NmIyNzItZTkxNC00MDJmLWI0MDItYjA0MWNkYTMyMzg2|title=Sports Calendar 2021-22 (POLO)|access-date=14 September 2022|archive-date=14 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220914060824/http://www.sports.gov.pk/Detail/NTQ2NmIyNzItZTkxNC00MDJmLWI0MDItYjA0MWNkYTMyMzg2|url-status=live}}</ref> Pakistan has qualified for the preliminary rounds of the [[World Polo Championship]] three times. Pakistan's [[Hissam Ali Haider]] is the highest capped played in the Asian circuit. He has played for [[Cartier (jeweler)|Cartier]] in the St. Moritz Snow Polo World Cup and the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] team in the Royal Salute Coronation Cup, both of which were won by his team.<ref>{{cite magazine |magazine=Click Polo |url=https://www.clickpoloasia.com/post/hissam-ali-hyder |title={{'}}The level of polo I have already played far exceeds any dreams I had when I started out' [Interview] |access-date=14 September 2022 |date=27 February 2021 |archive-date=5 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221005143754/https://www.clickpoloasia.com/post/hissam-ali-hyder |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== United Kingdom ===
[[File:UK vs Spain Polo match.png|thumb|Polo match between the United Kingdom and Spain at [[Real Club de la Puerta de Hierro|Club Puerta de Hierro]], 1922. The English side was represented by [[Frederick Agnew Gill|Frederick A. Gill]] and [[Teignmouth Philip Melvill|Teignmouth P. Melvill]] whilst the Spanish were represented by [[Alfonso XIII of Spain|Alfonso XIII]] and the [[Hernando Fitz-James Stuart, 14th Duke of Peñaranda de Duero|Duke of Peñaranda]] amongst others.]] The governing body in the United Kingdom is the [[Hurlingham Polo Association]], dating from 1875, which amalgamated with the County Polo Association in 1949.<ref>{{cite web|title=HPA History|url=https://hpa-polo.co.uk/the-association/hpa-archive/hpa-history/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308142032/https://hpa-polo.co.uk/the-association/hpa-archive/hpa-history/|url-status=dead|archive-date=8 March 2021|access-date=2 June 2020|website=Hurlingham Polo Association|language=en-GB}}</ref> The UK Armed Forces Polo Association oversees the sport in the three armed services. 

=== United States ===
The [[United States Polo Association]] (USPA) is the governing body for polo in the U.S. The U.S. is the only country that has separate women's polo, run by the [[United States Women's Polo Federation]].

=== Rest of the Americas ===
Polo has found popularity throughout the rest of the Americas, including [[Sport in Brazil|Brazil]], [[Sport in Chile|Chile]] and [[Polo in Mexico|Mexico]].<ref name="crego 2003"/>{{rp|26–27}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://polobarn.com/events/events2005/05_05/051805_fip.html |title=FIP World Cup VIII – 2007 |publisher=Polobarn.com |access-date=25 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120125005357/http://polobarn.com/events/events2005/05_05/051805_fip.html |archive-date=25 January 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

== Rules ==
[[File:Jaeger-LeCoultre Polo Masters 2013 - 31082013 - Match Legacy vs Jaeger-LeCoultre Veytay for the third place 44.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.15|Polo player, with referee]]
The rules of polo are written to include the safety of both players and horses. Games are monitored by umpires. A whistle is blown when an infraction occurs, and penalties are awarded.<ref name="Rules">{{Cite web |title=Rules |url=https://www.uspolo.org/sport/rules |access-date=2025-03-27 |website=United States Polo Association® |language=en-US}}</ref> Strategic plays in polo are based on the "line of the ball", an imaginary line that extends through the ball in the line of travel.<ref name="Rules"/> This line traces the ball's path and extends past the ball along that trajectory. The line of the ball defines rules for players to approach the ball safely. The "line of the ball" changes each time the ball changes direction.<ref name="Cole">{{Cite web |last=Cole |first=Nicola |date=2020-02-08 |title=Rules of Polo: The "Line of the Ball" & "Right of Way" |url=https://www.riverlandspolo.com/post/the-line-of-the-ball-right-of-way |access-date=2025-03-27 |website=Riverlands Polo |language=en}}</ref> The player who hits the ball generally has the right of way, and other players cannot cross the line of the ball in front of that player.<ref name="Rules"/> As players approach the ball, they ride on either side of the line of the ball giving each access to the ball. A player can cross the line of the ball when it does not create a dangerous situation. Most infractions and penalties are related to players improperly crossing the line of the ball or the right of way. When a player has the line of the ball on their right, or "off-side," they have the right of way.<ref name="Cole"/> A "ride-off" is when a player moves another player off the line of the ball by making shoulder-to-shoulder contact with the other players' horses.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cole |first=Nicola |date=2020-03-03 |title=Safely Riding Off Your Opponent |url=https://www.riverlandspolo.com/post/safely-riding-off-your-opponent |access-date=2025-03-27 |website=Riverlands Polo |language=en}}</ref> This is called "bumping".<ref>{{Cite web |title=About Polo: What to Know to Enjoy the Game |url=https://kingfamilyvineyards.com/the-game-of-polo/ |access-date=2025-03-27 |website=King Family Vineyards |language=en-US}}</ref> In order for a player to bump another played without committing an "uneven ride-off" foul, the two horses must be shoulder-to-shoulder and moving at the same speed.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Uneven Ride Off |url=https://testing.polo-development.com/ipa-elearning/subject-topic/rules/lesson/?id=1159 |access-date=2025-03-27 |website=testing.polo-development.com}}</ref>

The defending player has a variety of opportunities for their team to gain possession of the ball. They can push the opponent off the line or steal the ball from the opponent. Another common defensive play is called "hooking." While a player is taking a swing at the ball, their opponent can block the swing by using their mallet to hook the mallet of the player swinging at the ball. A player may hook only if they are on the side where the swing is being made or directly behind an opponent. A player may not purposely touch another player, another player's [[Horse tack|tack]], or a pony with their mallet. Unsafe hooking is a foul that will result in a penalty shot being awarded. For example, it is a foul for a player to reach over an opponent's mount in an attempt to hook.

The other basic defensive play is called the bump or ride-off. It's similar to a [[Checking (ice hockey)#Body checking|body check]] in [[ice hockey]]. In a ride-off, a player rides their pony alongside an opponent's mount to move an opponent away from the ball or to take them out of a play. It must be executed properly so that it does not endanger the horses or the players. The angle of contact must be safe and can not knock the horses off balance, or harm the horses in any way. Two players following the line of the ball and riding one another off have the right of way over a single man coming from any direction.

Like in [[hockey]], ice hockey, or [[basketball]], fouls are potentially dangerous plays that infringe on the rules of the game. To the novice spectator, fouls may be difficult to discern. There are degrees of dangerous and unfair play and penalty shots are awarded depending based on the severity of the foul and where the foul was committed on the polo field. White lines on the polo field indicate where the mid-field, sixty, forty, and thirty yard penalties are taken.

All tournaments and levels of play and players are organized within and between polo clubs, including membership, rules, safety, fields and arenas. The official set of rules and rules interpretations are reviewed and published annually by each country's polo association. Most of the smaller associations follow the rules of the [[Hurlingham Polo Association]], the national governing body of the sport of polo in the United Kingdom, and the [[United States Polo Association]].<ref>{{cite web|title=USPA Rulebook|url=https://www.uspolo.org/assets/docs/2017-USPA-Rulebook-web.pdf|website=uspolo.org|publisher=United States Polo Association|access-date=8 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171109023557/https://www.uspolo.org/assets/docs/2017-USPA-Rulebook-web.pdf|archive-date=9 November 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Players ===
[[File:PoloGirlsHorses.jpg|thumb|A women's polo team, United States]]
Outdoor polo is played by two teams of four mounted players.<ref>{{Cite web |last=dnlx |date=2023-01-26 |title=POLO 101 |url=https://www.globalpolo.tv/polo-101/ |access-date=2025-03-27 |website=Global Polo |language=en-US}}</ref> Teams can be all-male, all-female, or mixed. Each player on the team has a specific number and has a specific role on the team.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Polo Players. Each team consists of four mounted players, which can be mixed teams of both men and women... |url=http://www.caminorealpolo.com/All-about-Polo-Players-What-is-Polo-UK-Argentina.html |access-date=2024-01-11 |website=www.caminorealpolo.com |archive-date=11 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240111162809/http://www.caminorealpolo.com/All-about-Polo-Players-What-is-Polo-UK-Argentina.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Polo must be played right-handed to prevent head-on collisions.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://ryanpemblepolo.com/left-handed-polo-players/ | title=Left-handed Polo Players | publisher=ryanpemblepolo | access-date=28 January 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180129004512/http://ryanpemblepolo.com/left-handed-polo-players/ | archive-date=29 January 2018 | url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Ball ===
The modern outdoor polo ball is made of a high-impact plastic. Historically they have been made of [[bamboo]], leather covered [[Cork (material)|cork]], hard rubber, and for many years willow root. Originally the British used a white painted leather covered cricket ball.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Laffaye|first1=Horace A.|title=The polo encyclopedia|date=2004|publisher=McFarland|location=Jefferson, N.C.|isbn=0-7864-1724-2|page=28}}</ref>

The regulation outdoor polo ball is {{convert|3|in|cm}} to {{convert|3+1/2|in|cm}} in diameter and weighs {{convert|3+1/2|oz|g}} to {{convert|4+1/2|oz|g}}.<ref>{{cite book|title=Rules and Rule Interpretations of the United States Polo Association |publisher=United States Polo Association |page=64 |date=2017 |url=https://www.uspolo.org/assets/docs/2017-USPA-Rulebook-web.pdf |access-date=9 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171109023557/https://www.uspolo.org/assets/docs/2017-USPA-Rulebook-web.pdf |archive-date=9 November 2017 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

Plastic balls were introduced in the 1970s. They are less prone to breakage and much cheaper.<ref>{{cite web|title=Outdoor Polo Ball |url=http://www.worldpolonews.com/2015/outdoor-polo-ball/|website=World Polo News|access-date=9 November 2017|date=7 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171109081050/http://www.worldpolonews.com/2015/outdoor-polo-ball/|archive-date=9 November 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Equipment ===
The rules for equipment vary in details between the hosting authorities, but are always for the safety of the players and mounts.

Mandatory equipment includes a protective helmet with chinstrap worn at all times by all players and mounted grooms. They have a rigid exterior and interior protective padding and must be to a locally accepted safety standard, ''PAS015'' (UK), ''NOCSAE'' (US). A face guard is commonly integral with the helmet.

[[Polo boots]] and [[knee guards]] are mandatory in the UK during official play, and boots are recommended for all play everywhere. The UK also recommends [[goggles]], [[elbow pads]] and [[gum shield]]s. A shirt or jersey is required that distinguishes the player's team, and is not black and white stripes like an umpire shirt.

White polo pants or trousers are worn during official play. [[Polo gloves]] are commonly worn to protect from working the reins and [[Polo mallet|mallet]].

Not permitted is any equipment that may harm horses, such as certain spurs or whips.<ref name="USA rules">USPA Rules:
*{{cite web |title=Sport of Polo: Rules of the Game |url=https://www.uspolo.org/sport/rules |website=United States Polo Association |access-date=3 December 2022 |archive-date=28 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221128175655/https://www.uspolo.org/sport/rules |url-status=live }}
*{{citation |title=2022 USPA Rulebook: Organizational documents, rules, tournament conditions and policies of the U.S. Polo Association |url=https://issuu.com/uspoloassociation/docs/2022_rulebook |access-date=3 December 2022 |via=Issuu |publisher=United States Polo Association |date=2022 |language=en |archive-date=3 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203045316/https://issuu.com/uspoloassociation/docs/2022_rulebook |url-status=live }}
*{{citation |url=https://d3uxdg7queknzi.cloudfront.net/assets/pdf/2018-USPA-Rulebook-Final-for-Website.pdf |title=United States Polo Association Rule Book 2018 |date=September 2018 |publisher=United States Polo Association |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203012401/https://d3uxdg7queknzi.cloudfront.net/assets/pdf/2018-USPA-Rulebook-Final-for-Website.pdf |archive-date=3 December 2022 }}
*{{cite book |title=Rules and Rule Interpretations of the United States Polo Association |publisher=United States Polo Association |date=2017 |url=https://www.uspolo.org/assets/docs/2017-USPA-Rulebook-web.pdf |access-date=9 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171109023557/https://www.uspolo.org/assets/docs/2017-USPA-Rulebook-web.pdf |archive-date=9 November 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="hpa rules">Hurlingham Polo Association rules:
*{{cite web |title=Playing: Rules |url=https://hpa-polo.co.uk/playing/ |website=Hurlingham Polo Association UK |access-date=3 December 2022 |archive-date=12 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230612084624/http://hpa-polo.co.uk/playing/ |url-status=live }}
*{{citation |url=https://hpa-polo.co.uk/download/BB2022-Rules-Proof-4.pdf |publisher=Hurlingham Polo Association |title=HPA Rules & Regulations for Polo 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203015019/https://hpa-polo.co.uk/download/BB2022-Rules-Proof-4.pdf |archive-date=3 December 2022 }}
*{{citation |url=http://www.hpa-polo.co.uk/download/rules/HPA-RULES-2017-Final.pdf |title=Hurlingham Polo Association Rule Book 2018 |access-date=16 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180716053856/http://www.hpa-polo.co.uk/download/rules/HPA-RULES-2017-Final.pdf |archive-date=16 July 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
<gallery mode="nolines" widths="250" heights="250">
File:Polo helmet.jpg|Polo helmet with face guard
File:Polo Kneepads.jpg|Polo [[knee pads]], mandatory equipment
</gallery>

==== Mallet ====
[[File:Polo equipment.jpg|thumb|[[Polo mallet]]s and ball]]
The [[polo mallet]] consists of a cane shaft with a rubber-wrapped grip, a webbed thong, called a sling, for wrapping around the thumb, and a wooden cigar-shaped head. The shaft is made of [[Rattan|manau-cane]] (not bamboo, which is hollow) although a small number of mallets today are made from composite materials. Composite materials are usually not preferred by top players because the shaft of composite mallets cannot absorb vibrations as well as traditional cane mallets. The mallet head is generally made from a hardwood called tipa, approximately 9{{fraction|1|4}}" inches long. The mallet head weighs from {{Convert|160|g|oz|abbr=on}} to {{Convert|240|g|oz|abbr=on}}, depending on player preference and the type of wood used, and the shaft can vary in weight and flexibility depending on the player's preference. The weight of the mallet head is of important consideration for the more seasoned players. Female players often use lighter mallets than male players. For some polo players, the length of the mallet depends on the size of the horse: the taller the horse, the longer the mallet. However, some players prefer to use a single length of mallet regardless of the height of the horse. Either way, playing horses of differing heights requires some adjustment by the rider. Variable lengths of the mallet typically range from {{Convert|127|cm|in|abbr=on}} to {{Convert|134|cm|in|abbr=on}}. The term ''mallet'' is used exclusively in [[US English]]; [[British English]] prefers the term ''polo stick''. The ball is struck with the broad sides of the mallet head rather than its round and flat tips.

=== The field ===
[[File:Terrains de polo et de football (US compliant).svg|thumb|Relative sizes of an association football ground and a polo field]]
The playing field is {{convert|300|by|160|yd|m|0}}, the area of approximately six [[Football pitch|soccer fields]] or nine American football fields {{convert|10|acre|hectare|}},<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-11-27 |title=Grass Polo - FIP {{!}} Federation of International Polo |url=https://fippolo.com/grass-polo/ |access-date=2025-04-22 |website=fippolo.com |language=en-US}}</ref> while arena polo is {{convert|315|by|151|ft|m}}.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Radueg |first=David |date=January 2012 |title=Polo fields |url=https://sturf.lib.msu.edu/article/2012jan16.pdf |access-date=11 March 2025 |website=FieldScience}}</ref> This is the largest playing field of any modern sport. The playing field is carefully maintained with closely mowed turf providing a safe, fast playing surface. Goals are posts which are set eight yards apart, centred at each end of the field. The surface of a polo field requires careful and constant grounds maintenance to keep the surface in good playing condition. During half-time of a match, spectators are invited to go onto the field to participate in a polo tradition called "divot stomping", which was developed not only to help replace the mounds of earth (divots) that are torn up by the horses' hooves, but also to afford spectators the opportunity to walk about and socialise.

=== Outdoor polo game structure ===
Outdoor or field polo lasts about one and a half to two hours and consists of four to eight seven-minute chukkas, between or during which players change mounts. At the end of each seven-minute chukka, play continues for an additional 30 seconds or until a stoppage in play, whichever comes first. There is a four-minute interval between chukkas and a ten-minute halftime. Play is continuous and is only stopped for rule infractions (fouls), broken tack (equipment) or injury to horse or player. The object is to score goals by hitting the ball between the goal posts, no matter how high in the air. If the ball goes wide of the goal, the defending team is allowed a free "knock-in" from the place where the ball crossed the goal line, thus getting ball back into play.<ref>{{cite web|title=RULES OF THE GAME – United States Polo Association|url=https://www.uspolo.org/sport/rules|website=United States Polo Association|access-date=8 November 2017|archive-date=12 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170712123404/https://www.uspolo.org/sport/rules|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Polo ponies ==
{{Main|Polo pony}}{{See also|Argentine polo (horse breed)}}[[File:Polo ponies in Switzerland.jpg|thumb|left|Polo ponies waiting for the game to begin]]

The mounts used are called 'polo ponies', although the term [[pony]] is purely traditional and the mount is actually a full-sized horse. They range from {{hands|14.2|to|16}} high at the [[withers]], and weigh {{convert|900|to|1100|lb}}. The polo pony is selected carefully for quick bursts of speed, stamina, agility and manoeuvrability. Temperament is critical; the horse must remain responsive under pressure and not become excited or difficult to control. Many are [[Thoroughbreds]] or Thoroughbred crosses. They are trained to be handled with one hand on the [[reins]], and to respond to the rider's leg and weight cues for moving forward, turning and stopping. A well trained horse will carry its rider smoothly and swiftly to the ball and can account for 60 to 75 percent of the player's skill and net worth to their team.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Henry |first1=Miles |title=What Horses Are Used For Polo? 4 Popular Polo Pony Breeds. |url=https://horseracingsense.com/what-horses-are-used-for-polo-4-pony-breeds/ |website=Horse Racing Sense |date=3 March 2021 |access-date=11 August 2022 |archive-date=6 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220706190236/https://horseracingsense.com/what-horses-are-used-for-polo-4-pony-breeds/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Polo pony training generally begins at age 3 and lasts from about 6 months to 2 years. Most horses reach full physical maturity at about age 5, and ponies are at their peak of athleticism and training at around age 6 or 7. However, without any accidents, polo ponies may have the ability to play until they are 18 to 20 years of age.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-10-07 |title=Polo - Team Sport, Mallet, Horsemanship {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/sports/polo/The-game |access-date=2024-11-11 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

Each player must have more than one horse, to allow for tired mounts to be replaced by fresh ones between or even during chukkas. A player's "string" of polo ponies may number two or three in Low Goal matches (with ponies being rested for at least a chukka before reuse), four or more for Medium Goal matches (at least one per chukka), and even more for the highest levels of competition.{{citation needed|date=September 2022}}

=== Saddle ===
[[File:Polo saddle.JPG|thumb|right|Polo saddle]]
Polo [[saddle]]s are English-style, close contact, similar to [[English saddle|jumping saddle]]s; although most [[polo saddle]]s lack a flap under the [[billet (tack)|billet]]s. Some players will not use a saddle blanket. The saddle has a flat seat and no knee support; the rider adopting a forward-leaning seat and closed knees dissimilar to a classical [[dressage]] seat. A [[breastplate (tack)|breastplate]] is added, usually attached to the front billet. A [[standing martingale]] must be used: so, a breastplate is a necessity for safety. The tie-down is usually supported by a neck strap. Many saddles also have an overgirth. The [[stirrup]] irons are heavier than most, and the stirrup leathers are wider and thicker, for added safety when the player stands in the stirrups. The legs of the pony are wrapped with [[polo wraps]] from below the knee to the fetlock to minimize pain. Jumping (open front) or gallop boots are sometimes used along with the polo wraps for added protection. Often, these wraps match the team colours. The pony's mane is most often [[mane (horse)|roached (hogged)]], and its tail is docked or braided so that it will not snag the rider's mallet.

Polo is ridden with double reins for greater accuracy of signals. The [[bit (horse)|bit]] is frequently a [[gag bit]] or [[Pelham bit]]. In both cases, the gag or shank rein will be the bottom rein in the rider's hands, while the snaffle rein will be the top rein. If a gag bit is used, there will be a drop noseband in addition to the cavesson, supporting the tie-down. One of the rein sets may alternately be [[draw reins]].

== Indoor or arena polo ==
{{Unreferenced section|date=September 2022}}
Arena polo is an [[Indoor games and sports|indoor or semi-outdoor]] variant with similar rules to the outdoor polo version. It is played with three riders per team, and is less strenuous for the player. It is played in a  enclosed arena, 

Arena polo [[playing field]] is smaller than outdoor polo, is enclosed and usually made of compacted sand or fine aggregate. The enclosed area is much like those used for other equestrian sports {{convert|300|by|150|ft}}; the minimum size is {{convert|150|by|75|ft}}. Arena polo has more manoeuvering due to space limitations, and uses an air-inflated ball slightly larger than the hard solid ball used in field polo. 

The indoor arena polo ball is often leather-covered and air-inflated. It is larger compared to the smaller and harder ball used in outdoor polo. The ball must be not less than {{convert|12.5|in|cm}} or more than {{convert|15|in|cm}} in circumference. The weight must be between {{convert|170|g|oz}} and {{convert|182|g|oz}}. In a bounce test from {{convert|9|ft|m}} on concrete at {{convert|70|°F|°C}}, the rebound should be a minimum of {{convert|54|in|cm}} and a maximum of {{convert|64|in|cm}} at the inflation rate specified by the manufacturer. Some larger, custom-sized indoor balls are also available, such as {{convert|40|cm|in}} diameter versions for specific conditions. This provides for a hard and lively ball.

Standard mallets are used, though slightly larger-head ''arena mallets'' are an option.

=== Clubs and tournament ===
There are many arena clubs in the United States, and most major polo clubs, including the [[Santa Barbara Polo and Racquet Club]], have active arena programmes. The major differences between the outdoor and indoor games are: speed (outdoor being faster), physicality/roughness (indoor/arena is more physical), ball size (indoor is larger), goal size (because the arena is smaller the goal is smaller), and some penalties. In the United States and Canada, collegiate polo is arena polo;{{r|uspolo|uspolo2}} in the United Kingdom, collegiate polo is both.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Universities polo with SUPA |url=https://www.supa.org.uk/universities/ |access-date=March 27, 2025 |website=Schools & Universities Polo Association}}</ref>

Some of the most important arena polo tournaments held are:
* The U.S. Arena Polo Championship, a 12-18 goal tournament, is one of the highest levels of fast version of polo competition currently played in the United States. Its history dates back to 1926, where the first tournament was held and won by the Yale University team of Reddington Barret, Winston Guest and William Mui.
* The Arena Polo Grand Prix held in Argentina, promoted by La Carona Polo Club along with the Argentine Polo Association, was organized for the first time in June 2019, and was the start for the Arena Polo in Argentina.
* The Arena Polo European Championship. The first tournament of this championship was held in 2015. Alongside the Equestrian Federation of Azerbaijan Republic (ARAF) the tournament was organized by the team of World Polo

== Variants ==
These variants are considered sports separate from standard polo because of the differences in the composition of teams, equipment, rules, game facilities, and so on.

[[File:30th St. Moritz Polo World Cup on Snow - 20140202 - Cartier vs Ralph Lauren 18.jpg|thumb|Snow polo played in St. Moritz, 2024]]A modern variant is snow polo, which is played on compacted snow on flat ground or a frozen lake. The format of snow polo varies depending on the space available. Each team generally consists of three players and a bright coloured light plastic ball is preferred.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.worldsnowpolo.com/ |title=Aspen World Snow Polo Official Website |publisher=Worldsnowpolo.com |access-date=25 January 2012 |archive-date=25 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120125084401/http://worldsnowpolo.com/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Snow polo is not the same sport as [[ice polo]], which was popular in the US in the late 1890s. That sport resembled [[ice hockey]] and [[bandy]] but died out entirely in favour of the Canadian ice hockey rules.

Variant forms of arena polo include [[beach polo]], played in many countries between teams of three riders on a sand surface,<ref>{{cite web|title=The rules|url=https://www.watergatebay.co.uk/polo/polo-explained/the-rules/|website=Polo on the Beach, Watergate Bay|publisher=Watergate Bay Hotel Ltd|access-date=15 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316050912/https://www.watergatebay.co.uk/polo/polo-explained/the-rules/|archive-date=16 March 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>. Also, [[Cowboy polo]], played almost exclusively in the western United States by teams of five riders on a dirt surface, uses rules similar to regular polo. Riders compete with [[western saddle]]s, usually in a smaller arena, using an inflatable rubber [[medicine ball]].

[[Water polo]] shares a name with polo, but more closely resembles [[handball]]. [[Sagol kāngjei]] is arguably a version of polo as well, though it can also be seen as the precursor of modern outdoor polo.

Variants that are related but clearly diverge from the polo format include: 
* [[Horseball]] is a game played on horseback where a ball is handled and points are scored by shooting it through a high net. The sport is a combination of polo, [[rugby football|rugby]], and [[basketball]].
* [[Pato]] was played in [[Argentina]] for centuries, but is very different from modern polo. No mallets are used, and it is not played on grass.
* [[Polocrosse]] is a combination of polo and [[lacrosse]] and is also played on horseback. It was developed in Australia in the late 1930s.

=== Played on vehicles or other animals ===
Polo is not played exclusively on horseback. Such polo variants are mostly played for recreational or tourism purposes.

Non-equine variations include:

====On other animals====
* [[Camel polo]] is played in Mongolia<ref>{{cite news |last1=McKechnie |first1=Steve |title=Camel Polo in Mongolia |url=https://archive.newsport.com.au/latest-news/daily-stories/2013/march/18-march-22-march-2012/camel-polo-in-mongolianewsport/ |access-date=27 November 2022 |work=Newsport: Port Douglas News |date=19 March 2013 |via=Port Douglas News Archive |archive-date=27 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221127140254/https://archive.newsport.com.au/latest-news/daily-stories/2013/march/18-march-22-march-2012/camel-polo-in-mongolianewsport/ |url-status=live }} [https://www.newsport.com.au/ Newsport] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221127140253/https://www.newsport.com.au/ |date=27 November 2022 }}</ref>
* [[Elephant polo]] is played in South Asia.
* [[Yak polo]] is played in Mongolia and western China.

====On vehicles====
[[File:Polo Cart at City Palace, Jaipur.jpg|thumb|An old polocart displayed at [[City Palace, Jaipur]]. The museum also displays a "night polo ball" with a rotating platform on which a candle is placed.<ref>[http://msmsmuseum.com/itemdetail.php?catid=5&subcatid=23&subsubcatid=0&id=30 Maharaja Sawai Man Singh II Museum: Night Polo Ball] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141028161659/http://msmsmuseum.com/itemdetail.php?catid=5&subcatid=23&subsubcatid=0&id=30 |date=28 October 2014}}</ref>]]
* [[Auto polo]] was a motorsport invented in the United States in the early 1900s. Its rules and equipment were similar to polo but automobiles were used instead of horses.<ref name=carlebach>{{cite book|last=Carlebach|first=Michael|title=Bain's New York: The City in News Pictures 1900–1925|year=2011|publisher=Courier|location=New York|page=143|isbn=9780486478586|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3Rr2lvoFsAQC&q=Pappy%20Hankinson%20polo&pg=PA143}}</ref>
* [[Canoe polo]] is played around the world in kayaks and governed by the [[International Canoe Federation]].
* [[Cycle polo]] is a similar game played on [[bicycles]] instead of horses. A variant of cycle polo is also played on [[penny-farthing]]s.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://pennyfarthingclub.com/ |access-date=2022-09-03 |website=Penny Farthing Club |language=en-US |archive-date=3 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220903201755/https://pennyfarthingclub.com/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* Golfcart polo
* [[Motoball]] (motorcycle polo) was invented in the United States.
* [[Segway polo]] originated in the United States.
* Roda Polo is played on [[Electric unicycle|electric unicycles]]<ref>{{cite news |last=Kassam |first=Amanda |title=Argentina embraces a new sport: e-wheel polo |url=https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/gallery/2025/jan/17/argentina-new-sport-e-wheel-polo |work=The Guardian |date=17 January 2025 |access-date=2 September 2025}}</ref>

====Horse simulacrum====
A lighthearted variant, [[hobby horse polo]]  ({{langx|de|Steckenpferdpolo}}), was devised in 1998 in south western Germany. The {{lang|de|Erster Kurfürstlich-Kurpfälzisch}} Polo-Club in [[Mannheim]] was founded in 2002 to organise matches and promote the game. Since then, the variant has gained further interest in other German cities.<ref name="spiegel">{{cite news |url=http://www.spiegel.de/panorama/steckenpferdpolo-trendsportart-in-duesseldorf-im-rheinpark-a-994129.html |title=Steckenpferdpolo: Trendsportart in Düsseldorf im Rheinpark – Trendsportart Steckenpferdpolo: Ich glaub', mein Gaul holzt, Spiegel September 2014 |work=Der Spiegel |date=27 September 2014 |access-date=28 July 2016 |language=de |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304065536/http://www.spiegel.de/panorama/steckenpferdpolo-trendsportart-in-duesseldorf-im-rheinpark-a-994129.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Was fehlt ...: ... lebende Poloponys |url=https://taz.de/was-fehlt-/!5032238/ |work=Die Tageszeitung: taz |date=28 September 2014 |language=de |access-date=27 November 2022 |archive-date=27 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221127140250/https://taz.de/was-fehlt-/!5032238/ |url-status=live }}</ref> It is played on [[hobby horse (toy)|hobby horses]], the toy, instead of polo ponies. While following standard polo rules in part, it has some more unusual rules: Goals, for example, are the height and width of bar stools; and any departure from accepted gameplay standards will attract "penalty sherries" to be consumed by the offending player.<ref>{{cite web |title=Spielfeld, Regeln und so – Polo ist unser Steckenpferd, Steckenpferdpolo unser Leben! |url=https://www.steckenpferdpolo.de/spielfeld-regeln/ |website=Kurfürstlich-Kurpfälzischer Polo-Club Mannheim |language=de-DE |quote=Fouls of any kind will be punished with a penalty sherry ... If you don't like to drink alcohol, you will face a delicious {{lang|de|Brottrunk. ['Brottrunk für Antialkoholiker']}} |access-date=27 November 2022 |archive-date=27 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221127140251/https://www.steckenpferdpolo.de/spielfeld-regeln/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Popular culture ==
The sport inspired Jilly Cooper's 1991 [[bonkbuster]] novel ''[[Polo (novel)|Polo]]''.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Wishart |first=Ruth |date=17 August 1991 |title=Soundbites, but no gap in the schedule |work=The Scotsman |pages=9}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Buzkashi]]
* [[Chovgan]]
* [[Dakyu]]
* [[Jereed]]
* [[List of polo players]]
* [[PIPA Polo Instructors and Players Association]]
* [[Polo handicap]]
* [[World Polo Championship]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
<references>
<ref name=uspolo>{{cite web|title=Intercollegiate (College) Polo |url=http://www.us-polo.org/intercollegiate_polo.htm |access-date=3 September 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090413050915/http://www.us-polo.org/intercollegiate_polo.htm |archive-date=13 April 2009 }}</ref>

<ref name=uspolo2>{{cite web|title=Arena Polo |url=http://www.us-polo.org/new_08/arena_polo.htm |access-date=6 January 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110929170951/http://www.us-polo.org/new_08/arena_polo.htm |archive-date=29 September 2011 }}</ref>
</references>

== Further reading ==
* {{cite book |title=Polo |publisher=Collins |location=San Francisco |date=1992 |isbn=0-00-637796-3 |author1=Penina Meisels |author2=Michael Cronan |author2-link=Michael Patrick Cronan}}
* {{cite book | title=Simply Polo |publisher=BookRix |location=Munich |year=2009 |asin=B00XKVIYOK | author1=Santiago Novillo-Astrada |author2=Raphael De Oliveira |author3=Uwe Seebacher}}

{{Equestrian Sports}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Polo| ]]
[[Category:Former Summer Olympic sports]]
[[Category:Mixed-sex sports]]
[[Category:Equestrian team sports]]
[[Category:Sports originating in Asia]]
[[Category:Ball games]]
[[Category:Stick sports]]