View source for Poland

{{Short description|Country in Central Europe}}
{{About|the country}}
{{pp-move}}
{{protection padlock|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2024}}
{{Use British English|date=June 2024}}
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Republic of Poland
| common_name            = Poland
| native_name            = {{nativename|pl|Rzeczpospolita Polska}}
| image_flag             = Flag of Poland.svg
| flag_border            = Flag of Poland (normative).svgize
| image_coat             = Herb Polski.svg
| national_anthem        = {{lang|pl|"[[Poland Is Not Yet Lost|Mazurek Dąbrowskiego]]"|italics=no}}<br />''Poland Is Not Yet Lost''<br /><div style="padding-top:0.5em;">{{center|[[File:Mazurek Dabrowskiego.ogg]]}}</div>
| demonym                = {{hlist|[[Polish people|Polish]]|Pole}}
<!-- Maps and coordinates -->| image_map              = {{Switcher|[[File:EU-Poland (orthographic projection).svg|frameless]]|Show globe|[[File:EU-Poland.svg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Show map of Europe|default=1}}
| map_caption            = {{map caption |location_color=dark green |region=Europe |region_color=dark grey |subregion=the [[European Union]] |subregion_color=green |legend=EU-Poland.svg}}
| capital                = [[Warsaw]]
| coordinates            = {{Coord|52|13|N|21|02|E|type:city}}
| largest_city           = capital
<!-- Language -->| languages_type         = [[Official language]]
| languages              = [[Polish language|Polish]]<ref>[[s:en:Constitution of the Republic of Poland/Chapter 1|Constitution of the Republic of Poland]], Article 27.</ref>
<!-- Population, ethnic groups -->| population_census      = {{IncreaseNeutral}} 38,036,118<ref>{{Cite web |title=Statistical Bulletin No 11/2022 |url=https://stat.gov.pl/en/topics/other-studies/informations-on-socio-economic-situation/statistical-bulletin-no-112022,4,145.html |access-date=23 December 2022 |website=Statistics Poland |archive-date=23 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221223120843/https://stat.gov.pl/en/topics/other-studies/informations-on-socio-economic-situation/statistical-bulletin-no-112022,4,145.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
| population_census_year = 2022
| population_census_rank = 38th
| population_density_km2 = 126
| population_density_sq_mi = 315.9 <!--Do not remove per [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers]]. -->
| population_density_rank = 98th
| ethnic_groups          = {{tree list}}
*98.8% [[Polish people|Polish]]{{efn|Multiple national identity was available in the census.}}
**96.3% only Polish
**2.6% Polish and others
*1.1% only [[Ethnic minorities in Poland|non-Polish]]
{{tree list/end}}
| ethnic_groups_year     = 2021
| ethnic_groups_ref      = <ref name="2021 Census">{{cite web|url=https://stat.gov.pl/en/national-census/national-population-and-housing-census-2021/final-results-of-the-national-population-and-housing-census-2021/size-and-demographic-social-structure-in-the-light-of-the-2021-census-results,6,1.html |title=National Population and Housing Census 2021 Population. Size and demographic-social structure in the light of the 2021 Census results |language=en }}</ref>
| religion               = {{ublist|item_style=white-space:
|{{Tree list}}
* 72.4% [[Christianity]]
** 71.3% [[Catholic Church in Poland|Catholicism]]
** 1.1% [[List of Christian denominations|other Christian]]
{{Tree list/end}}
|6.9% [[Irreligion|no religion]]
|0.1% [[Religion in Poland|other]]
|20.6% unanswered
}}
| religion_year          = 2021<ref name="Census 2021">{{Cite web |title=Final results of the National Population and Housing Census 2021 |url=https://stat.gov.pl/download/gfx/portalinformacyjny/pl/defaultaktualnosci/6536/10/1/1/wyniki_ostateczne_nsp2021_nar_jezyk_wyznanie_29_09_202.xlsx |publisher=Statistics Poland}}</ref>
<!-- Government type, leaders -->| government_type        = Unitary [[semi-presidential republic]]{{refn|name=SEMIPRES}}
| leader_title1          = [[President of Poland|President]]
| leader_name1           = {{nowrap|[[Karol Nawrocki]]}}
| leader_title2          = [[Prime Minister of Poland|Prime Minister]]
| leader_name2           = [[Donald Tusk]]
| legislature            = [[Parliament of Poland|Parliament]]
| upper_house            = [[Senate of Poland|Senate]]
| lower_house            = [[Sejm]]
<!-- Events -->| sovereignty_type       = [[History of Poland|Formation]]
| established_event1     = [[Baptism of Poland]]{{efn|"Mieszko accepted Roman Catholicism via Bohemia in 966. A missionary bishopric directly dependent on the papacy was established in Poznań. This was the true beginning of Polish history, for Christianity was a carrier of Western civilisation with which Poland was henceforth associated."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Poland/History |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |title=Poland |date=2023 |access-date=31 December 2023 |archive-date=19 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240119191221/https://www.britannica.com/place/Poland/History |url-status=live}}</ref>}}
| established_date1      = 14 April 966
| established_event2     = {{nowrap|[[Kingdom of Poland]]}}
| established_date2      = 18 April 1025
| established_event3     = [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]]
| established_date3      = 1 July 1569
| established_event4     = {{nowrap|[[Second Polish Republic|Second Republic]]}}
| established_date4      = 11 November 1918
| established_event5     = {{nowrap|[[Polish government-in-exile|Government-in-exile]]}}
| established_date5      = 17 September 1939
| established_event6     = {{nowrap|[[Polish People's Republic|People's Republic]]}}
| established_date6      = 22 July 1944
| established_event7     = {{nowrap|[[History of Poland (1989–present)|Third Republic]]}}
| established_date7      = {{nowrap|31 December 1989}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://isap.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/DocDetails.xsp?id=WDU19890750444|title=The Act of December 29, 1989 amending the Constitution of the Polish People's Republic.|publisher=Internetowy System Aktów Prawnych|access-date=18 October 2020|archive-date=19 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201019101959/http://isap.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/DocDetails.xsp?id=WDU19890750444|url-status=live}} {{in lang|pl}}</ref>
<!-- Area -->| area_km2               = 312696
| area_footnote          = <ref name="GUS">{{Cite web |last=GUS |title=Powierzchnia i ludność w przekroju terytorialnym w 2023 roku |url=https://stat.gov.pl/obszary-tematyczne/ludnosc/ludnosc/powierzchnia-i-ludnosc-w-przekroju-terytorialnym-w-2023-roku,7,20.html |access-date=19 October 2023 |archive-date=22 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922225517/https://stat.gov.pl/obszary-tematyczne/ludnosc/ludnosc/powierzchnia-i-ludnosc-w-przekroju-terytorialnym-w-2023-roku,7,20.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="BBC News 2023">{{Cite web |date=12 November 2023 |title=Poland country profile |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-17753718 |access-date=12 November 2023 |website=BBC News |archive-date=21 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231021204608/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-17753718 |url-status=live }}</ref>
| area_rank              = 69th
| area_sq_mi             = 121,209.44 <!-- Do not remove per [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers]]. -->
| percent_water          = 1.48 (2015)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Surface water and surface water change |url=https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=SURFACE_WATER |access-date=11 October 2020 |publisher=[[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] (OECD) |archive-date=24 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210324133453/https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=SURFACE_WATER |url-status=live }}</ref>
| GDP_PPP                = {{increase}} $2.019 trillion<ref name="IMFWEO.PL">{{Cite web |url=https://data.imf.org/en/Data-Explorer?datasetUrn=IMF.RES:WEO(9.0.0) |title=IMF Data. Poland. |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |date=October 2025 |access-date=15 October 2025}}</ref>
| GDP_PPP_year           = 2025
| GDP_PPP_rank           = 19th
| GDP_PPP_per_capita     = {{increase}} $55,340<ref name="IMFWEO.PL"/>
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 37th
| GDP_nominal            = {{increase}} $1.039 trillion<ref name="IMFWEO.PL"/>
| GDP_nominal_year       = 2025
| GDP_nominal_rank       = 20th
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $28,484<ref name="IMFWEO.PL"/>
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 44th
<!-- Gini -->| Gini                   = 26.3 <!--number only-->
| Gini_year              = 2022
| Gini_change            = decrease <!--increase/decrease/steady-->
| Gini_ref               = <ref name=eurogini>{{cite web |url=https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/tessi190/default/table?lang=en |title=Gini coefficient of equivalised disposable income – EU-SILC survey|publisher=[[Eurostat]] |website=ec.europa.eu |access-date=13 April 2024}}</ref>
<!-- HDI -->| HDI                    = 0.906<!--number only-->
| HDI_year               = 2023<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year. -->
| HDI_change             = increase<!--increase/decrease/steady-->
| HDI_ref                = <ref name="HDI">{{Cite web |date=6 May 2025 |title=Human Development Report 2025 |url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2025reporten.pdf|url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250506051232/https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2025reporten.pdf |archive-date=6 May 2025 |access-date=6 May 2025 |publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]] |language=en}}</ref>
| HDI_rank               = 35th
<!-- Currency -->| currency               = [[Polish złoty|Złoty]]
| currency_code          = PLN
<!-- Time zone, date format, other -->| time_zone              = [[Central European Time|CET]]
| utc_offset             = +1
| utc_offset_DST         = +2
| time_zone_DST          = [[Central European Summer Time|CEST]]
| date_format            = dd.mm.yyyy ([[Common Era|CE]])
| drives_on              = right
| calling_code           = [[Telephone numbers in Poland|+48]]
| cctld                  = [[.pl]]
| footnote_a             = Also .eu, shared with other European Union member states
}}

'''Poland'''<!-- Do not add English pronunciation per [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Lead section]]. -->,{{efn|{{langx|pl|Polska}} {{IPA|pl|ˈpɔlska||Pl-Polska.ogg}}}} officially the '''Republic of Poland''',{{efn|{{langx|pl|[[Rzeczpospolita]] Polska|links=no}} {{IPA|pl|ʐɛt͡ʂpɔsˈpɔlita ˈpɔlska||Pl-Rzeczpospolita Polska.ogg}}}} is a country in [[Central Europe]]. It extends from the [[Baltic Sea]] in the north to the [[Sudetes]] and [[Carpathian Mountains]] in the south, and borders [[Lithuania]] and [[Russia]]{{efn|[[Kaliningrad Oblast]], an [[Enclave and exclave|exclave]] of Russia}} to the northeast; [[Belarus]] and [[Ukraine]] to the east; [[Slovakia]] and the [[Czech Republic]] to the south; and [[Germany]] to the west. The territory has a varied landscape, diverse ecosystems, and a [[temperate climate]]. Poland is composed of [[Voivodeships of Poland|sixteen voivodeships]] and is the fifth most populous [[member state of the European Union]] (EU), with over 38 million people, and the [[List of European countries by area|fifth largest EU country]] by land area, covering {{convert|312696|km2|abbr=on}}. The capital and [[List of cities and towns in Poland|largest city]] is [[Warsaw]]; other major cities include [[Kraków]], [[Wrocław]], [[Łódź]], [[Poznań]], and [[Gdańsk]].

[[Prehistory and protohistory of Poland|Prehistoric human activity on Polish soil]] dates to the [[Lower Paleolithic]], with continuous settlement since the end of the [[Last Glacial Period]]. Culturally diverse throughout [[late antiquity]], in the [[Early Middle Ages|early medieval period]] the region became inhabited by the [[West Slavs|West Slavic]] tribal [[Polans (western)|Polans]], who gave [[Names of Poland|Poland its name]]. The process of establishing statehood coincided with the conversion of a [[Mieszko I|pagan ruler of the Polans]] to Christianity in 966 under the auspices of the [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic Church]]. The [[Kingdom of Poland]] emerged in 1025, and in 1569 cemented its long-standing [[Polish–Lithuanian union|association with Lithuania]], thus forming the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]]. At the time, the Commonwealth was one of the [[List of modern great powers|great powers]] of Europe, with an [[Elective monarchy in Poland|elective monarchy]] and a [[Golden Liberty|uniquely liberal]] political system, which adopted [[Constitution of 3 May 1791|Europe's first modern constitution]] in 1791.

With the passing of the prosperous [[Polish Golden Age]], the country was [[Partitions of Poland|partitioned by neighbouring states]] at the end of the 18th century. At the end of [[World War I]] in 1918, Poland regained its [[National Independence Day (Poland)|independence]] with the [[History of Poland (1795-1918)#Recovery of statehood|founding]] of the [[Second Polish Republic]], which emerged [[Battle of Warsaw (1920)|victorious]] in [[List of wars involving Poland#Second Polish Republic (1918–1939)|various conflicts]] of the [[History of Poland (1918–1939)|interbellum]] period. In September 1939, the [[invasion of Poland]] by [[Nazi Germany|Germany]] [[Soviet invasion of Poland|and the]] [[Soviet Union]] marked the beginning of [[World War II]], which resulted in [[The Holocaust in Poland|the Holocaust]] and millions of [[History of Poland (1939–1945)|Polish casualties]]. Forced into the [[Eastern Bloc]] in the global [[Cold War]], the [[Polish People's Republic]] was a signatory of the [[Warsaw Pact]]. Through the 1980 [[Gdańsk Agreement|emergence]] and contributions of the [[Solidarity (Polish trade union)|Solidarity movement]], which initiated the [[fall of the Iron Curtain]], the [[Polish United Workers' Party|communist government]] was [[History of Poland (1945–1989)|dissolved]] and Poland re-established itself as a [[liberal democracy]] in 1989, as the [[1989 Polish parliamentary election|first]] of its neighbours.

Poland is a [[semi-presidential republic]] with its [[Bicameralism|bicameral legislature]] comprising the [[Sejm]] and the [[Senate of Poland|Senate]]. Considered a [[middle power]], it is a [[developed market]] and [[World Bank high-income economy|high-income economy]] that is the [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|sixth largest]] in the [[European Union|EU]] by nominal [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] and the [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|fifth largest by PPP-adjusted GDP]]. Poland enjoys a [[List of countries by Human Development Index|very high standard of living]], safety, and [[economic freedom]], as well as free [[Education in Poland|university education]] and [[Health care in Poland|universal health care]]. It has [[List of World Heritage Sites in Poland|17]] [[UNESCO]]-administered [[World Heritage Sites]], 15 of which are cultural. Poland is a founding member state of the United Nations and a member of the [[Council of Europe]], [[World Trade Organization|World Trade Organisation]], [[OECD]], [[NATO]], and the European Union (including the [[Schengen Area]]).

== Etymology ==
{{Main|Names of Poland}}

The native [[Polish language|Polish]] name for Poland is {{lang|pl|Polska}}.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Thompson |first=Wayne C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lttJEAAAQBAJ&dq=%22name%2Bpoland%2B%2522polska%2522%2Bderived%22&pg=PA322 |title=Nordic, Central, and Southeastern Europe 2020–2022 |date=2021 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers |isbn=978-1-4758-5626-2 |location=Blue Ridge Summit |page=322 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=7 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240207011846/https://books.google.com/books?id=lttJEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA322&dq=%22name%2Bpoland%2B%2522polska%2522%2Bderived%22 |url-status=live }}</ref> It is believed that the name derives from the [[Polans (western)|Polans]], a [[West Slavs|West Slavic]] tribe who inhabited the [[Warta River]] basin of present-day [[Greater Poland]] region (6th–8th century CE).<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Lukowski |first1=Jerzy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NpMxTvBuWHYC&dq=%22polanie%2Bpoland%2Bwarta%2Bhistory%22&pg=PA4 |title=A Concise History of Poland |last2=Zawadzki |first2=Hubert |date=2001 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-55109-9 |location=Cambridge |page=4 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=4 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240204080145/https://books.google.com/books?id=NpMxTvBuWHYC&pg=PA4&dq=%22polanie%2Bpoland%2Bwarta%2Bhistory%22 |url-status=live }}</ref> The tribe's name stems from the [[Proto-Slavic]] noun ''pole'' meaning field, which itself originates from the [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] word ''*pleh₂-'' indicating flatland.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lehr-Spławiński |first=Tadeusz |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EjJHAAAAIAAJ&q=Je%25CC%25A8zyk%2Bpolski%2B:%2Bpochodzenie,%2Bpowstanie,%2Brozwo%25CC%2581j |title=Język polski. Pochodzenie, powstanie, rozwój |date=1978 |publisher=Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe |location=Warszawa (Warsaw) |page=64 |language=Polish |oclc=4307116 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=24 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230724235955/https://books.google.com/books?id=EjJHAAAAIAAJ&q=Je%25CC%25A8zyk%2Bpolski%2B:%2Bpochodzenie,%2Bpowstanie,%2Brozwo%25CC%2581j |url-status=live }}</ref> The etymology alludes to the [[topography]] of the region and the flat landscape of Greater Poland.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Potkański |first=Karol |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b78eAAAAMAAJ&q=p%25C5%2582aska%2520wielkopolska%2520polanie |title=Pisma pośmiertne. Granice plemienia Polan |date=2004 |publisher=Polska Akademia Umiejętności |isbn=978-83-7063-411-7 |volume=1 |location=Kraków |page=423 |language=Polish |orig-date=1922 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=24 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230724235906/https://books.google.com/books?id=b78eAAAAMAAJ&q=p%25C5%2582aska%2520wielkopolska%2520polanie |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Everett-Heath |first=John |title=The Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names |date=2019 |publisher=University Press |isbn=978-0-19-190563-6 |location=Oxford |chapter=Poland (Polska) |author-link=John Everett-Heath |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ufkFEAAAQBAJ&dq=%22poland%2Bfield%2Bpolanie%22&pg=PT1498 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=4 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240204080136/https://books.google.com/books?id=ufkFEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT1498&dq=%22poland%2Bfield%2Bpolanie%22 |url-status=live }}</ref> During the [[Middle Ages]], the [[Latin]] form ''Polonia'' was widely used throughout Europe.<ref name="Buko 2014">{{Cite book |last=Buko |first=Andrzej |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VAOjBQAAQBAJ |title=Bodzia. A Late Viking-Age Elite Cemetery in Central Poland |date=2014 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-28132-5 |location=Leiden |pages=36, 62 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=7 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407051434/https://books.google.com/books?id=VAOjBQAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>

The country's alternative archaic name is ''[[Lechia]]'' and its root syllable remains in official use in several languages, notably [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]], [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]], and [[Persian language|Persian]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hannan |first=Kevin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YmrlAAAAMAAJ&q=poland%2Bpersian%2Blithuanian%2Bhungarian%2Blechitic |title=Language and Identity in a West Slavic Borderland: The Case of Teschen Silesia |date=1994 |publisher=University of Texas |location=Austin |page=127 |oclc=35825118 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=24 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230724235904/https://books.google.com/books?id=YmrlAAAAMAAJ&q=poland%2Bpersian%2Blithuanian%2Bhungarian%2Blechitic |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[exonym]] possibly derives from either [[Lech and Czech|Lech]], a legendary ruler of the [[Lechites]], or from the [[Lendians]], a West Slavic tribe that dwelt on the south-easternmost edge of [[Lesser Poland]].<ref name="Dabrowski 2014">{{Cite book |last=Dabrowski |first=Patrice M. |url={{GBurl|id=X__-DwAAQBAJ}} |title=Poland. The First Thousand Years |date=2014 |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-1-5017-5740-2 |location=New York}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kamusella |first=Tomasz |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=spRUEAAAQBAJ&dq=%22lendians%2Blech%2Bpoland%22&pg=PA9 |title=Words in Space and Time: A Historical Atlas of Language Politics in Modern Central Europe |date=2022 |publisher=Central European University Press |isbn=978-963-386-418-0 |location=Budapest |page=9 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=4 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240204080203/https://books.google.com/books?id=spRUEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA9&dq=%22lendians%2Blech%2Bpoland%22 |url-status=live }}</ref> The origin of the tribe's name lies in the [[Old Polish language|Old Polish]] word ''lęda'' (plain).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Małecki |first=Antoni |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dYwBAAAAMAAJ&q=Lechici%2Bw%2B%25C5%259Bwietle%2Bhistorycznej%2Bkrytyki |title=Lechici w świetle historycznej krytyki |date=1907 |publisher=Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich |location=Lwów (Lviv) |page=37 |language=Polish |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=24 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230724235910/https://books.google.com/books?id=dYwBAAAAMAAJ&q=Lechici%2Bw%2B%25C5%259Bwietle%2Bhistorycznej%2Bkrytyki |url-status=live }}</ref> Initially, both names ''Lechia'' and ''Polonia'' were used interchangeably when referring to Poland by chroniclers during the [[Middle Ages]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Andersson |first1=Theodore Murdock |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lrdcDwAAQBAJ&dq=%22The%2BEarliest%2BIcelandic%2BChronicle%2Bof%2Bthe%2BNorwegian%2BKings%2B%25281030-1157%2529%2B2000%22&pg=PR4 |title=The Earliest Icelandic Chronicle of the Norwegian Kings (1030–1157) |last2=Morkinskinna |first2=Ellen Gade |date=2000 |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-0-8014-3694-9 |location=Ithaca |page=471 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=4 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240204080133/https://books.google.com/books?id=lrdcDwAAQBAJ&pg=PR4&dq=%22The%2BEarliest%2BIcelandic%2BChronicle%2Bof%2Bthe%2BNorwegian%2BKings%2B%25281030-1157%2529%2B2000%22 |url-status=live }}</ref>

== History ==
{{Main|History of Poland}}

=== Prehistory and protohistory ===
{{Main|Stone Age Poland|Bronze and Iron Age Poland|Poland in antiquity|Early Slavs|West Slavs|Lechites|Poland in the Early Middle Ages}}

[[File:Biskupin brama od zewnatrz.jpg|thumb|right|A reconstruction of a [[Bronze Age]] [[Lusatian culture]] settlement in [[Biskupin]], 8th century BC]]

The first [[Stone Age]] archaic humans and ''[[Homo erectus]]'' species settled what was to become Poland approximately 500,000 years ago, though the ensuing hostile climate prevented early humans from founding more permanent encampments.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fabisiak |first=Wojciech |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g_8jAQAAIAAJ&q=500%2520000%2520lat%2520temu%2520polska%2520homo%2520erectus |title=Dzieje powiatu wrocławskiego |date=2002 |publisher=Starostwo Powiatowe |isbn=978-83-913985-3-1 |location=Wrocław |page=9 |language=pl |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=24 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230724235907/https://books.google.com/books?id=g_8jAQAAIAAJ&q=500%2520000%2520lat%2520temu%2520polska%2520homo%2520erectus |url-status=live }}</ref> The arrival of ''[[Homo sapiens]]'' and [[Early European modern humans|anatomically modern humans]] coincided with the climatic discontinuity at the end of the [[Last Glacial Period]] ([[Weichselian glaciation|Northern Polish glaciation]] 10,000 BC), when Poland became habitable.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jurek |first=Krzysztof |title=Poznać przeszłość 1. Karty pracy ucznia. Poziom podstawowy |date=2019 |publisher=Nowa Era |isbn=978-83-267-3653-7 |location=Warszawa (Warsaw) |page=93 |language=pl}}</ref> [[Neolithic]] excavations indicated broad-ranging development in that era; the earliest evidence of European cheesemaking (5500 BC) was discovered in Polish [[Kuyavia]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Subbaraman |first=Nidhi |date=12 December 2012 |title=Art of cheese-making is 7,500 years old |url=http://www.nature.com/news/art-of-cheese-making-is-7-500-years-old-1.12020 |journal=Nature News |doi=10.1038/nature.2012.12020 |s2cid=180646880 |access-date=7 August 2021 |archive-date=8 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508085311/https://www.nature.com/news/art-of-cheese-making-is-7-500-years-old-1.12020 |url-status=live | issn=0028-0836|url-access=subscription }}</ref> and the [[Bronocice pot]] is incised with the earliest known depiction of what may be a wheeled vehicle (3400 BC).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Attema |first1=P. A. J. |last2=Los-Weijns |first2=Ma |last3=Pers |first3=N. D. Maring-Van der |date=December 2006 |title=Bronocice, Flintbek, Uruk, Jebel Aruda and Arslantepe: The Earliest Evidence Of Wheeled Vehicles In Europe And The Near East |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qqEqjtKJQ3YC&dq=%22Bronocice,+Flintbek,+Uruk,+Jebel+Aruda+and+Arslantepe:+The+Earliest+Evidence+Of+Wheeled+Vehicles+In+Europe+And+The+Near+East%22&pg=PA10 |journal=Palaeohistoria |publisher=[[University of Groningen]] |volume=47 |pages=10–28 (11) |isbn=978-90-77922-18-7}}</ref>

The period spanning the [[Bronze Age]] and the [[Early Iron Age]] (1300 BC–500 BC) was marked by an increase in population density, establishment of [[palisade]]d settlements ([[Gord (archaeology)|gords]]) and the expansion of [[Lusatian culture]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Harding |first=Anthony |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XoxoAgAAQBAJ&dq=%22bronze%2Bage%2Bpoland%2Blusatian%22&pg=PA772 |title=The Oxford Handbook of the European Bronze Age |date=2020 |publisher=University Press |isbn=978-0-19-885507-1 |location=Oxford |pages=766–783 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=2 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002180454/https://books.google.com/books?id=XoxoAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA772&dq=%22bronze+age+poland+lusatian%22 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Price |first=T. Douglas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IZ_KBwAAQBAJ&dq=%22lusatian%2Bculture%2B1300%2BBC%2B%25E2%2580%2593%2B500%2BBC%22&pg=PA212 |title=Ancient Scandinavia: an archaeological history from the first humans to the Vikings |date=2015 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-023198-9 |location=New York |page=212 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=2 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002180455/https://books.google.com/books?id=IZ_KBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA212&dq=%22lusatian+culture+1300+BC+%E2%80%93+500+BC%22 |url-status=live }}</ref> A significant archaeological find from [[Prehistory and protohistory of Poland|the protohistory of Poland]] is a fortified settlement at [[Biskupin]], attributed to the Lusatian culture of the [[Late Bronze Age]] (mid-8th century BC).<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ring |first1=Trudy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yfPYAQAAQBAJ&q=biskupin&pg=PA96 |title=Northern Europe: International Dictionary of Historic Places |last2=Watson |first2=Noelle |last3=Schellinger |first3=Paul |date=28 October 2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-63944-9 |language=en |access-date=31 March 2019 |archive-date=24 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210824094046/https://books.google.com/books?id=yfPYAQAAQBAJ&q=biskupin&pg=PA96 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Throughout [[Classical antiquity|antiquity]] (400 BC–500 AD), many distinct ancient populations inhabited the territory of present-day Poland, notably [[Celts|Celtic]], [[Scythia]]n, [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]], [[Sarmatians|Sarmatian]], [[Balts|Baltic]] and [[Early Slavs|Slavic]] tribes.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Davies |first=Norman |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mkcSDAAAQBAJ |title=Heart of Europe. The Past in Poland's Present |date=2001 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-280126-5 |location=Oxford |page=247 |language=en |author-link=Norman Davies |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=18 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230518111254/https://books.google.com/books?id=mkcSDAAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> Furthermore, archaeological findings confirmed the presence of [[Roman Legions]] sent to protect the [[Amber Road|amber trade]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Zdziebłowski |first=Szymon |date=9 May 2018 |title=Archaeologist: We have evidence of the presence of Roman legionaries in Poland |url=https://scienceinpoland.pap.pl/en/news/news%2C29414%2Carchaeologist-we-have-evidence-presence-roman-legionaries-poland.html |access-date=8 August 2021 |website=Science in Poland |publisher=Polish Ministry of Education and Science |archive-date=15 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220215225927/https://scienceinpoland.pap.pl/en/news/news,29414,archaeologist-we-have-evidence-presence-roman-legionaries-poland.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Polish tribes]] emerged following the [[Migration Period#Second wave|second wave of the Migration Period]] around the 6th century AD;<ref name="Buko 2014" /> they were [[Slavs|Slavic]] and may have included assimilated remnants of peoples that earlier dwelled in the area.<ref>{{Citation |last=Mielnik-Sikorska |first=Marta |title=The History of Slavs Inferred from Complete Mitochondrial Genome Sequences |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=8 |issue=1 |article-number=e54360 |year=2013 |bibcode=2013PLoSO...854360M |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0054360 |pmc=3544712 |pmid=23342138 |display-authors=etal |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brather |first=Sebastian |year=2004 |title=The Archaeology of the Northwestern Slavs (Seventh To Ninth Centuries) |journal=East Central Europe |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=78–81 |doi=10.1163/187633004x00116}}</ref> Beginning in the early 10th century, the [[Polans (western)|Polans]] would come to dominate other [[Lechites|Lechitic]] tribes in the region, initially forming a tribal federation and later a centralised monarchical state.<ref>{{Cite book |last=McKenna |first=Amy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ef2cAAAAQBAJ&dq=%22polanie%2Btribal%2Bmonarchy%22&pg=PA132 |title=Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland |date=2013 |publisher=Britannica Educational Publishing |isbn=978-1-61530-991-7 |page=132 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=2 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002180456/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ef2cAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA132&dq=%22polanie+tribal+monarchy%22 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Kingdom of Poland ===
{{Main|History of Poland during the Piast dynasty|Baptism of Poland|Kingdom of Poland}}

[[File:Poland960.png|thumb|left|Poland under the rule of Duke [[Mieszko I]], whose acceptance of Christianity under the auspices of the [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Church]] and the [[Baptism of Poland]] marked the beginning of statehood in 966. His son, [[Bolesław I the Brave]], was crowned [[King of Poland|king]] in 1025]]

Poland began to form into a recognisable unitary and territorial entity around the middle of the 10th century under the [[Piast dynasty]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dabrowski |first=Patrice |title=Poland: The First Thousand Years |date=2014 |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-1-5017-5740-2 |location=Ithaca |pages=21–22}}</ref> In 966, the ruler of the Polans, [[Mieszko I of Poland|Mieszko I]], accepted Christianity under the auspices of the [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Church]] with the [[Baptism of Poland]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ramet |first=Sabrina |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D2gpDwAAQBAJ |title=The Catholic Church in Polish History. From 966 to the Present |date=2017 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan US |isbn=978-1-137-40281-3 |location=New York |page=15 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=14 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230414113421/https://books.google.com/books?id=D2gpDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> In 968, a missionary [[bishopric]] was established in [[Poznań]]. An [[incipit]] titled [[Dagome iudex]] first defined Poland's geographical boundaries with its capital in [[Gniezno]] and affirmed that its monarchy was under the protection of the [[Apostolic See]].<ref name="Curta 2016">{{Cite book |last1=Curta |first1=Florin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dgF9DQAAQBAJ&dq=%22dagome%2Biudex%2Bgniezno%2Bpoland%22&pg=PA468 |title=Great Events in Religion |last2=Holt |first2=Andrew |date=2016 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-61069-566-4 |location=Santa Barbara |pages=468, 480–481 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=2 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002180512/https://books.google.com/books?id=dgF9DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA468&dq=%22dagome+iudex+gniezno+poland%22 |url-status=live }}</ref> The country's early origins were described by [[Gallus Anonymus]] in {{Lang|la|[[Gesta principum Polonorum]]}}, the oldest Polish chronicle.<ref>{{Citation |title=Gesta Principum Polonorum / The Deeds of the Princes of the Poles |volume=3 |pages=87–211 |year=2003 |editor-last=Knoll |editor-first=Paul W. |series=Central European Medieval Texts, General Editors János M. Bak, Urszula Borkowska, Giles Constable & Gábor Klaniczay |place=Budapest/ New York |publisher=Central European University Press |isbn=978-963-9241-40-4 |editor2-last=Schaer |editor2-first=Frank}}</ref> An important national event of the period was the [[martyrdom]] of [[Adalbert of Prague|Saint Adalbert]], who was killed by [[Old Prussians|Prussian]] pagans in 997 and whose remains were reputedly bought back for their weight in gold by Mieszko's successor, [[Bolesław I the Brave]].<ref name="Curta 2016" />

In 1000, at the [[Congress of Gniezno]], Bolesław obtained the right of [[investiture]] from [[Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor]], who assented to the creation of additional bishoprics and an archdioceses in Gniezno.<ref name="Curta 2016" /> Three new dioceses were subsequently established in [[Kraków]], [[Kołobrzeg]], and [[Wrocław]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ożóg |first=Krzysztof |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VbouAQAAIAAJ&q=gniezno%2520krakow%2520wroclaw%2520ko%25C5%2582obrzeg |title=The Role of Poland in the Intellectual Development of Europe in the Middle Ages |date=2009 |publisher=Societas Vistulana |isbn=978-83-61033-36-3 |location=Kraków |page=7 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=24 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230724235925/https://books.google.com/books?id=VbouAQAAIAAJ&q=gniezno%2520krakow%2520wroclaw%2520ko%25C5%2582obrzeg |url-status=live }}</ref> Also, Otto bestowed upon Bolesław royal [[regalia]] and a replica of the [[Holy Lance]], which were later used at his coronation as the first [[List of Polish monarchs|King of Poland]] {{Circa|1025}}, when Bolesław received permission for his coronation from [[Pope John XIX]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Urbańczyk |first=Przemysław |title=Bolesław Chrobry – lew ryczący |date=2017 |publisher=Wydawnictwo Naukowe Uniwersytetu Mikołaja Kopernika |isbn=978-8-323-13886-0 |location=Toruń |pages=309–310 |language=pl}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Davies |first=Norman |title=God's Playground: A History of Poland |title-link=God's Playground |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2005a |isbn=978-0-231-12817-9 |edition=2nd |volume=I |location=Oxford |pages=27–28 |author-link=Norman Davies}}</ref> Bolesław also expanded the realm considerably by seizing parts of German [[Lusatia]], Czech [[Moravia]], [[Upper Hungary]], and southwestern regions of the [[Kievan Rus']].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kumor |first1=Bolesław |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3LrYAAAAMAAJ&q=boles%25C5%2582aw%2520morawy%2520%25C5%2582u%25C5%25BCyce%2520w%25C4%2599gry |title=Historia Kościoła w Polsce |last2=Obertyński |first2=Zdzisław |date=1974 |publisher=Pallottinum |location=Poznań |page=12 |oclc=174416485 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=24 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230724235917/https://books.google.com/books?id=3LrYAAAAMAAJ&q=boles%25C5%2582aw%2520morawy%2520%25C5%2582u%25C5%25BCyce%2520w%25C4%2599gry |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:Casimir the Great by Leopold Löffler.PNG|thumb|upright|right|[[Casimir III the Great]] is the only Polish king to receive the title of ''Great''. He built extensively during his reign, and reformed the Polish army along with the country's legal code, 1333–1370.]]

The transition from [[Slavic paganism|paganism]] in Poland was not instantaneous and resulted in the [[Pagan reaction in Poland|pagan reaction of the 1030s]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gerard Labuda |url={{GBurl|id=Gb8gAAAAIAAJ|q=1032}} |title=Mieszko II król Polski: 1025–1034: czasy przełomu w dziejach państwa polskiego |publisher=Secesja |year=1992 |isbn=978-83-85483-46-5 |page=112 |quote=... w wersji Anonima Minoryty mówi się znowu, iż w Polsce "paliły się kościoły i klasztory", co koresponduje w przekazaną przez Anonima Galla wiadomością o zniszczeniu kościołów katedralnych w Gnieźnie... |access-date=26 October 2014}}</ref> In 1031, [[Mieszko II Lambert]] lost the title of king and fled amidst the violence.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Krajewska |first=Monika |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BnlGAQAAIAAJ&q=mieszko%2520II%2520w%25201031%2520utraci%25C5%2582%25201032%2520ksi%25C4%2585%25C5%25BC%25C4%2599 |title=Integracja i dezintegracja państwa Piastów w kronikach polskich Marcina Kromera oraz Marcina i Joachima Bielskich9 |date=2010 |publisher=W. Neriton |isbn=978-83-909852-1-3 |location=Warszawa (Warsaw) |page=82 |language=pl |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=25 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230725000011/https://books.google.com/books?id=BnlGAQAAIAAJ&q=mieszko%2520II%2520w%25201031%2520utraci%25C5%2582%25201032%2520ksi%25C4%2585%25C5%25BC%25C4%2599 |url-status=live }}</ref> The unrest led to the transfer of the capital to Kraków in 1038 by [[Casimir I the Restorer]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Anita J. Prazmowska |url={{GBurl|id=r_0-BjHIkh4C|pg=PT28}} |title=A History of Poland |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-230-34537-9 |pages=34–35 |access-date=26 October 2014}}{{Dead link|date=February 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> In 1076, [[Bolesław II the Generous|Bolesław II]] re-instituted the office of king, but was banished in 1079 for murdering his opponent, [[Stanislaus of Szczepanów|Bishop Stanislaus]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Melton |first=J. Gordon |url={{GBurl|id=lD_2J7W_2hQC}} |title=Religious Celebrations. An Encyclopedia of Holidays, Festivals, Solemn Observances, and Spiritual Commemorations |date=2011 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-59884-206-7 |location=Santa Barbara |page=834}}</ref> In 1138, the country [[Testament of Bolesław III Wrymouth|fragmented]] into five principalities when [[Bolesław III Wrymouth]] divided his lands among his sons.<ref name="Dabrowski 2014" /> These were [[Lesser Poland]], Greater Poland, [[Silesia]], [[Masovia]], and [[Sandomierz]], with intermittent hold over [[Pomerania]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hourihane |first=Colum |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FtlMAgAAQBAJ&dq=%221138%2B%2522five%2522%2Bsilesia%2Bmazovia%2Bsandomierz%2Bpomerania%22&pg=RA4-PA14 |title=The Grove encyclopedia of medieval art and architecture |date=2012 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-539536-5 |volume=2 |location=New York |page=14 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=2 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002180502/https://books.google.com/books?id=FtlMAgAAQBAJ&pg=RA4-PA14&dq=%221138+%22five%22+silesia+mazovia+sandomierz+pomerania%22 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1226, [[Konrad I of Masovia]] invited the [[Teutonic Knights]] to aid in combating the [[Balts|Baltic]] Prussians; a decision that later led to centuries of warfare with the Knights.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Biber |first1=Tomasz |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AbYjAQAAIAAJ&q=konrad%2520mazowiecki%2520krzy%25C5%25BCacy%2520sprowadzi%25C5%2582 |title=Encyklopedia Polska 2000. Poczet władców |last2=Leszczyński |first2=Maciej |date=2000 |publisher=Podsiedlik-Raniowski |isbn=978-83-7212-307-7 |location=Poznań |page=47 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=24 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230724235942/https://books.google.com/books?id=AbYjAQAAIAAJ&q=konrad%2520mazowiecki%2520krzy%25C5%25BCacy%2520sprowadzi%25C5%2582 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In the first half of the 13th century, [[Henry I the Bearded]] and [[Henry II the Pious]] aimed to unite the fragmented dukedoms, but the [[First Mongol invasion of Poland|Mongol invasion]] and the death of Henry II in [[Battle of Legnica|battle]] hindered the unification.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Krasuski |first=Jerzy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vBcsAQAAMAAJ&q=henryk%2520pobo%25C5%25BCny%2520zjednoczenie |title=Polska-Niemcy. Stosunki polityczne od zarania po czasy najnowsze |date=2009 |publisher=Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich |isbn=978-83-04-04985-7 |location=Wrocław |page=53 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=24 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230724235916/https://books.google.com/books?id=vBcsAQAAMAAJ&q=henryk%2520pobo%25C5%25BCny%2520zjednoczenie |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Maroń |first=Jerzy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CASkn7zoJj8C |title=Legnica 1241 |date=1996 |publisher=Bellona |isbn=978-83-11-11171-4 |location=Warszawa (Warsaw) |language=pl |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=20 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230420034201/https://books.google.com/books?id=CASkn7zoJj8C |url-status=live }}</ref> As a result of the devastation which followed, depopulation and the demand for craft labour spurred a migration of [[History of Germans in Poland|German and Flemish settlers]] into Poland, which was encouraged by the Polish dukes.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Davies |first=Norman |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vD7SWb5lXBAC&dq=%22germans%2Bflemish%2Binto%2Bpoland%2Bmongol%2Binvasion%22&pg=PA366 |title=Europe: A History |date=2010 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-820171-7 |location=New York |page=366 |orig-date=1996 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=2 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002180457/https://books.google.com/books?id=vD7SWb5lXBAC&pg=PA366&dq=%22germans+flemish+into+poland+mongol+invasion%22 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1264, the [[Statute of Kalisz]] introduced unprecedented autonomy for the [[History of the Jews in Poland|Polish Jews]], who came to Poland fleeing persecution elsewhere in Europe.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dembkowski |first=Harry E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=svAaAAAAMAAJ&q=poland%2Blithuania%2B1588%2Bslavery |title=The union of Lublin, Polish federalism in the golden age |publisher=East European Monographs |year=1982 |isbn=978-0-88033-009-1 |page=271 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=24 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230724235935/https://books.google.com/books?id=svAaAAAAMAAJ&q=poland%2Blithuania%2B1588%2Bslavery |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 1320, [[Władysław I the Elbow-high|Władysław I the Short]] became the first king of [[Kingdom of Poland (1025–1385)|a reunified Poland]] since [[Przemysł II]] in 1296,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kula |first=Marcin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VBa1AAAAIAAJ&q=%25C5%2582okietek%25201320%2520zjednoczenie |title=Zupełnie normalna historia, czyli, Dzieje Polski zanalizowane przez Marcina Kulę w krótkich słowach, subiektywnie, ku pożytkowi miejscowych i cudzoziemców |date=2000 |publisher=Więzi |isbn=978-83-88032-27-1 |location=Warszawa (Warsaw) |pages=58–59 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=24 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230724235910/https://books.google.com/books?id=VBa1AAAAIAAJ&q=%25C5%2582okietek%25201320%2520zjednoczenie |url-status=live }}</ref> and the first to be crowned at [[Wawel Cathedral]] in Kraków.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wróblewski |first=Bohdan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=unEWAQAAIAAJ&q=%25C5%2582okietek%25201320%2520szczerbiec |title=Jaki znak twój? Orzeł Biały |date=2006 |publisher=ZP Grupa |isbn=978-83-922944-3-6 |location=Piekary Śląskie |page=28 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=24 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230724235959/https://books.google.com/books?id=unEWAQAAIAAJ&q=%25C5%2582okietek%25201320%2520szczerbiec |url-status=live }}</ref> Beginning in 1333, the reign of [[Casimir III the Great]] was marked by developments in [[Trail of the Eagle's Nests|castle infrastructure]], army, judiciary and [[Congress of Kraków|diplomacy]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Stanley S. Sokol |url=https://archive.org/details/polishbiographic00soko |title=The Polish Biographical Dictionary: Profiles of Nearly 900 Poles who Have Made Lasting Contributions to World Civilization |publisher=Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-86516-245-7 |page=[https://archive.org/details/polishbiographic00soko/page/60 60] |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Britannica Educational Publishing |url={{GBurl|id=Ef2cAAAAQBAJ|p=139}} |title=Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland |publisher=Britannica Educational Publishing |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-61530-991-7 |page=139}}</ref> Under his authority, Poland transformed into a major European power; he instituted Polish rule over [[Kingdom of Ruthenia|Ruthenia]] in 1340 and imposed quarantine that prevented the spread of [[Black Death]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wróbel |first=Piotr |url=https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/10 |title=Eastern Europe: An Introduction to the People, Lands, and Culture |date=2004 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-57607-800-6 |editor-last=Frucht |editor-first=Richard C. |volume=1 |page=[https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/10 10] |chapter=Poland |quote=At the same time, when most of Europe was decimated by the Black Death, Poland developed quickly and reached the levels of the wealthiest countries of the West in its economy and culture. |access-date=8 April 2013 |chapter-url={{GBurl|id=lVBB1a0rC70C}}}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Magill |first=Frank N. |url={{GBurl|id=aBHSc2hTfeUC}} |title=The Middle Ages. Dictionary of World Biography |date=2012 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-136-59313-0 |volume=2 |location=Hoboken |page=210}}</ref> In 1364, Casimir inaugurated the [[Jagiellonian University|University of Kraków]], one of the oldest institutions of higher learning in Europe.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Watson |first=Noelle |url={{GBurl|id=yfPYAQAAQBAJ}} |title=Northern Europe. International Dictionary of Historic Places |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge, Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-136-63944-9 |location=New York |page=388}}</ref> Upon his death in 1370, the Piast dynasty came to an end.<ref>{{Harvnb|Magill|2012|p=64}}</ref> He was succeeded by his closest male relative, [[Louis I of Hungary|Louis of Anjou]], who ruled Poland, [[Kingdom of Hungary|Hungary]], and [[Croatia in personal union with Hungary|Croatia]] in a [[personal union]].<ref name="Davies 2001">{{Harvnb|Davies|2001|p=256}}</ref> Louis' younger daughter [[Jadwiga of Poland|Jadwiga]] became Poland's first female monarch in 1384.<ref name="Davies 2001" />

=== The Golden Age ===
{{Main|History of Poland during the Jagiellonian dynasty|Polish Golden Age}}

[[File:Battle of Tannenberg.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The [[Battle of Grunwald]] was fought against the [[Teutonic Knights|German Order of Teutonic Knights]], and resulted in a decisive victory for the [[Kingdom of Poland (1385–1569)|Kingdom of Poland]], 15 July 1410.]]

In 1386, Jadwiga of Poland entered a marriage of convenience with [[Władysław II Jagiełło]], the [[Grand Duke of Lithuania]], thus forming the [[Jagiellonian dynasty]] and the [[Polish–Lithuanian union]] which spanned the late [[Middle Ages]] and early [[Modern history|Modern Era]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Halecki |first=Oscar |title=Jadwiga of Anjou and the Rise of East-Central Europe |publisher=Polish Institute of Arts and Sciences of America |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-88033-206-4 |pages=116–117, 152 |author-link=Oscar Halecki}}</ref> The partnership between Poles and Lithuanians brought the vast multi-ethnic [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania|Lithuanian]] territories into Poland's sphere of influence and proved beneficial for its inhabitants, who coexisted in one of the largest European [[personal union|political entities]] of the time.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Griessler |first=Christina |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=inb4DwAAQBAJ |title=The Visegrad Four and the Western Balkans |date=2020 |publisher=Nomos |isbn=978-3-7489-0113-6 |location=Baden-Baden |page=173 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=4 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404210019/https://books.google.com/books?id=inb4DwAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref>

In the Baltic Sea region, the struggle of Poland and Lithuania with the [[Teutonic Knights]] continued and culminated at the [[Battle of Grunwald]] in 1410, where a combined Polish–Lithuanian army inflicted a decisive victory against them.<ref name="Wyrozumski 1986" /> In 1466, after the [[Thirteen Years' War (1454–66)|Thirteen Years' War]], king [[Casimir IV Jagiellon]] gave royal consent to the [[Second Peace of Thorn (1466)|Peace of Thorn]], which created the future [[Duchy of Prussia]] under Polish suzerainty and forced the Prussian rulers to pay [[Homage (feudal)|tributes]].<ref name="Dabrowski 2014" /> The Jagiellonian dynasty also established dynastic control over the kingdoms of [[Kingdom of Bohemia|Bohemia]] (1471 onwards) and Hungary.<ref name="Norman Davies 1996" /> In the south, Poland confronted the [[Ottoman Empire]] (at the [[Battle of Varna|Varna Crusade]]) and the [[Crimean Khanate|Crimean Tatars]], and in the east helped Lithuania to combat [[Grand Duchy of Moscow|Russia]].<ref name="Dabrowski 2014" />

Poland was developing as a [[feudalism|feudal]] state, with a predominantly agricultural economy and an increasingly powerful [[landed nobility]] that confined the population to private manorial farmstead known as [[folwark|''folwarks'']].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Frost |first=Robert I. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=245lDwAAQBAJ&dq=%22poland%2Bfeudal%2Bagricultural%2Bfolwark%2Bnobility%22&pg=PA242 |title=The Making of the Polish-Lithuanian Union 1385–1569 |date=2018 |publisher=University Press |isbn=978-0-19-880020-0 |volume=1 |location=Oxford |page=242 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=2 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002180501/https://books.google.com/books?id=245lDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA242&dq=%22poland+feudal+agricultural+folwark+nobility%22 |url-status=live}}</ref> In 1493, [[John I Albert]] sanctioned the creation of a [[bicameral parliament]] (the Sejm) composed of a lower house, the chamber of deputies, and an upper house, the chamber of senators.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Graves |first=M. A. R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R2rJAwAAQBAJ |title=The Parliaments of Early Modern Europe |date=2014 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-317-88433-0 |location=Hoboken |page=101 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405192005/https://books.google.com/books?id=R2rJAwAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref> The ''[[Nihil novi]]'' act adopted by the Polish [[General Sejm]] in 1505, transferred most of the [[legislature|legislative power]] from the monarch to the parliament, an event which marked the beginning of the period known as [[Golden Liberty]], when the state was ruled by the seemingly free and equal [[szlachta|Polish nobles]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Graves|2014|pp=101, 197}}</ref>

[[File:Wawel (4).jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|[[Wawel Castle]] in [[Kraków]], seat of [[List of Polish monarchs|Polish kings]] from 1038 until the capital was moved to [[Warsaw]] in 1596]]

The 16th century saw [[Protestant Reformation]] movements making deep inroads into Polish Christianity, which resulted in the establishment of policies promoting religious tolerance, unique in Europe at that time.<ref name="Knoll 2011" /> This tolerance allowed the country to avoid the religious turmoil and [[European wars of religion|wars of religion]] that beset Europe.<ref name="Knoll 2011">{{Cite book |last=Paul W. Knoll |title=Diversity and Dissent: Negotiating Religious Difference in Central Europe, 1500–1800 |publisher=Berghahn Books |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-85745-109-5 |editor-last=Howard Louthan |pages=30–45 |chapter=Religious Toleration in Sixteenth-Century Poland. Political Realities and Social Constrains. |editor-last2=Gary B. Cohen |editor-last3=Franz A.J. Szabo |chapter-url={{GBurl|id=KuzLNXpa-hYC|p=30}}}}</ref> In Poland, [[Nontrinitarianism|Nontrinitarian Christianity]] became the doctrine of the so-called [[Polish Brethren]], who separated from their [[Calvinism|Calvinist]] denomination and became the co-founders of global [[Unitarianism]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Houlden |first=J. L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mf7WCQAAQBAJ |title=Jesus in History, Legend, Scripture, and Tradition: A World Encyclopedia |date=2015 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-61069-804-7 |location=Denver, Colorado |pages=577–578 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=24 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230524182450/https://books.google.com/books?id=mf7WCQAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref>

The European [[Renaissance]] evoked under [[Sigismund I the Old]] and [[Sigismund II Augustus]] a sense of urgency in the need to promote a [[Renaissance in Poland|cultural awakening]]. During the [[Polish Golden Age]], the nation's economy and culture flourished. The Italian-born [[Bona Sforza]], daughter of the [[Gian Galeazzo Sforza|Duke of Milan]] and queen consort to Sigismund I, made considerable contributions to [[Architecture of Poland|architecture]], [[Polish cuisine|cuisine]], language and court customs at [[Wawel Castle]].<ref name="Dabrowski 2014" />

=== Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ===
{{Main|History of Poland in the Early Modern era (1569–1795)|Crown of the Kingdom of Poland|Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth}}

[[File:Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1619.PNG|thumb|upright=1.2|The [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] at its greatest extent in 1619. At that time it was the largest country in Europe]]

The [[Union of Lublin]] of 1569 established the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]], a unified federal state with an [[elective monarchy]] that was largely governed by the nobility.<ref name="Butterwick 2021">{{Cite book |last=Butterwick |first=Richard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g2cOEAAAQBAJ |title=The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, 1733–1795 |date=2021 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-25220-0 |pages=21, 14 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=4 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404210123/https://books.google.com/books?id=g2cOEAAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref> The latter coincided with a period of prosperity. The Polish-dominated union thereafter became a leading power and a major cultural entity, exercising political control over parts of Central, [[Eastern Europe|Eastern]], [[Southeastern Europe|Southeastern]] and Northern Europe. The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth occupied approximately {{convert|1|e6km2|sqmi|abbr=unit}} [[Truce of Deulino|at its peak]] and was the largest state in Europe.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Parker |first=Geoffrey |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1GMlDwAAQBAJ |title=Global Crisis. War, Climate Change and Catastrophe in the Seventeenth Century |date=2017 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-21936-4 |location=New Haven |page=122 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405150949/https://books.google.com/books?id=1GMlDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Parker|2017|p=122}}</ref> Simultaneously, Poland imposed [[Polonisation]] policies in newly acquired territories which were met with resistance from ethnic and religious minorities.<ref name="Butterwick 2021" />

In 1573, [[Henry III of France|Henry de Valois of France]], the first elected king, approbated the [[Henrician Articles]] which obliged future monarchs to respect the rights of nobles.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ward |first1=Adolphus |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nrJ4DwAAQBAJ |title=The Wars of Religion in Europe |last2=Hume |first2=Martin |date=2018 |publisher=Perennial Press |isbn=978-1-5312-6318-8 |location=Vachendorf |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=9 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230709175950/https://books.google.com/books?id=nrJ4DwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> When he left Poland to become [[List of French monarchs|King of France]], his successor, [[Stephen Báthory]], led a successful [[Livonian campaign of Stephen Báthory|campaign]] in the [[Livonian War]], granting Poland more [[Livonia|lands across the eastern shores]] of the Baltic Sea.<ref>{{Cite book |last=O'Connor |first=Kevin |url={{GBurl|id=OOdjCAAAQBAJ}} |title=The History of the Baltic States – 2nd Edition |date=2015 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-61069-916-7 |location=Westport |pages=37–38}}</ref> State affairs were then headed by [[Jan Zamoyski]], the [[Chancellor (Poland)|Crown Chancellor]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Halina Lerski |url={{GBurl|id=luRry4Y5NIYC|p=678}} |title=Historical Dictionary of Poland, 966–1945 |date=30 January 1996 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-0-313-03456-5 |page=678 |access-date=2 July 2012}}</ref> Stephen's successor, [[Sigismund III Vasa|Sigismund III]], defeated a rival [[House of Habsburg|Habsburg]] electoral candidate, [[Maximilian III, Archduke of Austria|Archduke Maximilian III]], in the [[War of the Polish Succession (1587–1588)]]. In 1592, Sigismund succeeded his father [[John III of Sweden|John Vasa]], in [[Kingdom of Sweden|Sweden]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Szujski |first=Józef |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JlAFSS-12xwC |title=Dzieła Józefa Szujskiego. Dzieje Polski |date=1894 |publisher=Szujski-Kluczycki |volume=3 |location=Kraków |pages=162–163 |language=Polish |oclc=717123162 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=4 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404210017/https://books.google.com/books?id=JlAFSS-12xwC |url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Polish-Swedish union]] endured until 1599, when he was [[War against Sigismund|deposed]] by the Swedes.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Peterson |first=Gary Dean |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FtFDthqmB2wC |title=Warrior Kings of Sweden. The Rise of an Empire in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries |date=2014 |publisher=McFarland, Incorporated, Publishers |isbn=978-1-4766-0411-4 |page=107 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=27 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230727002356/https://books.google.com/books?id=FtFDthqmB2wC |url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Daniel Schultz, Portret Jana III Sobieskiego, króla Polski.jpg|thumb|upright|left|King [[John III Sobieski]] defeated the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Turks]] at the [[Battle of Vienna]] on 12 September 1683.]]

In 1609, Sigismund [[Polish–Muscovite War (1605–1618)|invaded]] [[Tsardom of Russia|Russia]] which was engulfed in a [[Time of Troubles|civil war]],<ref name="Dabrowski 2014" /> and a year later the Polish [[Polish hussars|winged hussar]] units under [[Stanisław Żółkiewski]] [[Polish–Lithuanian occupation of Moscow|occupied]] Moscow for two years after defeating the Russians at [[Battle of Klushino|Klushino]].<ref name="Dabrowski 2014" /> Sigismund also countered the [[Ottoman Empire]] in the southeast; at [[Battle of Khotyn (1621)|Khotyn]] in 1621 [[Jan Karol Chodkiewicz]] achieved a decisive victory against the Turks, which ushered the downfall of Sultan [[Osman II]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dyer |first=Thomas Henry |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kQZOAAAAcAAJ |title=The History of Modern Europe – From the Fall of Constantinople, in 1453, to the War in the Crimea, in 1857 |date=1861 |publisher=J. Murray |volume=2 |location=London |page=504 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405060718/https://books.google.com/books?id=kQZOAAAAcAAJ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dzięgielewski |first=Jan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qRAsAQAAMAAJ&q=Bitwa%2520pod%2520Chocimiem%252050%2520tysi%25C4%2599cy%25201621 |title=Encyklopedia historii Polski: A-M |date=1994 |publisher=Morex |isbn=978-83-902522-1-6 |location=Polska |page=101 |language=Polish |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=24 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230724235956/https://books.google.com/books?id=qRAsAQAAMAAJ&q=Bitwa%2520pod%2520Chocimiem%252050%2520tysi%25C4%2599cy%25201621 |url-status=live}}</ref> Sigismund's long reign in Poland coincided with the [[Sigismund III Vasa#Legacy|Silver Age]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kizwalter |first=Tomasz |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p7JFAAAAIAAJ&q=srebrn%2520wiek%2520%2520z%25C5%2582oty%2520waz%25C3%25B3w |title=Kryzys Oświecenia a początki konserwatyzmu polskiego |date=1987 |publisher=Uniwersytet Warszawski |location=Warszawa (Warsaw) |page=21 |language=Polish |oclc=23942204 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=24 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230724235936/https://books.google.com/books?id=p7JFAAAAIAAJ&q=srebrn%2520wiek%2520%2520z%25C5%2582oty%2520waz%25C3%25B3w |url-status=live}}</ref> The liberal [[Władysław IV Vasa|Władysław IV]] effectively defended Poland's territorial possessions but after his death the vast Commonwealth began declining from internal disorder and constant warfare.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Scott |first=H. M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jb4DCgAAQBAJ |title=The Oxford Handbook of Early Modern European History, 1350–1750 |date=2015 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-102000-1 |volume=2 |location=Oxford |pages=409–413 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=6 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406180731/https://books.google.com/books?id=Jb4DCgAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Czapliński |first=Władysław |title=Władysław IV i jego czasy |publisher=PW "Wiedza Poweszechna" |year=1976 |location=Warsaw |pages=170, 217–218 |language=pl |trans-title=Władysław IV and His Times |author-link=Władysław Czapliński}}</ref>

In 1648, the Polish hegemony over Ukraine sparked the [[Khmelnytsky Uprising]],<ref>{{Harvnb|Scott|2015|p=409}}</ref> followed by the decimating [[Deluge (history)|Swedish Deluge]] during the [[Second Northern War]],<ref name="Scott 2015">{{Harvnb|Scott|2015|pp=409–413}}</ref> and Prussia's [[Treaty of Bromberg|independence]] in 1657.<ref name="Scott 2015" /> In 1683, [[John III Sobieski]] re-established military prowess when he halted the advance of an [[Ottoman Army (15th-19th centuries)|Ottoman Army]] into Europe at the [[Battle of Vienna]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Scott|2015|p=411}}</ref> The [[House of Wettin|Saxon]] era, under [[Augustus II the Strong|Augustus II]] and [[Augustus III of Poland|Augustus III]], saw neighboring powers grow in strength at the expense of Poland. Both Saxon kings faced opposition from [[Stanisław Leszczyński]] during the [[Great Northern War]] (1700) and the [[War of the Polish Succession]] (1733).<ref>{{Harvnb|Scott|2015|pp=409–412, 666}}</ref>

=== Partitions ===
{{Main|History of Poland (1795–1918)|Partitions of Poland}}

[[File:Stanisław II August Poniatowski in coronation clothes.PNG|thumb|upright|right|[[Stanisław II Augustus]], the last [[King of Poland]], reigned from 1764 until his abdication on 25 November 1795.]]

The [[Royal elections in Poland|royal election]] of 1764 resulted in the elevation of [[Stanisław August Poniatowski|Stanisław II Augustus Poniatowski]] to the monarchy.<ref>{{Harvnb|Butterwick|2021|p=88}}</ref> His candidacy was extensively funded by his sponsor and former lover, Empress [[Catherine II of Russia]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Butterwick|2021|pp=83–88}}</ref> The new king maneuvered between his desire to implement necessary modernising reforms, and the necessity to remain at peace with surrounding states.<ref>{{Harvnb|Butterwick|2021|pp=89–91}}</ref> His ideals led to the formation of the 1768 [[Bar Confederation]], a rebellion directed against the Poniatowski and all external influence, which ineptly aimed to preserve Poland's sovereignty and privileges held by the nobility.<ref>{{Harvnb|Butterwick|2021|pp=108–109}}</ref> The failed attempts at government restructuring as well as the domestic turmoil provoked its neighbours to invade.<ref>{{Harvnb|Butterwick|2021|pp=108–116}}</ref>

In 1772, the [[First Partition of Poland|First Partition of the Commonwealth]] by Prussia, Russia, and Austria took place, an act which the [[Partition Sejm]], under considerable duress, eventually ratified as a [[List of French words and phrases used by English speakers#F|fait accompli]].<ref name="Gierowski 1986" /> Disregarding the territorial losses, in 1773 a plan of critical reforms was established, in which the [[Commission of National Education]], the first government education authority in Europe, was inaugurated.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ted Tapper |url={{GBurl|id=riv0UCM90AMC|pg=RA2-PA140}} |title=Understanding Mass Higher Education: Comparative Perspectives On Access |last2=David Palfreyman |publisher=RoutledgeFalmer |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-415-35491-2 |page=140 |access-date=17 March 2013}}</ref> Corporal punishment of schoolchildren was officially prohibited in 1783. Poniatowski was the head figure of the [[Polish Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], encouraged the development of industries, and embraced republican [[Neoclassical architecture|neoclassicism]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Butterwick|2021|p=176}}</ref> For his contributions to the arts and sciences, he was awarded a [[Fellowship of the Royal Society]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Polska Akademia Nauk |url={{GBurl|id=Bfs5AQAAIAAJ}} |title=Nauka polska |publisher=Polska Akademia Nauk |year=1973 |page=151 |access-date=30 August 2021}}</ref>

In 1791, the [[Great Sejm|Great Sejm parliament]] adopted the [[Constitution of May 3, 1791|3 May Constitution]], the first set of supreme national laws, and introduced a [[constitutional monarchy]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Butterwick|2021|p=260}}</ref> The [[Targowica Confederation]], an organisation of nobles and deputies opposing the act, appealed to Catherine and caused the [[Polish–Russian War of 1792|1792 Polish–Russian War]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Butterwick|2021|p=310}}</ref> Fearing the reemergence of Polish hegemony, Russia and Prussia arranged and, in 1793, executed the [[Second Partition of Poland|Second Partition]], which left the country deprived of territory and incapable of independent existence. On 24 October 1795, the Commonwealth was [[Third Partition of Poland|partitioned for the third time]] and ceased to exist as a territorial entity.<ref name="Gierowski" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bertholet |first=Auguste |date=2021 |title=Constant, Sismondi et la Pologne |url=https://www.slatkine.com/fr/editions-slatkine/75250-book-05077807-3600120175625.html |journal=Annales Benjamin Constant |volume=46 |pages=65–85 |access-date=20 January 2022 |archive-date=12 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220512143530/https://www.slatkine.com/fr/editions-slatkine/75250-book-05077807-3600120175625.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Stanisław Augustus, the last King of Poland, abdicated the throne on 25 November 1795.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Schulz-Forberg |first=Hagen |title=Unravelling Civilisation: European Travel and Travel Writing |publisher=Peter Lang |year=2005 |isbn=90-5201-235-0 |page=162}}</ref>

=== Era of insurrections ===
{{Main|Austrian Partition|Prussian Partition|Russian Partition}}

[[File:Rzeczpospolita Rozbiory 3.png|thumb|right|upright=1.3|The [[partitions of Poland]], carried out by the [[Kingdom of Prussia]] (''blue''), the [[Russian Empire]] (''brown''), and the [[Habsburg monarchy|Austrian Habsburg Monarchy]] (''green'') in [[First Partition of Poland|1772]], [[Second Partition of Poland|1793]] and [[Third Partition of Poland|1795]]]]

The Polish people [[List of wars involving Poland|rose several times against the partitioners]] and occupying armies. An unsuccessful attempt at defending Poland's sovereignty took place in the 1794 [[Kościuszko Uprising]], where a popular and distinguished general [[Tadeusz Kościuszko]], who had several years earlier served under [[George Washington]] in the [[American Revolutionary War]], led Polish insurgents.<ref name="Storozynski 2009">{{Cite book |last=Storozynski |first=Alex |url={{GBurl|id=wVqnlTbsdXcC}} |title=The Peasant Prince: Thaddeus Kosciuszko and the Age of Revolution |publisher=St. Martin's Press, 352 pages |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4299-6607-8 |location=New York |via=Google Books}}</ref> Despite the victory at the [[Battle of Racławice]], his ultimate defeat ended Poland's independent existence [[Third Partition of Poland|for 123 years]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gardner |first=Monica Mary |title=Kościuszko: A Biography |publisher=G. Allen & Unwin., ltd, 136 pages |year=1942 |chapter=The Rising of Kościuszko (Chapter VII) |chapter-url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/27882/27882-h/27882-h.htm#CHAPTER_VII |via=Project Gutenberg |access-date=29 October 2014 |archive-date=19 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319203228/https://www.gutenberg.org/files/27882/27882-h/27882-h.htm#CHAPTER_VII |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 1806, an [[Greater Poland uprising (1806)|insurrection]] organised by [[Jan Henryk Dąbrowski]] liberated western Poland ahead of [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]]'s advance into Prussia during the [[War of the Fourth Coalition]]. In accordance with the 1807 [[Treaty of Tilsit]], Napoleon proclaimed the [[Duchy of Warsaw]], a [[client state]] ruled by his ally [[Frederick Augustus I of Saxony]]. The Poles actively aided French troops in the [[Napoleonic Wars]], particularly those under [[Józef Poniatowski]] who became [[Marshal of the Empire|Marshal of France]] shortly before his death at [[Battle of Leipzig|Leipzig]] in 1813.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nicholls |first=David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PmCdv91zPS0C |title=Napoleon |date=1999 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-0-87436-957-1 |location=Oxford |page=204 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=18 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230418035320/https://books.google.com/books?id=PmCdv91zPS0C |url-status=live }}</ref> In the aftermath of Napoleon's exile, the Duchy of Warsaw was abolished at the [[Congress of Vienna]] in 1815 and its territory was divided into Russian [[Congress Kingdom of Poland]], the Prussian [[Grand Duchy of Posen]], and [[Austrian Poland|Austrian Galicia]] with the [[Free City of Kraków]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Lukowski |first1=Jerzy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NpMxTvBuWHYC&q=1807&pg=PA115 |title=A Concise History of Poland |last2=Zawadzki |first2=W.H. |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-521-55917-1 |location=Cambridge |page=313 |ref=Lukowski2001 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=24 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230724235918/https://books.google.com/books?id=NpMxTvBuWHYC&pg=PA115&q=1807 |url-status=live }}</ref>

{{Annotated image |float=left |width=150 |height=160 |image=Karl G Schweikart - Tadeusz Kościuszko (ÖaL).jpg|caption=[[Tadeusz Kościuszko]] was a veteran and hero of both the [[Polish–Russian War of 1792|Polish]] and [[American Revolutionary War|American]] wars of independence.<ref name="Storozynski 2009" />|annotations=<!--none--> |image-top=-25 |image-left=-25 |image-width=200}}

In 1830, [[non-commissioned officer]]s at Warsaw's [[Corps of Cadets (Warsaw)|Officer Cadet School]] rebelled in what was the [[November Uprising]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Carolina Armenteros |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A4hJDAAAQBAJ |title=Historicising the French Revolution |last2=Dawn Dodds |last3=Isabel Divanna |last4=Tim Blanning |date=2008 |publisher=Cambridge Scholars |isbn=978-1-4438-1157-6 |location=Newcastle |page=247 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=9 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230709185017/https://books.google.com/books?id=A4hJDAAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> After its collapse, Congress Poland lost its [[Constitution of Congress Poland|constitutional autonomy]], [[Army of Congress Poland|army]] and legislative assembly.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kappeler |first=Andreas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JZ9eBAAAQBAJ&q=congress%2Bpoland%2Bintegration%2Bpaskevich&pg=PA249 |title=The Russian Empire: A Multi-ethnic History |date=27 August 2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-56810-0 |via=Google Books |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=24 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230724235904/https://books.google.com/books?id=JZ9eBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA249&q=congress%2Bpoland%2Bintegration%2Bpaskevich |url-status=live }}</ref> During the [[Spring of Nations|European Spring of Nations]], Poles took up arms in the [[Greater Poland Uprising (1848)|Greater Poland Uprising of 1848]] to resist [[Germanisation]], but its failure saw duchy's status reduced to a mere [[Province of Posen|province]]; and subsequent integration into the [[German Empire]] in 1871.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Lucassen |first1=Leo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8YUuGSKXsFUC&q=1848%2Bprussia%2Buprising%2Bposen&pg=PA140 |title=Paths of Integration: Migrants in Western Europe (1880–2004) |last2=Feldman |first2=David |last3=Oltmer |first3=Jochen |date=6 September 2006 |publisher=Amsterdam University Press |isbn=978-90-5356-883-5 |via=Google Books |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=24 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230724235933/https://books.google.com/books?id=8YUuGSKXsFUC&pg=PA140&q=1848%2Bprussia%2Buprising%2Bposen |url-status=live }}</ref> In Russia, the fall of the [[January Uprising]] (1863–1864) prompted severe [[January Uprising#The decades of reprisals|political, social and cultural reprisals]], followed by deportations and [[pogroms]] of the Polish-Jewish population. Towards the end of the 19th century, Congress Poland became heavily industrialised; its primary exports being coal, [[zinc]], iron and textiles.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Restivo |first=Sal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4_tQEAAAQBAJ&dq=%22economy%2Bof%2BRussian%2Bpoland%2Bzinc%2Btextiles%22&pg=PA613 |title=Science, Technology, and Society: An Encyclopedia |date=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=1-280-83513-3 |location=New York |page=613 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=2 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002173910/https://books.google.com/books?id=4_tQEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA613&dq=%22economy+of+Russian+poland+zinc+textiles%22 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Koryś |first=Piotr |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kKR8DwAAQBAJ&q=january%2Buprising%2Beconomic&pg=PA181 |title=Poland From Partitions to EU Accession: A Modern Economic History, 1772–2004 |date=2018 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-97126-1 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=25 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230725000016/https://books.google.com/books?id=kKR8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA181&q=january%2Buprising%2Beconomic |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Second Polish Republic ===
{{Main|History of Poland (1918–1939)|Battle of Warsaw (1920)|Second Polish Republic}}

[[File:Józef Piłsudski (-1930).jpg|thumb|upright|right|[[Naczelnik państwa|Chief of State]] Marshal [[Józef Piłsudski]] was a hero of the Polish independence campaign and the nation's premiere statesman from 1918 until his death on 12 May 1935.]]
In the aftermath of [[World War I]], the [[Allies of World War I|Allies]] agreed on the reconstitution of Poland, confirmed through the [[Treaty of Versailles]] of June 1919.<ref>According to [[Margaret MacMillan]], "The rebirth of Poland was one of the great stories of the [[Paris Peace Conference, 1919|Paris Peace Conference]]." Margaret MacMillan, ''Paris 1919: Six Months that Changed the World'' (2001), p. 208.</ref> A total of 2 million Polish troops fought with the armies of the three occupying powers, and over 450,000 died.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Glenn E. Curtis |title=Poland: A Country Study |date=1994 |publisher=Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress |isbn=978-0-8444-0827-9 |edition=3 |volume=550 |page=29 |issue=162–994}}</ref> Following the [[Armistice with Germany (Compiègne)|armistice with Germany]] in November 1918, Poland regained its independence as the [[Second Polish Republic]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Piotr S. Wandycz |date=2009 |title=The Second Republic, 1921–1939 |journal=The Polish Review |publisher=University of Illinois Press |volume=54 |pages=159–171 |jstor=25779809 |number=2}}</ref>

The Second Polish Republic reaffirmed its sovereignty after [[List of wars involving Poland|a series of military conflicts]], most notably the [[Polish–Soviet War]], when Poland inflicted a crushing defeat on the [[Red Army]] at the [[Battle of Warsaw (1920)|Battle of Warsaw]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Marjan Kukiel |year=1929 |title=The Polish-Soviet Campaign of 1920 |journal=The Slavonic and East European Review |publisher=Modern Humanities Research Association |volume=8 |pages=48–65 |jstor=4202361 |number=22}}</ref>

The inter-war period heralded a new era of Polish politics. Whilst Polish political activists had faced heavy censorship in the decades up until [[World War I]], a new political tradition was established in the country. Many exiled Polish activists, such as [[Ignacy Jan Paderewski]], who would later become prime minister, returned home. A significant number of them then went on to take key positions in the newly formed political and governmental structures. Tragedy struck in 1922 when [[Gabriel Narutowicz]], inaugural holder of the presidency, was assassinated at the [[Zachęta]] Gallery in Warsaw by a painter and right-wing nationalist [[Eligiusz Niewiadomski]].<ref name="Bitter glory" />

In 1926, the [[May Coup (Poland)|May Coup]], led by the hero of the Polish independence campaign Marshal [[Józef Piłsudski]], turned rule of the Second Polish Republic over to the nonpartisan [[Sanacja]] (''Healing'') movement to prevent radical political organisations on both the left and the right from destabilising the country.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Robert Machray |date=November 1930 |title=Pilsudski, the Strong Man of Poland |journal=Current History |publisher=University of California Press |volume=33 |pages=195–199 |doi=10.1525/curh.1930.33.2.195 |jstor=45333442 |number=2}}</ref> By the late 1930s, due to increased threats posed by political extremism inside the country, the Polish government became increasingly heavy-handed, banning a number of radical organisations, including communist and ultra-nationalist political parties, which threatened the stability of the country.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Brian Porter-Szücs |title=Poland in the Modern World: Beyond Martyrdom |date=6 January 2014 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-118-59808-5}}</ref>

=== World War II ===
{{Main|History of Poland (1939–1945)|Invasion of Poland|Military history of Poland during World War II|War crimes in occupied Poland during World War II}}

[[File:7TP Polish Tank.png|thumb|left|[[Polish Armed Forces (Second Polish Republic)|Polish Army]] [[7TP]] tanks on military manoeuvres shortly before the [[invasion of Poland]] in 1939]]

World War II began with the [[Nazi German]] [[invasion of Poland]] on 1 September 1939, followed by the [[Soviet invasion of Poland]] on 17 September. On 28 September 1939, [[Siege of Warsaw (1939)|Warsaw fell]]. As agreed in the [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact]], Poland was split into two zones, [[Polish areas annexed by Nazi Germany|one occupied by Nazi Germany]], the other by [[territories of Poland annexed by the Soviet Union|the Soviet Union]]. In 1939–1941, the Soviets deported hundreds of thousands of Poles. The Soviet [[NKVD]] executed thousands of Polish prisoners of war (among other incidents in the [[Katyn massacre]]) ahead of [[Operation Barbarossa]].<ref name="BBC 2010" /> German planners had in November 1939 called for "the complete destruction of all Poles" and their fate as outlined in the genocidal ''[[Generalplan Ost]]''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Michael Geyer |url={{GBurl|id=IcB3oASHnkAC|p=152}} |title=Beyond Totalitarianism: Stalinism and Nazism Compared |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-521-89796-9 |pages=152–153}}</ref>

Poland made the fourth-largest troop contribution in Europe,<ref name="Zaloga 1982" /><ref name="Lerski 1996a" /><ref name="Walters 1988" /> and its troops served both the [[Polish Government in Exile]] in the [[Polish Armed Forces in the West|west]] and Soviet leadership in the [[Polish Armed Forces in the East|east]]. Polish troops played an important role in the [[Operation Overlord|Normandy]], [[Italian Campaign (World War II)|Italian]], [[North African Campaign]]s and [[Operation Pheasant|Netherlands]] and are particularly remembered for the [[Battle of Britain]] and [[Battle of Monte Cassino]].<ref name="tobruk" /><ref name="including" /> Polish intelligence operatives proved extremely valuable to the Allies, providing much of the intelligence from Europe and beyond,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kochanski |first=Halik |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EJ5vIyDBpLcC&q=22%252C047%2BPolish&pg=PA234 |title=The Eagle Unbowed: Poland and the Poles in the Second World War |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-674-06814-8 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=25 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230725000018/https://books.google.com/books?id=EJ5vIyDBpLcC&pg=PA234&q=22%252C047%2BPolish |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Polish Cipher Bureau|Polish code breakers]] were responsible for [[cryptanalysis of the Enigma|cracking the Enigma cipher]] and Polish scientists participating in the [[Manhattan Project]] were co-creators of the American [[atomic bomb]]. In the east, the Soviet-backed [[First Polish Army (1944–1945)|Polish 1st Army]] distinguished itself in the battles for [[Warsaw Uprising|Warsaw]] and [[Battle of Berlin|Berlin]].<ref name="Lerski 1996b" />

The [[Polish resistance movement in World War II|wartime resistance movement]], and the [[Armia Krajowa]] (''Home Army''), fought against German occupation. It was one of the three largest resistance movements of the entire war, and encompassed a range of clandestine activities, which functioned as an [[Polish Underground State|underground state]] complete with [[Education in Poland during World War II|degree-awarding universities]] and [[Underground court|a court system]].<ref name="Stanislaw Salmonowicz 1994" /> The resistance was loyal to the exiled government and generally resented the idea of a communist Poland; for this reason, in the summer of 1944 it initiated [[Operation Tempest]], of which the [[Warsaw Uprising]] that began on 1 August 1944 is the best-known operation.<ref name="Lerski 1996b" /><ref name="polandinexile" />

[[File:WW2-Holocaust-Poland.PNG|thumb|Map of [[the Holocaust in occupied Poland|the Holocaust in German-occupied Poland]] with deportation routes and massacre sites. Major [[Jewish ghettos in German-occupied Poland|ghettos]] are marked with yellow stars. Nazi [[extermination camps]] are marked with white skulls in black squares. The border in 1941 between [[Nazi Germany]] and the [[Soviet Union]] is marked in red.]]

Nazi German forces under orders from [[Adolf Hitler]] set up six German [[extermination camp]]s in occupied Poland, including [[Treblinka extermination camp|Treblinka]], [[Majdanek concentration camp|Majdanek]] and [[Auschwitz concentration camp|Auschwitz]]. The Germans [[Holocaust train|transported millions of Jews]] from across occupied Europe to be murdered in those camps.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Browning |first1=Christopher R. |title=The origins of the Final Solution: the evolution of Nazi Jewish policy, September 1939 – March 1942 |last2=Matthäus |first2=Jürgen |date=2004 |publisher=University of Nebraska Press |isbn=978-0-8032-1327-2 |series=Comprehensive history of the Holocaust |location=Lincoln}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Snyder |first=Timothy |title=Black earth: the Holocaust as history and warning |date=2015 |publisher=Tim Duggan Books |isbn=978-1-101-90345-2 |edition=First |location=New York}}</ref> Altogether, 3 million Polish Jews<ref>{{harvp|Materski|Szarota|2009}} ''Quote:'' Liczba Żydów i Polaków żydowskiego pochodzenia, obywateli II Rzeczypospolitej, zamordowanych przez Niemców sięga 2,7- 2,9 mln osób. ''Translation:'' The number of Jewish victims is estimated at 2,9 million. This was about 90% of the 3.3 million Jews living in prewar Poland. ''Source:'' IPN.</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.yadvashem.org/righteous/stories/poland-historical-background.html | title=Poland: Historical Background during the Holocaust | access-date=18 August 2019 | archive-date=12 November 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191112052517/https://www.yadvashem.org/righteous/stories/poland-historical-background.html | url-status=live }}</ref> – approximately 90% of Poland's pre-war Jewry – and between 1.8 and 2.8 million ethnic Poles<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Polish Victims |encyclopedia=Holocaust Encyclopedia |url=https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/polish-victims |publisher=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum |access-date=4 January 2020 |archive-date=24 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190824050551/https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/polish-victims |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Piotrowski |first=Tadeusz |title=Poland World War II casualties (in thousands) |url=http://projectinposterum.org/docs/poland_WWII_casualties.htm |access-date=4 January 2020 |archive-date=18 April 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070418175341/http://projectinposterum.org/docs/poland_WWII_casualties.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Materski|Szarota|2009}} ''Quote:'' Łączne straty śmiertelne ludności polskiej pod okupacją niemiecką oblicza się obecnie na ok. 2 770 000. ''Translation:'' Current estimate is roughly 2,770,000 victims of German occupation. This was 11.3% of the 24.4 million ethnic Poles in prewar Poland.</ref> were killed during the German [[Occupation of Poland (1939–1945)|occupation of Poland]], including between 50,000 and 100,000 members of the Polish [[intelligentsia]] – academics, doctors, lawyers, nobility and priesthood. During the [[Warsaw Uprising]] alone, over 150,000 Polish civilians were killed, most were murdered by the Germans during the [[Wola massacre|Wola]] and [[Ochota massacre|Ochota]] massacres.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Documenting Numbers of Victims of the Holocaust and Nazi Persecution |url=https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/documenting-numbers-of-victims-of-the-holocaust-and-nazi-persecution |publisher=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum |access-date=4 January 2020 |archive-date=3 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191103120011/https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/documenting-numbers-of-victims-of-the-holocaust-and-nazi-persecution |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Wardzyńska |first=Maria |url=http://pamiec.pl/download/49/34737/BYLROK1939.pdf |title=Był rok 1939. Operacja niemieckiej policji bezpieczeństwa w Polsce. Intelligenzaktion |publisher=[[Institute of National Remembrance]] |year=2009 |isbn=978-83-7629-063-8 |language=pl |trans-title=The Year was 1939: Operation of German Security Police in Poland. Intelligenzaktion |quote=Oblicza się, że akcja "Inteligencja" pochłonęła ponad 100 tys. ofiar. ''Translation:'' It is estimated that ''Intelligenzaktion'' took the lives of 100,000 Poles. |access-date=4 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129035451/http://pamiec.pl/download/49/34737/BYLROK1939.pdf |archive-date=29 November 2014 }}</ref> Around 150,000 Polish civilians were killed by Soviets between 1939 and 1941 during the Soviet Union's occupation of eastern Poland ([[Kresy]]), and another estimated 100,000 Poles were murdered by the [[Ukrainian Insurgent Army]] (UPA) between 1943 and 1944 in what became known as the [[Massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia|Wołyń Massacres]].<ref>Grzegorz Motyka, Od rzezi wołyńskiej do akcji "Wisła". Konflikt polsko-ukraiński 1943–1947. Kraków 2011, p. 447. See also: Book review by Tomasz Stańczyk: "Grzegorz Motyka oblicza, że w latach 1943–1947 z polskich rąk zginęło 11–15 tys. Ukraińców. Polskie straty to 76–106 tys. zamordowanych, w znakomitej większości podczas rzezi wołyńskiej i galicyjskiej."</ref><ref>{{Cite web |year=2013 |title=What were the Volhynian Massacres? |url=http://www.volhyniamassacre.eu/ |website=1943 Wołyń Massacres Truth and Remembrance |publisher=Institute of National Remembrance |access-date=17 July 2016 |archive-date=13 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130813063016/http://www.volhyniamassacre.eu/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[World War II casualties|Of all the countries]] in the war, Poland lost the highest percentage of its citizens: around 6 million perished – more than one-sixth of Poland's pre-war population – [[Holocaust in Poland|half of them]] Polish Jews.<ref>{{harvp|Materski|Szarota|2009}}</ref><ref>[http://www.remember.org/forgotten/ Holocaust: Five Million Forgotten: Non-Jewish Victims of the Shoah.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180125075356/http://remember.org/forgotten |date=25 January 2018 }} Remember.org.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Polish experts lower nation's WWII death toll |url=https://www.expatica.com/de/polish-experts-lower-nations-wwii-death-toll/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190818035613/https://www.expatica.com/de/polish-experts-lower-nations-wwii-death-toll/ |archive-date=18 August 2019}}</ref> About 90% of deaths were non-military in nature.<ref>Bureau odszkodowan wojennych (BOW), Statement on war losses and damages of Poland in 1939–1945. Warsaw 1947</ref>

In 1945, Poland's borders [[Territorial changes of Poland immediately after World War II|were shifted westwards]]. Over two million Polish inhabitants of [[Kresy]] [[Polish population transfers (1944–1946)|were expelled]] along the [[Curzon Line]] by [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]].<ref>[[Bogumiła Lisocka-Jaegermann]] (2006). "Post-War Migrations in Poland". In: Mirosława Czerny. ''Poland in the geographical centre of Europe.'' Hauppauge, New York: Nova Science Publishers. pp. 71–87. {{ISBN|978-1-59454-603-7}}. [{{GBurl|id=KGYrq9qAeskC|q=%22so+called+Curzon+Line%22}} Google Books preview.]</ref> The western border became the [[Oder-Neisse line]]. As a result, Poland's territory was reduced by 20%, or {{convert|77500|km2|sqmi}}. The shift forced the migration of [[World War II evacuation and expulsion|millions of other people]], most of whom were Poles, Germans, Ukrainians, and Jews.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Eberhardt |first=Piotr |url=http://www.igipz.pan.pl/en/zpz/Political_migrations.pdf |title=Political Migrations in Poland 1939–1948 |publisher=Didactica |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-5361-1035-7 |location=Warsaw |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150626151411/http://www.igipz.pan.pl/en/zpz/Political_migrations.pdf |archive-date=26 June 2015 |access-date=3 May 2018 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Eberhardt |first=Piotr |url=http://rcin.org.pl/Content/15652/WA51_13607_r2011-nr12_Monografie.pdf |title=Political Migrations On Polish Territories (1939–1950) |publisher=Polish Academy of Sciences |year=2011 |isbn=978-83-61590-46-0 |location=Warsaw |access-date=3 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140520220409/http://rcin.org.pl/Content/15652/WA51_13607_r2011-nr12_Monografie.pdf |archive-date=20 May 2014}}</ref><ref name="BBC 2011" />

=== Post-war communism ===
{{Main|History of Poland (1945–1989)|Polish People's Republic|History of Solidarity|Polish Round Table Agreement}}

[[File:Solidarity poster 1989.jpg|thumb|upright|left|''At [[High Noon]], 4 June 1989''—political poster featuring [[Gary Cooper]] to encourage votes for the [[Solidarity (Polish trade union)|Solidarity]] party in the [[Contract Sejm|1989 elections]]]]
At the insistence of [[Joseph Stalin]], the [[Yalta Conference]] sanctioned the formation of a new provisional pro-Communist coalition government in Moscow, which ignored the [[Polish government-in-exile]] based in London. This action angered many Poles who considered it a [[Yalta betrayal|betrayal]] by the Allies.<ref>The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. "Yalta Conference". Encyclopedia Britannica, 20 Mar. 2025, https://www.britannica.com/event/Yalta-Conference. Accessed 21 April 2025</ref> In 1944, Stalin had made guarantees to [[Winston Churchill|Churchill]] and [[Franklin D. Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] that he would maintain Poland's sovereignty and allow democratic elections to take place. However, upon achieving victory in 1945, the elections organised by the occupying Soviet authorities were falsified and were used to provide a veneer of legitimacy for Soviet hegemony over Polish affairs.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Institute of National Remembrance |url=https://eng.ipn.gov.pl/en/digital-resources/articles/7193%2CRigged-elections-19-January-1947.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Staar |first=Richard F. |date=1958 |title=Elections in Communist Poland |journal=Midwest Journal of Political Science |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=200–218 |doi=10.2307/2108857 |jstor=2108857 |issn=0026-3397}}</ref><ref>[[Dieter Nohlen]] & Philip Stöver (2010) ''Elections in Europe: A data handbook'', p1491 {{ISBN|978-3-8329-5609-7}}</ref> The Soviet Union instituted a new [[communist state|communist]] government in Poland, analogous to much of the rest of the [[Eastern Bloc]]. [[Anti-Communism in the Communist Bloc|As elsewhere in Communist Europe]], the Soviet influence over Poland was met with [[Cursed soldiers|armed resistance]] from the outset which continued into the 1950s.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ARTICLE by Karol Nawrocki, Ph.D.: The soldiers of Polish freedom |work=Institute of National Remembrance |url=https://ipn.gov.pl/en/news/9332,ARTICLE-by-Karol-Nawrocki-PhD-The-soldiers-of-Polish-freedom.html |access-date=6 March 2022 |archive-date=12 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220512143630/https://ipn.gov.pl/en/news/9332,ARTICLE-by-Karol-Nawrocki-PhD-The-soldiers-of-Polish-freedom.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Despite widespread objections, the new Polish government accepted the Soviet annexation of the pre-war eastern regions of Poland<ref name="Lane 1948" /> (in particular the cities of [[Wilno]] and [[Lwów]]) and agreed to the permanent garrisoning of [[Red Army]] units on Poland's territory. Military alignment within the [[Warsaw Pact]] throughout the [[Cold War]] came about as a direct result of this change in Poland's political culture. In the European scene, it came to characterise the full-fledged integration of Poland into the brotherhood of communist nations.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Warsaw Pact: Definition, History, and Significance |url=https://www.thoughtco.com/warsaw-pact-4178983 |access-date=6 March 2022 |archive-date=31 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531072214/https://www.thoughtco.com/warsaw-pact-4178983 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The new communist government took control with the adoption of the [[Small Constitution of 1947|Small Constitution]] on 19 February 1947. The [[Polish People's Republic]] (''Polska Rzeczpospolita Ludowa'') [[Constitution of the People's Republic of Poland|was officially proclaimed in 1952]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitutional history of Poland |url=https://constitutionnet.org/country/poland |access-date=2025-04-21 |website=ConstitutionNet |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Lasok |first=Dominik |title=The Polish Constitutions of 1947 and 1952: a historical study in constitutional law |date=1954 |degree=phd |publisher=London School of Economics and Political Science |url=https://etheses.lse.ac.uk/112/ |language=en}}</ref> In 1956, after the death of [[Bolesław Bierut]], the régime of [[Władysław Gomułka]] became temporarily more liberal, freeing many people from prison and expanding some personal freedoms. [[Collectivization in the Polish People's Republic|Collectivisation in the Polish People's Republic]] failed. A similar situation repeated itself in the 1970s under [[Edward Gierek]], but most of the time persecution of [[Anti-communist resistance in Poland (1944–1989)|anti-communist opposition]] groups persisted. Despite this, Poland was at the time considered to be one of the least oppressive states of the Eastern Bloc.<ref name="PWN" />

Labour turmoil in 1980 led to the formation of the independent trade union "[[Solidarity (Polish trade union)|Solidarity]]" ("''Solidarność''"), which over time became a political force.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Staff |first=TIME |date=2020-03-05 |title=Anna Walentynowicz: 100 Women of the Year |url=https://time.com/5793658/anna-walentynowicz-100-women-of-the-year/ |access-date=2025-04-21 |magazine=TIME |language=en}}</ref> Despite persecution and imposition of [[Martial law in Poland|martial law in 1981]] by General [[Wojciech Jaruzelski]], it eroded the dominance of the [[Polish United Workers' Party]] and by 1989 had triumphed in Poland's first [[Contract Sejm|partially free and democratic parliamentary elections]] since the end of the Second World War. [[Lech Wałęsa]], a Solidarity candidate, eventually [[1990 Polish presidential election|won the presidency in 1990]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lech Walesa Is Elected President of Poland {{!}} EBSCO Research Starters |url=https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/history/lech-walesa-elected-president-poland |access-date=2025-04-21 |website=www.ebsco.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2010-02-09 |title=Lech Walesa elected president of Poland {{!}} December 9, 1990 |url=https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/december-9/walesa-elected-president-of-poland |access-date=2025-04-21 |website=HISTORY |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Lech Wałęsa – Biographical |url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/peace/1983/walesa/biographical/ |access-date=2025-04-21 |website=NobelPrize.org |language=en-US}}</ref> The Solidarity movement heralded the [[Revolutions of 1989|collapse of communist regimes and parties across Europe]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=September 2020 |title=Solidarity Movement– or the Beginning of the End of Communism |url=https://argumentum.al/lajmi/2020/09/solidarity-movement-or-the-beginning-of-the-end-of-communism/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220328012855/https://argumentum.al/lajmi/2020/09/solidarity-movement-or-the-beginning-of-the-end-of-communism/ |archive-date=28 March 2022 |access-date=6 March 2022 }}</ref>

=== Third Polish Republic ===
{{Main|History of Poland (1989–present)}}

[[File:Flowers in front of the Presidential Palace in Warsaw.jpg|upright=0.8|thumb|Flowers in front of the [[Presidential Palace, Warsaw|Presidential Palace]] following the [[2010 Polish Air Force Tu-154 crash|death of Poland's top government officials]] in a plane crash on 10 April 2010]]
A [[shock therapy (economics)|shock therapy]] programme, initiated by [[Leszek Balcerowicz]] in the early 1990s, enabled the country to transform its [[Soviet-style socialism|Soviet-style]] [[planned economy]] into a [[market economy]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hunter |first1=Richard J. Jr. |last2=Ryan |first2=Leo V. |date=2006 |title=A RETROSPECTIVE ANALYSIS AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVE: "Why Was Poland's Transition So Difficult?" |journal=[[The Polish Review]] |publisher=[[University of Illinois Press]] |volume=51 |pages=147–171 |jstor=25779611 |number=2}}</ref> As with other [[post-communism|post-communist countries]], Poland suffered temporary declines in social, economic, and living standards,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kowalik |first=Tadeusz |title=From Solidarity to Sell-Out: The Restoration of Capitalism in Poland |publisher=Monthly Review Press |year=2011 |location=New York, NY}}</ref> but it became the first post-communist country to reach its pre-1989 [[Gross domestic product|GDP levels]] as early as 1995, although the unemployment rate increased.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Spieser |first=Catherine |date=April 2007 |title=Labour Market Policies in Post-communist Poland: Explaining the Peaceful Institutionalisation of Unemployment |journal=Politique européenne |volume=21 |pages=97–132 |doi=10.3917/poeu.021.0097 |number=1}}</ref> Poland became a member of the [[Visegrád Group]] in 1991,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Poláčková |first=Hana |date=1994 |title=Regional Cooperation in Central Europe: Poland, Hungary, Czech Republic and Slovakia: from Visegrad to CEFTA |journal=Perspectives |publisher=[[SAGE Publishers]] |pages=117–129 |jstor=23615759 |number=3}}</ref> and joined [[NATO]] in 1999.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sieradzka |first=Monika |date=3 November 2019 |title=After 20 years in NATO, Poland still eager to please |url=https://www.dw.com/en/after-20-years-in-nato-poland-still-eager-to-please/a-47862839 |access-date=26 March 2022 |website=[[DW News]] |publisher=[[Deutsche Welle]] |quote=Poland's NATO accession in 1999 was meant to provide protection from Russia. |archive-date=31 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531214850/https://www.dw.com/en/after-20-years-in-nato-poland-still-eager-to-please/a-47862839 |url-status=live }}</ref> Poles then voted to join the [[European Union]] in [[2003 Polish European Union membership referendum|a referendum]] in June 2003,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Szczerbiak |first=Aleks |date=September 2004 |title=History Trumps Government Unpopularity: The June 2003 Polish EU Accession Referendum |journal=West European Politics |volume=27 |pages=671–690 |doi=10.1080/0140238042000249876 |s2cid=153998856 |number=4}}</ref> with [[Poland in the European Union|Poland becoming a full member]] on 1 May 2004, following the [[2004 enlargement of the European Union|consequent enlargement of the union]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kundera |first=Jaroslaw |date=September 2014 |title=Poland in the European Union. The economic effects of ten years of membership |journal=Rivista di Studi Politici Internazionali |volume=81 |pages=377–396 |jstor=43580712 |number=3}}</ref>

Poland joined the [[Schengen Area]] in 2007, as a result of which, [[Borders of Poland|the country's borders]] with other member states of the [[European Union]] were dismantled, allowing for [[Freedom of movement#European Union|full freedom of movement]] within most of the European Union.<ref name="BBC News 2007" /> On 10 April 2010, the [[President of Poland]] [[Lech Kaczyński]], along with 89 other high-ranking Polish officials [[2010 Polish Air Force Tu-154 crash|died in a plane crash]] near [[Smolensk]], Russia.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Smith |first=Alex Duval |date=7 February 2016 |title=Will Poland ever uncover the truth about the plane crash that killed its president? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/feb/07/smolensk-plane-crash-lech-kaczynski-poland-russia |access-date=26 March 2022 |website=[[The Guardian]] |location=[[Warsaw]] |archive-date=30 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220530164613/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/feb/07/smolensk-plane-crash-lech-kaczynski-poland-russia |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2011, the ruling [[Civic Platform]] won [[2011 Polish parliamentary election|parliamentary elections]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Turkowski |first=Andrzej |title=Ruling Civic Platform Wins Parliamentary Elections in Poland |url=https://carnegieendowment.org/research/2011/10/ruling-civic-platform-wins-parliamentary-elections-in-poland?lang=en |website=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace |access-date=11 April 2021 |archive-date=30 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220530233038/https://carnegieendowment.org/2011/10/10/ruling-civic-platform-wins-parliamentary-elections-in-poland-pub-45703 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2014, the [[Prime Minister of Poland]], [[Donald Tusk]], was chosen to be [[President of the European Council]], and resigned as prime minister.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Lynch |first=Suzanne |title=Donald Tusk named next president of European Council |newspaper=The Irish Times |url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/politics/donald-tusk-named-next-president-of-european-council-1.1913164 |access-date=11 April 2021 |archive-date=31 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531053534/https://www.irishtimes.com/news/politics/donald-tusk-named-next-president-of-european-council-1.1913164 |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[2015 Polish parliamentary election|2015]] and [[2019 Polish parliamentary election|2019 elections]] were won by the national-conservative [[Law and Justice]] Party (PiS) led by [[Jarosław Kaczyński]],<ref>{{Cite news |date=25 October 2015 |title=Poland elections: Conservatives secure decisive win |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-34631826 |access-date=20 June 2018 |archive-date=25 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151025224207/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-34631826 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=14 October 2019 |title=Poland's populist Law and Justice party win second term in power |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/oct/14/poland-populist-law-and-justice-party-increases-majority |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=31 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531141516/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/oct/14/poland-populist-law-and-justice-party-increases-majority |url-status=live }}</ref> resulting in increased [[Euroscepticism]] and [[Polish constitutional crisis|increased friction]] with the European Union.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rule of Law: European Commission acts to defend judicial independence in Poland |url=https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_17_5367 |access-date=15 November 2020 |website=European Commission |language=en |archive-date=28 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210328122853/https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/IP_17_5367 |url-status=live }}</ref> In December 2017, [[Mateusz Morawiecki]] was sworn in as the Prime Minister, succeeding [[Beata Szydło|Beata Szydlo]], in office since 2015. President [[Andrzej Duda]], supported by Law and Justice party, was re-elected in the 2020 presidential [[2020 Polish presidential election|election]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=13 July 2020 |title=Poland's Duda narrowly beats Trzaskowski in presidential vote |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-53385021 |access-date=10 March 2021 |archive-date=13 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200713013502/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-53385021 |url-status=live }}</ref>

{{As of|November 2023}}, the [[Russian invasion of Ukraine]] had led to 17 million [[Ukrainian refugee crisis|Ukrainian refugees]] crossing the border to Poland.<ref name="UNHRC Ukraine">{{Cite web |title=Situation Ukraine Refugee Situation |url=https://data.unhcr.org/en/situations/ukraine |website=data.unhcr.org |access-date=14 December 2023 |archive-date=27 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220627032436/https://data.unhcr.org/en/situations/ukraine |url-status=live }}</ref> {{As of|November 2023}}, 0.9 million of those had stayed in Poland.<ref name="UNHRC Ukraine" /> In October 2023, the ruling Law and Justice (PiS) party won the largest share of the vote in the [[2023 Polish parliamentary election|election]], but lost its majority in parliament. In December 2023, Donald Tusk became the new Prime Minister leading a coalition made up of [[Civic Coalition (Poland)|Civic Coalition]], [[Third Way (Poland)|Third Way]], and [[The Left (Poland)|The Left]]. Law and Justice became the leading opposition party.<ref>{{Cite news |date=11 December 2023 |title=Donald Tusk elected as Polish prime minister |language=en-GB |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-67681940 |access-date=12 December 2023 |archive-date=13 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231213060521/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-67681940 |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Geography ==
{{Main|Geography of Poland}}

[[File:Poland topo.jpg|thumb|right|[[Topography|Topographic]] map of Poland]]

Poland covers an administrative area of {{convert|312722|km2|sqmi|0|abbr=on}}, and is the [[List of European countries by area|ninth-largest country in Europe]]. Approximately {{convert|311895|km2|sqmi|0|abbr=on}} of the country's territory consists of land, {{convert|2041|km2|sqmi|0|abbr=on}} is internal waters and {{convert|8783|km2|sqmi|0|abbr=on}} is territorial sea.<ref name="Rocznik 2019">{{Cite journal |last=Polish Ministry of Education and Science |date=2019 |title=Statistical Yearbook of the Republic of Poland |url=https://stat.gov.pl/download/gfx/portalinformacyjny/pl/defaultaktualnosci/5515/2/19/1/rocznik_statystyczny_rzeczypospolitej_polskiej_2019.pdf |journal=Rocznik Statystyczny Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej |publisher=Statistics Poland (Główny Urząd Statystyczny GUS) |publication-place=Warsaw |pages=80–81, 84–85, 111 |issn=1506-0632 |oclc=907771825 |access-date=2 April 2022 |archive-date=3 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220303153527/https://stat.gov.pl/download/gfx/portalinformacyjny/pl/defaultaktualnosci/5515/2/19/1/rocznik_statystyczny_rzeczypospolitej_polskiej_2019.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Topographically, the landscape of Poland is characterised by diverse [[landform]]s, [[Hydrology|water bodies]] and [[ecosystem]]s.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Cechy krajobrazów Polski – Notatki geografia |url=https://geografia.gozych.edu.pl/cechy-krajobrazow-polski/ |access-date=4 December 2020 |archive-date=29 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201029163433/https://geografia.gozych.edu.pl/cechy-krajobrazow-polski/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The central and northern region bordering the [[Baltic Sea]] lie within the flat [[Northern European Plain|Central European Plain]], but its south is hilly and mountainous.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Grochowski |first=Mirosław |year=1997 |title=Poland Under Transition and Its New Geography |journal=[[Canadian Slavonic Papers]] |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |volume=39 |pages=1–26 |doi=10.1080/00085006.1997.11092140 |jstor=40869887 |number=1/2}}</ref> The average [[Height above sea level|elevation above the sea level]] is estimated at 173 metres.<ref name="Rocznik 2019" />

The country has a coastline spanning {{convert|comma=5|770|km|mi|abbr=on}}; extending from the shores of the Baltic Sea, along the [[Bay of Pomerania]] in the west to the [[Gdańsk Bay|Gulf of Gdańsk]] in the east.<ref name="Rocznik 2019" /> The beach coastline is abundant in [[sand dunes|sand dune fields]] or [[Beach ridge|coastal ridges]] and is indented by [[Spit (landform)|spits]] and lagoons, notably the [[Hel Peninsula]] and the [[Vistula Lagoon]], which is shared with Russia.<ref>{{Cite book |last=BACC Editorial Team |title=Second Assessment of Climate Change for the Baltic Sea Basin |date=2015 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-16005-4 |location=Cham |page=385}}</ref> The largest Polish island on the Baltic Sea is [[Wolin]], located within [[Wolin National Park]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Tymon Zielinski |title=Interdisciplinary approaches for sustainable development goals |last2=Iwona Sagan |last3=Waldemar Surosz |date=2017 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-71788-3 |location=Cham |page=79}}</ref> Poland also shares the [[Szczecin Lagoon]] and the [[Usedom]] island with Germany.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Shell |first=Marc |title=Islandology: Geography, Rhetoric, Politics |date=2014 |publisher=University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-8926-4 |location=Stanford |page=89}}</ref>

[[File:Morskie Oko o poranku.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.95|[[Morskie Oko]] alpine lake in the [[Tatra Mountains]], part of the [[Carpathian Mountains|Carpathian massif]]]]

The mountainous belt in the extreme south of Poland is divided into two major [[mountain ranges]]; the [[Sudetes]] in the west and the [[Carpathian Mountains|Carpathians]] in the east. The highest part of the Carpathian massif are the [[Tatra Mountains]], extending along Poland's southern border.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Najwyższe szczyty w Tatrach Polskich i Słowackich |url=https://www.polskie-gory.pl/najwyzsze-szczyty-tatr.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211212223121/https://www.polskie-gory.pl/najwyzsze-szczyty-tatr.php |archive-date=12 December 2021 |access-date=4 December 2020 |website=www.polskie-gory.pl }}</ref> Poland's highest point is [[Mount Rysy]] at {{convert|2501|m|ft|0}} in elevation, located in the Tatras.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Siwicki |first=Michał |date=2020 |title=Nowe ustalenia dotyczące wysokości szczytów w Tatrach |url=https://geoforum.pl/news/29549/nowe-ustalenia-dotyczace-wysokosci-szczytow-w-tatrach%20Nowe%20ustalenia%20dotycz%C4%85ce%20wysoko%C5%9Bci%20szczyt%C3%B3w%20w%20Tatrach |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211009034150/https://geoforum.pl/news/29549/nowe-ustalenia-dotyczace-wysokosci-szczytow-w-tatrach%20Nowe%20ustalenia%20dotycz%C4%85ce%20wysoko%C5%9Bci%20szczyt%C3%B3w%20w%20Tatrach |archive-date=9 October 2021 |access-date=9 October 2021 |website=geoforum.pl |language=pl }}</ref> The highest summit of the Sudetes massif is [[Śnieżka|Mount Śnieżka]] at {{convert|1603.3|m|ft|0}}, shared with the Czech Republic.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Czetwertynski-Sytnik |first1=Lesław |last2=Kozioł |first2=Edward |last3=R. Mazurski |first3=Krzysztof |year=2000 |title=Settlement and sustainability in the Polish Sudetes |journal=[[GeoJournal]] |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] |volume=50 |pages=273–284 |doi=10.1023/A:1007165901891 |jstor=41147476 |s2cid=150809158 |number=2/3|bibcode=2000GeoJo..50..273C }}</ref> The lowest point in Poland is situated at [[Raczki Elbląskie]] in the [[Vistula#Delta|Vistula Delta]], which is {{convert|1.8|m|ft|1}} below sea level.<ref name="Rocznik 2019" />

Poland's [[Rivers of Poland|longest rivers]] are the [[Vistula River|Vistula]], the [[Oder River|Oder]], the [[Warta]], and the [[Bug River|Bug]].<ref name="Rocznik 2019" /> The country also possesses one of the highest densities of lakes in the world, numbering around ten thousand and mostly concentrated in the north-eastern region of [[Masuria]], within the [[Masurian Lake District]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Christine Zuchora-Walske |title=Poland |publisher=ABDO Publishing |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-61480-877-0 |page=28 |chapter=The Lakes Region |quote=''Insert:'' Poland is home to 9,300 lakes. Finland is the only European nation with a higher density of lakes than Poland. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9dx2AgAAQBAJ&q=%2522a%2Bhigher%2Bdensity%2Bof%2Blakes%2Bthan%2BPoland%2522 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=24 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230724235914/https://books.google.com/books?id=9dx2AgAAQBAJ&q=%2522a%2Bhigher%2Bdensity%2Bof%2Blakes%2Bthan%2BPoland%2522 |url-status=live }}</ref> The largest lakes, covering more than {{convert|100|km2|sqmi|0}}, are [[Śniardwy]] and [[Lake Mamry|Mamry]], and the deepest is [[Hańcza|Lake Hańcza]] at {{convert|108.5|m|ft|0}} in depth.<ref name="Rocznik 2019" />

=== Climate ===
{{main|Geography of Poland#Climate}}

[[File:Poland Köppen.svg|thumb|[[Köppen climate classification|Köppen-Geiger climate classification]] map of Poland]]
The climate of Poland is [[temperateness|temperate transitional]], and varies from [[oceanic climate|oceanic]] in the north-west to [[continental climate|continental]] in the south-east.<ref name="Korzeniewska 2020">{{Cite book |last1=Korzeniewska |first1=Ewa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KGydDwAAQBAJ&dq=%22%2522poland%2522%2Boceanic%2Bcontinental%2Btemperate%2Bclimate%22&pg=PA4 |title=Polish River Basins and Lakes |last2=Harnisz |first2=Monika |date=2020 |publisher=Springer International Publishing |isbn=978-3-030-12123-5 |volume=I |location=Cham |pages=4–5 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=2 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002180457/https://books.google.com/books?id=KGydDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA4&dq=%22%22poland%22+oceanic+continental+temperate+climate%22 |url-status=live }}</ref> The mountainous southern fringes are situated within an [[alpine climate]].<ref name="Korzeniewska 2020" /> Poland is characterised by warm summers, with a mean temperature of around {{convert|20|°C|°F|1}} in July, and moderately cold winters averaging {{convert|-1|°C|°F|1}} in December.<ref name="Azad 2021">{{Cite book |last1=Azad |first1=Abdul Kalam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9OgGEAAAQBAJ&dq=%22annual%2Bseasonal%2Bmean%2Btemperature%2Bpoland%22&pg=PA6 |title=Bioenergy Resources and Technologies |last2=Khan |first2=Mohammad Masud Kamal |date=2021 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-12-822526-4 |location=London |page=6 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=2 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002180501/https://books.google.com/books?id=9OgGEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA6&dq=%22annual+seasonal+mean+temperature+poland%22 |url-status=live }}</ref> The warmest and sunniest part of Poland is [[Lower Silesia]] in the southwest and the coldest region is the northeast corner, around [[Suwałki]] in [[Podlaskie Voivodeship|Podlaskie province]], where the climate is affected by [[cold front]]s from [[Scandinavia]] and [[Siberia]].<ref name="Anna Chodubska 2020">{{Cite report |url=https://www.imgw.pl/sites/default/files/2021-04/imgw-pib-klimat-polski-2020-opracowanie-final-eng-rozkladowki-min.pdf |title=Climate of Poland |last1=Zbigniew Ustrunul |last2=Agnieszka Wypych |date=2020 |publisher=Institute of Meteorology and Water Management – National Research Institute (IMGW) |page=7 |last3=Ewa Jakusik |last4=Dawid Biernacik |last5=Danuta Czekierda |last6=Anna Chodubska |access-date=3 April 2022 |archive-date=28 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220628044637/https://www.imgw.pl/sites/default/files/2021-04/imgw-pib-klimat-polski-2020-opracowanie-final-eng-rozkladowki-min.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Precipitation (meteorology)|Precipitation]] is more frequent during the summer months, with highest rainfall recorded from June to September.<ref name="Azad 2021" />

There is a considerable fluctuation in day-to-day weather and the arrival of a particular season can differ each year.<ref name="Korzeniewska 2020" /> [[Climate change]] and other factors have further contributed to interannual [[Temperature anomaly|thermal anomalies]] and increased temperatures; the average annual air temperature between 2011 and 2020 was {{convert|9.33|°C|°F|1}}, around 1.11&nbsp;°C higher than in the 2001–2010 period.<ref name="Anna Chodubska 2020" /> Winters are also becoming increasingly drier, with less [[Rain and snow mixed|sleet]] and snowfall.<ref name="Korzeniewska 2020" />

=== Biodiversity ===
{{main|Geography of Poland#Biodiversity}}

[[File:2020 żubry 03.jpg|thumb|The [[European bison]] ({{lang|pl|żubr}}), one of [[National symbols of Poland|Poland's national animals]], is commonly found at the ancient and [[List of World Heritage Sites in Poland|UNESCO]]-protected [[Białowieża Forest]].]]

[[Phytogeography|Phytogeographically]], Poland belongs to the Central European province of the [[Circumboreal Region]] within the [[Boreal Kingdom]]. The country has four [[Palearctic realm|Palearctic ecoregions]] – Central, Northern, Western European [[temperate broadleaf and mixed forest]], and the [[Carpathian montane conifer forests|Carpathian montane conifer]]. Forests occupy 31% of Poland's land area, the largest of which is the [[Lower Silesian Wilderness]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Forest area (% of land area) – Poland |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.FRST.ZS?locations=PL |access-date=1 April 2021 |website=[[World Bank]] |archive-date=30 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220530193553/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.FRST.ZS?locations=PL |url-status=live }}</ref> The most common [[deciduous trees]] found across the country are [[oak]], [[maple]], and [[beech]]; the most common conifers are [[pine]], [[spruce]], and [[fir]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Milewski |first=Wawrzyniec |url=https://www.lasy.gov.pl/pl/informacje/publikacje/in-english/forests-in-poland/lasy-w-polsce-2017-en.pdf |title=Forests in Poland 2017 |date=2017 |publisher=State Forests Information Centre |isbn=978-83-65659-23-1 |location=Warsaw (Warszawa) |page=8 |access-date=3 April 2022 |archive-date=31 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531075659/https://www.lasy.gov.pl/pl/informacje/publikacje/in-english/forests-in-poland/lasy-w-polsce-2017-en.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> An estimated 69% of all forests are [[coniferous]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Frouz |first1=Jan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9UpUEAAAQBAJ&dq=%22most%2Bcommon%2Btrees%2B%2Boak%2Bbeech%2Bpine%2B%2B%2522poland%2522%22&pg=PA245 |title=Applied Ecology: How agriculture, forestry and fisheries shape our planet |last2=Frouzova |first2=Jaroslava |date=2022 |publisher=Springer International Publishing |isbn=978-3-030-83225-4 |location=Cham |page=245 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=2 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002180500/https://books.google.com/books?id=9UpUEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA245&dq=%22most+common+trees++oak+beech+pine++%22poland%22%22 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The [[flora]] and [[Fauna of Poland|fauna]] in Poland is that of [[Continental Europe]], with the [[European bison|wisent]], [[white stork]] and [[white-tailed eagle]] designated as national animals, and the [[Papaver rhoeas|red common poppy]] being the unofficial floral emblem.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Aniskiewicz |first=Alena |date=2016 |title=That's Polish: Exploring the History of Poland's National Emblems |url=https://culture.pl/en/article/thats-polish-exploring-the-history-of-polands-national-emblems |access-date=3 April 2022 |website=culture.pl |publisher=Adam Mickiewicz Institute |quote="A white eagle [...], the profile of a shaggy bison in a field of grass. These are emblems of Poland". "Nation's (somewhat disputed) national flower – the corn poppy". |archive-date=3 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220403012530/https://culture.pl/en/article/thats-polish-exploring-the-history-of-polands-national-emblems |url-status=live }}</ref> Among the most protected species is the [[European bison]], Europe's heaviest land animal, as well as the [[Eurasian beaver]], the [[Eurasian lynx|lynx]], the [[gray wolf]] and the [[Tatra chamois]].<ref name="Rocznik 2019" /> The region was also home to the extinct [[aurochs]], the last individual dying in Poland in 1627.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rokosz, M. |year=1995 |title=History of the Aurochs (''Bos taurus primigenius'') in Poland |url=http://agtr.ilri.cgiar.org/agtrweb/Documents/Library/docs/agri16_95.pdf |journal=Animal Genetics Resources Information |volume=16 |pages=5–12 |doi=10.1017/S1014233900004582 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130114152435/http://agtr.ilri.cgiar.org/agtrweb/Documents/Library/docs/agri16_95.pdf |archive-date=14 January 2013 |access-date=3 April 2022 }}</ref> Game animals such as [[red deer]], [[roe deer]], and [[wild boar]] are found in most woodlands.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Reidar Andersen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-ycg5PtQPugC&dq=%22boar%2Bdeer%2Bpoland%22&pg=PA225 |title=European Ungulates and Their Management in the 21st Century |last2=Marco Apollonio |last3=Rory Putman |last4=Piotr Wawrzyniak |date=2010 |publisher=University Press |isbn=978-0-521-76061-4 |location=Cambridge |pages=223–231 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=2 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002180448/https://books.google.com/books?id=-ycg5PtQPugC&pg=PA225&dq=%22boar+deer+poland%22 |url-status=live }}</ref> Poland is also a significant breeding ground for [[migratory birds]] and hosts around one quarter of the global population of white storks.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kevin Hillstrom |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dMexywMD_okC&q=%252240%252C000%2Bbreeding%2Bpairs%2522 |title=Europe: A Continental Overview of Environmental Issues, Volume 4 |last2=Laurie Collier Hillstrom |publisher=ABC-CLIO World geography |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-57607-686-6 |page=34 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=25 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230725000019/https://books.google.com/books?id=dMexywMD_okC&q=%252240%252C000%2Bbreeding%2Bpairs%2522 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Around {{convert|315100|ha|sqmi}}, equivalent to 1% of Poland's territory, is protected within 23 [[List of national parks of Poland|Polish national parks]], two of which – [[Białowieża Forest|Białowieża]] and [[Bieszczady National Park|Bieszczady]] – are [[List of World Heritage Sites in Poland|UNESCO World Heritage Sites]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mayer |first=Marius |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jt-GDwAAQBAJ&dq=%2223%2Bnational%2Bparks%2Bpoland%22&pg=PA115 |title=Cross-Border Tourism in Protected Areas: Potentials, Pitfalls and Perspectives |date=2019 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-030-05960-6 |location=Cham |page=115 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=2 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002180454/https://books.google.com/books?id=jt-GDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA115&dq=%2223+national+parks+poland%22 |url-status=live }}</ref> There are 123 areas designated as [[Landscape Park (Poland)|landscape parks]], along with numerous [[nature reserve]]s and other [[Protected areas of Poland|protected areas]] under the [[Natura 2000]] network.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kowalczyk |first1=Barbara |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eo6WDwAAQBAJ&dq=%22%2522123%2522%2Blandscape%2Bparks%2Bpoland%22&pg=PT202 |title=Environmental law in Poland |last2=Mikowski |first2=Rafał |last3=Mikowski |first3=Łukasz |date=2019 |publisher=Kluwer Law International |isbn=978-94-035-0950-1 |location=Alphen aan den Rijn |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=2 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002180453/https://books.google.com/books?id=eo6WDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT202&dq=%22%22123%22+landscape+parks+poland%22 |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Government and politics ==
{{Main|Politics of Poland}}

{{Multiple image
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| image1            = Karol_Nawrocki_(2025)_(cropped).jpg
| image2            = Donald Tusk KPRM HQ.jpg
| caption1          = [[Karol Nawrocki]]<br /><small>[[President of Poland|President]] since 2025</small>
| caption2          = [[Donald Tusk]]<br /><small>[[Prime Minister of Poland|Prime Minister]] since 2023</small>
}}
Poland is a [[Unitary state|unitary]] [[semi-presidential republic]]{{refn|name=SEMIPRES|<ref>{{cite web |last=Veser |first=Ernst |author-link=:de:Ernst Veser |date=23 September 1997 |title=Semi-Presidentialism-Duverger's Concept — A New Political System Model |url=https://www.rchss.sinica.edu.tw/files_news/11-01-1999/11_1_2.pdf|access-date=21 August 2017 |publisher=Department of Education, School of Education, [[University of Cologne]], zh |pages=39–60 |quote=Duhamel has developed the approach further: He stresses that the French construction does not correspond to either parliamentary or the presidential form of government, and then develops the distinction of 'système politique' and 'régime constitutionnel'. While the former comprises the exercise of power that results from the dominant institutional practice, the latter is the totality of the rules for the dominant institutional practice of power. In this way, France appears as 'presidentialist system' endowed with a 'semi-presidential regime' (1983: 587). By this standard, he recognizes Duverger's ''pléiade'' as semi-presidential regimes, as well as Poland, Romania, Bulgaria and Lithuania (1993: 87). }}</ref><ref name="Draft">{{cite journal |last=Shugart |first=Matthew Søberg |author-link=Matthew Søberg Shugart |date=September 2005 |title=Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive and Mixed Authority Patterns |url=http://dss.ucsd.edu/~mshugart/semi-presidentialism.pdf |journal=Graduate School of International Relations and Pacific Studies |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080819200307/http://dss.ucsd.edu/~mshugart/semi-presidentialism.pdf |archive-date=19 August 2008 |access-date=21 August 2017 }}</ref><ref name="Shugart2005">{{cite journal |last=Shugart |first=Matthew Søberg |author-link=Matthew Søberg Shugart |date=December 2005 |title=Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive And Mixed Authority Patterns |url=https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1057%2Fpalgrave.fp.8200087.pdf |journal=French Politics |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=323–351 |doi=10.1057/palgrave.fp.8200087 |doi-access=free |access-date=21 August 2017 |quote=Even if the president has no discretion in the forming of cabinets or the right to dissolve parliament, his or her constitutional authority can be regarded as 'quite considerable' in Duverger's sense if cabinet legislation approved in parliament can be blocked by the people's elected agent. Such powers are especially relevant if an extraordinary majority is required to override a veto, as in Mongolia, Poland, and Senegal. In these cases, while the government is fully accountable to Parliament, it cannot legislate without taking the potentially different policy preferences of the president into account. }}</ref><ref name="McMenamin" >{{cite web |last=McMenamin |first=Iain |title=Semi-Presidentialism and Democratisation in Poland |url= http://webpages.dcu.ie/~mcmenami/Poland_semi-presidentialism_2.pdf |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120212225305/http://webpages.dcu.ie/~mcmenami/Poland_semi-presidentialism_2.pdf |archive-date=12 February 2012 |publisher=School of Law and Government, [[Dublin City University]] |access-date=11 December 2017 }}</ref>}} and a [[representative democracy]], with a [[President of the Republic of Poland|president]] as the [[head of state]].<ref name="Serwis Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej">{{Cite web |last=Serwis Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej |date=n.d. |title=Civil Service; Basic information about Poland |url=https://www.gov.pl/web/civilservice/basic-information-about-poland |access-date=8 March 2022 |website=www.gov.pl |publisher=Government of the Republic of Poland |language=en |archive-date=30 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220530233041/https://www.gov.pl/web/civilservice/basic-information-about-poland |url-status=live }}</ref> The executive power is exercised further by the [[Council of Ministers of the Republic of Poland|Council of Ministers]] and the [[Prime Minister of the Republic of Poland|prime minister]] who acts as the [[head of government]].<ref name="Serwis Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej" /> The council's individual members are selected by the prime minister, approved by parliament and sworn in by the president.<ref name="Serwis Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej" /> The head of state is elected by [[Direct election|popular vote]] for a five-year term.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Stanisz |first=Piotr |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e4MSEAAAQBAJ&q=duda&pg=PT14 |title=Religion and Law in Poland |date=2020 |publisher=Kluwer Law International |isbn=978-94-035-2973-8 |location=Alphen aan den Rijn |page=13 |language=en |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=24 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230724235947/https://books.google.com/books?id=e4MSEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT14&q=duda |url-status=live }}</ref> The current president is [[Karol Nawrocki]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ott |first=Haley |date=2025-08-06 |title=Trump-backed candidate Karol Nawrocki becomes Polish president and could steer a more nationalist course - CBS News |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/poland-trump-backed-karol-nawrocki-president/ |access-date=2025-08-07 |website=CBS News |language=en-US}}</ref> and the prime minister is [[Donald Tusk]].

Poland's [[Legislature|legislative]] assembly is a [[bicameralism|bicameral]] parliament consisting of a 460-member lower house ([[Sejm]]) and a 100-member upper house ([[Senate of the Republic of Poland|Senate]]).<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zJROEAAAQBAJ&dq=%22sejm%2B460%2B%2Bsenate%2B100%22&pg=PA127 |title=Foundations of Law: The Polish Perspective |date=2021 |publisher=Wolters Kluwer Polska |isbn=978-83-8223-173-1 |location=Warszawa (Warsaw) |page=127 |language=en |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=2 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002180451/https://books.google.com/books?id=zJROEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA127&dq=%22sejm+460++senate+100%22 |url-status=live }}</ref> The Sejm is elected under [[proportional representation]] according to the [[d'Hondt method]] for vote-seat conversion.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gwiazda |first=Anna |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VBk-CgAAQBAJ&dq=%22sejm%2B%2Bd%2527Hondt%22&pg=PA67 |title=Democracy in Poland: Representation, participation, competition and accountability since 1989 |date=2015 |publisher=Taylor and Francis |isbn=978-1-315-68011-8 |location=Florence |page=67 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=2 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002180453/https://books.google.com/books?id=VBk-CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA67&dq=%22sejm++d%27Hondt%22 |url-status=live }}</ref> The Senate is elected under the [[first-past-the-post]] electoral system, with one senator being returned from each of the one hundred constituencies.<ref name="Granat 2021">{{Cite book |last1=Granat |first1=Mirosław |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AJzGDwAAQBAJ&dq=%22poland%2Bsenate%2Bfirst-past-the-post%2B100%22&pg=PA52 |title=The Constitution of Poland: A Contextual Analysis |last2=Granat |first2=Katarzyna |date=2021 |publisher=Hart Publishing |isbn=978-1-5099-1394-7 |location=Oxford |pages=51, 52, 221 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=2 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002180456/https://books.google.com/books?id=AJzGDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA52&dq=%22poland+senate+first-past-the-post+100%22 |url-status=live }}</ref> The Senate has the right to amend or reject a statute passed by the Sejm, but the Sejm may override the Senate's decision with a majority vote.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Piotr Machnikowski |title=Contract law in Poland |last2=Justyna Balcarczyk |last3=Monika Drela |date=2017 |publisher=Kluwer Law International |isbn=978-90-411-8933-2 |location=Alphen aan den Rijn |language=en |chapter=Political System (III) |oclc=1046634087 |chapter-url={{GBurl|id=OI2WDwAAQBAJ|dq=poland+voting+age+eighteen|pg=PT19}}}}</ref>

[[File:2024-09 Sejm RP Sala Posiedzeń (4).jpg|thumb|right|The [[Sejm]] is the [[lower house]] of the [[parliament of Poland]].]]

With the exception of ethnic minority parties, only candidates of [[List of political parties in Poland|political parties]] receiving at least 5% of the total national vote can enter the Sejm.<ref name="Granat 2021" /> Both the lower and upper houses of parliament in Poland are elected for a four-year term and each member of the Polish parliament is guaranteed [[parliamentary immunity]].<ref name="Jasinski 2019">{{Cite book |last1=Jasiński |first1=Wojciech |title=Criminal law in Poland |last2=Kremens |first2=Karolina |date=2019 |publisher=Kluwer Law International |isbn=978-94-035-1324-9 |location=Alphen aan den Rijn |language=en |chapter=Political System and Administrative Structure (IV) |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DSysDwAAQBAJ&dq=%22sejm%2Bpoland%2Bfour%2Byear%22&pg=PT21 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=2 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002180452/https://books.google.com/books?id=DSysDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT21&dq=%22sejm+poland+four+year%22 |url-status=live }}</ref> Under current legislation, a person must be 21 years of age or over to assume the position of deputy, 30 or over to become senator and 35 to run in a presidential election.<ref name="Jasinski 2019" />

Members of the Sejm and Senate jointly form the [[National Assembly of the Republic of Poland]].<ref name="Bien-Kacala 2021">{{Cite book |last1=Bień-Kacała |first1=Agnieszka |title=Constitutional law in Poland |last2=Młynarska-Sobaczewska |first2=Anna |date=2021 |publisher=Kluwer Law International |isbn=978-94-035-3300-1 |location=Alphen aan den Rijn |language=en |chapter=The Speaker, Presidium, and Convent of Seniors, Parliamentary Committees (II), s. 281 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lNstEAAAQBAJ&dq=%22national%2Bassembly%2Bpoland%2B%2Bpresident%2Boath%22&pg=PT126 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=2 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002180508/https://books.google.com/books?id=lNstEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT126&dq=%22national+assembly+poland++president+oath%22 |url-status=live }}</ref> The National Assembly, headed by the [[marshal of the Sejm]], or [[marshal of the Senate]] in their absence, is formed on three occasions – when a new president takes the [[oath of office]]; when an indictment against the president is brought to the [[State Tribunal (Poland)|State Tribunal]]; and in case a president's permanent incapacity to exercise his duties due to the state of his health is declared.<ref name="Bien-Kacala 2021" />

According to [[International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance|International IDEA's]] Global State of Democracy (GSoD) Indices and Democracy Tracker, Poland performs in the mid-range on overall democratic measures, with particular weaknesses in civic engagement and judicial independence.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Poland {{!}} The Global State of Democracy |url=https://www.idea.int/democracytracker/country/poland |access-date=2025-10-06 |website=www.idea.int |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Global State of Democracy Indices {{!}} The Global State of Democracy |url=https://www.idea.int/democracytracker/gsod-indices |access-date=2025-10-06 |website=www.idea.int}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Home {{!}} The Global State of Democracy |url=https://www.idea.int/democracytracker/ |access-date=2025-10-06 |website=www.idea.int}}</ref>

=== Administrative divisions ===
{{Main|Administrative divisions of Poland}}

Poland is divided into 16 provinces or states known as [[Voivodeships of Poland|voivodeships]].<ref name="Teryt 2022">{{Cite web |date=2022 |title=Liczba jednostek podziału terytorialnego kraju |url=https://eteryt.stat.gov.pl/eteryt/raporty/WebRaportZestawienie.aspx |access-date=16 March 2022 |website=TERYT |publisher=Statistics Poland (Główny Urząd Statystyczny GUS) |language=pl |archive-date=21 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220621043312/https://eteryt.stat.gov.pl/eteryt/raporty/WebRaportZestawienie.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref> As of 2022, the voivodeships are subdivided into 380 counties (''[[powiat]]s''), which are further fragmented into 2,477 municipalities (''[[gmina]]s'').<ref name="Teryt 2022" /> Major cities normally have the status of both ''gmina'' and ''powiat''.<ref name="Teryt 2022" /> The provinces are largely founded on the borders of [[Polish historical regions|historic regions]], or named for individual cities.<ref name="Marti-Henneberg 2021">{{Cite book |last=Martí-Henneberg |first=Jordi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=itM-EAAAQBAJ&dq=%22voivodeships%2Bcities%2Bbased%2Bon%2Bhistoric%2Bregions%2Bof%2BPoland%22&pg=PA271 |title=European Regions, 1870–2020: A Geographic and Historical Insight into the Process of European Integration. |date=2021 |publisher=Springer International Publishing |isbn=978-3-030-61537-6 |location=Cham |pages=259–271 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=2 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002180455/https://books.google.com/books?id=itM-EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA271&dq=%22voivodeships+cities+based+on+historic+regions+of+Poland%22 |url-status=live }}</ref> Administrative authority at the voivodeship level is shared between a government-appointed governor ([[Voivodes of Poland (since 1999)|voivode]]), an elected regional assembly ([[Voivodeship sejmik|sejmik]]) and a [[voivodeship marshal]], an executive elected by the assembly.<ref name="Marti-Henneberg 2021" />

{|
|-
|
{{Image label begin|image=Map of Poland colorful.png|width=410|float=left|padding=15px}} <!--
===== Polish Regions =====
-->{{Image label small|x=0.37|y=0.140|scale=410|text ={{flagicon|Pomeranian Voivodeship}}<br />'''[[Pomeranian Voivodeship|Pomeranian]]'''}}
{{Image label small|x=0.11|y=0.20|scale=410| text= {{flagicon|West Pomeranian Voivodeship}}<br />'''[[West Pomeranian Voivodeship|West<br /> Pomeranian]]'''}}
{{Image label small|x=0.61|y=0.17|scale=410|text={{flagicon|Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship}}<br />'''[[Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship|Warmian-Masurian]]'''}}
{{Image label small|x=0.84|y=0.28|scale=410| text={{flagicon|Podlaskie Voivodeship}}<br />'''[[Podlaskie Voivodeship|Podlaskie]]'''}}
{{Image label small|x=0.670|y=0.43|scale=410|text={{flagicon|Masovian Voivodeship}}<br />'''[[Masovian Voivodeship|Masovian]]'''}}
{{Image label small|x=0.41|y=0.30|scale=410|text={{flagicon|Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship}}<br />'''[[Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship|Kuyavian-<br />Pomeranian]]'''}}
{{Image label small|x=0.26|y=0.42|scale=410|text ={{flagicon|Greater Poland Voivodeship}}<br />'''[[Greater Poland Voivodeship|Greater Poland]]'''}}
{{Image label small|x=0.11|y=0.46|scale=410|text ={{flagicon|Lubusz Voivodeship}}<br />'''[[Lubusz Voivodeship|Lubusz]]'''}}
{{Image label small|x=0.17|y=0.60|scale=410|text ={{flagicon|Lower Silesian Voivodeship}}<br />'''[[Lower Silesian Voivodeship|Lower Silesian]]'''}}
{{Image label small|x=0.55|y=0.53|scale=410|text={{flagicon|Łódź Voivodeship}}<br />'''[[Łódź Voivodeship|Łódź]]'''}}
{{Image label small|x=0.37|y=0.70|scale=410|text={{flagicon|Opole Voivodeship}}<br />'''[[Opole Voivodeship|Opole]]'''}}
{{Image label small|x=0.86|y=0.60|scale=410|text={{flagicon|Lublin Voivodeship}}<br />'''[[Lublin Voivodeship|Lublin]]'''}}
{{Image label small|x=0.60|y=0.80| scale=410|text={{flagicon|Lesser Poland Voivodeship}}<br />'''[[Lesser Poland Voivodeship|Lesser<br />Poland]]'''}}
{{Image label small|x=0.75|y=0.78| scale=410|text={{flagicon|Podkarpackie Voivodeship}}<br />'''[[Subcarpathian Voivodeship|Subcarpathian]]'''}}
{{Image label small|x=0.64|y=0.67| scale=410|text={{flagicon|Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship}}<br />'''[[Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship|Holy Cross]]'''}}
{{Image label small|x=0.46|y=0.74| scale=410|text={{flagicon|Silesian Voivodeship}}<br />'''[[Silesian Voivodeship|Silesian]]'''}}
{{Image label end}}
{| class="sortable wikitable" style="text-align:left; font-size:85%;"
|- style="font-size:100%; text-align:right;"
!colspan="2"| [[Voivodeships of Poland|Voivodeship]] !!rowspan="2"| [[List of cities and towns in Poland|Capital city]]|| Area || Population
|-
! ''[[English language|in English]]'' !! ''[[Polish language|in Polish]]'' !! km<sup>2</sup><ref name="Voivodeships">{{Cite web |last=Government of Poland |date=2021 |title=Powierzchnia i ludność w przekroju terytorialnym w 2021 roku |url=https://stat.gov.pl/download/gfx/portalinformacyjny/pl/defaultaktualnosci/5468/7/18/1/powierzchnia_i_ludnosc_w_przekroju_terytorialnym_w_2021_roku_tablice.xlsx |access-date=23 March 2022 |publisher=Statistics Poland (Główny Urząd Statystyczny) |language=pl |archive-date=25 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220325091206/https://stat.gov.pl/download/gfx/portalinformacyjny/pl/defaultaktualnosci/5468/7/18/1/powierzchnia_i_ludnosc_w_przekroju_terytorialnym_w_2021_roku_tablice.xlsx |url-status=live }}</ref> !! 2021<ref name="Voivodeships" />
|-
| [[Greater Poland Voivodeship|Greater Poland]]|| ''Wielkopolskie''|| [[Poznań]]|| 29,826||3,496,450
|- 
| [[Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship|Kuyavian-Pomeranian]]|| ''Kujawsko-Pomorskie''|| [[Bydgoszcz]] & [[Toruń]]|| 17,971||2,061,942
|-
| [[Lesser Poland Voivodeship|Lesser Poland]]|| ''Małopolskie''|| [[Kraków]]|| 15,183||3,410,441
|-
| [[Łódź Voivodeship|Łódź]]|| ''Łódzkie''|| [[Łódź]] || 18,219||2,437,970
|-
| [[Lower Silesian Voivodeship|Lower Silesian]]|| ''Dolnośląskie''|| [[Wrocław]]|| 19,947||2,891,321
|-
| [[Lublin Voivodeship|Lublin]]|| ''Lubelskie''|| [[Lublin]]|| 25,123||2,095,258
|-
| [[Lubusz Voivodeship|Lubusz]]|| ''Lubuskie''|| [[Gorzów Wielkopolski]] &<br />[[Zielona Góra]]|| 13,988||1,007,145
|-
| [[Masovian Voivodeship|Masovian]]|| ''Mazowieckie''|| [[Warsaw]]|| 35,559||5,425,028
|-
| [[Opole Voivodeship|Opole]]|| ''Opolskie''|| [[Opole]]|| 9,412||976,774
|-
| [[Podlaskie Voivodeship|Podlaskie]]|| ''Podlaskie''|| [[Białystok]]|| 20,187||1,173,286
|-
| [[Pomeranian Voivodeship|Pomeranian]]|| ''Pomorskie''|| [[Gdańsk]]|| 18,323||2,346,671
|-
| [[Silesian Voivodeship|Silesian]]|| ''Śląskie''|| [[Katowice]]|| 12,333||4,492,330
|-
| [[Subcarpathian Voivodeship|Subcarpathian]]|| ''Podkarpackie''|| [[Rzeszów]]|| 17,846||2,121,229
|-
| [[Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship|Holy Cross]]|| ''Świętokrzyskie''|| [[Kielce]]|| 11,710||1,224,626
|-
| [[Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship|Warmian-Masurian]]|| ''Warmińsko-Mazurskie''|| [[Olsztyn]]|| 24,173||1,416,495
|-
| [[West Pomeranian Voivodeship|West Pomeranian]]|| ''Zachodniopomorskie''|| [[Szczecin]]|| 22,905||1,688,047
|}
|}

=== Law ===
{{Main|Law of Poland}}

[[File:Manuscript of the Constitution of the 3rd May 1791.PNG|thumb|right|upright|The [[Constitution of May 3, 1791|Constitution of 3 May]] adopted in 1791 was the first modern constitution in Europe.]]

The [[Constitution of Poland]] is the enacted supreme law, and Polish judicature is based on the principle of civil rights, governed by the code of [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kamarad |first1=Ewa |title=Private International Law in Poland |last2=Wysocka-Bar |first2=Anna |date=2020 |publisher=Kluwer Law International |isbn=978-94-035-2961-5 |location=Alphen aan den Rijn |language=en |chapter=General Introduction, s. 3 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f4MSEAAAQBAJ&dq=%22Supreme%2BAdministrative%2BCourt%2Bsupreme%2Bcourt%2Bconstitutional%2Btribunal%2Bpoland%22&pg=PT16 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=2 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002180451/https://books.google.com/books?id=f4MSEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT16&dq=%22Supreme+Administrative+Court+supreme+court+constitutional+tribunal+poland%22 |url-status=live }}</ref> The current democratic constitution was adopted by the [[National Assembly of Poland]] on 2 April 1997; it guarantees a [[multi-party state]] with freedoms of religion, speech and gatherings, prohibits the practices of forced [[medical experimentation]], torture or [[corporal punishment]], and acknowledges the inviolability of the home, the right to form trade unions, and the right to [[Strike action|strike]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sejm of the Republic of Poland |title=Dziennik Ustaw nr 78: The Constitution of the Republic of Poland |url=http://www.sejm.gov.pl/prawo/konst/angielski/kon1.htm |access-date=9 March 2022 |website=sejm.gov.pl |publisher=National Assembly (Zgromadzenie Narodowe) |language=en |archive-date=6 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220906025331/https://www.sejm.gov.pl/prawo/konst/angielski/kon1.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

The [[Judiciary of Poland|judiciary]] in Poland is composed of the [[Supreme Court of Poland|Supreme Court]] as the country's highest judicial organ, the [[Supreme Administrative Court of Poland|Supreme Administrative Court]] for the judicial control of public administration, Common Courts ([[District Court|District]], [[Regional Court (Poland)|Regional]], [[Appellate court|Appellate]]) and the [[Court-martial|Military Court]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kamarad |first1=Ewa |title=Private International Law in Poland |last2=Wysocka-Bar |first2=Anna |date=2020 |publisher=Kluwer Law International |isbn=978-94-035-2961-5 |location=Alphen aan den Rijn |language=en |chapter=General Introduction, s. 2 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f4MSEAAAQBAJ&dq=%22Supreme%2BAdministrative%2BCourt%2Bsupreme%2Bcourt%2Bconstitutional%2Btribunal%2Bpoland%22&pg=PT16 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=2 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002180451/https://books.google.com/books?id=f4MSEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT16&dq=%22Supreme+Administrative+Court+supreme+court+constitutional+tribunal+poland%22 |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Constitutional Tribunal (Poland)|Constitutional]] and State Tribunals are separate judicial bodies, which rule the constitutional liability of people holding the highest offices of state and supervise the compliance of [[statutory law]], thus protecting the Constitution.<ref name="Jaremba 2013">{{Cite book |last=Jaremba |first=Urszula |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CcXMAQAAQBAJ&dq=%22judges%2Bappointed%2Bby%2Bpresident%2Bof%2Bpoland%22&pg=PA129 |title=National Judges As EU Law Judges: The Polish Civil Law System |date=2013 |publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers |isbn=978-1-306-07095-9 |location=Boston |pages=126–129 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=2 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002180506/https://books.google.com/books?id=CcXMAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA129&dq=%22judges+appointed+by+president+of+poland%22 |url-status=live }}</ref> Judges are nominated by the [[National Council of the Judiciary]] and are appointed for life by the [[president of Poland|president]].<ref name="Jaremba 2013" /> With the approval of the Senate, the Sejm appoints an [[ombudsman]] for a five-year term to guard the observance of social justice.<ref name="Granat 2021" />

Poland has a low [[homicide]] rate at 0.7 murders per 100,000 people, as of 2018.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nations |first=United |date=2020 |title=Human Development Indicators – Poland |url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/countries/profiles/POL |publisher=United Nations Development Programme |access-date=16 December 2020 |website=Human Development Reports |archive-date=28 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190128095417/http://www.hdr.undp.org/en/countries/profiles/POL |url-status=live }}</ref> Rape, assault and violent crime remain at a very low level.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018 |title=Victims of intentional homicide 1990–2018 – Poland |url=https://dataunodc.un.org/content/data/homicide/homicide-rate |access-date=16 December 2020 |website=Data UNODC |publisher=United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime |archive-date=28 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220328012947/https://dataunodc.un.org/content/data/homicide/homicide-rate |url-status=live }}</ref> The country has imposed strict regulations on [[Abortion in Poland|abortion]], which is permitted only in cases of [[rape]], [[incest]] or when the woman's life is in danger; [[congenital disorder]] is not covered by the law, prompting some women to seek abortion abroad.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Zsuzsa Csergo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ibgzEAAAQBAJ&dq=%22poland%2Babortion%2Brape%2Bincest%2Bdanger%22&pg=PA168 |title=Central and East European Politics: Changes and Challenges |last2=Daina Stukuls Eglitis |last3=Paula M Pickering |date=2021 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1-5381-4279-0 |location=Lanham, Maryland |page=168 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=2 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002180457/https://books.google.com/books?id=ibgzEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA168&dq=%22poland+abortion+rape+incest+danger%22 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Historically, the most significant Polish legal act is the [[Constitution of 3 May 1791]]. Instituted to redress long-standing political defects of the [[federation|federative]] [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] and its [[Golden Liberty]], it was the first modern constitution in Europe and influenced many later [[democratic movement]]s across the globe.<ref name="Davies 1996" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Gierowski |first=Józef Andrzej |url={{GBurl|id=IBNjywAACAAJ}} |title=Historia Polski, 1505–1764 |publisher=Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe |year=1986 |isbn=978-83-01-03732-1 |page=251 |language=pl |trans-title=History of Poland, 1505–1764 |author-link=Józef Andrzej Gierowski |access-date=26 October 2014}}</ref> In 1918, the [[Second Polish Republic]] became one of the first countries to introduce universal [[women's suffrage]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Berglund |first=Sten |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DOAEFRDAEi4C&dq=%22%2522poland%2522%2Bone%2Bof%2Bthe%2Bfirst%2Bcountries%2Bto%2Bwomen%2527s%2Bsuffrage%2B1918%22&pg=PA46 |title=The Making of the European Union: Foundations, Institutions and Future Trends |date=2006 |publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing Press |isbn=978-1-84542-025-3 |location=Cheltenham |page=46 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=2 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002180451/https://books.google.com/books?id=DOAEFRDAEi4C&pg=PA46&dq=%22%22poland%22+one+of+the+first+countries+to+women%27s+suffrage+1918%22 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Foreign relations ===
{{Main|Foreign relations of Poland|List of diplomatic missions of Poland}}

[[File:Ministerstwo Spraw Zagraniczych al. Szucha 23.JPG|thumb|right|The [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Poland)|Ministry of Foreign Affairs]], located in [[Warsaw]]]]
Poland is a [[middle power]] and is transitioning into a [[regional power]] in Europe.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Glazebrook |first=G. deT. |date=June 1947 |title=The Middle Powers in the United Nations System |journal=[[International Organization (journal)|International Organization]] |publisher=[[University of Wisconsin Press]] |volume=1 |pages=307–315 |doi=10.1017/S0020818300006081 |jstor=2703870 |s2cid=154796013 |number=2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bindi |first=Federiga |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FnR0DwAAQBAJ&dq=%22poland%2Bis%2Bbecoming%2Ba%2B%2522regional%2Bpower%2522%22&pg=PA6 |title=Europe and America: the end of the transatlantic relationship? |date=2019 |publisher=Brookings Institution Press |isbn=978-0-8157-3281-5 |location=Washington, D.C. |page=6 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=2 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002180452/https://books.google.com/books?id=FnR0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA6&dq=%22poland+is+becoming+a+%22regional+power%22%22 |url-status=live }}</ref> It has a total of 53 representatives in the [[European Parliament]] as of 2024. [[Warsaw]] serves as the headquarters for [[Frontex]], the European Union's agency for external border security as well as [[ODIHR]], one of the principal institutions of the [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=De Londras |first1=Fiona |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AYMGCAAAQBAJ&dq=%22frontex%2Bwarsaw%2Bbased%22&pg=PA58 |title=The impact, legitimacy and effectiveness of EU counter-terrorism |last2=Doody |first2=Josephine |date=2015 |publisher=Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group |isbn=978-1-138-09795-7 |location=London |page=58 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=2 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002180454/https://books.google.com/books?id=AYMGCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA58&dq=%22frontex+warsaw+based%22 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Weissbrodt |first1=David S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RaU1U-4gBCkC&dq=%22ODIHR%2Bheadquartered%2Bwarsaw%22&pg=PA324 |title=International Human Rights Law: An Introduction |last2=Vega |first2=Connie |date=2010 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-0-8122-2120-6 |location=Philadelphia |page=324 |orig-date=2007 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=2 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002180449/https://books.google.com/books?id=RaU1U-4gBCkC&pg=PA324&dq=%22ODIHR+headquartered+warsaw%22 |url-status=live }}</ref> Apart from the European Union, Poland has been a member of [[NATO]], the United Nations, and the [[World Trade Organization|WTO]].

In recent years, Poland significantly strengthened its [[Poland–United States relations|relations]] with the United States, becoming one of its closest [[alliance|allies]] and strategic partners in Europe.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Deni |first=John R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B6QQEAAAQBAJ&dq=%22decades%2Bclosest%2Ballies%2Bus%2Bpoland%22&pg=PA148 |title=Coalition of the unwilling and unable: European realignment and the future of American geopolitics |date=2021 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=978-0-472-12879-2 |location=Michigan |page=148 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=2 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002180459/https://books.google.com/books?id=B6QQEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA148&dq=%22decades+closest+allies+us+poland%22 |url-status=live }}</ref> Historically, Poland maintained strong [[Hungary–Poland relations|cultural and political]] ties with Hungary.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Suszycki |first=Andrzej Marcin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DDQxEAAAQBAJ&dq=%22poland%2Bhungary%2Bfriendship%2Bmarch%2B23%22&pg=PA193 |title=Nationalism in Contemporary Europe: Concept, Boundaries and Forms |date=2021 |publisher=LIT |isbn=978-3-643-91102-5 |location=Zürich |page=193 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=2 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002180455/https://books.google.com/books?id=DDQxEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA193&dq=%22poland+hungary+friendship+march+23%22 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Military ===
{{Main|Polish Armed Forces}}

[[File:F-16 Jastrząb (48).jpg|thumb|[[Polish Air Force]] [[F-16 Fighting Falcon|F-16s]], a single-engine [[Multirole combat aircraft|multirole]] [[fighter aircraft]]]]

The Polish Armed Forces are composed of five branches – the [[Polish Land Forces|Land Forces]], the [[Polish Navy|Navy]], the [[Polish Air Force|Air Force]], the [[Special forces of Poland|Special Forces]] and the [[Territorial Defence Force (Poland)|Territorial Defence Force]].<ref name="Mihalcova 2019">{{Cite book |last1=Mihalčová |first1=Bohuslava |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=goqADwAAQBAJ&dq=%22poland%2Barmed%2Bforces%2Bterritorial%2Bdefense%2Bnavy%2Bland%2Bforces%252C%2Bair%2Bforce%22&pg=PA174 |title=Production Management and Business Development: Proceedings of the 6th Annual International Scientific Conference on Marketing Management, Trade, Financial and Social Aspects of Business. |last2=Szaryszová |first2=Petra |last3=Štofová |first3=Lenka |last4=Pružinský |first4=Michal |last5=Gontkovičová |first5=Barbora |date=2019 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-0-429-46866-7 |location=Boca Raton |pages=174–175 |orig-date=2018 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=2 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002180448/https://books.google.com/books?id=goqADwAAQBAJ&pg=PA174&dq=%22poland+armed+forces+territorial+defense+navy+land+forces%2C+air+force%22 |url-status=live }}</ref> The military is subordinate to the [[Ministry of National Defence of the Republic of Poland]].<ref name="Mihalcova 2019" /> However, its commander-in-chief in peacetime is the president, who nominates officers, the Minister for National Defence and the chief of staff.<ref name="Mihalcova 2019" /> Polish military tradition is generally commemorated by the [[Armed Forces Day (Poland)|Armed Forces Day]], celebrated annually on 15 August.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Zalewski |first=Jerzy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ML4hAQAAIAAJ&q=%25C5%259Bwi%25C4%2599to%2520wojska%2520polskiego%252015%2520sierpnia%2520sejm |title=Wojsko Polskie w przemianach ustrojowych 1989–2001 |date=2002 |publisher=Elipsa |isbn=978-83-7151-494-4 |location=Warszawa (Warsaw) |page=131 |language=pl |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=24 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230724235927/https://books.google.com/books?id=ML4hAQAAIAAJ&q=%25C5%259Bwi%25C4%2599to%2520wojska%2520polskiego%252015%2520sierpnia%2520sejm |url-status=live }}</ref> In July 2024, the Polish Armed Forces had a combined strength of 216,100 active soldiers, making it the largest standing army in the European Union and the third largest in [[NATO]].<ref name="Celej">{{cite web |last=Celej |first=Piotr |date=2024 |title=Raport: Polska armia trzecia w NATO i największa w Unii Europejskiej |url=https://www.gazetaprawna.pl/wiadomosci/kraj/artykuly/9547402,raport-polska-armia-trzecia-w-nato-i-najwieksza-w-unii-europejskiej.html#:~:text=Wed%C5%82ug%20najnowszych%20danych%20z%20raportu,przez%20Turcj%C4%99%20i%20Stany%20Zjednoczone. |website=gazetaprawna.pl |publisher=Gazeta Prawna, INFOR PL S.A. |access-date=22 February 2025}}</ref>

Poland ranks [[List of countries with highest military expenditures|14th in the world]] in terms of military expenditures; the country allocated 4.12% of its total GDP on military spending, equivalent to approximately US$35 billion in 2024.<ref name="ENR">{{cite web |author=Polska Agencja Prasowa (PAP) |date=2024 |title=Poland is already spending the most on defense in terms of GDP among NATO countries |url=https://europeannewsroom.com/poland-is-already-spending-the-most-on-defense-in-terms-of-gdp-among-nato-countries/ |website=europeannewsroom.com |publisher=European Newsroom (ENR) |access-date=22 February 2025 }}{{Dead link|date=June 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> From 2022, Poland initiated a programme of mass modernisation of its armed forces, in close cooperation with American, South Korean and local Polish [[Arms industry|defence manufacturers]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lepiarz |first=Jacek |date=27 August 2022 |title=Europa Środkowa i Wschodnia nie kupuje niemieckiej broni |url=https://www.msn.com/pl-pl/wiadomosci/other/europa-%C5%9Brodkowa-i-wschodnia-nie-kupuje-niemieckiej-broni/ar-AA11azUo |access-date=28 August 2022 |website=MSN |archive-date=28 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220828153341/https://www.msn.com/pl-pl/wiadomosci/other/europa-%C5%9Brodkowa-i-wschodnia-nie-kupuje-niemieckiej-broni/ar-AA11azUo |url-status=live }}</ref> Also, the Polish military is set to increase its size to 250,000 enlisted and officers, and 50,000 defence force personnel.<ref>{{Cite web |last=L. |first=Wojciech |date=29 March 2022 |title=Quick and Bold: Poland's Plan To Modernize its Army |url=https://www.overtdefense.com/2022/03/29/quick-and-bold-polands-plan-to-modernize-its-army/ |access-date=28 August 2022 |website=Overt Defense |archive-date=28 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220828190826/https://www.overtdefense.com/2022/03/29/quick-and-bold-polands-plan-to-modernize-its-army/ |url-status=live }}</ref> According to [[SIPRI]], the country exported €487 million worth of arms and armaments to foreign countries in 2020.<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2020-07/poland_2018.pdf |title=Eksport uzbrojenia i sprzętu wojskowego Polski |last=Government of Poland |date=2019 |publisher=Ministerstwo Spraw Zagranicznych MSZ (Ministry of Foreign Affairs) |location=Warszawa (Warsaw) |page=4 |access-date=24 March 2022 |archive-date=28 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220328012842/https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2020-07/poland_2018.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

Compulsory [[Conscription|military service]] for men, who previously had to serve for nine months, was discontinued in 2008.<ref name="Day 2008" /> Polish military doctrine reflects the same defensive nature as that of its NATO partners and the country actively hosts NATO's [[military exercises]].<ref name="IISS 2022">{{Cite book |last=International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ENljEAAAQBAJ&dq=%22The%2BMilitary%2BBalance%2B2021%2Bpoland%22&pg=PA134 |title=The Military Balance 2022 |publisher=Routledge |year=2022 |isbn=978-1-000-61972-0 |location=Milton |pages=134–137 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=2 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002180458/https://books.google.com/books?id=ENljEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA134&dq=%22The+Military+Balance+2021+poland%22 |url-status=live }}</ref> Since 1953, the country has been a large contributor to various United Nations peacekeeping missions,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Zięba |first=Ryszard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mc-8DwAAQBAJ&dq=%22poland%2Bcontributor%2Bpeacekeeping%2Bmissions%2Bmiddle%2Beast%22&pg=PA226 |title=Poland's Foreign and Security Policy: Problems of Compatibility with the Changing International Order |date=2020 |publisher=Springer International Publishing |isbn=978-3-030-30697-7 |location=Cham |pages=226–229 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=2 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002180449/https://books.google.com/books?id=Mc-8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA226&dq=%22poland+contributor+peacekeeping+missions+middle+east%22 |url-status=live }}</ref> and currently maintains military presence in the Middle East, Africa, the [[Baltic states]] and southeastern Europe.<ref name="IISS 2022" /> Moreover, there are approximately 10,000 troops from the [[United States Armed Forces]] stationed across Poland.<ref name="DepartmentofState">{{cite web |author=Bureau of Political-Military Affairs |date=2025 |title=U.S. Security Cooperation With Poland |url=https://www.state.gov/u-s-security-cooperation-with-poland/ |website= |publisher=U.S. Department of State |access-date=27 April 2025}}</ref> From 2024, Poland also provides mandatory [[firearms training]] for pupils in [[Primary school|primary]] and [[Secondary school|secondary schools]].<ref name="PAPpl">{{cite web |author=Danuta Starzyńska-Rosiecka |date=2024 |title=Zmiany w nowym roku szkolnym |url=https://www.pap.pl/aktualnosci/zmiany-w-nowym-roku-szkolnym-odchudzona-podstawa-programowa-i-obowiazek-edukacji-dla-0 |website=pap.pl |location=Warszawa (Warsaw) |publisher=Polish Press Agency PAP |access-date=27 April 2025}}</ref>

=== Security, law enforcement and emergency services ===
[[File:Policja - Police in Warsaw, Toyota Auris (2019).jpg|thumb|A [[Toyota Auris]] patrol car belonging to the Polish [[Policja|State Police Service]] (''Policja'')]]
{{Main|Law enforcement in Poland|Emergency medical services in Poland|State Fire Service}}

Law enforcement in Poland is performed by several agencies which are subordinate to the [[Ministry of Interior and Administration (Poland)|Ministry of Interior and Administration]] – the [[Policja|State Police]] (''Policja''), assigned to investigate crimes or transgression; the [[City Guard (Poland)|Municipal City Guard]], which maintains [[Public-order crime|public orde]]<nowiki/>r; and several specialised agencies, such as the [[Polish Border Guard]].<ref name="Narodowego 2013">{{Cite web |last=Narodowego |first=Biuro Bezpieczeństwa |title=Potencjał ochronny |url=https://www.bbn.gov.pl/pl/bezpieczenstwo-narodowe/system-bezpieczenstwa-n/bezpieczenstwo-publiczn/5977,Potencjal-ochronny.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220124011153/https://www.bbn.gov.pl/pl/bezpieczenstwo-narodowe/system-bezpieczenstwa-n/bezpieczenstwo-publiczn/5977,Potencjal-ochronny.html |archive-date=24 January 2022 |access-date=2 December 2020 |website=Biuro Bezpieczeństwa Narodowego }}</ref> [[Security company|Private security firms]] are also common, although they possess no legal authority to arrest or detain a suspect.<ref name="Narodowego 2013" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Rybak |first=Marcin |date=6 December 2018 |title=Klient kontra ochrona sklepu. Czy mogą nas zatrzymać, przeszukać, legitymować? |url=https://gazetawroclawska.pl/klient-kontra-ochrona-sklepu-czy-moga-nas-zatrzymac-przeszukac-legitymowac/ar/13722260 |website=Gazeta Wrocławska |access-date=2 December 2020 |archive-date=31 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531114737/https://gazetawroclawska.pl/klient-kontra-ochrona-sklepu-czy-moga-nas-zatrzymac-przeszukac-legitymowac/ar/13722260 |url-status=live }}</ref> Municipal guards are primarily headed by provincial, regional or city councils; individual guards are not permitted to carry [[firearms]] unless instructed by the superior commanding officer.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rozdział 3 – Uprawnienia i obowiązki strażników – Straże gminne. – Dz.U.2019.1795 t.j. |url=https://sip.lex.pl/akty-prawne/dzu-dziennik-ustaw/straze-gminne-16798909/roz-3#:~:text=30%20ustawy%20z%20dnia%2021,r.%20o%20broni%20i%20amunicji.&text=Stra%C5%BCnik%2C%20o%20kt%C3%B3rym%20mowa%20w,11%20pkt%205%20i%209. |access-date=2 December 2020 |archive-date=12 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220512144010/https://sip.lex.pl/akty-prawne/dzu-dziennik-ustaw/straze-gminne-16798909/roz-3#:~:text=30%20ustawy%20z%20dnia%2021,r.%20o%20broni%20i%20amunicji.&text=Stra%C5%BCnik%2C%20o%20kt%C3%B3rym%20mowa%20w,11%20pkt%205%20i%209. |url-status=live }}</ref> Security service personnel conduct regular patrols in both large urban areas or smaller suburban localities.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Policja o zwierzchnictwie nad Strażą Miejską w powiecie dzierżoniowskim |url=https://doba.pl/ddz/artykul/policja-o-zwierzchnictwie-nad-straza-miejska-w-powiecie-dzierzoniowskim-/44242/15/noa123 |access-date=2 December 2020 |website=doba.pl|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220512144011/https://doba.pl/ddz/artykul/policja-o-zwierzchnictwie-nad-straza-miejska-w-powiecie-dzierzoniowskim-/44242/15/noa123 |archive-date=12 May 2022 }}</ref>

The [[Internal Security Agency]] (ABW, or ISA in English) is the chief [[Intelligence agency|counterintelligence instrument]] safeguarding Poland's internal security, along with [[Agencja Wywiadu]] (AW) which identifies threats and collects secret information abroad.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Agencja Wywiadu |url=https://aw.gov.pl/rekrutacja/ |website=aw.gov.pl |access-date=2 December 2020 |archive-date=12 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220512144013/https://aw.gov.pl/rekrutacja/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Centralne Biuro Śledcze Policji|Central Investigation Bureau of Police]] (CBŚP) and the [[Central Anticorruption Bureau]] (CBA) are responsible for countering organised crime and corruption in state and private institutions.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Antykorupcyjne |first=Centralne Biuro |title=Aktualności |url=https://cba.gov.pl/pl/aktualnosci |website=Centralne Biuro Antykorupcyjne |access-date=2 December 2020 |archive-date=21 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220621111256/https://www.cba.gov.pl/pl/aktualnosci/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Internet |first=J. S. K. |title=Status prawny |url=http://bip.cbsp.policja.gov.pl/CBS/status-prawny-1/8969,Status-prawny.html |website=Centralne Biuro Śledcze Policji |access-date=2 December 2020 |archive-date=14 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220614084606/http://bip.cbsp.policja.gov.pl/CBS/status-prawny-1/8969,Status-prawny.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Emergency services in Poland consist of the [[Emergency medical services in Poland|emergency medical services]], [[Search and rescue#Poland|search and rescue]] units of the [[Polish Armed Forces]] and [[State Fire Service]]. Emergency medical services in Poland are operated by local and regional governments,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Projekt ustawy o krajowym systemie ratowniczym |url=http://orka.sejm.gov.pl/proc4.nsf/projekty/2947_p.htm |website=orka.sejm.gov.pl |access-date=2 December 2020 |archive-date=12 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220512144014/http://orka.sejm.gov.pl/proc4.nsf/projekty/2947_p.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> but are a part of the centralised national agency – the [[Emergency medical services in Poland|National Medical Emergency Service]] (''Państwowe Ratownictwo Medyczne'').<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ustawa z dnia 25 lipca 2001 r. o Państwowym Ratownictwie Medycznym. |url=http://isap.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/DocDetails.xsp?id=WDU20011131207 |access-date=10 August 2021 |website=isap.sejm.gov.pl |archive-date=17 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220617204857/https://isap.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/DocDetails.xsp?id=WDU20011131207 |url-status=live }}</ref> Thanks to its location, Poland is a country essentially free from the threat of natural disasters such as [[earthquakes]], [[volcanic eruptions]], [[tornadoes]] and [[tropical cyclones]]. However, [[flood]]s have occurred in low-lying areas from time to time during periods of extreme rainfall, for example during the [[2010 Central European floods]].

== Economy ==
{{Main|Economy of Poland}}

{| class="wikitable floatright"
|+'''Economic indicators'''
! scope="row" | [[Gross domestic product|GDP (PPP)]]
|$2.019 trillion <small>(2025)</small><ref name="IMFWEO.PL" />
|-
! scope="row" | Nominal GDP
|$1.039 trillion <small>(2025)</small><ref name="IMFWEO.PL" />
|-
! scope="row" | Real GDP growth
|2.9% <small>(2024)</small><ref>{{cite web |date=2025 |title=Economic forecast for Poland |url=https://economy-finance.ec.europa.eu/economic-surveillance-eu-economies/poland/economic-forecast-poland_en |website=economy-finance.ec.europa.eu |publisher=European Commission |access-date=20 June 2024 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Consumer price index|CPI]] inflation
|2.5% <small>(May 2024)</small><ref>{{Cite web |title=Inflation Report, Monetary Policy Council |publisher=Narodowy Bank Polski (National Bank of Poland) |url=https://nbp.pl/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/Raport-o-inflacji-lipiec-2024-ANG.pdf |access-date=11 November 2024 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Employment-to-population ratio|Employment-to-population]]
|57% <small>(2022)</small><ref>{{Cite web |title=Employment to population ratio, 15+, total (%) (modeled ILO estimate) – Poland &#124; Data |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.EMP.TOTL.SP.ZS?locations=PL |website=data.worldbank.org |access-date=5 December 2020 |archive-date=13 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210513023302/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.EMP.TOTL.SP.ZS?locations=PL |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | Unemployment
|2.8% <small>(2025)</small><ref name="IMFWEO.PL" />
|-
! scope="row" | [[National debt|Total public debt]]
|$502.3 billion <small>(2024)</small><ref>{{Cite web |title=Poland National Debt 2020 |url=https://countryeconomy.com/national-debt/poland |website=countryeconomy.com |access-date=5 December 2020 |archive-date=2 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130202163222/https://countryeconomy.com/national-debt/poland |url-status=live }}</ref>
|}

Poland has a [[social market economy]] and is a regional [[economic power]] in [[East-Central Europe]].<ref name="Kochanski&Partners">{{cite web |author=Editorial Office |date=2025 |title=Why Poland. Guide to doing business in Poland |url=https://www.kochanski.pl/en/why-poland-2/ |website=kochanski.pl |location=Warsaw, Poland |publisher=Kochański & Partners Business Law Firm |access-date=21 February 2025}}</ref> {{As of|2023}}, the country's gross domestic product (GDP) is the sixth largest in the European Union by [[Economy of the European Union|nominal standards]], and the fifth largest by [[List of sovereign states in Europe by GDP (PPP)|purchasing power parity]]. It is one of the fastest growing within the Union and reached a [[developed market]] status in 2018.<ref>{{Cite web |date=September 2018 |title=Poland promoted to developed market status by FTSE Russell |url=https://emerging-europe.com/news/poland-promoted-to-developed-market-status-by-ftse-russell/#:~:text=Global%20index%20provider%20FTSE%20Russell,%2C%20France%2C%20Japan%20and%20Australia. |access-date=1 January 2021 |website=Emerging Europe |archive-date=9 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109210429/https://emerging-europe.com/news/poland-promoted-to-developed-market-status-by-ftse-russell/#:~:text=Global%20index%20provider%20FTSE%20Russell,%2C%20France%2C%20Japan%20and%20Australia. |url-status=live }}</ref> The unemployment rate published by [[Eurostat]] in 2023 amounted to 2.8%, which was the second-lowest in the EU.<ref name="Ministry of Family and Social Policy">{{Cite web |title=Lowest unemployment in the EU. Poland on the podium – Ministry of Family and Social Policy – Gov.pl website |url=https://www.gov.pl/web/family/lowest-unemployment-in-the-eu-poland-on-the-podium |access-date=21 December 2023 |website=Ministry of Family and Social Policy |language=en-GB |archive-date=21 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231221070334/https://www.gov.pl/web/family/lowest-unemployment-in-the-eu-poland-on-the-podium |url-status=live }}</ref> {{As of|2023}}, around 62% of the employed population works in the [[Tertiary sector of the economy|service sector]], 29% in manufacturing, and 8% in the agricultural sector, thus manifesting a highly [[Economic diversity|diversified economy]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pracujący w rolnictwie, przemyśle i usługach {{!}} RynekPracy.org |url=https://rynekpracy.org/statystyki/pracujacy-w-rolnictwie-przemysle-i-uslugach/ |access-date=21 December 2023 |language=pl-PL |archive-date=25 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200425100036/https://rynekpracy.org/statystyki/pracujacy-w-rolnictwie-przemysle-i-uslugach/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Although Poland is a member of the [[European single market]], the country has not adopted the [[Euro]] as legal tender and maintains its own currency – the [[Polish złoty]] (zł, PLN).<ref name="IM">{{cite book |author=IMF Monetary and Capital Markets Department |date=2022 |title=Annual Report on Exchange Arrangements and Exchange Restrictions |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KQLOEAAAQBAJ |publisher=International Monetary Fund |isbn=979-8-4002-3526-9 |access-date=21 February 2025}}</ref>

[[File:Calle Dlugie Pobrzeze, Gdansk, Polonia, 2013-05-20, DD 05.jpg|thumb|right|[[Gdańsk]], located on the [[Baltic Sea|Baltic]] in the north of Poland, is a major [[seaport]] as well as an economic and tourist zone.]]

Poland is a regional European leader in terms of [[foreign direct investment]]<ref name=wb>{{cite web |author=World Bank |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/BX.KLT.DINV.CD.WD |title=Foreign direct investment, net inflows (BoP, current US$) |website=data.worldbank.org |access-date=21 February 2025}}</ref> and possesses around 40 percent of the 500 biggest companies in the region by revenues whilst maintaining a [[Globalisation index|high globalisation rate]] and relatively high economic competitiveness.<ref name="Polish economy seen as stable and competitive" /><ref name="IMD">{{cite web |author=IMD Editorial Office |date=2022 |title=World Competitiveness Ranking |url=https://www.imd.org/centers/wcc/world-competitiveness-center/rankings/world-competitiveness-ranking/rankings/wcr-rankings/#_tab_Rank |website=imd.org |location=Lausanne |publisher=International Institute for Management Development |access-date=21 February 2025}}</ref> The country's largest firms compose the [[WIG20]] and [[WIG30]] [[stock market index]]es, which are traded on the [[Warsaw Stock Exchange]].<ref name="Zarzecki&Dietl">{{cite book |last1=Zarzecki |first1=Dariusz |last2=Dietl |first2=Marek |date=2022 |title=Understanding the Polish Capital Market |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L-GgEAAAQBAJ |location=Abingdon |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-000-81775-1 |access-date=21 February 2025}}</ref> The [[Central Statistical Office (Poland)|Central Statistical Office]] estimated that in 2014 there were 1,437 Polish corporations with interests in 3,194 foreign entities.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dorota Ciesielska-Maciągowska |date=5 April 2016 |title=Hundreds of foreign companies taken over by Polish firms over the last decade |url=http://www.financialobserver.eu/poland/hundreds-of-foreign-companies-taken-over-by-polish-firms-over-the-last-decade/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160413020602/http://www.financialobserver.eu/poland/hundreds-of-foreign-companies-taken-over-by-polish-firms-over-the-last-decade/ |archive-date=13 April 2016 |access-date=17 June 2017 |website=Central European Financial Observer |language=en }}</ref> Poland also has the largest banking sector in Central Europe,<ref>Thomas White International (September 2011), [https://web.archive.org/web/20130913074250/http://www.thomaswhite.com/global-perspectives/banking-sector-in-poland/ Prominent Banks in Poland.] Emerging Market Spotlight. Banking Sector in Poland (Internet Archive). Retrieved 6 November 2014.</ref> with 32.3 branches per 100,000 adults.<ref>Worldbank.org, [http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTGLOBALFINREPORT/Resources/8816096-1361888425203/9062080-1364927957721/GFDR-2014_Statistical_Appendix_B.pdf Global Financial Development Report 2014.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190807165701/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTGLOBALFINREPORT/Resources/8816096-1361888425203/9062080-1364927957721/GFDR-2014_Statistical_Appendix_B.pdf |date=7 August 2019 }} Appendix B. Key Aspects of Financial Inclusion (PDF file, direct download). Retrieved 6 November 2014.</ref>  The monetary policy is determined by the [[National Bank of Poland]] (NBP), which controls the issuing of the national currency.<ref name="IM"/> It was the only European economy to have avoided the [[Great Recession|recession of 2008]].<ref name="Schwab 2011" /> Since 2019, workers under the age of 26 are exempt from paying the [[income tax]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Ivana Kottasová |date=30 July 2019 |title=Brain drain claimed 1.7 million youths. So this country is scrapping its income tax |work=CNN |url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/07/30/europe/poland-income-tax-youths-intl/index.html |access-date=30 July 2019 |archive-date=30 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190730082114/https://www.cnn.com/2019/07/30/europe/poland-income-tax-youths-intl/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

The country is the [[List of countries by exports|19th largest exporter]] of goods and [[List of countries by service exports|services]] in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Country Comparisons – Exports |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/exports/country-comparison/ |website=cia.gov |access-date=11 November 2024 }}</ref> Exports of goods and services are valued at approximately 58% of GDP, as of 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Exports of goods and services (% of GDP) {{!}} Data |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NE.EXP.GNFS.ZS |access-date=6 September 2021 |website=data.worldbank.org |archive-date=25 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100425022501/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NE.EXP.GNFS.ZS |url-status=live }}</ref> Poland's largest trade partners are Germany, the United Kingdom, the [[Czech Republic]], France, Italy, the [[Netherlands]], and the [[United States]].<ref name="OEC">{{cite web |author=OEC Data Team |date=2023 |title=Poland |url=https://oec.world/en/profile/country/pol |website=oec.world |publisher=The Observatory of Economic Complexity |access-date=21 February 2025}}</ref> Among its lead exports are motor cars, buses, and vehicle-related accessories, machinery, [[electronics]], [[electric batteries]], [[home appliance]]s, furniture, cosmetics, military equipment, and [[tobacco]] as well as materials such as silver, [[copper]], [[steel]], [[List of countries by coal production|coal]], [[zinc]], [[tar]], and [[Coke (fuel)|coke]].<ref name="OEC"/> In 2023, the country produced 1300 tonnes of silver and was the 5th largest silver producer globally.<ref>{{Cite web |title=USGS Silver Production Statistics |url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2024/mcs2024.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241220035538/https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2024/mcs2024.pdf |archive-date=December 20, 2024 |access-date=December 23, 2024}}</ref> As of 2025, Poland holds the world's 12th largest [[gold reserve]], estimated at 509 tonnes.<ref>{{cite web |date=2 May 2025 |title=World Official Gold Holdings - International Financial Statistics, 2 May 2025 |url=https://www.gold.org/goldhub/data/gold-reserves-by-country |url-access=registration |access-date=6 June 2025 |website=World Gold Council}}</ref>

=== Tourism ===
{{Main|Tourism in Poland}}

[[File:Malbork zamek wysoki i sredni (dron).jpg|thumb|right| [[Malbork Castle]] is the largest castle in the world measured by land area and a [[List of World Heritage Sites in Poland|UNESCO World Heritage Site]].]]
In 2020, the total value of the [[Tourism|tourism industry]] in Poland was 104.3 billion [[Polish złoty|PLN]], then equivalent to 4.5% of the Polish GDP.<ref name="oecdtourism">{{cite book |author=OECD |date=2022 |title=Tourism Trends and Policies |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VISeEAAAQBAJ&dq=gdp+tourism+poland&pg=PA251 |publisher=OECD Publishing |page=251 |isbn=
978-92-64-48119-0}}</ref> Tourism contributes considerably to the overall economy and makes up a relatively large proportion of the country's service market.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Press Release |date=5 November 2012 |title=International tourism strong despite uncertain economy |url=http://www2.unwto.org/en/press-release/2012-11-05/international-tourism-strong-despite-uncertain-economy |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130218231404/http://www2.unwto.org/en/press-release/2012-11-05/international-tourism-strong-despite-uncertain-economy |archive-date=18 February 2013 |access-date=6 February 2013 |publisher=World Tourism Organization UNWTO}}</ref> Nearly 200,000 people were employed in the [[Hospitality industry|accommodation and catering]] (hospitality) sector in 2020.<ref name="oecdtourism"/> In 2021, Poland ranked [[World Tourism rankings|12th most visited country]] in the world by international arrivals.<ref name="unwto">{{cite journal |author= |date=May 2023 |title=World Tourism Barometer |url=https://webunwto.s3.eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/2023-05/UNWTO_Barom23_02_May_EXCERPT_final.pdf?VersionId=gGmuSXlwfM1yoemsRrBI9ZJf.Vmc9gYD |journal=World Tourism Organization |volume=21 |issue=2 |access-date=8 July 2024 |archive-date=2 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230802171252/https://webunwto.s3.eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/2023-05/UNWTO_Barom23_02_May_EXCERPT_final.pdf?VersionId=gGmuSXlwfM1yoemsRrBI9ZJf.Vmc9gYD}}</ref>

Tourist attractions in Poland vary, from the mountains in the south to the wide sandy beaches Baltic Sea in the north. Many trail of rich architectural and cultural heritage. Among the most recognisable landmarks are Old Towns in [[Kraków Old Town|Kraków]], [[Warsaw Old Town|Warsaw]], [[Wrocław]] ([[Wrocław's dwarfs|dwarf statues]]), [[Gdańsk]], [[Poznań]], [[Lublin]], [[Toruń]] and [[Zamość]] as well as museums, zoological gardens, theme parks and the [[Wieliczka Salt Mine]], with its labyrinthine tunnels, [[underground lake]] and chapels carved by miners out of [[rock salt]] beneath the ground. There are [[List of castles in Poland|over 100 castles]] in the country, largely within the [[Lower Silesian Voivodeship]] (including the Piast Castles Trail), and also on the [[Trail of the Eagles' Nests]]; the largest castle in the world by land area is situated in [[Malbork Castle|Malbork]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pickup |first=Gilly |title=The 50 Greatest Castles and Palaces of the World |date=7 March 2019 |publisher=Icon Books |isbn=978-1-78578-458-3}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Neil Wilson |title=Poland |last2=Tom Parkinson |last3=Richard Watkins |publisher=Lonely Planet |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-74059-522-3 |chapter=The Eagles' Nests}}</ref> The German [[Auschwitz concentration camp]] in [[Oświęcim]], and the [[Skull Chapel]] in [[Kudowa-Zdrój]] constitute [[dark tourism]].<ref name="Watts">{{cite book |last1=Watts |first1=Robin |last2=Parks |first2=Zishan |date=2018 |title=Development of Tourism and Travel Industry |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=guTEDwAAQBAJ&dq=skull+chapel+dark+tourism+poland&pg=PA3 |publisher=EDTECH |page=3 |isbn=978-1-83947-437-8}}</ref> Regarding nature based travel, notable sites include the [[Masurian Lake District]] and [[Białowieża Forest]] in the east; on the south [[Karkonosze]], the [[Table Mountains]] and the [[Tatra Mountains]], where [[Rysy]] and the [[Orla Perć|Eagle's Path]] trail are located. The [[Pieniny]] and [[Bieszczady Mountains]] lie in the extreme south-east.<ref name="UNTWO 2008" />

=== Transport ===
{{Main|Transport in Poland}}

[[File:WK15 Wrocław Główny (2) Lichen99.jpg|thumb|[[Polish State Railways|PKP Intercity]] [[New Pendolino|Pendolino]] at the [[Wrocław Główny railway station|Wrocław railway station]]]]
Transport in Poland is provided by means of [[Rail transport in Poland|rail]], [[Highways in Poland|road]], [[Polish Merchant Navy|marine shipping]] and [[List of airports in Poland|air travel]]. The country is part of EU's [[Schengen Area]] and is an important transport hub due to its strategic geographical position in Central Europe.<ref>{{Cite web |title=PAIH &#124; Transport |url=https://www.paih.gov.pl/poland_in_figures/transport |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220512144011/https://www.paih.gov.pl/poland_in_figures/transport |archive-date=12 May 2022 |access-date=3 July 2020 |website=www.paih.gov.pl }}</ref> Some of the longest European routes, including the [[European route E30|E30]] and [[European route E40|E40]], run through Poland. The country has a good network of [[Highways in Poland|highways]] consisting of [[Limited-access road|express roads]] and [[Controlled-access highway|motorways]]. As of August 2023, Poland has the world's [[List of countries by road network size|21st-largest road network]], maintaining over {{cvt|5000|km}} of highways in use.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Generalna Dyrekcja Dróg Krajowych i Autostrad |url=https://www.gov.pl/web/gddkia |website=www.gddkia.gov.pl |access-date=6 August 2023 |archive-date=5 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230805223843/https://www.gov.pl/web/gddkia |url-status=live }}</ref> In larger cities, [[public transport]] is heavily utilised; some of Poland's [[List of largest tram and light rail transit systems ever|tram and light rail transit systems]] are among the world's largest, with Europe's biggest rolling stock.{{citation needed|date=December 2025|reason=Was cited to "ReportLinker", a site that does not cite its own sources with a chatgpt utm tag.}}

In 2022, the nation had {{convert|19393|km}} of railway track, the third longest in the European Union after Germany and France.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Linie kolejowe w Polsce |url=https://utk.gov.pl/pl/aktualnosci/20336,Linie-kolejowe-w-Polsce.html?search=6784142599555 |access-date=26 November 2023 |website=utk.gov.pl |archive-date=27 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230827100942/https://utk.gov.pl/pl/aktualnosci/20336,Linie-kolejowe-w-Polsce.html?search=6784142599555 |url-status=live | last1=Kolejowego | first1=Urząd Transportu }}</ref> The [[Polish State Railways]] (PKP) is the dominant railway operator, with certain major voivodeships or urban areas possessing their own [[commuter rail|commuter]] and [[regional rail]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Marinov |first1=Marin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t2ZXEAAAQBAJ&dq=polish+state+railways+largest+railway+regional&pg=PA280 |title=Sustainable Rail Transport 4: Innovate Rail Research and Education |last2=Piip |first2=Janene |date=2021 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-030-82095-4 |location=Cham |page=280 |access-date=6 August 2023 |archive-date=1 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230901114704/https://books.google.com/books?id=t2ZXEAAAQBAJ&dq=polish+state+railways+largest+railway+regional&pg=PA280 |url-status=live }}</ref> Poland has a number of international airports, the largest of which is [[Warsaw Chopin Airport]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Paweł Churski |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZIuFEAAAQBAJ&dq=largest+airport+chopin&pg=PA321 |title=Three decades of Polish socio-economic transformations: geographical perspectives |last2=Tomasz Kaczmarek |date=2022 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-031-06108-0 |location=Cham |page=321 |access-date=6 August 2023 |archive-date=1 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230901114649/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZIuFEAAAQBAJ&dq=largest+airport+chopin&pg=PA321 |url-status=live }}</ref> It is the primary global hub for [[LOT Polish Airlines]], the country's [[flag carrier]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Anne Graham |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XzkLEAAAQBAJ&dq=lot+polish+airlines+flag+carrier&pg=PT118 |title=Air Transport and Regional Development Case Studies |last2=Nicole Adler |last3=Hans-Martin Niemeier |date=2020 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-003-09207-0 |location=Abingdon |access-date=6 August 2023 |archive-date=1 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230901114702/https://books.google.com/books?id=XzkLEAAAQBAJ&dq=lot+polish+airlines+flag+carrier&pg=PT118 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Seaports exist all along Poland's Baltic coast, with most freight operations using [[Port of Świnoujście|Świnoujście]], [[Port of Police|Police]], [[Port of Szczecin|Szczecin]], [[Port of Kołobrzeg|Kołobrzeg]], [[Port of Gdynia|Gdynia]], [[Port of Gdańsk|Gdańsk]] and [[Elbląg]] as their base. The [[Port of Gdańsk]] is the only port in the [[Baltic Sea]] adapted to receive oceanic vessels. [[Polferries]] and [[Unity Line]] are the largest Polish ferry operators, with the latter providing [[roll-on/roll-off]] and [[train ferry]] services to [[Scandinavia]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Gennady Fedorov |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VEa5DwAAQBAJ&dq=%22polferries%22+unity+line+poland&pg=PA203 |title=Baltic Region—The Region of Cooperation |last2=Alexander Druzhinin |last3=Elena Golubeva |last4=Dmitry Subetto |last5=Tadeusz Palmowski |date=2019 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-030-14519-4 |location=Cham |page=203 |access-date=6 August 2023 |archive-date=1 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230901114645/https://books.google.com/books?id=VEa5DwAAQBAJ&dq=%22polferries%22+unity+line+poland&pg=PA203 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Energy ===
{{main|Energy in Poland}}

The electricity generation sector in Poland is largely [[Fossil fuel|fossil-fuel]]–based. Coal production in Poland is a major source of employment and the largest source of the nation's [[greenhouse gas emissions]].<ref name="International Energy Agency 2022">{{Cite web |last=International Energy Agency |author-link=International Energy Agency |date=20 May 2022 |title=Poland – Countries & Regions |url=https://www.iea.org/countries/poland |access-date=24 May 2022 |publisher=IEA |location=Paris |archive-date=24 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220524015401/https://www.iea.org/countries/poland |url-status=live }}</ref> Many power plants nationwide use Poland's position as a major European exporter of coal to their advantage by continuing to use coal as the primary raw material in the production of their energy. The three largest Polish coal mining firms ([[Węglokoks]], [[Kompania Węglowa]] and [[Jastrzębska Spółka Węglowa|JSW]]) extract around 100 million tonnes of coal annually.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Poland. Summary of Coal Industry. |url=https://www.globalmethane.org/documents/toolsres_coal_overview_ch27.pdf |access-date=5 March 2022 |archive-date=21 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121082617/https://www.globalmethane.org/documents/Toolsres_coal_overview_ch27.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> After coal, Polish energy supply relies significantly on oil—the nation is the third-largest buyer of Russian oil exports to the EU.<ref>{{Cite web |last=International Energy Agency |author-link=International Energy Agency |date=13 April 2022 |title=Frequently Asked Questions on Energy Security |url=https://www.iea.org/articles/frequently-asked-questions-on-energy-security |access-date=27 April 2022 |publisher=IEA |location=Paris |archive-date=16 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116162240/https://www.iea.org/articles/frequently-asked-questions-on-energy-security |url-status=live }}</ref>

The new [[Energy in Poland|Energy Policy of Poland until 2040]] (EPP2040) would reduce the share of coal and [[lignite]] in electricity generation by 25% from 2017 to 2030. The plan involves deploying new nuclear plants, increasing energy efficiency, and decarbonising the Polish transport system in order to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and prioritise long-term energy security.<ref name="International Energy Agency 2022" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Ministry of Climate and Environment |date=2 February 2021 |title=Energy Policy of Poland until 2040 (EPP2040) |url=https://www.gov.pl/web/climate/energy-policy-of-poland-until-2040-epp2040 |access-date=24 May 2022 |website=Ministry of Climate and Environment of Poland |language=en-GB |archive-date=24 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220524122522/https://www.gov.pl/web/climate/energy-policy-of-poland-until-2040-epp2040 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Science and technology ===
{{Main|Timeline of Polish science and technology|List of Polish Nobel laureates}}

{{multiple image
| align             = right
| image1            = Marie Curie c. 1920s.jpg
| width1            = 130
| alt1              = Marie Curie
| caption1          = Physicist and chemist [[Maria Skłodowska-Curie]] was the first person to win two [[Nobel Prizes]].<ref name="Mould 1993" />
| image2            = Nikolaus Kopernikus MOT.jpg
| width2            = 142
| alt2              = Nicolaus Copernicus
| caption2          = Astronomer [[Nicolaus Copernicus]] formulated the [[Heliocentrism|heliocentric]] model of the [[Solar System]].
}}

Over the course of history, the Polish people have made considerable contributions in the fields of science, technology and mathematics.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Nodzyńska |first1=Małgorzata |url=http://uatacz.up.krakow.pl/~wwwchemia/pliki/ISBN_978_83_7271_768_9_From_alchemy_to_the_present_day |title=From alchemy to the present day – the choice of biographies of Polish scientists |last2=Cieśla |first2=Paweł |publisher=Pedagogical University of Kraków |year=2012 |isbn=978-83-7271-768-9 |location=Cracow |access-date=3 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303201958/http://uatacz.up.krakow.pl/~wwwchemia/pliki/ISBN_978_83_7271_768_9_From_alchemy_to_the_present_day |archive-date=3 March 2016 }}</ref> Perhaps the most renowned Pole to support this theory was [[Nicolaus Copernicus]], who triggered the [[Copernican Revolution]] by placing the [[Heliocentrism|Sun rather than the Earth at the centre of the universe]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 March 2018 |title=Nicolaus Copernicus Biography: Facts & Discoveries |url=https://www.space.com/15684-nicolaus-copernicus.html |access-date=6 April 2018 |website=[[Space.com]] |archive-date=30 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220530193602/https://www.space.com/15684-nicolaus-copernicus.html |url-status=live }}</ref> He also derived a [[quantity theory of money]], which made him a pioneer of economics. Copernicus' achievements and discoveries are considered the basis of Polish culture and cultural identity.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wolak |first=Arthur J. |title=Forced Out: The Fate of Polish Jewry in Communist Poland |date=12 March 2004 |publisher=Arthur Wolak |isbn=978-1-58736-291-0}}</ref> Poland was ranked 39th in the [[Global Innovation Index]] in 2025.<ref>{{Cite web |title=GII Innovation Ecosystems & Data Explorer 2025 |url=https://www.wipo.int/gii-ranking/en/poland |access-date=2025-10-16 |website=WIPO}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Dutta |first1=Soumitra |url=https://www.wipo.int/web-publications/global-innovation-index-2025/en/index.html |title=Global Innovation Index 2025: Innovation at a Crossroads |last2=Lanvin |first2=Bruno |publisher=[[World Intellectual Property Organization]] |year=2025 |isbn=978-92-805-3797-0 |page=19 |language=en |doi=10.34667/tind.58864 |access-date=2025-10-17}}</ref>

Poland's tertiary education institutions; traditional [[List of universities in Poland|universities]], as well as technical, medical, and economic institutions, employ around tens of thousands of researchers and staff members. There are hundreds of research and development institutes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Barcikowska |first=Renata |date=1 September 2016 |title=Research Institutes In Poland — Evaluation of Their Place and Role in Innovative Politics in Poland |url=https://content.sciendo.com/view/journals/minib/21/3/article-p141.xml |journal=Marketing of Scientific and Research Organizations |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=141–154 |doi=10.14611/minib.21.09.2016.12 |s2cid=199470591 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200501152808/https://content.sciendo.com/view/journals/minib/21/3/article-p141.xml |archive-date=1 May 2020 |via=content.sciendo.com}}</ref> However, in the 19th and 20th centuries many Polish scientists worked abroad; one of the most important of these exiles was [[Maria Skłodowska-Curie]], a physicist and chemist who lived much of her life in France. In 1925, she established Poland's [[Curie Institute (Warsaw)|Radium Institute]].<ref name="Mould 1993" />

In the first half of the 20th century, Poland was a flourishing centre of mathematics. Outstanding Polish mathematicians formed the [[Lwów School of Mathematics]] (with [[Stefan Banach]], [[Stanisław Mazur]], [[Hugo Steinhaus]], [[Stanisław Ulam]]) and [[Warsaw School of Mathematics]] (with [[Alfred Tarski]], [[Kazimierz Kuratowski]], [[Wacław Sierpiński]] and [[Antoni Zygmund]]). Numerous mathematicians, scientists, chemists or economists emigrated due to historic vicissitudes, among them [[Benoit Mandelbrot]], [[Leonid Hurwicz]], [[Alfred Tarski]], [[Joseph Rotblat]] and Nobel Prize laureates [[Roald Hoffmann]], [[Georges Charpak]] and [[Tadeusz Reichstein]].

== Demographics ==
{{Main|Demographics of Poland|List of cities and towns in Poland|Metropolitan areas in Poland|Polish people|Polish diaspora}}

[[File:Plac Narutowicza Warsaw 2023 skyline aerial (cropped).jpg|thumb|[[Warsaw]] is the largest [[List of cities and towns in Poland|city in Poland]], and an [[Economy of Poland|economic hub of the country]].]]

Poland has a population of approximately 38.2 million as of 2021, and is the [[List of European countries by population|ninth-most populous country]] in Europe, as well as the fifth-most populous member state of the [[European Union]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Statistics Poland |url=https://stat.gov.pl/en/national-census/national-population-and-housing-census-2021/national-population-and-housing-census-2021/preliminary-results-of-the-national-population-and-housing-census-2021,1,1.html |title=Preliminary results of the National Population and Housing Census 2021 |date=2021 |publisher=Główny Urząd Statystyczny GUS |page=1 |language=en |access-date=6 March 2022 |archive-date=6 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220306123848/https://stat.gov.pl/en/national-census/national-population-and-housing-census-2021/national-population-and-housing-census-2021/preliminary-results-of-the-national-population-and-housing-census-2021,1,1.html |url-status=live }}</ref> It has a population density of {{convert|122|/km2|/mi2|disp=preunit|inhabitants&nbsp;|inhabitants|}}.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Statistics Poland |url=https://stat.gov.pl/en/topics/population/population/area-and-population-in-the-territorial-profile-in-2021,4,15.html |title=Area and population in the territorial profile |date=2021 |publisher=Główny Urząd Statystyczny GUS |page=20 |language=en, pl |access-date=6 March 2022 |archive-date=6 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220306132200/https://stat.gov.pl/en/topics/population/population/area-and-population-in-the-territorial-profile-in-2021,4,15.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[total fertility rate]] was estimated at 1.2 children born to a woman in 2023, which is [[List of sovereign states and dependencies by total fertility rate|among the world's lowest]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Fertility rate, total (births per woman) – Poland |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.TFRT.IN?locations=PL |access-date=8 June 2025 |website=[[World Bank]]}}</ref> Furthermore, Poland's population is [[List of countries by median age|aging significantly]], and the country has a [[median age]] of 42.2.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Median age |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/median-age/country-comparison/ |access-date=21 December 2023 |website=www.cia.gov |archive-date=21 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231221070333/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/median-age/country-comparison/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Around 60% of the country's population lives in urban areas or major cities and 40% in rural zones.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Urban population (% of the population) – Poland |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.URB.TOTL.IN.ZS?locations=PL |access-date=13 March 2022 |website=[[World Bank]] |archive-date=31 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531090338/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.URB.TOTL.IN.ZS?locations=PL |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2020, 50.2% of Poles resided in [[detached dwelling]]s and 44.3% in apartments.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020 |title=Distribution of population by degree of urbanisation, dwelling type and income group – EU-SILC survey |url=https://appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/submitViewTableAction.do |access-date=6 April 2022 |website=European Statistical Office "Eurostat" |publisher=European Commission |archive-date=21 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230121154457/https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/main/eurostat/web/main/help/faq/data-services |url-status=live }}</ref> The most populous administrative province or state is the [[Masovian Voivodeship]] and the most populous city is the capital, [[Warsaw]], at 1.8 million inhabitants with a further 2–3 million people living in its [[Warsaw metropolitan area|metropolitan area]].<ref>[http://www.mrr.gov.pl/polityka_regionalna/SRPW_2020/Dokumenty%20i%20ekspertyzy/Documents/17d0ccd2c3f14ed3893369e56d59849cMarkowski.pdf Funkcje Metropolitalne Pięciu Stolic Województw Wschodnich] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090327120341/http://www.mrr.gov.pl/polityka_regionalna/SRPW_2020/Dokumenty%20i%20ekspertyzy/Documents/17d0ccd2c3f14ed3893369e56d59849cMarkowski.pdf |date=27 March 2009 }} – [[:pl:Tadeusz Markowski (ekonomista)|Markowski]]</ref><ref>[https://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wup2003/2003WUPHighlights.pdf ''World Urbanization Prospects''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120716184129/http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wup2003/2003WUPHighlights.pdf |date=16 July 2012 }} – United Nations – Department of Economic and Social Affairs / Population Division, The 2003 Revision (data of 2000)</ref><ref>[[Eurostat]], [http://www.urbanaudit.org/DataAccessed.aspx Urban Audit database] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110406130058/http://www.urbanaudit.org/DataAccessed.aspx |date=6 April 2011 }}, accessed on 12 March 2009. Data for 2004.</ref> The [[Katowice urban area|metropolitan area]] of [[Katowice]] is the largest urban [[conurbation]] with a population between 2.7 million<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cox |first=Wendell |date=2013 |title=Major Metropolitan Areas in Europe |url=http://www.newgeography.com/content/003879-major-metropolitan-areas-europe |website=New Geography |publisher=Joel Kotkin and Praxis Strategy Group |access-date=14 May 2021 |archive-date=31 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531075700/http://www.newgeography.com/content/003879-major-metropolitan-areas-europe |url-status=live }}</ref> and 5.3 million residents.<ref>[[European Spatial Planning Observation Network]], [https://www.espon.eu/sites/default/files/attachments/fr-1.4.3_April2007-final.pdf Study on Urban Functions (Project 1.4.3)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924002318/http://www.espon.eu/export/sites/default/Documents/Projects/ESPON2006Projects/StudiesScientificSupportProjects/UrbanFunctions/fr-1.4.3_April2007-final.pdf |date=24 September 2015 }}, Final Report, Chapter 3, (ESPON, 2007)</ref> Population density is higher in the south of Poland and mostly concentrated in [[Upper Silesia]], between the cities of [[Wrocław]] and [[Kraków]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jażdżewska |first=Iwona |date=September 2017 |title=Changes in population density of the urban population in southern Poland in the period 1950–2011 against the background of political and economic transformation |journal=Miscellanea Geographica |publisher=Sciendo |volume=21 |pages=107–113 |doi=10.1515/mgrsd-2017-0017 |issn=2084-6118 |s2cid=134111630 |doi-access=free |number=3|bibcode=2017MiscG..21..107J }}</ref>

[[File:2024-03 Katowice archikatedra taras (5) (cropped).jpg|upright=1|thumb|left|The [[Katowice urban area|metropolitan area]] of [[Katowice]] is the largest urban [[conurbation]], with [[Upper Silesia]] being the most densely populated region in Poland.]]

In the [[Polish census of 2011|2011 Polish census]], 37,310,341 people reported [[Polish people|Polish]] identity, 846,719 [[Silesians|Silesian]], 232,547 [[Kashubians|Kashubian]] and 147,814 [[German minority in Poland|German]]. Other [[Polish people#National minorities|identities]] were reported by 163,363 people (0.41%) and 521,470 people (1.35%) did not specify any nationality.<ref name="Central Statistical Office 2015">{{Cite book |url=https://stat.gov.pl/files/gfx/portalinformacyjny/pl/defaultaktualnosci/5670/22/1/1/struktura_narodowo-etniczna.pdf |title=Struktura narodowo-etniczna, językowa i wyznaniowa ludności Polski. Narodowy Spis Powszechny Ludności i Mieszkań 2011 |publisher=Central Statistical Office |year=2015 |isbn=978-83-7027-597-6 |page=36 |language=pl |trans-title=National-ethnic, linguistic and religious structure of Poland. National Census of Population and Housing 2011 |access-date=26 April 2018 |archive-date=8 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190808010836/https://stat.gov.pl/files/gfx/portalinformacyjny/pl/defaultaktualnosci/5670/22/1/1/struktura_narodowo-etniczna.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Official population statistics do not include migrant workers who do not possess a permanent residency permit or [[Karta Polaka]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Statistics Poland |url=https://stat.gov.pl/cps/rde/xbcr/gus/p_inter_migration_stat_system_in_poland.pdf |title=The Concept of the International Migration. Statistics System in Poland. |date=n.d. |publisher=Główny Urząd Statystyczny GUS |page=5 |language=en |access-date=6 March 2022 |archive-date=28 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220128120002/https://stat.gov.pl/cps/rde/xbcr/gus/p_inter_migration_stat_system_in_poland.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> More than 1.7 million [[Ukrainians|Ukrainian]] citizens worked legally in Poland in 2017.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Filling Poland's labour gap |work=Poland Today |url=https://poland-today.pl/filling-polands-labour-gap/ |access-date=24 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220512144010/https://poland-today.pl/filling-polands-labour-gap/ |archive-date=12 May 2022}}</ref> The number of migrants is rising steadily; the country approved 504,172 work permits for foreigners in 2021 alone.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Departament Rynku Pracy MRPiPS |date=2021 |title=Zezwolenia na pracę cudzoziemców |url=https://psz.praca.gov.pl/-/8180075-zezwolenia-na-prace-cudzoziemcow |website=psz.praca.gov.pl |language=pl |access-date=6 March 2022 |archive-date=31 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531072214/https://psz.praca.gov.pl/-/8180075-zezwolenia-na-prace-cudzoziemcow |url-status=live }}</ref>

According to the 2021 census, ethnic Poles comprise 98.84% of the population, including people who declared Polish heritage alone (96.28%) or both Polish and another ethnicity (2.56%) as responders were allowed to select up to two ethnicities. People who declared only non-Polish ethnicities made up 1.13% of the population and people who did not report their ethnicity numbered 0.03%. The province with the highest percentage of ethnic Poles was the [[Holy Cross Voivodeship]] (99.70%), and the region with the lowest share of ethnic Poles was the [[Silesian Voivodeship]] (95.49%).<ref>{{Cite web |last=GUS |title=Tablice z ostatecznymi danymi w zakresie przynależności narodowo-etnicznej, języka używanego w domu oraz przynależności do wyznania religijnego; spis 2021 |url=https://stat.gov.pl/spisy-powszechne/nsp-2021/nsp-2021-wyniki-ostateczne/tablice-z-ostatecznymi-danymi-w-zakresie-przynaleznosci-narodowo-etnicznej-jezyka-uzywanego-w-domu-oraz-przynaleznosci-do-wyznania-religijnego,10,1.html |access-date=2024-08-28 |website=stat.gov.pl |language=pl}}</ref>

{{Largest cities
| country      = Poland
| stat_ref     = Baza Demografia (GUS) 2024<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024 |title=Wyniki badan biezacych |url=https://demografia.stat.gov.pl/bazademografia/Tables.aspx}}</ref> 
| div_name     = Voivodeship

|city_1 = Warsaw
|div_1 = Masovian Voivodeship{{!}}Masovian
|pop_1 = 1,862,402

|city_2 = Kraków
|div_2 = Lesser Poland Voivodeship{{!}}Lesser Poland
|pop_2 = 807,644

|city_3 = Wrocław
|div_3 = Lower Silesian Voivodeship{{!}}Lower Silesian
|pop_3 = 673,531

|city_4 = Łódź
|div_4 = Łódź Voivodeship{{!}}Łódź
|pop_4 = 648,711

|city_5 = Poznań
|div_5 = Greater Poland Voivodeship{{!}}Greater Poland
|pop_5 = 536,818

|city_6 = Gdańsk
|div_6 = Pomeranian Voivodeship{{!}}Pomeranian
|pop_6 = 487,834

|city_7 = Szczecin
|div_7 = West Pomeranian Voivodeship{{!}}West Pomeranian
|pop_7 = 387,700

|city_8 = Lublin 
|div_8 =  Lublin Voivodeship{{!}}Lublin
|pop_8 = 328,868

|city_9 = Bydgoszcz
|div_9 = Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship{{!}}Kuyavian-Pomeranian
|pop_9 = 324,984

|city_10 = Białystok
|div_10 = Podlaskie Voivodeship{{!}}Podlaskie
|pop_10 = 290,907

|city_11 = Katowice
|div_11 = Silesian Voivodeship{{!}}Silesian
|pop_11 = 278,090

|city_12 = Gdynia
|div_12 = Pomeranian Voivodeship{{!}}Pomeranian
|pop_12 = 240,554

|city_13 = Częstochowa
|div_13 = Silesian Voivodeship{{!}}Silesian
|pop_13 = 204,703

|city_14 = Rzeszów
|div_14 = Subcarpathian Voivodeship{{!}}Subcarpathian 
|pop_14 = 197,706

|city_15 = Radom
|div_15 = Masovian Voivodeship{{!}}Masovian
|pop_15 = 194,916

|city_16 = Toruń
|div_16 = Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship{{!}}Kuyavian-Pomeranian
|pop_16 = 194,273

|city_17 = Sosnowiec
|div_17 = Silesian Voivodeship{{!}}Silesian
|pop_17 = 185,930

|city_18 = Kielce
|div_18 = Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship{{!}}Świętokrzyskie
|pop_18 = 181,211	

|city_19 = Gliwice
|div_19 = Silesian Voivodeship{{!}}Silesian
|pop_19 = 169,259

|city_20 = Olsztyn
|div_20 = Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship{{!}} Warmian-Masurian
|pop_20 = 166,697
}}

=== Languages ===
{{Main|Polish language|Languages of Poland|Bilingual communes in Poland}}

[[File:Dolina Jadwigi znak.jpg|thumb|''[[Dolina Jadwigi]]''—a [[bilingual]] Polish-[[Kashubian language|Kashubian]] road sign with the village name]]

[[Polish language|Polish]] is the [[official language|official]] and predominant spoken language in Poland, and is one of the official [[languages of the European Union]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mori |first=Laura |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=upF5DwAAQBAJ&dq=%22polish%2Bofficial%2Blanguage%2Bpoland%2Band%2BEuropean%2BUnion%22&pg=PA295 |title=Observing eurolects corpus analysis of linguistic variation in EU law |date=2018 |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company |isbn=978-90-272-0170-6 |location=Philadelphia |page=295 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=2 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002180503/https://books.google.com/books?id=upF5DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA295&dq=%22polish+official+language+poland+and+European+Union%22 |url-status=live }}</ref> It is also a [[second language]] in parts of neighbouring [[Lithuania]], where it is taught in Polish-minority schools.<ref>{{cite act |url=http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/Commun/QueVoulezVous.asp?NT=157&CM=2&DF=18/04/02&CL=ENG |title=Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities |index=157 |type=Treaty |legislature=Council of Europe |date=1 February 1995 |access-date=15 September 2021 }}{{Cite web |url=http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/Commun/QueVoulezVous.asp?NT=157&CM=2&DF=18%2F04%2F02&CL=ENG |title=Full list - Treaty Office - www.coe.int |access-date=28 March 2024 |archive-date=16 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131016045738/http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/Commun/QueVoulezVous.asp?NT=157&CM=2&DF=18%2F04%2F02&CL=ENG}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Lazdiņa |first1=Sanita |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LQ92DwAAQBAJ&q=polish%2Btaught%2Bin%2Bschools%2Bin%2Blithuania&pg=PA164 |title=Multilingualism in the Baltic States: Societal Discourses and Contact Phenomena |last2=Marten |first2=Heiko F. |date=2018 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-137-56914-1 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=24 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230724235928/https://books.google.com/books?id=LQ92DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA164&q=polish%2Btaught%2Bin%2Bschools%2Bin%2Blithuania |url-status=live }}</ref> Contemporary Poland is a linguistically [[homogeneous]] nation, with 97% of respondents declaring Polish as their mother tongue.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Natalia Kucirkova |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sUAlDwAAQBAJ&dq=%22polish%2Bmother%2Btongue%2B97%2Bpercent%22&pg=PA139 |title=The Routledge international handbook of early literacy education |last2=Catherine E Snow |last3=Vibeke Grøver |last4=Catherine McBride |date=2017 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-138-78788-9 |location=New York |page=139 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=2 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002180455/https://books.google.com/books?id=sUAlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA139&dq=%22polish+mother+tongue+97+percent%22 |url-status=live }}</ref> There are currently 15 minority languages in Poland,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Act of 6 January 2005 on national and ethnic minorities and on the regional languages |url=http://ksng.gugik.gov.pl/english/files/act_on_national_minorities.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210306175740/http://ksng.gugik.gov.pl/english/files/act_on_national_minorities.pdf |archive-date=6 March 2021 |access-date=6 April 2020 |website=GUGiK.gov.pl |publisher=Główny Urząd Geodezji i Kartografii (Head Office of Geodesy and Cartography) }}</ref> including one recognised regional language, [[Kashubian language|Kashubian]], which is spoken by approximately 100,000 people on a daily basis in the northern regions of [[Kashubia]] and [[Pomerania]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Michna |first1=Ewa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kIvgDwAAQBAJ&dq=%22kashubian%2Bregional%2Blanguage%2Bkashubia%2Bpomerania%22&pg=PA16 |title=Identity Strategies of Stateless Ethnic Minority Groups in Contemporary Poland |last2=Warmińska |first2=Katarzyna |date=2020 |publisher=Springer International Publishing |isbn=978-3-030-41575-4 |location=Cham |page=16 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=2 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002180500/https://books.google.com/books?id=kIvgDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA16&dq=%22kashubian+regional+language+kashubia+pomerania%22 |url-status=live }}</ref> Poland also recognises [[Bilingual communes in Poland|secondary administrative languages or auxiliary languages in bilingual municipalities]], where bilingual signs and placenames are commonplace.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Obwieszczenie Marszałka Sejmu Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej z dnia 5 kwietnia 2017 r. w sprawie ogłoszenia jednolitego tekstu ustawy o mniejszościach narodowych i etnicznych oraz o języku regionalnym |url=http://isap.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/DocDetails.xsp?id=WDU20170000823 |website=isap.sejm.gov.pl |access-date=11 December 2020 |archive-date=2 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220702055920/https://isap.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/DocDetails.xsp?id=WDU20170000823 |url-status=live }}</ref> According to the [[Centre for Public Opinion Research]], around 32% of Polish citizens declared knowledge of the English language in 2015.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2016 |title=O wyjazdach zagranicznych i znajomości języków obcych. |url=https://cbos.pl/SPISKOM.POL/2016/K_005_16.PDF |journal=CBOS Komunikat z Badań |language=pl |issue=5 |page=13 |issn=2353-5822 |access-date=15 March 2022 |archive-date=16 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220216121343/https://cbos.pl/SPISKOM.POL/2016/K_005_16.PDF |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Religion ===
{{Main|Religion in Poland}}

[[File:Pope John Paul II in Kraków – 1983.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Pope John Paul II|John Paul II]], born Karol Wojtyła, held the papacy between 1978 and 2005 and was the first [[Polish people|Pole]] to become [[Pope]].]]

According to the 2021 census, 71.3% of all Polish citizens adhere to the [[Catholic Church in Poland|Catholic Church]], with 6.9% identifying as having no religion and 20.6% refusing to answer.<ref name="Census 2021" />

Poland is one of the [[Religion in Europe|most religious countries in Europe]], where Catholicism remains a part of national identity and Polish-born [[Pope John Paul II]] is widely revered.<ref name="Rocca 2022">{{Cite news |last1=Rocca |first1=Francis X. |last2=Ojewska |first2=Natalia |date=19 February 2022 |title=In Traditionally Catholic Poland, the Young Are Leaving the Church |language=en-US |work=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/in-old-school-catholic-poland-youth-are-leaving-the-church-11645263383 |access-date=23 October 2023 |issn=0099-9660 |archive-date=14 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231014092223/https://www.wsj.com/articles/in-old-school-catholic-poland-youth-are-leaving-the-church-11645263383 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Graf Strachwitz |first=Rupert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ykj2DwAAQBAJ&dq=%22poland%2Bone%2Bof%2Bmost%2Breligious%2BCatholic%2Bnational%2Bidentity%22&pg=PT184 |title=Religious communities and civil society in Europe |date=2020 |publisher=De Gruyter Oldenburg |isbn=978-3-11-067299-2 |volume=II |location=Berlin |page=177 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=2 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002180456/https://books.google.com/books?id=ykj2DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT184&dq=%22poland+one+of+most+religious+Catholic+national+identity%22 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2015, 61.6% of respondents outlined that religion is of high or very high importance.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015 |title=Infographic – Religiousness of Polish inhabitants |url=https://stat.gov.pl/en/infographics-and-widgets/infographics/infographic-religiousness-of-polish-inhabitiants,4,1.html |access-date=13 March 2022 |publisher=Statistics Poland (Główny Urząd Statystyczny) |archive-date=9 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170309160430/https://stat.gov.pl/en/infographics-and-widgets/infographics/infographic-religiousness-of-polish-inhabitiants,4,1.html |url-status=live }}</ref> However, church attendance has greatly decreased in recent years; only 28% of Catholics attended [[Mass (liturgy)|mass]] weekly in 2021, down from around half in 2000.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Coppen |first=Luke |date=18 January 2023 |title=How steep is Poland's drop in Mass attendance? |url=https://www.pillarcatholic.com/p/how-steep-is-polands-drop-in-mass-attendance |access-date=23 October 2023 |website=[[The Pillar]] |language=en |archive-date=18 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231018193907/https://www.pillarcatholic.com/p/how-steep-is-polands-drop-in-mass-attendance |url-status=live }}</ref> According to ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'', "Of [the] more than 100 countries studied by the ''[[Pew Research Center]]'' in 2018, Poland was [[Secularization|secularising]] the fastest, as measured by the disparity between the religiosity of young people and their elders."<ref name="Rocca 2022" />

Freedom of religion in Poland is guaranteed by the Constitution, and Poland's [[concordat]] with the [[Holy See]] enables the teaching of religion in public schools.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ramet |first1=Sabrina P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hopjDQAAQBAJ&dq=%22religion%2Bin%2Bschool%2Bpoland%2Bconstitution%22&pg=PA147 |title=Religion, Politics, and Values in Poland: Continuity and Change Since 1989 |last2=Borowik |first2=Irena |date=26 October 2016 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-1-137-43751-8 |location=New York |page=147 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=2 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002180448/https://books.google.com/books?id=hopjDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA147&dq=%22religion+in+school+poland+constitution%22 |url-status=live }}</ref> Historically, the Polish state maintained a high degree of [[Warsaw Confederation|religious tolerance]] and provided asylum for refugees fleeing religious persecution in other parts of Europe.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Laursen |first1=John Christian |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AnYSxFMq48gC&dq=%22poland%2Bsafe%2Bhaven%2Breligious%2Bpersecution%2Brefugees%22&pg=PA103 |title=Beyond the Persecuting Society: Religious Toleration Before the Enlightenment |last2=Nederman |first2=Cary J. |date=2011 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-0-8122-1567-0 |location=Philadelphia |page=103 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=2 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002180450/https://books.google.com/books?id=AnYSxFMq48gC&pg=PA103&dq=%22poland+safe+haven+religious+persecution+refugees%22 |url-status=live }}</ref> Poland hosted Europe's largest [[History of the Jews in Poland|Jewish diaspora]], and the country was a centre of [[Ashkenazi Jewish]] culture and traditional learning until the [[The Holocaust|Holocaust]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Marcus |first=Joseph |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oEfDKjjX5AEC&dq=%22Poland%2Bcentre%2Bof%2Bjewish%2Bculture%22&pg=PR7 |title=Social and Political History of the Jews in Poland 1919–1939 |date=2011 |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton |isbn=978-3-11-083868-8 |location=Boston |page=7 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=2 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002180503/https://books.google.com/books?id=oEfDKjjX5AEC&pg=PR7&dq=%22Poland+centre+of+jewish+culture%22 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Contemporary religious minorities include [[Polish Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox Church]], [[Protestantism|Protestants]], including [[Lutheranism|Lutherans]] of the [[Evangelical-Augsburg Church in Poland|Evangelical-Augsburg Church]], [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostals]] in the [[Pentecostal Church in Poland]], [[Adventists]] in the [[Seventh-day Adventist Church]]. Other smaller Christian denominations include [[Eastern Catholic Churches|Eastern Catholics]], [[Mariavite Church|Mariavites]], [[Evangelicalism]] denominations.  Other religions include [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], [[History of the Jews in Poland|Jews]], [[Islam in Poland|Muslims]] ([[Tatars]]), and [[Modern Paganism|neopagans]], some of whom are members of the [[Native Polish Church]].<ref name="Central Statistical Office 2008" />

=== Health ===
{{Main|Health in Poland}}

Medical service providers and [[hospitals]] in Poland are subordinate to the [[Ministry of Health of the Republic of Poland|Ministry of Health]]; it provides administrative oversight and scrutiny of general medical practice and is obliged to maintain a high standard of [[hygiene]] and patient care. Poland has a [[Universal health care|universal healthcare system]] based on an all-inclusive [[Health insurance|insurance system]]; state subsidised healthcare is available to all citizens covered by the general health insurance programme of the [[National Health Fund]] (NFZ). Private medical complexes exist nationwide; over 50% of the population uses both public and private sectors.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Niecierpliwi |url=https://www.termedia.pl/mz/Niecierpliwi,34562.html |website=www.termedia.pl |access-date=3 December 2020 |archive-date=31 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531133259/https://www.termedia.pl/mz/Niecierpliwi,34562.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=16 September 2018 |title=Prywatnie leczy się już ponad połowa Polaków |url=https://www.money.pl/gospodarka/wiadomosci/artykul/prywatnie-leczy-sie-juz-ponad-polowa-polakow,218,0,2416090.html#:~:text=Z%20danych%20Polskiej%20Izby%20Ubezpiecze%C5%84%20wynika%2C%20%C5%BCe%20ponad%20po%C5%82owa%20Polak%C3%B3w,Tylko%2038%20proc. |access-date=3 December 2020 |archive-date=1 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220601045546/https://www.money.pl/gospodarka/wiadomosci/artykul/prywatnie-leczy-sie-juz-ponad-polowa-polakow,218,0,2416090.html#:~:text=Z%20danych%20Polskiej%20Izby%20Ubezpiecze%C5%84%20wynika%2C%20%C5%BCe%20ponad%20po%C5%82owa%20Polak%C3%B3w,Tylko%2038%20proc. |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="justlanded" />

According to the [[HDI|Human Development Report]] from 2020, the average life expectancy at birth is 79 years (around 75 years for an infant male and 83 years for an infant female);<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nations |first=United |date=2020 |title=Poland – Human Development Indicators |url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/countries/profiles/POL |publisher=United Nations Development Programme |access-date=16 December 2020 |website=Human Development Reports |archive-date=28 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190128095417/http://www.hdr.undp.org/en/countries/profiles/POL |url-status=live }}</ref> the country has a low [[infant mortality rate]] (4 per 1,000 births).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mortality rate, infant (per 1,000 live births) &#124; Data |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.IMRT.IN |website=data.worldbank.org |access-date=3 December 2020 |archive-date=25 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100425025221/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.IMRT.IN |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2019, the principal cause of death was [[ischemic heart disease]]; diseases of the [[circulatory system]] accounted for 45% of all deaths.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Poland: Country Health Profile 2019 &#124; READ online |url=https://read.oecd-ilibrary.org/social-issues-migration-health/poland-country-health-profile-2019_297e4b92-en |website=OECD iLibrary |date=28 November 2019 |access-date=3 December 2020 |archive-date=23 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211223070948/https://read.oecd-ilibrary.org/social-issues-migration-health/poland-country-health-profile-2019_297e4b92-en |url-status=live }}</ref> In the same year, Poland was also the 15th-largest importer of [[medications]] and pharmaceutical products.<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 April 2020 |title=Imports of Drugs and Medicines by Country |url=http://www.worldstopexports.com/international-markets-for-imported-drugs-by-country/ |website=World's Top Exports |access-date=3 December 2020 |archive-date=11 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211211225831/https://www.worldstopexports.com/international-markets-for-imported-drugs-by-country/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Education ===
{{Main|Education in Poland|Universities in Poland}}

[[File:Jagiellonian University Collegium Maius, courtyard, 15 Jagiellońska Street, Old Town, Kraków, Poland.jpg|thumb|[[Jagiellonian University]] in [[Kraków]], one of the world's oldest institutions of higher learning]]

The [[Jagiellonian University]] founded in 1364 by [[Casimir III the Great|Casimir III]] in [[Kraków]] was the first institution of higher learning established in Poland, and is one of the [[List of oldest universities in continuous operation|oldest universities]] still in continuous operation.<ref>{{Cite web |title=History – Jagiellonian University – Jagiellonian University |url=https://en.uj.edu.pl/en_GB/about-university/history |website=en.uj.edu.pl |access-date=3 December 2020 |archive-date=13 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211213000720/https://en.uj.edu.pl/en_GB/about-university/history |url-status=live }}</ref> Poland's [[Commission of National Education]] (''Komisja Edukacji Narodowej''), established in 1773, was the world's first state ministry of education.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jan IJ. van der Meer |url={{GBurl|id=-98Z_F7SWroC|p=233}} |title=Literary Activities and Attitudes in the Stanislavian Age in Poland (1764–1795): A Social System? |publisher=Rodopi |year=2002 |isbn=978-90-420-0933-2 |page=233 |access-date=26 April 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Norman Davies |url=https://archive.org/details/godsplaygroundhi00norm_0 |title=God's Playground: 1795 to the present |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-231-12819-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/godsplaygroundhi00norm_0/page/167 167] |oclc=660185612 |author-link=Norman Davies |url-access=registration}}</ref> In 2018, the [[Programme for International Student Assessment]], coordinated by the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]], placed Poland's educational output as one of the highest in the OECD, ranking 5th by student attainment and 6th by student performance in 2022.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/topics/education/ |title=Better life index. Education |date=2024 |website=oecdbetterlifeindex.org |publisher=OECD |access-date=5 October 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022 |title=PISA publications |url=https://www.oecd.org/pisa/publications/PISA2018_CN_POL.pdf |access-date=30 June 2022 |publisher=OECD}}</ref>

The framework for primary, secondary and higher tertiary education are established by the [[Ministry of National Education (Poland)|Ministry of Education and Science]]. One year of kindergarten is [[compulsory education|compulsory]] for six-year-olds.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Zmiany w wychowaniu przedszkolnym - Informacje - Wychowanie przedszkolne w Polsce - wiek, obowiązek, miejsce, opłaty - dlaprzedszkolaka.info |url=https://www.dlaprzedszkolaka.info/s/4146/77362-Informacje/4080018-Zmiany-w-wychowaniu-przedszkolnym.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201125190653/https://www.dlaprzedszkolaka.info/s/4146/77362-Informacje/4080018-Zmiany-w-wychowaniu-przedszkolnym.htm |archive-date=25 November 2020 |access-date=3 December 2020 |website=www.dlaprzedszkolaka.info |url-status=usurped }}</ref><ref name="Sejm 2016">{{Cite web |title=Ustawa z dnia 14 grudnia 2016 r. |url=http://isap.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/download.xsp/WDU20170000059/T/D20170059L.pdf |access-date=30 June 2022 |website=isap.sejm.gov.pl |language=pl |archive-date=10 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211110085743/http://isap.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/download.xsp/WDU20170000059/T/D20170059L.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Primary education traditionally begins at the age of seven, although children aged six can attend at the request of their parents or guardians.<ref name="Sejm 2016" /> Elementary school spans eight grades and secondary schooling is dependent on student preference – a four-year high school (''[[General education liceum|liceum]]''), a five-year technical school (''[[Technikum (Polish education)|technikum]]'') or various [[vocational school|vocational studies]] (''szkoła branżowa'') can be pursued by individual pupils.<ref name="Sejm 2016" /> A liceum or technikum is concluded with a maturity exit exam (''[[matura]]''), which must be passed in order to apply for a university or other institutions of higher learning.<ref>{{Cite web |title=MATURA 2020 &#124; wymagania na STUDIA &#124; jak wygląda &#124; terminy |url=https://www.otouczelnie.pl/artykul/4578/Matura-2020-i-wszystko-co-trzeba-o-niej-wiedziec |website=otouczelnie.pl}}</ref>

In Poland, there are over 500 university-level institutions,<ref>Central Statistical Office: [http://www.stat.gov.pl/cps/rde/xbcr/gus/PUBL_E_szkoly_wyzsze_2008.pdf Studenci szkół wyższych (łącznie z cudzoziemcami) na dzień 30 XI 2008.] Number of students at Poland's institutions of higher education, as of 30 November 2008. Retrieved 13 June 2012. Archived at [https://web.archive.org/web/20081028221046/http://www.stat.gov.pl/cps/rde/xbcr/gus/PUBL_maly_rocznik_statystyczny_2008.pdf Archive.org] on 28 October 2008. {{in lang|pl}}</ref> with numerous faculties.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Study in Poland |url=https://studies.info/en/country/poland |access-date=27 March 2019 |website=studies.info |archive-date=27 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190327090036/https://studies.info/en/country/poland }}</ref> The [[University of Warsaw]] and [[Warsaw Polytechnic]], the [[University of Wrocław]], [[Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań]] and the [[Gdańsk University of Technology|University of Technology in Gdańsk]] are among the most prominent.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ranking Uczelni Akademickich – Ranking Szkół Wyższych PERSPEKTYWY 2019 |url=http://ranking.perspektywy.pl/2019/ranking-uczelni-akademickich |website=ranking.perspektywy.pl}}</ref> There are three conventional [[academic degree]]s in Poland – ''[[Licentiate (degree)|licencjat]]'' or ''[[Bachelor's degree|inżynier]]'' (first cycle), ''[[magister (degree)|magister]]'' (second cycle) and ''[[PhD|doktor]]'' (third cycle qualification).<ref name="OECD 2009" />

== Culture ==
{{Main|Culture of Poland}}

[[File:Sigismund's Chapel 01 AB.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Coat of arms of Poland|Polish White Eagle]] is Poland's enduring [[National symbols of Poland|national and cultural symbol]].]]
The culture of Poland is closely connected with its intricate 1,000-year [[History of Poland|history]], and forms an important constituent in the [[Western world|Western civilisation]].<ref>Adam Zamoyski, The Polish Way: A Thousand Year History of the Poles and Their Culture. Published 1993, Hippocrene Books, Poland, {{ISBN|978-0-7818-0200-0}}</ref> The Poles take great pride in their national identity which is often associated with the colours white and red, and exuded by the expression ''biało-czerwoni'' ("whitereds").<ref>{{Cite web |title=Biało-Czerwoni – definicja, synonimy, przykłady użycia |url=https://sjp.pwn.pl/slowniki/Bia%C5%82o-Czerwoni.html |website=sjp.pwn.pl}}</ref> National symbols, chiefly the crowned [[white-tailed eagle]], are often visible on clothing, insignia and emblems.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jakubowska |first=Longina |year=1990 |title=Political Drama in Poland: The Use of National Symbols |journal=[[Anthropology Today]] |publisher=[[Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland]] |volume=6 |pages=10–13 |doi=10.2307/3032734 |jstor=3032734 |number=4}}</ref> The architectural monuments of great importance are protected by the [[National Heritage Board of Poland]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Zabytki nieruchome |url=https://www.nid.pl/pl/Dla_specjalistow/Badania_i_dokumentacja/zabytki-nieruchome/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200707164736/https://www.nid.pl/pl/Dla_specjalistow/Badania_i_dokumentacja/zabytki-nieruchome/ |archive-date=7 July 2020 |access-date=7 July 2020 |website=www.nid.pl}}</ref> Over 100 of the country's most significant tangible wonders were enlisted onto the [[List of Historic Monuments (Poland)|Historic Monuments Register]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Album "100 pomników historii" |url=https://www.nid.pl/pl/Dla_wlascicieli_i_zarzadcow/Aktualnosci/news.php?ID=4114 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200708061315/https://www.nid.pl/pl/Dla_wlascicieli_i_zarzadcow/Aktualnosci/news.php?ID=4114 |archive-date=8 July 2020 |access-date=7 July 2020 |website=www.nid.pl}}</ref> with further 17 being recognised by [[UNESCO]] as World Heritage Sites.<ref>{{Cite web |last=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Poland |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/pl |access-date=29 July 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre}}</ref>

=== Holidays and traditions ===
{{see also|Christmas in Poland}}
[[File:Celebración de Todos los Santos, cementerio de la Santa Cruz, Gniezno, Polonia, 2017-11-01, DD 10-12 HDR.jpg|thumb|left|[[All Saints' Day]] on 1 November is one of the most important public holidays in Poland.]]

There are 13 government-approved annual public holidays – New Year on 1 January, [[Epiphany (holiday)|Three Kings' Day]] on 6 January, [[Easter Sunday]] and [[Easter Monday]], [[International Workers' Day|Labour Day]] on 1 May, [[3 May Constitution Day|Constitution Day]] on 3 May, [[Pentecost]], [[Feast of Corpus Christi|Corpus Christi]], [[Assumption of Mary|Feast of the Assumption]] on 15 August, [[All Saints' Day]] on 1 November, [[Independence Day (Poland)|Independence Day]] on 11 November and Christmastide on 25 and 26 December.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Obwieszczenie Marszałka Sejmu Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej z dnia 19 grudnia 2014 r. w sprawie ogłoszenia jednolitego tekstu ustawy o dniach wolnych od pracy |url=http://isap.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/DocDetails.xsp?id=WDU20150000090 |website=isap.sejm.gov.pl}}</ref>

Particular traditions and superstitious customs observed in Poland are not found elsewhere in Europe. Though Christmas Eve (''[[Wigilia]]'') is not a public holiday, it remains the most memorable day of the entire year. [[Christmas trees|Trees]] are decorated on 24 December, hay is placed under the tablecloth to resemble Jesus' [[manger]], [[Christmas wafer]]s (''opłatek'') are shared between gathered guests and a [[Twelve-dish Christmas Eve supper|twelve-dish meatless supper]] is served that same evening when the [[Star of Bethlehem|first star]] appears.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Opłatek i pierwsza gwiazdka czyli wigilijne tradycje |url=http://wegorzewo.wm.pl/407437,Oplatek-i-pierwsza-gwiazdka-czyli-wigilijne-tradycje.html |website=wegorzewo.wm.pl}}</ref> An empty plate and seat are symbolically left at the table for an unexpected guest.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Why Do Poles Leave One Chair Empty on Christmas Eve? |url=https://culture.pl/en/article/why-do-poles-leave-one-chair-empty-on-christmas-eve |website=Culture.pl}}</ref> On occasion, [[Christmas carols|carolers]] journey around smaller towns with a folk [[Turoń]] creature until the [[Lent]] period.<ref>{{Cite web |title=turoń – słownik języka polskiego i poradnia językowa – Dobry słownik |url=https://dobryslownik.pl/slowo/turo%C5%84/57454/ |website=DobrySłownik.pl}}</ref>

A widely popular [[pączki|doughnut]] and sweet pastry feast occurs on [[Fat Thursday]], usually 52 days prior to Easter.<ref name="Borodo 2020">{{Cite book |last=Borodo |first=Michał |url={{GBurl|id=eUrSDwAAQBAJ|q=t%C5%82usty+czwartek|p=112}} |title=English Translations of Korczak's Children's Fiction: A Linguistic Perspective |date=22 February 2020 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-38117-2 |via=Google Books}}</ref> [[Easter egg|Eggs]] for [[Easter Sunday|Holy Sunday]] are painted and placed in decorated [[święconka|baskets]] that are previously blessed by clergymen in churches on [[Easter Saturday]]. Easter Monday is celebrated with pagan ''[[śmigus-dyngus|dyngus]]'' festivities, where the youth is engaged in water fights.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Śmigus-Dyngus: Poland's National Water Fight Day |url=https://culture.pl/en/article/smigus-dyngus-polands-national-water-fight-day |website=Culture.pl}}</ref><ref name="Borodo 2020" /> Cemeteries and graves of the deceased are annually visited by family members on All Saints' Day; tombstones are cleaned as a sign of respect and candles are lit to honour the dead on an unprecedented scale.<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 October 2018 |title=Summer in Warsaw &#124; Things You Can Do Only in Summer |url=https://www.xperiencepoland.com/all-saints-day-poland/}}</ref>

=== Music ===
{{Main|Music of Poland}}

{{multiple image
| align             = right
| image1            = Frederic Chopin photo.jpeg
| width1            = 147
| alt1              = Frédéric Chopin
| caption1          = [[Frédéric Chopin]] was a renowned classical composer and virtuoso pianist.
| image2            = Optreden Arthur Rubinstein in Concertgebouw, Bestanddeelnr 913-5228.jpg
| width2            = 139
| alt2              = Artur Rubinstein
| caption2          = [[Arthur Rubinstein|Artur Rubinstein]] was one of the greatest concert pianists of the 20th century.
}}

Artists from Poland, including famous musicians such as [[Frédéric Chopin]], [[Artur Rubinstein]], [[Ignacy Jan Paderewski]], [[Krzysztof Penderecki]], [[Henryk Wieniawski]], [[Karol Szymanowski]], [[Witold Lutosławski]], [[Stanisław Moniuszko]] and traditional, regionalised [[folk music|folk composers]] create a lively and diverse music scene, which even recognises its own music genres, such as [[sung poetry]] and [[disco polo]].<ref>{{Cite book |url={{GBurl|id=T2YLEAAAQBAJ}} |title=Individuals and Their Social Context |date=31 December 2018 |publisher=Institute of Political Studies Polish Academy of Sciences |isbn=978-83-65972-34-7 |location=Poland |page=160}}</ref>

The origins of Polish music can be traced to the 13th century; manuscripts have been found in [[Stary Sącz]] containing [[polyphony|polyphonic]] compositions related to the Parisian [[Notre Dame School]]. Other early compositions, such as the melody of ''[[Bogurodzica]]'' and ''[[God Is Born]]'' (a coronation [[Polonaise (dance)|polonaise tune]] for Polish kings by an unknown composer), may also date back to this period, however, the first known notable composer, [[Mikołaj z Radomia|Nicholas of Radom]], lived in the 15th century. [[Diomedes Cato]], a native-born Italian who lived in Kraków, became a renowned lutenist at the court of Sigismund III; he not only imported some of the musical styles from southern Europe but blended them with native folk music.<ref name="The Music Courts of the Polish Vasas" />

In the 17th and 18th centuries, Polish baroque composers wrote [[liturgical music]] and secular compositions such as concertos and [[sonata]]s for voices or instruments. At the end of the 18th century, Polish classical music evolved into national forms like the [[polonaise]]. [[Wojciech Bogusławski]] is accredited with composing the first Polish national opera, titled ''[[:pl:Krakowiacy i Górale|Krakowiacy i Górale]]'', which premiered in 1794.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wolff |first=Larry |url={{GBurl|id=tgjQYHn7BTkC}} |title=The Idea of Galicia; History and Fantasy in Habsburg Political Culture |date=9 January 2012 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-7429-1 |page=57}}</ref>

{{Listen
| header      = '''[[Fryderyk Chopin]]'''
| filename    = Frederic Chopin - mazurka no. 4 in a minor, op. 17.ogg
| title       = Mazurka no. 4 in a minor, op. 17
| description = [[Mazurka]] ({{langx|pl|mazurek}}), stylised [[folk dance]] in [[triple meter]] (1832), commemorating the [[November Uprising]]
| help        = no
| pos         = left
}}

Poland today has an active music scene, with the jazz and metal genres being particularly popular among the contemporary populace. Polish jazz musicians such as [[Krzysztof Komeda]] created a unique style, which was most famous in the 1960s and 1970s and continues to be popular to this day. Poland has also become a major venue for large-scale music festivals, chief among which are the [[Pol'and'Rock Festival]],<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.polskieradio.pl/395/7791/Artykul/3014515,Pol%E2%80%99and%E2%80%99Rock-Polands-biggest-music-fest-kicks-off |title=Pol'and'Rock: Poland's biggest music fest kicks off |website=polskieradio.pl |date=4 August 2022 |access-date=14 March 2024}}</ref> [[Open'er Festival]], [[Opole Festival]] and [[Sopot Festival]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Guillain |first=Charlotte |url={{GBurl|id=PlF8Xr90I1cC}} |title=Poland |date=2012 |publisher=Raintree |isbn=978-1-4062-2826-7 |page=29}}</ref>

=== Art ===
{{Main|Art in Poland|Young Poland}}

{{multiple image
| align             = right
| image1            = Matejko Self-portrait.jpg
| width1            = 135
| alt1              = Jan Matejko
| caption1          = [[Jan Matejko]], leading Polish [[history painting|history painter]] whose works depict Poland's heritage and key historical events
| image2            = Lady with an Ermine - Leonardo da Vinci (adjusted levels).jpg
| width2            = 150
| alt2              = Lady with an Ermine
| caption2          = ''[[Lady with an Ermine]]'' (1490) by [[Leonardo da Vinci]] is displayed in the [[Czartoryski Museum]] in Kraków.
}}

Art in Poland has invariably reflected [[Art of Europe|European]] trends, with Polish painting pivoted on [[folklore]], [[Catholic art|Catholic themes]], [[History painting|historicism]] and [[Realism (arts)|realism]], but also on [[Impressionism]] and [[Romanticism in Poland|romanticism]]. An important art movement was [[Young Poland]], developed in the late 19th century for promoting [[Decadent movement|decadence]], [[Symbolism (arts)|symbolism]] and [[Art Nouveau]]. Since the 20th century Polish documentary art and photography has enjoyed worldwide fame, especially the [[Polish School of Posters]].<ref name="MFA" /> One of the most distinguished paintings in Poland is ''[[Lady with an Ermine]]'' (1490) by [[Leonardo da Vinci]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lady with an Ermine – by Leonardo Da Vinci |url=https://www.leonardodavinci.net/lady-with-an-ermine.jsp |website=LeonardoDaVinci.net}}</ref>

Internationally renowned Polish artists include [[Jan Matejko]] (historicism), [[Jacek Malczewski]] (symbolism), [[Stanisław Wyspiański]] (art nouveau), [[Henryk Siemiradzki]] (Roman [[academic art]]), [[Tamara de Lempicka]] ([[art deco]]), and [[Zdzisław Beksiński]] (dystopian [[surrealism]]).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cross |first=Mary |url={{GBurl|id=QYHwLta1SooC|p=47}} |title=Madonna: A Biography |date=31 August 2017 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-313-33811-3 |page=47 |access-date=31 August 2017 |via=Google Books}}</ref> Several Polish artists and sculptors were also acclaimed representatives of [[avant-garde]], [[Constructivism (art)|constructivist]], [[Minimalism|minimalist]] and contemporary art movements, including [[Katarzyna Kobro]], [[Władysław Strzemiński]], [[Magdalena Abakanowicz]], [[Alina Szapocznikow]], [[Igor Mitoraj]] and [[Wilhelm Sasnal]].

Notable art academies in Poland include the [[Kraków Academy of Fine Arts]], [[Academy of Fine Arts in Warsaw]], [[Art Academy of Szczecin]], [[University of Fine Arts in Poznań]] and the [[Eugeniusz Geppert Academy of Fine Arts|Geppert Academy of Fine Arts in Wrocław]]. Contemporary works are exhibited at [[Zachęta]], [[Ujazdów Castle|Ujazdów]], and [[MOCAK, Museum of Contemporary Art in Kraków|MOCAK]] art galleries.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sarzyński |first=Piotr |date=12 February 2013 |title=Ranking polskich galerii ze współczesną sztuką |url=https://www.polityka.pl/tygodnikpolityka/kultura/1535435,1,ranking-polskich-galerii-ze-wspolczesna-sztuka.read |access-date=4 May 2021 |website=www.polityka.pl |language=pl}}</ref>

=== Architecture ===
{{main|Architecture of Poland}}

{{multiple image
| align             = right
| image1            = St Mary's Krakow.jpg
| width1            = 152
| alt1              = Saint Mary's Church in Kraków
| caption1          = [[St. Mary's Basilica, Kraków|St. Mary's Basilica]] on the [[Main Market Square, Kraków|Main Market Square]] in [[Kraków]] is an example of [[Brick Gothic]] architecture.
| image2            = Ayuntamiento, Poznan, Polonia, 2014-09-18, DD 67-72 HDR.jpg
| width2            = 133
| alt2              = Poznań City Hall
| caption2          = The 16th-century [[Poznań Town Hall|City Hall]] of [[Poznań]] illustrates the [[Renaissance in Poland|Renaissance]] style.
}}

The [[architecture of Poland]] reflects [[Architecture of Europe|European architectural]] styles, with strong historical influences derived from [[Architecture of Italy|Italy]], [[Architecture of Germany|Germany]], and the [[Low Countries]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Facca |first1=Danilo |url={{GBurl|id=-VhTDAAAQBAJ|dq=polish+architecture++italy+germany|p=16}} |title=Polish culture in the Renaissance: studies in the arts, humanism and political thought |last2=Lepri |first2=Valentina |date=2013 |publisher=University Press |isbn=978-88-6655-489-9 |location=Firenze |pages=14–16}}</ref> Settlements founded on [[Magdeburg rights|Magdeburg Law]] evolved around [[Town square|central marketplaces]] (''plac'', ''rynek''), encircled by a grid or [[Concentric objects|concentric]] network of streets forming an [[old town]] (''stare miasto'').<ref>{{Cite book |last=Magocsi |first=Paul Robert |url={{GBurl|id=p-d_DwAAQBAJ|dq=poland+central+squares+magdeburg|p=37}} |title=Historical Atlas of Central Europe – 3rd Edition |date=2018 |publisher=University Press |isbn=978-1-4875-2331-2 |location=Toronto |page=37}}</ref> Poland's traditional landscape is characterised by ornate churches, [[Kamienica (architecture)|city tenements]] and [[Ratusz|town halls]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Karczmarzyk |first=Włodzimierz |url={{GBurl|id=fWlZAAAAIAAJ|q=cities+of+poland+kamienica+churches+town+halls}} |title=Views of Polish towns |date=1990 |publisher=Interpress |isbn=83-223-2392-1 |location=Warsaw (Warszawa) |page=30}}</ref> [[Cloth hall|Cloth hall markets]] (''sukiennice'') were once an abundant feature of Polish urban architecture.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Szolginia |first=Witold |title=Architektura |date=1992 |publisher=Sigma NOT |isbn=978-83-85001-89-8 |location=Warsaw |page=152}}</ref> The mountainous south is known for its [[Zakopane Style|Zakopane chalet style]], which originated in Poland.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Brockington |first=Grace |url={{GBurl|id=jDmhStoaGsEC|dq=zakopane+chalet+style+originated+in+southern|p=116}} |title=Internationalism and the Arts in Britain and Europe at the Fin de Siècle |date=2009 |publisher=Peter Lang |isbn=978-3-03911-128-2 |location=Bern |page=116}}</ref>

The earliest architectonic trend was [[Romanesque architecture|Romanesque]] ({{circa}} 11th century), but its traces in the form of [[Rotunda (architecture)|circular rotundas]] are scarce.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Marcinek |first=Roman |url={{GBurl|id=1LkjAQAAIAAJ|q=first+style+poland+romanesque}} |title=Poland |date=2002 |publisher=Kluszczyński |isbn=978-83-88080-42-5 |location=Kraków |pages=16, 158, 170}}</ref> The arrival of [[brick Gothic]] ({{circa}} 13th century) defined Poland's most distinguishable medieval style, exuded by the castles of [[Malbork Castle|Malbork]], [[Lidzbark Castle|Lidzbark]], [[Gniew Castle|Gniew]] and [[Kwidzyn Castle|Kwidzyn]] as well as the cathedrals of [[Gniezno Cathedral|Gniezno]], [[St. Mary's Church, Gdańsk|Gdańsk]], [[Wrocław Cathedral|Wrocław]], [[Frombork Cathedral|Frombork]] and [[St. Mary's Basilica, Kraków|Kraków]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kujawińska-Courtney |first1=Krystyna |url={{GBurl|id=txwrBwAAQBAJ|dq=brick+gothic+style+poland|p=115}} |title=European Culture in Diversity |last2=Williams |first2=Evan |date=2011 |publisher=Cambridge Scholars |isbn=978-1-4438-3295-3 |location=Newcastle |pages=115–116}}</ref> The [[Renaissance in Poland|Renaissance]] (16th century) gave rise to Italianate courtyards, defensive [[palazzo]]s and [[Sigismund's Chapel|mausoleums]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Roszkowski |first=Wojciech |url={{GBurl|id=zqwSEAAAQBAJ|dq=renaissance+architecture+poland|p=45}} |title=Cultural Heritage of East Central Europe: A Historical Outline |date=2015 |publisher=Instytut Studiów Politycznych PAN |isbn=978-83-64091-55-1 |location=Warsaw (Warszawa) |pages=44–46}}</ref> Decorative [[Attic (architecture)|attics]] with [[pinnacle]]s and [[arcade (architecture)|arcade]] [[loggia]]s are elements of [[Mannerist architecture|Polish Mannerism]], found in [[Poznań]], [[Lublin]] and [[Zamość]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Miłobędzki |first=Adam |url={{GBurl|id=QAMtAQAAIAAJ|q=pa%C5%82ac%20biskup%C3%B3w%20kielce%20manieryzm}} |title=The architecture of Poland: a chapter of the European heritage |date=1994 |publisher=International Cultural Centre-Międzynarodowe Centrum Kultury w Krakowie |isbn=978-83-85739-14-2 |location=Poland |pages=52–56 |language=pl}}</ref><ref name="Mikos" /> Foreign artisans often came at the expense of kings or nobles, whose palaces were built thereafter in the [[Baroque in Poland|Baroque]], [[Neoclassical architecture in Poland|Neoclassical]] and [[Revivalism (architecture)|Revivalist]] styles (17th–19th century).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Stanley |first=John |year=2004 |title=Reviewed Work: Literary Activities and Attitudes in the Stanislavian Age in Poland (1764–1795): A Social System? by Jan I.J. van der Meer |journal=Canadian Slavonic Papers |volume=46 |issue=1/2 |pages=226–229 |jstor=40870954}}</ref>

Primary building materials [[Lumber|timber]] and [[brick|red brick]] were used extensively in Polish folk architecture,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rączka |first=Jan Władysław |url={{GBurl|id=zb8VAQAAIAAJ|q=architektura%20polski%20drewno%20ceg%C5%82a}} |title=Walka o polski styl narodowy w architekturze |date=2001 |publisher=Politechnika Krakowska |isbn=978-83-7242-153-1 |location=Poland |language=pl}}</ref> and the concept of a [[fortified church]] was commonplace.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dmochowski |first=Zbigniew |url={{GBurl|id=0oBQAAAAMAAJ|q=fortified+church+tradition+poland}} |title=The Architecture of Poland: An Historical Survey |date=1956 |publisher=Polish Research Centre |location=London |page=241 |oclc=636790894}}</ref> Secular structures such as [[Dwór (manor house)|''dworek'' manor houses]], [[farmhouses|farmsteads]], [[Granary|granaries]], [[Gristmill|mills]] and country [[inn]]s are still present in some regions or in open air museums (''[[Open-Air Museum|skansen]]'').<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kosmaczewska |first1=Joanna |url={{GBurl|id=U0EpEAAAQBAJ&dq=polish+manors+taverns+open+museum|pg=SA4-PA30-IA3}} |title=Tourism and Socio-Economic Transformation of Rural Areas: Evidence from Poland |last2=Poczta |first2=Walenty |date=2021 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-000-37738-5 |location=Milton |pages=4–30}}</ref> However, traditional construction methods faded in the early-mid 20th century due to urbanisation and the construction of [[functionalist architecture|functionalist]] [[housing estate]]s and [[residential architecture in Poland|residential areas]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Centroni |first=Alessandra |url={{GBurl|id=vXJTCwAAQBAJ}} |title=Restauro e ricostruzione |date=3 January 2016 |publisher=Gangemi Editore |isbn=978-88-492-9191-9 |location=Italy |page=121}}</ref>

=== Literature ===
{{Main|Polish literature|History of philosophy in Poland}}

{{multiple image
| align             = right
| image1            = Wańkowicz Adam Mickiewicz.jpg
| width1            = 154
| alt1              = Adam Mickiewicz
| caption1          = [[Adam Mickiewicz]], whose [[Epic poetry|national epic poem]] ''[[Pan Tadeusz]]'' (1834) is considered a masterpiece of [[Polish literature]]
| image2            = Joseph Conrad, Fotografie von George Charles Beresford, 1904.jpg
| width2            = 138
| alt2              = Joseph Conrad-Korzeniowski
| caption2          = [[Joseph Conrad]], author of popular books such as ''[[Heart of Darkness]]'' (1899) and ''[[Nostromo]]'' (1904)
}}

The [[Polish literature|literary works of Poland]] have traditionally concentrated around the themes of patriotism, [[spirituality]], social [[allegory|allegories]] and moral narratives.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dyczewski |first=Leon |url={{GBurl|id=aCRm0K8Y-2sC|q=polish+literature+patriotic+morals|p=184}} |title=Values in the Polish Cultural Tradition |date=29 July 2002 |publisher=CRVP |isbn=978-1-56518-142-7 |via=Google Books}}</ref> The earliest examples of Polish literature, written in [[Latin]], date to the 12th century.<ref name="Koca 2006" /> The first [[Polish language|Polish]] phrase ''Day ut ia pobrusa, a ti poziwai'' (officially translated as "Let me, I shall grind, and you take a rest") was documented in the [[Book of Henryków]] and reflected the use of a [[quern-stone]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=www.ideo.pl |first=Ideo Sp. z o.o. – |title=The manuscript with the first ever sentence in Polish has {{sic|be|nolink=y}} digitalized – News – Science & Scholarship in Poland |url=http://scienceinpoland.pap.pl/en/news/news,370714,the-manuscript-with-the-first-ever-sentence-in-polish-has-be-digitalized.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170821212328/http://scienceinpoland.pap.pl/en/news/news,370714,the-manuscript-with-the-first-ever-sentence-in-polish-has-be-digitalized.html |archive-date=21 August 2017 |access-date=24 May 2017 |website=scienceinpoland.pap.pl }}</ref> It has been since included in [[Memory of the World Programme|UNESCO's Memory of World Register]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=The first sentence in Polish in the UNESCO register |url=https://poland.pl/tourism/unesco-sites/first-sentence-polish-unesco-register/ |access-date=24 May 2017 |website=#Poland}}</ref> The oldest extant manuscripts of fine [[prose]] in [[Old Polish language|Old Polish]] are the [[Holy Cross Sermons]] and the [[Bible of Queen Sophia]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Polish Libraries – Wiesław Wydra: The Oldest Extant Prose Text in the Polish language. The Phenomenon of the Holy Cross Sermons. |url=http://polishlibraries.pl/article.php?a=14 |access-date=24 May 2017 |website=polishlibraries.pl}}</ref> and [[Almanach cracoviense ad annum 1474|Calendarium cracoviense]] (1474) is Poland's oldest surviving [[Printing press|print]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Carter |first=F.W. |title=Trade and Urban Development in Poland: An Economic Geography of Cracow, from Its Origins to 1795 |date=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-02438-9 |page=364}}</ref>

The poets [[Jan Kochanowski]] and [[Nicholas Rey]] became the first [[Renaissance in Poland|Renaissance]] authors to write in Polish.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Dwujęzyczność w twórczości Jana Kochanowskiego |url=http://fp.amu.edu.pl/dwujezycznosc-w-tworczosci-jana-kochanowskiego/ |website=fp.amu.edu.pl}}</ref> Prime literarians of the period included [[Johannes Dantiscus|Dantiscus]], [[Andreus Fricius Modrevius|Modrevius]], [[Wawrzyniec Goślicki|Goslicius]], [[Matthias Sarbievius|Sarbievius]] and theologian [[John Laski]]. In the [[Polish Baroque|Baroque]] era, [[Jesuits|Jesuit philosophy]] and local culture greatly influenced the literary techniques of [[Jan Andrzej Morsztyn]] ([[Marinism]]) and [[Jan Chryzostom Pasek]] ([[Sarmatism|sarmatian]] memoirs).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Evonne Levy |url=http://www.ucpress.edu/book.php?isbn=9780520233577 |title=Propaganda and the Jesuit Baroque |date=April 2004 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-23357-7 |access-date=24 May 2017}}</ref> During the [[Polish Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], playwright [[Ignacy Krasicki]] composed the first Polish-language [[The Adventures of Mr. Nicholas Wisdom|novel]].<ref>{{Cite book |url={{GBurl|id=Ue3cAgAAQBAJ|p=166}} |title=The Encyclopedia of the Novel |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |others=Associate editors:Olakunle George, Susan Hegeman, EfraÃn Kristal |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-118-77907-1 |editor-last=Peter Melville Logan |access-date=24 May 2017 |via=Google Books}}</ref> Poland's leading 19th-century [[Romanticism in Poland|romantic poets]] were the [[Three Bards]] – [[Juliusz Słowacki]], [[Zygmunt Krasiński]] and [[Adam Mickiewicz]], whose epic poem ''[[Pan Tadeusz]]'' (1834) is a national classic.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Eunice L. Blavascunas |url={{GBurl|id=ZsEzM8Gbl68C|p=98}} |title=The Peasant and Communist Past in the Making of an Ecological Region: Podlasie, Poland |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-549-65633-3 |page=98}}{{Dead link|date=February 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> In the 20th century, the English [[Impressionism (literature)|impressionist]] and early [[Literary modernism|modernist]] writings of [[Joseph Conrad]] made him one of the most eminent novelists of all time.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Joseph Conrad Society (UK) Official Website |url=http://www.josephconradsociety.org/ |access-date=10 February 2016 |website=josephconradsociety.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Joseph Conrad Society of America |url=http://josephconrad.org/ |access-date=10 February 2016 |website=josephconrad.org}}</ref>

Contemporary Polish literature is versatile, with its fantasy genre having been particularly praised.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Booker |first=M. Keith |title=Historical Dictionary of Science Fiction Cinema |date=2020 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers |isbn=978-1-5381-3010-0 |page=261}}</ref> The philosophical [[science-fiction|sci-fi]] novel ''[[Solaris (novel)|Solaris]]'' by [[Stanisław Lem]] and ''[[The Witcher]]'' series by [[Andrzej Sapkowski]] are celebrated works of world fiction.<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 July 2023 |title=O Wiedźminie i Wiedźmince |url=https://rynek-ksiazki.pl/aktualnosci/o-wiedzminie-i-wiedzmince/ |website=Rynek książki}}</ref> Poland has six [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel-Prize winning]] authors – [[Henryk Sienkiewicz]] (''[[Quo Vadis (novel)|Quo Vadis]]''; 1905), [[Władysław Reymont]] (''[[The Peasants]]''; 1924), [[Isaac Bashevis Singer]] (1978), [[Czesław Miłosz]] (1980), [[Wisława Szymborska]] (1996), and [[Olga Tokarczuk]] (2018).<ref name="Facts on the Nobel Prize in Literature" /><ref name="Gopnik 2007" /><ref>{{Cite news |date=10 October 2019 |title=Tokarczuk and Handke win Nobel Literature Prizes |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-49976107}}</ref>

=== Cuisine ===
{{Main|Polish cuisine}}

[[File:Healthy-regional-dishes-1329449.jpg|thumb|right|[[Kielbasa]] sausage, a staple of Polish cuisine, with [[pickled cucumber]]s and [[rye bread]]]]

The cuisine of Poland is eclectic, with many regional varieties, sharing some similarity with other neighbouring cuisines.<ref name="Puri">{{cite book |last=Puri |first=Vinod |date=2023 |title=Science of Food Nutrition and Health |chapter=The Cuisine of Central Europe |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2m_SEAAAQBAJ&dq=polish+%22cuisine%22+similarities+german+czech&pg=PT527 |location=Chicago |publisher=Austin Macauley Publishers |isbn=978-1-3984-5412-5 |access-date=4 April 2025}}</ref> Among the staple or regional dishes are [[pierogi]] (filled dumplings), [[kielbasa]] (sausage), [[bigos]] (hunter's stew), [[kotlet schabowy]] (breaded cutlet), [[gołąbki]] (cabbage rolls), [[borscht|barszcz]] (borscht), [[żurek]] (soured rye soup), [[oscypek]] (smoked cheese), and [[tomato soup]].<ref name="Marc Heine" /><ref name="Strybel 2003" /> [[Bagel]]s, a type of [[bread roll]], also originated in Poland.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Amanda Fiegl |date=17 December 2008 |title=A Brief History of the Bagel |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/a-brief-history-of-the-bagel-49555497/ |access-date=6 May 2023 |website=smithsonianmag.com}}</ref>

Traditional dishes are hearty and abundant in pork, potatoes, eggs, cream, mushrooms, regional herbs, and sauce.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Byrd Hollar |first1=Melanie |url={{GBurl|id=_cUOEAAAQBAJ|dq=dunn+byrd+cuisine+poland|p=432}} |title=Cooking through history: a worldwide encyclopedia of food with menus and recipes |last2=Dunn |first2=John P. |date=2020 |publisher=Greenwood |isbn=978-1-61069-456-8 |location=Santa Barbara |pages=431–432}}</ref> Polish food is characteristic for its various kinds of [[kluski]] (soft dumplings), [[soup]]s, cereals and a variety of breads and [[open sandwich]]es. Salads, including [[mizeria]] (cucumber salad), [[coleslaw]], [[sauerkraut]], carrot and [[Searing|seared beets]], are common. Meals conclude with a dessert such as [[Cheesecake|sernik]] (cheesecake), [[makowiec (pastry)|makowiec]] (poppy seed roll), or [[napoleonka]] ([[mille-feuille]]) cream pie.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Steves |first1=Rick |url={{GBurl|id=T09IDgAAQBAJ}} |title=Rick Steves Snapshot Kraków, Warsaw & Gdańsk |last2=Hewitt |first2=Cameron |date=15 August 2017 |publisher=Avalon Publishing |isbn=978-1-63121-624-4}}</ref>

Traditional alcoholic beverages include honey [[Mead in Poland|mead]], widespread since the 13th century, [[Beer in Poland|beer]], wine and [[vodka]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=gorzała – Słownik języka polskiego PWN |url=https://sjp.pwn.pl/sjp/gorzala;2462442.html |website=sjp.pwn.pl}}</ref> The world's first written mention of vodka originates from Poland.<ref>{{Cite web |title=History of vodka production, at the official page of Polish Spirit Industry Association (KRPS), 2007 |url=http://krps.pl/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=17&Itemid=27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930131416/http://krps.pl/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=17&Itemid=27 |archive-date=30 September 2007 |access-date=18 November 2014 }}</ref> The most popular alcoholic drinks at present are beer and wine which took over from vodka more popular in the years 1980–1998.<ref name="beverages" /> [[Grodziskie]], sometimes referred to as "Polish Champagne", is an example of a historical beer style from Poland.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jim Hughes |date=4 February 2013 |title=Forgotten Beer Styles: Grodziskie |url=http://badassdigest.com/2013/02/04/forgotten-beer-styles-grodziskie |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150217050209/http://badassdigest.com/2013/02/04/forgotten-beer-styles-grodziskie |archive-date=17 February 2015 |access-date=10 May 2023 |website=badassdigest.com}}</ref> Tea remains common in Polish society since the 19th century, whilst coffee is drunk widely since the 18th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Strybel |first1=Robert |url={{GBurl|id=UtA6-pyGJmMC|q=tea+19th+century+most+popular+in+poland|p=692}} |title=Polish Heritage Cookery |last2=Strybel |first2=Maria |date=31 March 2019 |publisher=Hippocrene Books |isbn=978-0-7818-1124-8 |access-date=31 March 2019 |via=Google Books}}</ref>

=== Fashion and design ===
{{Further|Category:Polish fashion}}
[[File:Robe à la Polonaise MET DT11155.jpg|thumb|left|upright=.7|Traditional ''[[Polonaise (clothing)|polonaise]]'' dresses, 1780–1785]]

Several Polish designers and stylists left a legacy of beauty inventions and cosmetics; including [[Helena Rubinstein]] and [[Maksymilian Faktorowicz]], who created a line of cosmetics company in California known as [[Max Factor]] and formulated the term "make-up" which is now widely used as an alternative for describing cosmetics.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Maks Faktorowicz: Polak, który stworzył kosmetyczne imperium |trans-title=Maks Faktorowicz: A Pole who created a cosmetic empire |url=http://kobieta.interia.pl/uroda/news-maks-faktorowicz-polak-ktory-stworzyl-kosmetyczne-imperium,nId,930672 |access-date=24 May 2017 |website=Interia Kobieta |date=7 February 2013 |language=pl}}</ref> Faktorowicz is also credited with inventing modern [[eyelash extensions]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Maksymilian Faktorowicz – człowiek, który dał nam sztuczne rzęsy |trans-title=Maksymilian Faktorowicz – a man who gave us false eyelashes |url=http://www.polskieradio.pl/10/501/Artykul/1245535,Maksymilian-Faktorowicz-czlowiek-ktory-dal-nam-sztuczne-rzesy |access-date=24 May 2017 |website=Polskie Radio |language=pl}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Stella Rose Saint Clair |date=12 February 2014 |title=Makeup Masters: The History of Max Factor |url=https://www.beautylish.com/a/vxspr/the-history-of-max-factor |access-date=24 May 2017 |website=Beautylish}}</ref> As of 2020, Poland possesses the sixth-largest cosmetic market in Europe. [[Inglot Cosmetics]] is the country's largest beauty products manufacturer,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Norbert Ziętal |date=13 July 2013 |title=Przemyski Inglot ma już 400 sklepów na świecie |trans-title=Przemysl Inglot already has 400 stores in the world |url=http://www.strefabiznesu.nowiny24.pl/artykul/przemyski-inglot-ma-juz-400-sklepow-na-swiecie |website=Strefa Biznesu |language=pl |access-date=16 June 2017 |archive-date=18 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130718074939/https://www.strefabiznesu.nowiny24.pl/artykul/przemyski-inglot-ma-juz-400-sklepow-na-swiecie }}</ref> and the retail store [[Reserved]] is the country's most successful clothing store chain.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Butler |first=Sarah |date=2 September 2016 |title=Reserved! Polish fashion chain moves into BHS flagship store |url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2016/sep/02/reserved-polish-fashion-chain-moves-into-bhs-flagship-store |access-date=12 March 2022 |website=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref>

Historically, fashion has been an important aspect of Poland's national consciousness or [[Culture of Poland|cultural manifestation]], and the country developed its own style known as [[Sarmatism]] at the turn of the 17th century.<ref name="Biedronska-Slota 2005">{{Cite book |last=Biedrońska-Słota |first=Beata |url={{GBurl|id=_cPfAAAAMAAJ|q=sarmatism+16th+century}} |title=Crossroads of Costume and Textiles in Poland |date=2005 |publisher=National Museum (Muzeum Narodowe) |isbn=978-83-89424-46-4 |location=Kraków |page=20 |oclc=607873644}}</ref> The national dress and etiquette of Poland also reached the court at [[Versailles]], where French dresses inspired by Polish garments included ''[[Polonaise (clothing)|robe à la polonaise]]'' and the [[witzchoura]]. The scope of influence also entailed furniture; rococo [[Polish bed]]s with [[Canopy bed|canopies]] became fashionable in French châteaus.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Wrightsman Collection. Vols. 1 and 2, Furniture, Gilt Bronze and Mounted Porcelain, Carpets |url={{GBurl|id=twGT8P_68lEC|q=lit+a+polonaise+marie+leszczynska|p=586}} |publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art |via=Google Books}}</ref> Sarmatism eventually faded in the wake of the 18th century.<ref name="Biedronska-Slota 2005" />

=== Cinema ===
{{Main|Cinema of Poland}}

[[File:Andrzej Wajda 1974.jpg|thumb|right|[[Andrzej Wajda]] (1926–2016), renowned Polish film director]]

The [[cinema of Poland]] traces its origins to 1894, when inventor [[Kazimierz Prószyński]] patented the [[Pleograph]] and subsequently the [[Aeroscope]], the first successful hand-held operated film camera.<ref name="Ford 2009">{{Cite book |last1=Ford |first1=Charles |url={{GBurl|id=tiYkCQAAQBAJ|q=1894|p=13}} |title=Polish Film: A Twentieth Century History |last2=Hammond |first2=Robert M. |date=2009 |publisher=Eurospan |isbn=978-1-4766-0803-7 |location=London |pages=12–14, 118}}</ref><ref name="Haltof 2015">{{Cite book |last=Haltof |first=Marek |url={{GBurl|id=wReMBgAAQBAJ|q=1894|pg=PR11}} |title=Historical Dictionary of Polish Cinema |date=2015 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers |isbn=978-1-322-88919-1 |location=Lanham |pages=195, 25, 5, 91}}</ref> In 1897, [[Jan Szczepanik]] constructed the [[Telectroscope]], a prototype of television transmitting images and sounds.<ref name="Ford 2009" /> They are both recognised as pioneers of [[cinematography]].<ref name="Ford 2009" /> Poland has also produced influential directors, film producers and actors, many of whom were active in [[Hollywood, Los Angeles|Hollywood]], chiefly [[Roman Polański]], [[Andrzej Wajda]], [[Pola Negri]], [[Samuel Goldwyn]], the [[Warner Brothers|Warner brothers]], [[Max Fleischer]], [[Agnieszka Holland]], [[Krzysztof Zanussi]] and [[Krzysztof Kieślowski]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tzvetkova |first=Juliana |url={{GBurl|id=Zk83DwAAQBAJ}} |title=Pop Culture in Central Europe |date=12 October 2017 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-4408-4466-9 |page=188}}</ref>

The [[Film genre|themes]] commonly explored in Polish cinema include [[historical film|history]], [[Drama (film and television)|drama]], war, culture and black realism ([[film noir]]).<ref name="Ford 2009" /><ref name="Haltof 2015" /> In the 21st-century, two Polish productions won the [[Academy Awards]] – ''[[The Pianist (2002 film)|The Pianist]]'' (2002) by Roman Polański and ''[[Ida (film)|Ida]]'' (2013) by [[Paweł Pawlikowski]].<ref name="Haltof 2015" /> Polish cinematography also created many well-received comedies. The most known of them were made by [[Stanisław Bareja]] and [[Juliusz Machulski]].

=== Media ===
{{Main|Mass media in Poland}}

[[File:Siedziba Telewizji Polskiej w Warszawie 2017.jpg|thumb|Headquarters of the publicly funded national television network [[Telewizja Polska|TVP]] in Warsaw]]
According to the [[Eurobarometer|Eurobarometer Report]] (2015), 78 percent of Poles watch the [[Television in Poland|television]] daily.<ref name="Stepinska 2020">{{Cite book |last1=Agnieszka Stępińska |url={{GBurl|id=zHopEAAAQBAJ|dq=%25+of+population+watch+television+daily+poland|p=110}} |title=Populist Political Communication in Poland |last2=Artur Lipiński |last3=Dorota Piontek |last4=Agnieszka Hess |date=2020 |publisher=Logos Verlag |isbn=978-3-8325-8614-0 |location=Berlin |pages=110, 114}}</ref> In 2020, 79 percent of the population read the news more than once a day, placing it second behind Sweden.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cabrera |first=Isabel |date=2020 |title=World Reading Habits in 2020 [Infographic] |url=https://geediting.com/world-reading-habits-2020/ |access-date=29 September 2021 |website=geediting.com |publisher=Global English Editing}}</ref> Poland has a number of major domestic media outlets, chiefly the [[public broadcasting]] corporation [[Telewizja Polska|TVP]], [[free-to-air]] channels [[TVN (Polish TV channel)|TVN]] and [[Polsat]] as well as 24-hour news channels [[TVP Info]], [[TVN 24]] and [[Polsat News]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |url={{GBurl|id=w4_2DQAAQBAJ}} |title=The International Encyclopedia of Media Effects, 4 Volume Set |date=6 March 2017 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-1-118-78404-4 |page=1160}}</ref> Public television extends its operations to genre-specific programmes such as [[TVP Sport]], [[TVP Historia]], [[TVP Kultura]], [[TVP Rozrywka]], TVP Seriale and [[TVP Polonia]], the latter a state-run channel dedicated to the transmission of Polish-language telecasts for the [[Polish diaspora]]. In 2020, the most popular types of newspapers were [[Tabloid (newspaper format)|tabloids]] and socio-political news dailies.<ref name="Stepinska 2020" />

Poland is a major European hub for video game developers and among the most successful companies are [[CD Projekt]], [[Techland]], [[The Farm 51]], [[CI Games]] and [[People Can Fly]].<ref name="Marszałkowski 2021">{{Cite book |last1=Marszałkowski |first1=Jakub |url=https://www.parp.gov.pl/storage/publications/pdf/GIofP_2021_FINAL.pdf |title=The Game Industry of Poland |last2=Biedermann |first2=Sławomir |last3=Rutkowski |first3=Eryk |date=2021 |publisher=Polish Agency for Enterprise Development |isbn=978-83-7633-451-6 |location=Warsaw (Warszawa)}}</ref> Some of the popular video games developed in Poland include ''[[The Witcher (video game series)|The Witcher]]'' trilogy and ''[[Cyberpunk 2077]]''.<ref name="Marszałkowski 2021" /> The Polish city of [[Katowice]] also hosts [[Intel Extreme Masters]], one of the biggest [[esports]] events in the world.<ref name="Marszałkowski 2021" />

=== Sports ===
{{Main|Sport in Poland|Poland at the Olympics}}

[[File:National Stadium Warsaw aerial view 2.jpg|thumb|The [[Kazimierz Górski National Stadium]] in Warsaw, home of the [[Poland national football team|national football team]]]]
[[Motorcycle speedway]], volleyball and association football are among the country's most popular sports, with a rich history of international competitions.<ref name="FIFA World Cup" /><ref name="FIFA Statistics" /> [[Track and field athletics|Track and field]], basketball, [[handball]], boxing, [[Mixed martial arts|MMA]], [[ski jumping]], [[cross-country skiing (sport)|cross-country skiing]], [[ice hockey]], tennis, fencing, swimming, and [[Olympic weightlifting|weightlifting]] are other popular sports.
The golden era of [[football in Poland]] occurred throughout the 1970s and went on until the early 1980s when the [[Poland national football team|Polish national football team]] achieved their best results in any FIFA World Cup competitions finishing third place in [[1974 FIFA World Cup|the 1974]] and [[1982 FIFA World Cup|the 1982]] tournaments. The team won a gold medal [[Football at the Summer Olympics|in football]] at the [[1972 Summer Olympics]] and two silver medals, [[1976 Summer Olympics|in 1976]] and [[1992 Summer Olympics|in 1992]]. In 2012, Poland co-hosted the [[UEFA Euro 2012|UEFA European Football Championship]].<ref name="warsaw-life" />

As of September 2024, the [[Poland men's national volleyball team|Polish men's national volleyball team]] is ranked [[FIVB World Rankings|as first]] in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FIVB Men's Volleyball World Ranking |url=https://en.volleyballworld.com/volleyball/world-ranking/men |access-date=9 September 2024}}</ref> The team won a gold medal at the [[Volleyball at the 1976 Summer Olympics – Men's tournament|1976 Summer Olympics]] and the gold medal at the [[FIVB Volleyball Men's World Championship|FIVB World Championship]] [[1974 FIVB Volleyball Men's World Championship|1974]], [[2014 FIVB Volleyball Men's World Championship|2014]] and [[2018 FIVB Volleyball Men's World Championship|2018]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=FIVB Volleyball Men's World Championship Poland 2014 |url=http://poland2014.fivb.org/en |access-date=1 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Finals |url=http://italy-bulgaria2018.fivb.com/en/results-and-ranking/round4 |access-date=13 October 2018}}</ref>
[[Mariusz Pudzianowski]] is a highly successful strongman competitor and has won more [[World's Strongest Man]] titles than any other competitor in the world, winning the event in 2008 for the fifth time.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Fedor |first1=Dariusz |url={{GBurl|id=c94sAQAAIAAJ|q=kubica%202008%20grand%20prix%20do%20polski}} |title=Polska, to tu się zaczęło |last2=Ramlau |first2=Łukasz |date=2009 |publisher=Agora |isbn=978-83-7552-707-0 |location=Poland |page=153 |language=pl}}</ref>

Poland has made a distinctive mark [[Speedway in Poland|in motorcycle speedway racing]]. The top [[Speedway Ekstraliga|Ekstraliga]] division has one of [[List of attendance figures at domestic professional sports leagues#Outdoor sports|the highest average attendances]] for any sport in Poland. The [[Poland national speedway team|national speedway team of Poland]] is one of the major teams in international speedway. Individually, Poland has three [[Speedway Grand Prix]] World Champions, with the most successful being five-time World Champion [[Bartosz Zmarzlik]] who won back-to-back championships in 2019 and 2020 as well as 2022, 2023 and 2024. In 2021, Poland finished runners-up in the Speedway of Nations world championship final, held in [[Manchester]], England in 2021.<ref name="Speedway" />

In the 21st century, the country has seen a growth of popularity of tennis and produced a number of successful tennis players including World No. 1 [[Iga Świątek]], winner of five [[Grand Slam (tennis)|Grand Slam]] singles titles; former World No. 2 [[Agnieszka Radwanska]], winner of 20 WTA career singles titles including [[2015 WTA Finals – Singles|2015 WTA Finals]]; Top 10 ATP player [[Hubert Hurkacz]]; former World No. 1 doubles player [[Łukasz Kubot]], winner of two Grand Slam doubles titles and [[Jan Zieliński]], winner of two Grand Slam mixed doubles titles. Poland also won the [[2015 Hopman Cup]] with Agnieszka Radwańska and [[Jerzy Janowicz]] representing the country.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Blanka Konopka |date=10 June 2022 |title=Tennis fever hits Poland as clubs across the country report surge in interest |url=https://www.thefirstnews.com/article/tennis-fever-hits-poland-as-clubs-across-the-country-report-surge-in-interest-30967 |access-date=24 April 2023 |website=thefirstnews.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=10 January 2015 |title=Poland wins Hopman Cup as Agnieszka Radwanska and Jerzy Janowicz combine to beat Serena Williams and John Isner in Perth |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-01-10/radwanska-shocks-williams-in-hopman-cup/6010634 |access-date=24 April 2023 |website=abc.net.au}}</ref>

Poles made significant achievements in mountaineering, in particular, in the [[Himalayas]] and the winter ascending of the [[eight-thousander]]s (e.g. [[Jerzy Kukuczka]], [[Krzysztof Wielicki]], [[Wanda Rutkiewicz]]). Polish mountains are one of the tourist attractions of the country. Hiking, climbing, skiing and mountain biking and attract numerous tourists every year from all over the world.<ref name="UNTWO 2008" /> Water sports are the most popular summer recreation activities, with ample locations for fishing, canoeing, kayaking, sailing and windsurfing especially in the northern regions of the country.<ref>[http://www.polandforvisitors.com/travel_poland/summer_sports Summer Sports in Poland] at Poland For Visitors Online. Retrieved 2 November 2014.</ref>
{{Clear left}}

== See also ==
{{Portal|Poland|European Union}}
* [[Outline of Poland]]

== Notes ==
{{notefoot}}
{{notelist}}

== References ==
<references>
<ref name="Gierowski">Józef Andrzej Gierowski – ''Historia Polski 1764–1864'' (History of Poland 1764–1864), pp. 74–101</ref>

<ref name="Bitter glory">Bitter glory: Poland and its fate, 1918 to 1939; p. 179</ref>

<ref name="BBC 2010">"[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-11845315 Russian parliament condemns Stalin for Katyn massacre]". BBC News. 26 November 2010</ref>

<ref name="including">including the capture of the monastery hill at the [[Battle of Monte Cassino]]</ref>

<ref name="BBC 2011">"[https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwtwo/refugees_01.shtml European Refugee Movements After World War Two]". BBC – History.</ref>

<ref name="Lane 1948">[[Arthur Bliss Lane]] ''[[I saw Poland betrayed]]: An American Ambassador Reports to the American People''. Indianapolis: The Bobbs-Merrill Company, 1948.</ref>

<ref name="tobruk">At the [[siege of Tobruk]]</ref>

<ref name="justlanded">{{Cite web |title=Poland Guide: The Polish health care system, An introduction: Poland's health care is based on a general |url=http://www.justlanded.com/english/Poland/Poland-Guide/Health/The-Polish-health-care-system |access-date=28 July 2011 |website=Justlanded.com}}</ref>

<ref name="warsaw-life">{{Cite web |title=Poland hosts Euro 2012! |url=http://www.warsaw-life.com/poland/euro-2012 |access-date=12 December 2010 |publisher=warsaw-life.com}}</ref>

<ref name="Central Statistical Office 2008">{{Cite web |date=28 July 2008 |title=Concise Statistical Yearbook of Poland, 2008 |url=http://www.stat.gov.pl/cps/rde/xbcr/gus/PUBL_maly_rocznik_statystyczny_2008.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081028221046/http://www.stat.gov.pl/cps/rde/xbcr/gus/PUBL_maly_rocznik_statystyczny_2008.pdf |archive-date=28 October 2008 |access-date=12 August 2008 |publisher=Central Statistical Office}}</ref>

<ref name="Norman Davies 1996">{{Cite book |last=Norman Davies |url=https://archive.org/details/europehistory00davi_0 |title=Europe: a history |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-19-820171-7 |page=[https://archive.org/details/europehistory00davi_0/page/428 428] |quote=By 1490 the Jagiellons controlled Poland–Lithuania, Bohemia, and Hungary, but not the Empire. |url-access=registration}}</ref>

<ref name="Gierowski 1986">Józef Andrzej Gierowski – ''Historia Polski 1764–1864'' [History of Poland 1764–1864], Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe (Polish Scientific Publishers PWN), Warszawa 1986, {{ISBN|978-83-01-03732-1}}, pp. 1–74</ref>

<ref name="BBC News 2007">{{Cite news |date=21 December 2007 |title=Europe's border-free zone expands |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/7153490.stm |access-date=28 July 2011}}</ref>

<ref name="Davies 1996">{{Cite book |last=Davies |first=Norman |url=https://archive.org/details/europehistory00davi_0 |title=Europe: A History |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-19-820171-7 |page=[https://archive.org/details/europehistory00davi_0/page/699 699] |url-access=registration |via=Internet Archive}}</ref>

<ref name="UNTWO 2008">{{Cite web |title=UNTWO World Tourism Barometer, Vol.5 No.2 |url=http://www.tourismroi.com/Content_Attachments/27670/File_633513750035785076.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090325031626/http://www.tourismroi.com/Content_Attachments/27670/File_633513750035785076.pdf |archive-date=25 March 2009 |access-date=12 October 2009 |website=www.tourismroi.com}}</ref>

<ref name="Mould 1993">{{Cite book |last=Richard Francis Mould |url={{GBurl|id=IXPz7bVR7g0C|q=A+century+of+x-rays+and+radioactivity+in+medicine:}} |title=A century of X-rays and radioactivity in medicine: with emphasis on photographic records of the early years |publisher=CRC Press |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-7503-0224-1 |page=19 |via=Google Books}}</ref>

<ref name="Facts on the Nobel Prize in Literature">{{Cite web |date=5 October 2009 |title=Facts on the Nobel Prize in Literature |url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/shortfacts.html |access-date=28 July 2011 |website=Nobelprize.org}}</ref>

<ref name="FIFA World Cup">{{Cite web |title=FIFA World Cup Statistics-Poland |url=https://www.fifa.com/worldfootball/statisticsandrecords/associations/association=pol/worldcup/index.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071206172314/http://www.fifa.com/worldfootball/statisticsandrecords/associations/association=pol/worldcup/index.html |archive-date=6 December 2007 |access-date=12 December 2010 |publisher=FIFA}}</ref>

<ref name="FIFA Statistics">{{Cite web |title=FIFA Statistics – Poland |url=https://www.fifa.com/worldfootball/statisticsandrecords/associations/association=pol/othertournaments/index.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071206172309/http://www.fifa.com/worldfootball/statisticsandrecords/associations/association=pol/othertournaments/index.html |archive-date=6 December 2007 |access-date=12 December 2010}}</ref>

<ref name="PWN">{{Cite web |title=Polska. Historia |url=http://encyklopedia.pwn.pl/haslo.php?id=4575043 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061001084717/http://encyklopedia.pwn.pl/haslo.php?id=4575043 |archive-date=1 October 2006 |access-date=11 July 2005 |website=[[Internetowa encyklopedia PWN|PWN Encyklopedia]] |language=pl }}</ref>

<ref name="Day 2008">{{Cite news |last=Day |first=Matthew |date=5 August 2008 |title=Poland ends army conscription |work=Telegraph |location=London |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/poland/2505447/Poland-ends-army-conscription.html |url-status=live |url-access=subscription |access-date=28 July 2011 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/poland/2505447/Poland-ends-army-conscription.html |archive-date=10 January 2022}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

<ref name="Polish economy seen as stable and competitive">{{Cite news |date=9 September 2010 |title=Polish economy seen as stable and competitive |work=Warsaw Business Journal |url=http://www.wbj.pl/article-51029-polish-economy-seen-as-stable-and-competitive.html |access-date=28 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100913203601/http://www.wbj.pl/article-51029-polish-economy-seen-as-stable-and-competitive.html |archive-date=13 September 2010}}</ref>

<ref name="Koca 2006">{{Cite web |last=Koca, B. |year=2006 |title=Polish Literature – The Middle Ages (Religious writings) |url=http://www.sat.org.au/reviews/articles_pl_middle_ages.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061108212651/http://www.sat.org.au/reviews/articles_pl_middle_ages.htm |archive-date=8 November 2006 |access-date=10 December 2006 |language=pl }}</ref>

<ref name="Lerski 1996a">{{Cite book |last=Jerzy Jan Lerski |url={{GBurl|id=QTUTqE2difgC|p=18}} |title=Historical Dictionary of Poland, 966–1945 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-313-26007-0 |page=18 |access-date=6 March 2011 |via=Google Books}}</ref>

<ref name="Lerski 1996b">{{Cite book |last=Jerzy Jan Lerski |url={{GBurl|id=S6aUBuWPqywC|p=34}} |title=Historical Dictionary of Poland, 966–1945 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-313-26007-0 |page=34 |via=Google Books}}</ref>

<ref name="MFA">[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Poland]], 2002–2007, [http://www.poland.gov.pl/Culture,484.html An Overview of Polish Culture] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090402015128/http://www.poland.gov.pl/Culture,484.html |date=2 April 2009 }} Access date 13 December 2007.</ref>

<ref name="Mikos">Many designs imitated the arcaded courtyard and arched loggias of the Wawel palace. {{Cite web |last=Michael J. Mikoś |title=Renaissance Cultural Background |url=http://www.staropolska.pl/ang/renaissance/Mikos_renaissance/Cultural_r.html |access-date=23 April 2009 |website=www.staropolska.pl |page=9}}</ref>

<ref name="Stanislaw Salmonowicz 1994">Stanisław Salmonowicz, ''Polskie Państwo Podziemne'', Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Pedagogiczne, Warszawa, 1994, {{ISBN|978-83-02-05500-3}}, p. 37</ref>

<ref name="polandinexile">[http://www.polandinexile.com/rising.htm The Warsaw Rising], polandinexile.com</ref>

<ref name="Wyrozumski 1986">[[Jerzy Wyrozumski]] – ''Historia Polski do roku 1505'' (History of Poland until 1505), Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe ([[Polish Scientific Publishers PWN]]), Warszawa 1986, {{ISBN|978-83-01-03732-1}}</ref>

<ref name="Schwab 2011">{{Cite web |last=Schwab |first=Klaus |title=The Global Competitiveness Report 2010–2011 |url=http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GlobalCompetitivenessReport_2010-11.pdf |access-date=25 April 2011 |publisher=World Economic Forum |pages=27 (41/516)}}</ref>

<ref name="OECD 2009">{{Cite web |last=OECD |year=2009 |title=The impact of the 1999 education reform in Poland |url=http://www.pisa.oecd.org/dataoecd/50/26/45721631.doc |access-date=17 September 2010}}</ref>

<ref name="Speedway">{{Cite web |title=Speedway World Cup: Poland win 2010 Speedway World Cup |url=http://www.worldspeedway.com/artman/publish/article_13423.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110510013538/http://www.worldspeedway.com/artman/publish/article_13423.shtml |archive-date=10 May 2011 |access-date=18 December 2010 |publisher=worldspeedway.com}}</ref>

<ref name="Gopnik 2007">{{Cite web |last=Adam Gopnik |author-link=Adam Gopnik |date=5 June 2007 |title=Szymborska's 'View': Small Truths Sharply Etched |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=10721773 |access-date=12 December 2010 |website=npr.org}}</ref>

<ref name="The Music Courts of the Polish Vasas">{{Cite web |title=The Music Courts of the Polish Vasas |url=http://www.semper.pl/muzyczne_dwory_summary.pdf |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/5h7rxPZrB?url=http://www.semper.pl/muzyczne_dwory_summary.pdf |archive-date=29 May 2009 |access-date=13 May 2009 |website=www.semper.pl |page=244 }}</ref>

<ref name="Marc Heine">"Always home-made, tomato soup is one of the first things a Polish cook learns to prepare." [in:] Marc E. Heine. Poland. 1987</ref>

<ref name="Strybel 2003">"Tu się w lasy schroniły wygnane ze zbytkowych stołów, narodowe potrawy, [[Barszcz]], [[Bigos]], [[Zrazy]], [[Pierogi|Pirogi]] i [[Roast|Pieczeń]]" [in:] Jan N. de Bobrowicz. Maxymilian arcyksiąże Austryacki obrany Król polski. 1848. s. 74; "[[barszcz]], [[rosół]], sztuka mięsa, pieczenie huzarskie, [[bigos]], [[pierogi]], [[kiełbasa]] z kapustą, przede wszystkim zaś rozmaite kasze" Zbigniew Kuchowicz Obyczaje staropolskie XVII-XVIII wieku. 1975; "pieczeń cielęca pieczona (panierowana), pieczeń cielęca zapiekana w sosie beszamelowym, pieczeń huzarska (=pieczeń wołowa przekładana farszem), pieczeń rzymska (klops), pieczeń rzymska (klops z cielęciny) w sosie śmietanowym, pieczeń rzymska z królika " [in:] Stanisław Berger. Kuchnia polska. 1974.; Polish Holiday Cookery by Robert Strybel. {{Cite book |last=Strybel |first=Robert |url={{GBurl|id=eXuO_-KMm2sC|q=piecze%C5%84+roast|p=89}} |title=Polish Holiday Cookery |publisher=Hippocrene Books |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-7818-0994-8 |via=Google Books}}</ref>

<ref name="beverages">{{Cite web |title=EJPAU 2004. Kowalczuk I. CONDITIONS OF ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES CONSUMPTION AMONG POLISH CONSUMERS |url=http://www.ejpau.media.pl/volume7/issue2/economics/art-06.html |website=www.ejpau.media.pl}}</ref>

<ref name="Zaloga 1982">{{Cite book |last1=Steven J. Zaloga |url={{GBurl|id=AAdYFeW2fnoC|p=3}} |title=The Polish Army 1939–45 |last2=Richard Hook |publisher=Osprey Publishing |year=1982 |isbn=978-0-85045-417-8 |pages=3– |access-date=6 March 2011 |via=Google Books}}{{Dead link|date=February 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

<ref name="Walters 1988">{{Cite book |last=E. Garrison Walters |url={{GBurl|id=64VpSBd7xUcC|p=276}} |title=The other Europe: Eastern Europe to 1945 |publisher=Syracuse University Press |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-8156-2440-0 |pages=276– |access-date=6 March 2011 |via=Google Books}}</ref>
</references>

=== Works cited ===
* {{Cite book |last1=Materski |first1=Wojciech |url=http://niniwa2.cba.pl/polska_1939_1945.htm |title=Poland 1939–1945. Casualties and the victims of repressions under the Nazi and the Soviet occupations |last2=Szarota |first2=Tomasz |publisher=[[Institute of National Remembrance]] (IPN) |year=2009 |isbn=978-83-7629-067-6 |at=Hardcover, 353 pages |trans-title=Polska 1939–1945. Straty osobowe i ofiary represji pod dwiema okupacjami |type=excerpts online |id=With a Foreword by [[Janusz Kurtyka]] (IPN); and expert contributions by Waldemar Grabowski, [[Franciszek Piper]], and [[Andrzej Krzysztof Kunert]]. |author-link2=Tomasz Szarota |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120331102155/http://niniwa2.cba.pl/polska_1939_1945.htm |archive-date=31 March 2012 |access-date=12 December 2013 }}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links|Poland|voy=Poland}}
* [https://www.gov.pl/ Gov.pl – Polish national portal]. .
* [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/poland/ Poland]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]].
* {{cite EB1911|wstitle=Poland| volume= 21 |short= x}}
* {{cite EB1922 |wstitle=Poland | volume = 32 |short=x}}
* {{Wikiatlas|Poland}}
* {{OSM relation|49715}}

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