View source for Plug-in hybrid

{{Short description|Hybrid vehicle with externally chargeable battery}}
{{about|hybrid vehicles whose battery may be externally charged|vehicles that are propelled only by electric motors, using energy stored in rechargeable batteries|battery electric vehicle|the more general category of vehicles with plug-in rechargeable capabilities|plug-in electric vehicle}}
{{Update|date=December 2023|reason=}}

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| image1            = 2023 BYD Song Plus DM-i (front).jpg
| caption1          = The [[BYD Song]] plug-in hybrid SUV series is the world's all-time best-selling plug-in hybrid with over 1,050,000 cumulative sales in December 2023.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=BYD Song Pro DM - Sales in China |url=https://www.chinamobil.ru/eng/byd/song-pro-dm/?view=sales |access-date=2023-12-14 |website=www.chinamobil.ru}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=2021年全球新能源乘用车销量榜：冠亚军分别是特斯拉、比亚迪、上汽通用五菱-华夏EV网 |url=http://www.evinchina.com/newsshow-779.html#:~:text=%E5%AF%BC%E8%AF%BB%EF%BC%9A2021%E5%B9%B4%EF%BC%8C%E7%89%B9%E6%96%AF,%E4%B8%89%E6%AC%BE%E6%96%B0%E8%83%BD%E6%BA%90%E8%BD%A6%E3%80%82 |access-date=2024-04-30 |website=www.evinchina.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=【易车销量榜】全国2023年插电混动批发量销量榜-易车榜-易车 |url=https://car.yiche.com/newcar/salesrank/?flag=2023&energy=3&saleType=0 |access-date=2024-01-21 |website=car.yiche.com}}</ref>
| image2            = 2022 Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV P 4WD 2.4 5LA-GN0W (20220904).jpg
| caption2          = The [[Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV]] was once world's all-time best-selling plug-in hybrid until 2022.<ref name=MOPHEV200k/> Cumulative global sales reached 290,000 units in September 2021.<ref name=MOPHEV290k/>
| image3            = 2016 Chevrolet Volt NAIAS 2015 trimmed.jpg
| caption3          = The [[Chevrolet Volt]] was the world's top selling plug-in hybrid until September 2018.<ref name=Top5Global102018/>
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{{Sustainable energy}}

A '''plug-in hybrid electric vehicle''' ('''PHEV''') or simply '''plug-in hybrid''' is a type of [[hybrid electric vehicle]] equipped with a rechargeable [[electric-vehicle battery|battery pack]] that can be directly replenished via a [[power cord|charging cable]] plugged into an external [[electric power]] source, in addition to charging internally by its on-board [[internal combustion engine]]-powered [[electric generator|generator]]. While PHEVs are predominantly [[passenger car]]s, there are also plug-in hybrid variants of [[sports car]]s, [[commercial vehicle]]s, [[van]]s, [[pickup truck|utility truck]]s, [[bus]]es, [[train]]s, [[motorcycle]]s, [[mopeds]], [[military vehicle]]s and boats.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hybrid boats to revolutionise sustainable river travel |url=https://www.thamesclippers.com/news/uk-transport-gets-greener-with-arrival-of-first-hybrid-high-speed-passenger-ferry |access-date=2023-09-29 |website=www.thamesclippers.com}}</ref>

Similar to [[battery electric vehicle]]s (BEVs), plug-in hybrids can use centralized generators of [[renewable energy]] (e.g. [[solar power|solar]], [[wind power|wind]] or [[hydroelectric]]) to be largely emission-free, or a fossil plant in which case they displace [[greenhouse gas emissions]] from the car [[tailpipe]] [[exhaust gas|exhaust]] to the [[power station]]. As opposed to conventional hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), PHEVs generally have a larger battery pack that can be recharged (theoretically) from anywhere with access to the [[electrical grid]], offering enhanced [[energy efficiency (physics)|energy efficiency]] and cost-effectiveness when compared to relying solely on the on-board generator. Additionally, PHEVs can support longer and more frequent [[charge-depleting|all-electric range]] driving, and their [[electric motor]]s often have higher power output and [[torque]], are more responsive in acceleration, and overall have lower [[operating cost]]s. Although a PHEV's battery pack is smaller than that of all-electric vehicles of the same weight, as it must accommodate its combustion engine and [[hybrid vehicle drivetrain|hybrid drivetrain]], it provides the added flexibility of reverting to the use of its [[gasoline engine|gasoline]]/[[diesel engine]], akin to a conventional HEV if the battery charge is depleted. This feature helps alleviate [[range anxiety]], particularly in areas lacking sufficient [[electric vehicle charging network|charging infrastructure]].

Mass-produced PHEVs have been available to the public in [[China]] and the [[United States]] since 2010,<ref name=GCC0310/><ref name=Edmunds310/><ref name=Volt1stDelivery/> with the introduction of the [[Chevrolet Volt]], which was the best selling PHEV until it was surpassed by the [[Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV]] at the Volt's end of production in 2019.<ref name="MOPHEV200k2">{{cite press release |url=https://media.mitsubishicars.com/en-US/releases/release-5e9d75b8642341ca922d8348321f764f-mitsubishi-outlander-phev-hits-200-000-global-sales-milestone |title=Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV Hits 200,000 Global Sales Milestone |publisher=Mitsubishi Motors Corporation (MMC) |location=Tokyo |date=2019-04-11 |access-date=2020-05-16}}</ref> By 2021, [[BYD Auto]] emerged as the largest plug-in hybrid vehicle manufacturer in the world. {{As of|2024|05}}, BYD plug-in hybrid cumulative sales surpassed 3.6 million units.<ref>{{Cite web |last=孙迟 |title=BYD releases 5th-generation DM hybrid technology with 2,100-km range |url=https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202405/30/WS6657e2d6a31082fc043c9fd9.html |access-date=2024-07-27 |website=www.chinadaily.com.cn}}</ref> The [[BYD Song|BYD Song DM]] line of SUVs contributed over 1.05 million units.<ref name=":52">{{Cite web |title=【易车销量榜】全国2023年比亚迪插电混动零售量销量榜-易车榜-易车 |url=https://car.yiche.com/newcar/salesrank/?flag=2023&brandId=15&energy=3 |access-date=2024-02-25 |website=car.yiche.com}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=【易车销量榜】全国2022年比亚迪插电混动零售量销量榜-易车榜-易车 |url=https://car.yiche.com/newcar/salesrank/?flag=2022&brandId=15&energy=3 |access-date=2024-02-25 |website=car.yiche.com}}</ref><ref name=":3"/><ref name=":23">{{Cite web |title=【易车销量榜】全国2020年比亚迪插电混动零售量销量榜-易车榜-易车 |url=https://car.yiche.com/newcar/salesrank/?flag=2020&brandId=15&energy=3 |access-date=2024-03-01 |website=car.yiche.com}}</ref>

==Terminology==
Other terms sometimes used for plug-in hybrids are "grid-connected hybrids", "Gas-Optional Hybrid Electric Vehicle" or simply "gas-optional hybrids".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.evworld.com/article.cfm?storyid=238 |title=Making the Case for Grid-Connected Hybrids |publisher=EV World |date=2001-09-23 |access-date=2010-03-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090616105335/http://www.evworld.com/article.cfm?storyid=238 |archive-date=2009-06-16 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.evworld.com/news.cfm?newsid=8142 |title=What's In A Name? |publisher=EV World |date=2005-04-07 |access-date=2010-03-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111118130255/http://www.evworld.com/news.cfm?newsid=8142 |archive-date=2011-11-18 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://ergosphere.blogspot.com/2005/05/glossary.html |title=The glossary |publisher=The Ergosphere |date=2005-05-12 |access-date=2010-03-10 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100207013645/http://ergosphere.blogspot.com/2005/05/glossary.html |archive-date=2010-02-07 |url-status=live }}</ref> GM calls its [[Chevrolet Volt]] [[series hybrid|series]] plug-in hybrid an "Extended-Range Electric Vehicle".<ref name="RSC">{{cite journal|title = Sustainable transportation based on electric vehicle concepts: a brief overview|url = http://www.rsc.org/Publishing/Journals/EE/article.asp?doi=c001674h|last1 = Eberle|first1 = Ulrich|first2 = Rittmar|last2 = von Helmolt|journal = Energy & Environmental Science|publisher = Royal Society of Chemistry|date = 2010-05-14|volume = 3|issue = 6|page = 689|doi = 10.1039/C001674H|access-date = 2010-06-08|archive-date = 2021-03-07|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210307131038/https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2010/EE/c001674h|url-status = live|url-access = subscription}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.chevrolet.com/pages/open/default/fuel/electric.do|title=Chevy Volt: The Future is Electrifying|publisher=Chevrolet|access-date=2010-03-05|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100310151336/http://www.chevrolet.com/pages/open/default/fuel/electric.do|archive-date=2010-03-10|url-status=live}}</ref>

==History==
{{main|History of plug-in hybrids}}
[[File:Lohner Porsche.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Lohner–Porsche|Lohner–Porsche Mixte Hybrid]] was the first gasoline-electric plug-in hybrid [[automobile]].]]

===Invention and early interest===
The [[Lohner–Porsche|Lohner–Porsche Mixte Hybrid]], produced as early as 1899, was the first hybrid electric car.<ref name=HybridCarHist>{{cite web|url= http://www.hybridcars.com/history/history-of-hybrid-vehicles.html |title=History of Hybrid Vehicles |website=HybridCars.com |date=2006-03-27 |access-date=2011-10-25 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090904154040/http://www.hybridcars.com/history/history-of-hybrid-vehicles.html |archive-date=2009-09-04 }} ''See year 1898''.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ultimatecarpage.com/car/3456/Lohner-Porsche-Mixte-Voiturette.html|title=Lohner-Porsche Mixte Voiturette|date=2007-11-19|publisher=Ultimate Car Page|access-date=2011-10-25|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120119164407/http://www.ultimatecarpage.com/car/3456/Lohner-Porsche-Mixte-Voiturette.html|archive-date=2012-01-19|url-status=live}}</ref> Early hybrids could be charged from an external source before operation. The term "plug-in hybrid" has come to mean a hybrid vehicle that can be charged from a standard electrical wall socket. The term "plug-in hybrid electric vehicle" was coined by [[University of California, Davis|UC Davis]] [[Dr. Andrew Alfonso Frank|Professor Andrew Frank]],<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB113815056026555394 |title=Coalition Turns On to 'Plug-In Hybrids': Utilities, Localities, DaimlerChrysler Give Traction to Professor's Drive For High Mileage |newspaper=The Wall Street Journal |first=John J. |last=Fialka |date=2006-01-25 |access-date=2011-06-21 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150404232000/http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB113815056026555394 |archive-date=2015-04-04 |url-status=live }}</ref> who has been called the "father of the modern plug-in hybrid".<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.calcars.org/history.html|title=Plug-In Hybrids: State Of Play, History & Players|publisher=CalCars |access-date=2015-03-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150502064532/http://www.calcars.org/history.html|archive-date=2015-05-02|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://abcnews.go.com/print?id=5406454 |title=Can Plug-In Hybrids Ride to America's Rescue? |publisher=ABC News |first=Mark |last=Clayton |date=2008-07-19 |access-date=2009-04-18 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080809164217/https://abcnews.go.com/print?id=5406454 |archive-date=2008-08-09 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Plug_in">{{cite book |first=Sherry |last=Boschert |author-link=Sherry Boschert |title=Plug-in Hybrids: The Cars that will Recharge America |year=2006 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/pluginhybridscar00bosc/page/68 68–78] |publisher=New Society Publishers |location=Gabriola Island, Canada |isbn=978-0-86571-571-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/pluginhybridscar00bosc/page/68 }} See Chapter 4</ref>

The July 1969 issue of ''[[Popular Science]]'' featured an article on the [[General Motors XP-883]] plug-in hybrid. The concept commuter vehicle housed six {{nowrap|12-volt}} lead–acid batteries in the trunk area and a transverse-mounted DC electric motor turning a front-wheel drive. The car could be plugged into a standard North American 120 volt AC outlet for recharging.<ref>{{cite web|title=Hybrid Car Ready in 1969|url=http://www.finkbuilt.com/blog/hybrid-car-ready-in-1969|website=Finkbuilt|date=2007-01-09|access-date=2017-12-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070509084247/http://www.finkbuilt.com/blog/hybrid-car-ready-in-1969/|archive-date=2007-05-09|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Revival of interest===
[[File:Felix-car-batteries-full.jpg|right|thumb|[[Lithium-ion battery]] pack, with cover removed, in a [[CalCars]] "PRIUS+" plug-in hybrid converted [[Toyota Prius]] converted by EnergyCS]]

In 2003, [[Renault]] began selling the [[Elect'road]], a plug-in series hybrid version of their popular [[Kangoo]], in Europe. In addition to its engine, it could be plugged into a standard outlet and recharged to 95% range in about 4 hours.<ref>{{cite web|last=Holinger |first=Heinrich |date=2003-10-11 |url= http://www.evworld.com/article.cfm?storyid=582 |title=Renault Electric Kangoo Can Do |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080205145932/http://evworld.com/article.cfm?storyid=582 |archive-date=2008-02-05 |work=EVWorld.com |access-date=2019-10-22}}</ref> After selling about 500 vehicles, primarily in France, Norway and the UK, the Elect'road was redesigned in 2007.<ref name="kangoo">{{cite press release|work=Renault |date=March 10, 2003 |url= http://www.calcars.org/KangooRangeExtend.pdf |title=Kangoo reinvents the electric car |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070412032635/http://www.calcars.org/KangooRangeExtend.pdf |archive-date=2007-04-12 |access-date=2019-10-22}}</ref>

With the availability of hybrid vehicles and the rising gas prices in the United States starting around 2002, interest in plug-in hybrids increased.<ref name=Anderson2010>Curtis D. Anderson, Judy Anderson,'' Electric and Hybrid Cars: A History, 2d ed.'' McFarland, 2010, {{ISBN|0786457422}}, page 156</ref> Some plug-in hybrids were conversions of existing hybrids; for example, the 2004 [[CalCars]] conversion of a Prius to add lead acid batteries and a range of up to {{convert|15|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} using only electric power.<ref name="priusplus">{{cite web| title=How We Green-Tuned an '04 Prius into a PRIUS+ Plug-In Hybrid!| work=CalCars.com – The California Cars Initiative| url=http://www.priusplus.org| access-date=2006-01-11| archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160529234618/http://www.priusplus.org/| archive-date=2016-05-29| url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2006, both [[Toyota]] and [[General Motors]] announced plans for plug-in hybrids.<ref name="toyota">{{cite news | last=Thomas | first=Ken | title=Toyota charging ahead with plans for plug-in hybrid | date=July 19, 2006 | publisher=Chicago Sun-Times/Associated Press| url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4155/is_20060719/ai_n16541548| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20071102032938/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4155/is_20060719/ai_n16541548| url-status=dead| archive-date=November 2, 2007}}</ref><ref name=gm>General Motors (November 29, 2006) [http://www.gm.com/experience/technology/news/2006/hybrid_vue_plugin_113006.jsp "GM Announces Intention to Produce Plug-in Hybrid SUV"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610223422/http://www.gm.com/experience/technology/news/2006/hybrid_vue_plugin_113006.jsp |date=2011-06-10 }}. Retrieved January 8, 2009.</ref> GM's Saturn Vue project was cancelled, but the Toyota plug-in was certified for road use in Japan in 2007.<ref>Toyota Motor Corporation (July 25, 2007) [http://www.japancorp.net/Article.Asp?Art_ID=14929 "Japan Certifies Toyota Plug-in Hybrid for Public-road Tests"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928060815/http://www.japancorp.net/Article.Asp?Art_ID=14929 |date=2007-09-28 }} ''JCN Newswire''. Retrieved July 25, 2007.</ref>

In 2007, Quantum Technologies and [[Fisker Coachbuild]], LLC announced the launch of a joint venture in [[Fisker Automotive]].<ref name="fisker automotive">{{cite news | title=Drive the Future with Fisker Automotive, A New Green American Premium Car Company | date=2007-09-05 | url=http://www.fiskerautomotive.com/pdf/FISKER%20AUTOMOTIVE%20-%20English.pdf | access-date=2007-10-30 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090320113645/http://www.fiskerautomotive.com/pdf/FISKER%20AUTOMOTIVE%20-%20English.pdf | archive-date=2009-03-20 | url-status=live }}</ref> Fisker intended to build a US$80,000 luxury PHEV with {{Convert|60|km|mi|abbr=on}}  of electric range, the [[Fisker Karma]], initially scheduled for late 2009.<ref name=karma>Shirouzu, N., and Buckman, R. (January 14, 2008) [https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB120027887033287745 "Electric-Car Firms Get Star Investors,"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171202152918/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB120027887033287745 |date=2017-12-02 }} ''Wall Street Journal''</ref>

In 2007, [[Aptera Motors]] announced their [[Aptera 2 Series|Typ-1]] two seater. That company folded in December 2011.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://wheels.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/12/02/unable-to-raise-financing-aptera-shuts-down/?ref=automobiles|title=Unable to Raise Financing, Aptera Shuts Down|first=Jim|last=Motavalli|newspaper=The New York Times|date=2011-12-02|access-date=2011-12-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121015175430/http://wheels.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/12/02/unable-to-raise-financing-aptera-shuts-down/?ref=automobiles|archive-date=2012-10-15|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2007, Chinese car manufacturer BYD Auto, owned by China's largest mobile phone battery maker, announced it would be introducing a production PHEV with {{Convert|60|km|mi|abbr=on}} of electric range in a form of a sedan in China in the second half of 2008. BYD exhibited it in January 2008 at the [[North American International Auto Show]] in Detroit. Based on BYD's midsize F6 sedan, it uses lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO<sub>4</sub>)-based batteries instead of lithium-ion, and can be recharged to 70% of capacity in 10 minutes.<ref name=byd>Edmunds (October 15, 2007) [http://www.edmunds.com/insideline/do/News/articleId=123027 "Detroit Show Preview: BYD's New Plug-in Hybrid on Sale Next Year"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071019043035/http://www.edmunds.com/insideline/do/News/articleId%3D123027 |date=2007-10-19 }} ''Edmunds Inside Line''. Retrieved October 26, 2007.</ref>

[[File:Charging stations in SF City Hall 02 2009 02.jpg|thumb|Three plug-in converted [[Toyota Prius]] recharging at [[San Francisco City Hall]] public [[charging station]] ]]

In 2007, Ford delivered the first [[Ford Escape Plug-in Hybrid]] of a fleet of 20 demonstration PHEVs to [[Southern California Edison]].<ref>{{cite press release|url=http://media.ford.com/article_display.cfm?article_id=27333 |title=Ford Delivers First Escape Plug-In Hybrid To Southern California Edison |website=Media.Ford.Com |access-date=2010-11-27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111118130826/http://media.ford.com/article_display.cfm?article_id=27333 |archive-date=2011-11-18 }}</ref> As part of this demonstration program Ford also developed the first [[flexible-fuel]] plug-in hybrid [[SUV]], which was delivered in June 2008.<ref name=USDoE>{{cite press release |url= http://www.ford.com/about-ford/news-announcements/press-releases/press-releases-detail/pr-ford-motor-company-delivers-28424 |title=Ford Motor Company – Press Release – Ford Motor Company Delivers Flexible Fuel, Plug-In Vehicle to Department of Energy |website=Ford.com |access-date=2010-11-27 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090622032409/http://www.ford.com/about-ford/news-announcements/press-releases/press-releases-detail/pr-ford-motor-company-delivers-28424 |archive-date=2009-06-22 }}</ref> This demonstration fleet of plug-ins has been in field testing with utility company fleets in the U.S. and Canada,<ref name=HC032009>{{cite web|url=http://www.hybridcars.com/vehicle/ford-escape-plug-hybrid.html|title=Ford Escape Plug-in Hybrid|website=hybridCars.com|access-date=2010-04-21|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090912034932/http://www.hybridcars.com/vehicle/ford-escape-plug-hybrid.html|archive-date=2009-09-12}}</ref> and during the first two years since the program began, the fleet has logged more than 75,000 miles.<ref name=V2G/> In August 2009 Ford delivered the first Escape Plug-in equipped with intelligent vehicle-to-grid (V2G) communications and control system technology, and Ford plans to equip all 21 plug-in hybrid Escapes with the vehicle-to-grid communications technology.<ref name=V2G>{{cite press release |url=http://www.ford.com/about-ford/news-announcements/press-releases/press-releases-detail/pr-ford-unveils-intelligent-system-30849 |title=Ford Unveils 'Intelligent' System for Plug-In Hybrids To Communicate with the Electric Grid |website=Ford.com |access-date=2010-11-27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100721095538/http://www.ford.com/about-ford/news-announcements/press-releases/press-releases-detail/pr-ford-unveils-intelligent-system-30849 |archive-date=2010-07-21 }}</ref> Sales of the Escape PHEV were scheduled for 2012.<ref name=HC032009/>

On January 14, 2008, Toyota announced they would start sales of lithium-ion battery PHEVs by 2010,<ref>[http://www.chicagotribune.com/business/chi-wed-car-batteries_06-17jun18,0,4936123.story Plug-in car production race is on] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080622151226/http://www.chicagotribune.com/business/chi-wed-car-batteries_06-17jun18,0,4936123.story |date=2008-06-22 }} ([[Chicago Tribune]])</ref><ref>{{cite press release|url= http://www.toyota.co.jp/en/news/08/0114.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080117115426/http://www.toyota.co.jp/en/news/08/0114.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=2008-01-17 |title=News Releases |publisher=Toyota |date=2008-01-14 |access-date=2010-11-27}}</ref> but later in the year Toyota indicated they would be offered to commercial fleets in 2009.<ref name=toyota09>Ohnsman, A. (August 28, 2008) [https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601101&sid=akRq_GCaGMRE&refer=japan "Toyota Plans Electric Car, Earlier Plug-In Prius Test"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090101002243/http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601101&sid=akRq_GCaGMRE&refer=japan |date=2009-01-01 }} ''Bloomberg''. Retrieved December 2008.</ref>

On March 27, the [[California Air Resources Board]] (CARB) modified their regulations, requiring automobile manufacturers to produce 58,000 plug-in hybrids during 2012 through 2014.<ref>[http://www.arb.ca.gov/msprog/zevprog/zevreview/summary.pdf "Preliminary Summary of Air Resources Board Action (3/27/08) – Zero Emission Vehicle (ZEV) Program"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516235829/http://www.arb.ca.gov/msprog/zevprog/zevreview/summary.pdf |date=2008-05-16 }} arb.ca.gov</ref> This requirement is an asked-for alternative to an earlier mandate to produce 25,000 pure [[zero-emissions vehicle]]s, reducing that requirement to 5,000.<ref>California Air Resources Board (March 27, 2008) [http://www.arb.ca.gov/newsrel/nr032708b.htm "ARB passes new ZEV amendment – Measure could produce 65,000 cleaner vehicles by 2012"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090112075851/http://www.arb.ca.gov/newsrel/nr032708b.htm |date=2009-01-12 }} (government agency release)</ref> On June 26, [[Volkswagen]] announced that they would be introducing production plug-ins based on the [[Volkswagen Golf|Golf]] compact. Volkswagen uses the term 'TwinDrive' to denote a PHEV.<ref name=vwgolf>Thompson (June 26, 2008) [https://web.archive.org/web/20110604011518/http://www.forbes.com/feeds/afx/2008/06/26/afx5156904.html "VW starts testing electric cars, sees launching them by 2010"] (Forbes) accessed December 2009</ref> In September, [[Mazda]] was reported to be planning PHEVs.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.autocar.co.uk/News/NewsArticle/AllCars/234607/ |title=Mazda plans Volt rival |work=Autocar |date=2008-08-28 |access-date=2010-11-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110524193033/http://www.autocar.co.uk/News/NewsArticle/AllCars/234607/ |archive-date=2011-05-24 |url-status=live }}</ref> On September 23, [[Chrysler]] announced that they had prototyped a plug-in [[Jeep Wrangler]] and a [[Chrysler Town and Country]] mini-van, both PHEV with series powertrains, and an all-electric Dodge sports car, and said that one of the three vehicles would go into production.<ref>{{cite news |agency=Associated Press |date=2008-09-23 |url=http://www.nydailynews.com/money/2008/09/23/2008-09-23_chrysler_plans_to_sell_electric_car_in_2.html |title=Chrysler plans to sell electric car in 2010 |newspaper=Daily News|location=New York |access-date=2015-03-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090821121634/http://www.nydailynews.com/money/2008/09/23/2008-09-23_chrysler_plans_to_sell_electric_car_in_2.html |archive-date=2009-08-21 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |first=Mike |last=Spinelli |url=http://www.popsci.com/cars/gallery/2008-09/chrysler-reveals-alternative-energy-prototypes |title=Chrysler Reveals Alternative-Energy Prototypes |magazine=Popular Science |date=2008-09-23 |access-date=2015-03-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131012115441/http://www.popsci.com/cars/gallery/2008-09/chrysler-reveals-alternative-energy-prototypes |archive-date=2013-10-12 |url-status=live }}</ref>

On October 3, the U.S. enacted the [[Energy Improvement and Extension Act of 2008]]. The legislation provided tax credits for the purchase of [[plug-in electric vehicle]]s of battery capacity over 4 kilowatt-hours.<ref name=Schoenberger>Schoenberger, R. (October 2, 2008) [http://blog.cleveland.com/business/2008/10/bailout_bill_includes_tax_brea.html "Bailout bill includes tax breaks for buyers of plug-in hybrid vehicles,"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081006020649/http://blog.cleveland.com/business/2008/10/bailout_bill_includes_tax_brea.html |date=2008-10-06 }} ''Cleveland Plain Dealer''</ref><ref name=Vijayenthiran>Vijayenthiran, V. (October 3, 2008) [http://www.motorauthority.com/senate-passes-bill-that-approves-up-to-7500-in-tax-credits-for-plug-ins.html "Bush signs $7,500 plug-in hybrid tax credit bill into law,"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080928095006/http://www.motorauthority.com/senate-passes-bill-that-approves-up-to-7500-in-tax-credits-for-plug-ins.html |date=2008-09-28 }} ''MotorAuthority.com''</ref> The [[Plug-in electric vehicle#United States|federal tax credit]]s were extended and modified by the [[American Clean Energy and Security Act of 2009]], but now the battery capacity must be over 5 [[kWh]] and the credit phases out after the automaker has sold at least 200,000 vehicles in the U.S.<ref name=Yahoo0330>{{cite web|url=https://finance.yahoo.com/news/Nissans-electric-car-to-cost-apf-3270595876.html?x=0&sec=topStories&pos=6&asset=&ccode=|archive-url= https://archive.today/20100405223750/http://finance.yahoo.com/news/Nissans-electric-car-to-cost-apf-3270595876.html?x=0&sec=topStories&pos=6&asset=&ccode=|url-status=dead|archive-date=2010-04-05|title=Nissan will sell electric car for just over $25K|publisher=Yahoo Finance|date=2010-03-30|access-date=2010-03-30}}</ref>

===Series production===
{{Multiple image
| direction         = vertical
| align             = right
| image1            = Bilbao 05 2012 BYD F3DM 2438.JPG
| image2            = BYD Qin (Auto Shanghai 2013).JPG
| width             = 220
| caption1          = Launched in China in December 2008, the [[BYD F3DM]] became the world's first [[mass production|mass-produced]] plug-in hybrid automobile.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.greencarreports.com/news/1096537_2016-byd-tang-plug-in-hybrid-suv-is-first-of-four-to-come |title=2016 BYD Tang: Plug-In Hybrid SUV Is First Of Four To Come |first=John |last=Voelcker |work=Green Car Reports |date=2015-01-29 |access-date=2015-02-17 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150210085625/http://www.greencarreports.com/news/1096537_2016-byd-tang-plug-in-hybrid-suv-is-first-of-four-to-come |archive-date=2015-02-10 |url-status=live }} ''BYD was the first company in the world to launch a production plug-in hybrid; its F3DM in 2008 was two years ahead of the 2011 Chevrolet Volt''.</ref>
| caption2          = The [[BYD Qin]], released in China in December 2013, replaced the F3DM.<ref name=PriceChina/>
}}

On December 15, 2008, BYD Auto began selling its [[BYD F3DM|F3DM]] in [[People's Republic of China|China]], becoming the first production plug-in hybrid sold in the world, though initially was available only for corporate and government customers.<ref name=F3DM>Crippen, A. (December 15, 2008) [https://www.cnbc.com/2008/12/15/warren-buffetts-electric-car-hits-the-chinese-market-but-rollout-delayed-for-us-europe.html "Warren Buffett's Electric Car Hits the Chinese Market, But Rollout Delayed For U.S. & Europe"]  CNBC. Retrieved December 2008.</ref><ref name=bwf3dm>Balfour, F. (December 15, 2008) [http://www.businessweek.com/globalbiz/content/dec2008/gb20081215_913780.htm "China's First Plug-In Hybrid Car Rolls Out"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081220105009/http://www.businessweek.com/globalbiz/content/dec2008/gb20081215_913780.htm |date=2008-12-20 }} ''Business Week''. Retrieved December 2008.</ref><ref name=GCC1208>{{cite web|url=http://www.greencarcongress.com/2008/12/byd-f3dm-plug-i.html|title=BYD F3DM Plug-in Hybrid Goes On Sale in China|date=2008-12-15|publisher=Green Car Congress|access-date=2009-02-28|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090304004900/http://www.greencarcongress.com/2008/12/byd-f3dm-plug-i.html|archive-date=2009-03-04|url-status=live}}</ref> Sales to the general public began in [[Shenzhen]] in March 2010,<ref name=GCC0310>{{cite web|url=http://www.greencarcongress.com/2010/03/byd-20100323.html#more|title=BYD Auto To Begin Sales of F3DM Plug-in to Individuals|publisher=Green Car Congress|date=2010-03-23|access-date=2010-03-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100326114129/http://www.greencarcongress.com/2010/03/byd-20100323.html#more|archive-date=2010-03-26|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=Edmunds310>{{cite web|url=http://blogs.edmunds.com/greencaradvisor/2010/03/byd-auto-to-offer-f3dm-plug-in-hybrid-to-chinese-individuals-starting-next-week.html |title=BYD Auto to Offer F3DM Plug-in Hybrid to Chinese Individuals Starting Next Week |website=Edmunds.com |date=2010-03-23 |access-date=2010-03-27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100330091520/http://blogs.edmunds.com/greencaradvisor/2010/03/byd-auto-to-offer-f3dm-plug-in-hybrid-to-chinese-individuals-starting-next-week.html |archive-date=2010-03-30 }}</ref> but because the F3DM nearly doubles the price of cars that run on conventional fuel, BYD expects subsidies from the local government to make the plug-in affordable to personal buyers.<ref name=GCC0310/> Toyota tested 600 [[pre-production car|pre-production]] [[Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid|Prius Plug-in]]s in Europe and North America in 2009 and 2010.<ref name=ToyotaDemo2009>{{cite press release|url= http://www2.toyota.co.jp/en/news/09/12/1214.html|title=TMC Introduces 'Prius Plug-in Hybrid' into Key Markets|publisher=Toyota News release|date=2009-12-14|access-date=2010-04-09|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170630042750/http://www2.toyota.co.jp/en/news/09/12/1214.html|archive-date=2017-06-30|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/motoring/car-manufacturers/toyota/6833552/Toyota-Plug-In-Prius-review.html|title=Toyota Plug-In Prius review|date=2010-01-05|access-date=2010-04-10|newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|location=London|first=Andrew|last=English|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100109101816/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/motoring/car-manufacturers/toyota/6833552/Toyota-Plug-In-Prius-review.html|archive-date=2010-01-09|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Volvo Cars]] built two demonstration versions of [[Volvo V70 Plug-in Hybrid]]s in 2009 but did not proceed with production. The [[Volvo V60#V60 plug-in hybrid|V60 plug-in hybrid]] was released in 2011 and was available for sale.

In October 2010 [[Lotus Engineering]] unveiled the [[Lotus CityCar]], a plug-in series hybrid [[concept car]] designed for [[flex-fuel]] operation on [[ethanol fuel|ethanol]], or [[methanol fuel|methanol]] as well as regular gasoline.<ref name=AbG>{{cite web|url=http://green.autoblog.com/2010/10/02/lotus-unveils-range-extended-electric-city-car-concept-in-paris/ |title=Lotus unveils range-extended electric city car concept in Paris|publisher=AutoblogGreen|date=2010-10-02|access-date=2010-10-05|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20101004163302/http://green.autoblog.com/2010/10/02/lotus-unveils-range-extended-electric-city-car-concept-in-paris/|archive-date=2010-10-04|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=Car&Driver>{{cite news|url=http://www.caranddriver.com/news/car/10q3/lotus_city_car_concept-auto_shows|title=Lotus City Car Concept – Auto Shows |first=Mark |last=Gillies|work=Car and Driver |date=2010-10-02|access-date=2010-10-04|url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20101005085559/http://www.caranddriver.com/news/car/10q3/lotus_city_car_concept-auto_shows |archive-date=2010-10-05}}</ref> The [[lithium battery]] pack provides an all-electric range of {{convert|60|km}}, and the 1.2-liter flex-fuel engine kicks in to allow to extend the range to more than {{convert|500|km}}.<ref name=AbG/><ref name=Car&Driver/>

GM officially launched the Chevrolet Volt in the U.S. on November 30, 2010, and retail deliveries began in December 2010.<ref name=Volt1stDelivery>{{cite web|url=http://www.plugincars.com/first-chevy-volts-reach-customers-will-out-deliver-nissan-december-106575.html|title=First Chevy Volts Reach Customers, Will Out-Deliver Nissan in December |website=plugincars.com|date=2010-12-16|access-date=2010-12-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101218022939/http://www.plugincars.com/first-chevy-volts-reach-customers-will-out-deliver-nissan-december-106575.html|archive-date=2010-12-18|url-status=live}}</ref> Its sibling the Opel/Vauxhall Ampera was launched in Europe between late 2011 and early 2012. The first deliveries of the [[Fisker Karma]] took place in July 2011,<ref name=Karma1stDelivery>{{cite web|url=http://gigaom.com/cleantech/photos-kleiners-ray-lane-receives-his-fisker-karma/|title=PHOTOS: Kleiner's Ray Lane receives his Fisker Karma |first=Katie|last=Fehrenbacher|publisher=earth2tech|date=2011-07-26|access-date=2011-07-26|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20111217125817/http://gigaom.com/cleantech/photos-kleiners-ray-lane-receives-his-fisker-karma/|archive-date=2011-12-17|url-status=dead}}</ref> and deliveries to retail customers began in November 2011. The [[Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid]] was released in Japan in January 2012,<ref name=JapanStartDate>{{cite web|url= http://integrityexports.com/2011/09/30/prius-plug-in-hybrid-on-sale-january-in-japan-charging-stations-at-5500-dealerships-and-car-rental-locations/|title=Prius Plug-In Hybrid On Sale January in Japan – Charging Stations at 5,500 Dealerships and Car Rental Locations|first=Stephen|last=Munday|publisher=Integrity Exports|date=2011-09-30|access-date=2011-09-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111002173301/http://integrityexports.com/2011/09/30/prius-plug-in-hybrid-on-sale-january-in-japan-charging-stations-at-5500-dealerships-and-car-rental-locations/|archive-date=2011-10-02|url-status=live}}</ref> followed by the United States in February 2012.<ref name=PEVsalesUS>{{cite web|url=http://www.greencarreports.com/news/1074785_plug-in-car-sales-soar-in-march-led-by-chevrolet-volt|title=Plug-In Car Sales Soar In March, Led By Chevrolet Volt|first=John|last=Voelcker|publisher=Green Car Reports|date=2012-04-03|access-date=2012-04-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120406042244/http://www.greencarreports.com/news/1074785_plug-in-car-sales-soar-in-march-led-by-chevrolet-volt|archive-date=2012-04-06|url-status=live}}</ref> Deliveries of the Prius PHV in Europe began in late June 2012.<ref name=PriuSales0612EU>{{cite press release|url= http://corporatemedia.toyota.eu/PressReleases/Pages/CorporatePressRelease.aspx?pressReleaseId=752&returnUrl=/Pages/default.aspx&source=Corporate |title=Solid 13% Q2 sales increase for Toyota and Lexus vehicles in Europe |publisher=Toyota Motor Europe |date=2012-07-13 |access-date=2012-08-06 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016044354/http://corporatemedia.toyota.eu/PressReleases/Pages/CorporatePressRelease.aspx?pressReleaseId=752&returnUrl=%2FPages%2Fdefault.aspx&source=Corporate |archive-date=2015-10-16 }}</ref> The [[Ford C-Max Energi]] was released in the U.S. in October 2012,<ref name=EnergiSales>{{cite web|url=http://www.plugincars.com/fords-evs-starting-slow-and-waiting-market-125120.html|title=Ford's Electric Cars: Starting Slow, and Waiting for the Market|first=Jim|last=Motavalli|website=PluginCars.com|date=2012-11-02|access-date=2012-11-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104162601/http://www.plugincars.com/fords-evs-starting-slow-and-waiting-market-125120.html|archive-date=2012-11-04|url-status=live}}</ref> the [[Volvo V60 Plug-in Hybrid]] in Sweden by late 2012.<ref name=SwedenSales2011_13>{{cite web|url=http://www.best-selling-cars.com/hybrid/2013-q1-sweden-best-selling-electric-and-plugin-hybrid-cars/|title=2013 (Q1) Sweden: Best-Selling Electric Cars and Plugin Hybrid Models|website=BestSellingCars.com|date=2013-04-12|access-date=2013-04-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605084454/http://www.best-selling-cars.com/hybrid/2013-q1-sweden-best-selling-electric-and-plugin-hybrid-cars/|archive-date=2013-06-05|url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[Honda Accord Plug-in Hybrid]] was released in selected U.S. markets in January 2013,<ref name="Pete Brissette">{{cite web|url=http://www.hybridcars.com/2014-honda-accord-plug-in-hybrid-now-available-in-calif-and-new-york/|title=2014 Honda Accord Plug-in Hybrid Now Available in Calif. And New York|first=Pete|last=Brissette|website=HybridCars.com|date=2013-01-21|access-date=2013-01-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130125080428/http://www.hybridcars.com/2014-honda-accord-plug-in-hybrid-now-available-in-calif-and-new-york/|archive-date=2013-01-25|url-status=live}}</ref> and the [[Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV]] in Japan in January 2013, becoming the first [[SUV]] plug-in hybrid in the market.<ref name=JapPHEV>{{cite web|url=http://insideevs.com/mitsubishi-outlander-phev-on-sale-in-japan-today-extended-promotional-video-released/|title=Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV On Sale In Japan Today, Extended Promotional Video Released|first=Jay|last=Cole|publisher=Inside EVs|date=2013-01-24|access-date=2013-01-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130127093333/http://insideevs.com/mitsubishi-outlander-phev-on-sale-in-japan-today-extended-promotional-video-released/|archive-date=2013-01-27|url-status=live}}</ref> Deliveries of the [[Ford Fusion Energi]] began in February 2013.<ref name=EnergiDelivery01>{{cite news|url= http://pricinginsider.carsdirect.com/2013/02/27/2013-ford-fusion-energi-fuel-economy-pricing-and-release-date/ |title=2013 Ford Fusion Energi: Fuel Economy, Pricing and Release Date |first=Jesse |last=Sears |publisher=Cars Direct |date=2013-02-27 |access-date=2013-03-03 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130305135302/http://pricinginsider.carsdirect.com/2013/02/27/2013-ford-fusion-energi-fuel-economy-pricing-and-release-date/ |archive-date=2013-03-05 }}</ref><ref name=EnergiDelivery02>{{cite news|url=https://insideevs.com/february-2013-plug-in-electric-vehicle-sales-report-card/ |title=February 2013 Plug-In Electric Vehicle Sales Report Card |first=Jay |last=Cole |publisher=Inside EVs |date=2013-03-03 |access-date=2013-03-04 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130304012451/http://insideevs.com/february-2013-plug-in-electric-vehicle-sales-report-card/ |archive-date=2013-03-04 }}</ref> BYD Auto stopped production of its BYD F3DM due to low sales,<ref name=EndF3DM>{{cite web|url=http://www.plugincars.com/chinas-byd-opens-electric-bus-production-plant-california-127131.html|title=China's BYD Opens Electric Bus Production Plant in California|first=Alysha|last=Webb|website=PluginCars.com|date=2013-05-02|access-date=2013-05-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130506233747/http://www.plugincars.com/chinas-byd-opens-electric-bus-production-plant-california-127131.html|archive-date=2013-05-06|url-status=live}}</ref> and its successor, the [[BYD Qin]], began sales in [[Costa Rica]] in November 2013, with sales in other countries in [[Latin America]] scheduled to begin in 2014.<ref name=QinLatam01>{{cite web|url=http://www.puromotor.com/industria/3652-byd-presenta-su-auto-hibrido-qin |title=BYD Presenta su Auto Híbrido Qin |language=es |trans-title=BYD Presents its Hybrid Car Qin |first=Beatriz |last=Nuñez |publisher=Puro Motor |access-date=2013-12-16 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131216032641/http://www.puromotor.com/industria/3652-byd-presenta-su-auto-hibrido-qin |archive-date=2013-12-16 }}</ref><ref name=QinLatam02>{{cite web|url=http://evworld.com/news.cfm?newsid=31882 |title=BYD Announces Sales Launch of Qin Electric Hybrid in Latin America |publisher=EV World |date=2013-12-04 |access-date=2013-12-16 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131216034711/http://evworld.com/news.cfm?newsid=31882 |archive-date=2013-12-16 }}</ref><ref name=QinLatam03>{{cite web|url=http://www.greencarreports.com/news/1088989_byd-qin-plug-in-hybrid-now-on-sale-in-costa-rica|title=BYD Qin Plug-In Hybrid Now On Sale In Costa Rica|first=John|last=Voelcker|publisher=Green Car Reports|date=2013-12-09|access-date=2013-12-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131214235228/http://www.greencarreports.com/news/1088989_byd-qin-plug-in-hybrid-now-on-sale-in-costa-rica|archive-date=2013-12-14|url-status=live}}</ref> Qin deliveries began in China in mid December 2013.<ref name=PriceChina>{{cite web|url=http://www.chinacartimes.com/2013/12/byd-launches-qin-plugin-hybrid-189800rmb-209800rmb/ |title=BYD Launches Qin Plugin Hybrid – 189,800RMB to 209,800RMB |work=China Car Times |date=2013-12-19 |access-date=2013-12-19 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131221190347/http://www.chinacartimes.com/2013/12/byd-launches-qin-plugin-hybrid-189800rmb-209800rmb/ |archive-date=2013-12-21 }}</ref>

[[File:11-09-04-iaa-by-RalfR-107.jpg|thumb|The [[Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid]] was launched in Japan and the U.S. in early 2012, and Europe by mid-2012.]]

Deliveries to retail customers of the limited edition [[McLaren P1]] supercar began in the UK in October 2013,<ref name=McLarenP1>{{cite web |url=http://www.autoblog.com/2013/10/21/mclaren-p1-official-performance-figures/ |title=McLaren P1 hits 62 mph in 2.8 seconds, 186 in 16.5 |first=Noah |last=Joseph |website=Autoblog.com |date=2013-10-21 |access-date=2013-10-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131021134958/http://www.autoblog.com/2013/10/21/mclaren-p1-official-performance-figures/ |archive-date=2013-10-21 |url-status=live }}</ref> and the [[Porsche Panamera S E-Hybrid]] began deliveries in the U.S. in November 2013. The first retail deliveries of the [[Cadillac ELR]] took place in the U.S. in December 2013.<ref name=ELR1st>{{cite web|url=http://insideevs.com/cadillac-elr-december-2013-sales/|title=Cadillac ELR Arrives Early, Manages To Sell 6 Copies In December|first=Jay|last=Cole|website= [[Motorsport Network#InsideEVs|InsideEVs]]|date=2014-01-03|access-date=2014-01-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140103200455/http://insideevs.com/cadillac-elr-december-2013-sales/|archive-date=2014-01-03|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[BMW i8]] and the limited edition [[Volkswagen XL1]] were released to retail customers in Germany in June 2014.<ref name=BMWi8First>{{cite web |url=http://insideevs.com/worlds-first-bmw-i8-owners-take-delivery-germany/ |title=World's First BMW i8 Owners Take Delivery In Germany |first=Eric |last=Loveday |website=InsideEVs.com |date=2014-06-06 |access-date=2014-06-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140608220238/http://insideevs.com/worlds-first-bmw-i8-owners-take-delivery-germany/ |archive-date=2014-06-08 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=VWXL1first>{{cite news |url=http://www.inautonews.com/first-volkswagen-xl1-gets-delivered-to-german-customer |title=First Volkswagen XL1 gets delivered to German customer |first=Cristian |last=Gnaticov |work=Inautonews |date=2014-06-03 |access-date=2014-06-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140607212205/http://www.inautonews.com/first-volkswagen-xl1-gets-delivered-to-german-customer#.U5NC7vldV8F |archive-date=2014-06-07 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[Porsche 918 Spyder]] was also released in Europe and the U.S. in 2014. The first units of the [[Audi A3 Sportback e-tron]] and [[Volkswagen Golf GTE]] were registered in Germany in August 2014.<ref name=Germany082014>{{cite web|url= http://insideevs.com/germany-plug-electric-vehicle-sales-report-august-2014/|title=Germany Plug-In Electric Vehicle Sales Report August 2014|first=Mark|last=Kane|website=InsideEVs.com|date=2014-09-24|access-date=2014-09-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140929141946/http://insideevs.com/germany-plug-electric-vehicle-sales-report-august-2014/|archive-date=2014-09-29|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Volkswagen XL driver side.JPG|right|thumb|Volkswagen XL driver side with door opened]]

In 2013, Volkswagen started production on the [[Volkswagen 1-litre car|Volkswagen XL1]], a two-person limited production diesel-powered plug-in hybrid vehicle designed to be able to travel {{cvt|100|km/L|mpgimp mpgus|round=5}} on diesel, while still being both roadworthy and practical. The model is built with a {{cvt|800|cc|cuin|0}} TDI twin-cylinder, common-rail {{cvt|47|hp|kW|order=flip|0}} turbo-diesel and a {{cvt|20|kW|hp|0}} electric motor. The model is unique in that it is one of the only mass produced plug-in diesel hybrid vehicles and one of the only mass produced diesel hybrid vehicles in general.<ref>{{Cite press release |url=https://www.volkswagen-newsroom.com/en/xl1-3588|title=XL1|publisher=Volkswagen}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=14 June 2013 |title=2014 Volkswagen XL1 First Drive |work=Car and Driver |url=https://www.caranddriver.com/reviews/a15112331/2014-volkswagen-xl1-first-drive-review/}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=22 December 2019 |title=For Sale: Ultra-Rare 2015 Volkswagen XL1 Diesel-Hybrid Capable of 260 MPG |url=https://www.thedrive.com/news/31595/for-sale-ultra-rare-2015-volkswagen-xl1-diesel-hybrid-capable-of-260-mpg}}</ref>

In December 2014 BMW announced the group is planning to offer plug-in hybrid versions of all its core-brand models using eDrive technology developed for its [[BMW i]] brand plug-in vehicles ([[BMW i3]] and BMW i8). The goal of the company is to use plug-in technology to continue offering high performance vehicles while reducing {{CO2}} emissions below 100g/km. At the time of the announcement the carmaker was already testing a [[BMW 3 Series]] plug-in hybrid prototype.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://insideevs.com/bmw-commits-offering-plug-hybrid-versions-core-brand-models/|title=BMW Commits To Offering Plug-In Hybrid Versions Of All Core-Brand Models|first=Eric|last=Loveday|website=InsideEVs.com|date=2014-12-01|access-date=2014-12-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141204054946/http://insideevs.com/bmw-commits-offering-plug-hybrid-versions-core-brand-models/|archive-date=2014-12-04|url-status=live}}</ref> The first model available for retail sales will be the 2016 [[BMW X5 eDrive]], with the production version unveiled at the 2015 [[Shanghai Motor Show]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.greencarreports.com/news/1097267_2016-bmw-x5-xdrive-40e-plug-in-hybrid-suv-to-debut-in-shanghai-next-month|title=2016 BMW X5 xDrive 40e Plug-In Hybrid SUV To Debut In Shanghai Next Month|first=Stephen|last=Edelstein|publisher=Green Car Reports|date=2015-03-06|access-date=2015-03-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150318213257/http://www.greencarreports.com/news/1097267_2016-bmw-x5-xdrive-40e-plug-in-hybrid-suv-to-debut-in-shanghai-next-month|archive-date=2015-03-18|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Chevrolet Volt (second generation)|second generation Chevrolet Volt]] was unveiled at the January 2015 [[North American International Auto Show]],<ref name=2016Volt>{{cite news |url=https://www.latimes.com/business/autos/la-fi-0113-chevrolet-volt-bolt-20150112-story.html |title=Chevy Bolt electric car targets Tesla with low price, long range |first1=Brian |last1=Thevenot |first2=Jerry |last2=Hirsch |name-list-style=amp |newspaper=Los Angeles Times |date=2015-01-12 |access-date=2015-01-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150113073807/http://www.latimes.com/business/autos/la-fi-0113-chevrolet-volt-bolt-20150112-story.html |archive-date=2015-01-13 |url-status=live }}</ref> and retail deliveries began in the U.S. and Canada in October 2015.<ref name=Volt2016>{{cite news|url=http://www.hybridcars.com/2016-volts-account-for-1324-sales-out-of-2035-october-deliveries/|title=2016 Volts Account For 1,324 Sales Out Of 2,035 October Deliveries|first=Jeff|last=Cobb|work=HybridCars.com|date=2015-11-03|access-date=2015-11-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151107054905/http://www.hybridcars.com/2016-volts-account-for-1324-sales-out-of-2035-october-deliveries/|archive-date=2015-11-07|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=Canada2015>{{cite web|url=http://www.greencarreports.com/news/1100803_plug-in-electric-car-sales-in-canada-october-2015-the-wallet-ballot|title=Plug-in Electric Car Sales in Canada, October 2015: The Wallet Ballot|first=Matthew|last=Klippenstein|publisher=Green Car Reports|date=2015-11-06|access-date=2015-11-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151107193346/http://www.greencarreports.com/news/1100803_plug-in-electric-car-sales-in-canada-october-2015-the-wallet-ballot|archive-date=2015-11-07|url-status=live}}</ref>

In March 2015 [[Audi]] said they planned on making a plug-in hybrid version of every model series, and that they expect plug-in hybrids, together with natural gas vehicles and battery-electric drive systems, to have a key contribution in achieving the company's {{CO2}} targets. The [[Audi Q7 e-tron]] will follow the A3 e-tron already in the market.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.greencarcongress.com/2015/03/20150311-audi-1.html|title=Audi to have a plug-in hybrid in every model series; new BEV in 2018|first=Mike|last=Millikin|publisher=Green Car Congress|date=2015-03-11|access-date=2015-03-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150314224851/http://www.greencarcongress.com/2015/03/20150311-audi-1.html|archive-date=2015-03-14|url-status=live}}</ref> Also in March 2015, [[Mercedes-Benz]] announced that the company's main emphasis regarding alternative drives in the next years will be on plug-in hybrids. The carmaker plans to introduce 10 new plug-in hybrid models by 2017, and its next release was the [[Mercedes-Benz C-Class (W205)#C 350 e|Mercedes-Benz C 350 e]], Mercedes' second plug-in hybrid after the [[Mercedes-Benz S 500 Plug-in Hybrid|S 500 Plug-In Hybrid]].<ref name=MBphevs>{{cite web|url=http://www.greencarcongress.com/2015/03/20150318-mbphev.html|title=Mercedes-Benz to introduce 10 plug-in hybrids by 2017; GLE PHEV coming soon|first=Mike|last=Millikin|publisher=Green Car Congress|date=2015-03-18|access-date=2015-03-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150320175207/http://www.greencarcongress.com/2015/03/20150318-mbphev.html|archive-date=2015-03-20|url-status=live}}</ref> Other plug-in hybrid released in 2015 are the [[BYD Tang]], [[Volkswagen Passat GTE]], [[Volvo XC90 T8]], and the [[Hyundai Sonata PHEV]].

Global combined [[Volt/Ampera family]] sales passed the 100,000 unit milestone in October 2015.<ref name=Volt100K>{{cite news|url=http://www.hybridcars.com/gm-sells-its-100000th-volt-in-october/|title=GM Sells Its 100,000th Volt in October|first=Jeff|last=Cobb|work=HybridCars.com|date=2015-11-04|access-date=2015-11-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151108083210/http://www.hybridcars.com/gm-sells-its-100000th-volt-in-october/|archive-date=2015-11-08|url-status=live}}''About 102,000 units of the Volt/Ampera family have been sold worldwide by the end of October 2015''.</ref> By the end of 2015, over 517,000 highway legal plug-in hybrid electric cars have been sold worldwide since December 2008 out of total global sales of more than 1.25 million light-duty plug-in electric cars.<ref name=Outlook2016/><ref name=TopSix2015>{{cite news |url=http://www.hybridcars.com/top-six-plug-in-vehicle-adopting-countries-2015/ |title=Top Six Plug-in Vehicle Adopting Countries – 2015 |first=Jeff |last=Cobb |work=HybridCars.com |date=2016-01-18 |access-date=2016-02-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160204014228/http://www.hybridcars.com/top-six-plug-in-vehicle-adopting-countries-2015/ |archive-date=2016-02-04 |url-status=live }} ''About 520,000 highway legal light-duty plug-in electric vehicles were sold worldwide in 2015, with cumulative global sales reaching 1,235,000. [http://www.hybridcars.com/one-million-global-plug-in-sales-milestone-reached/ Plug-in hybrids represent about 40% of global plug-in electric vehicle sales] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150917004950/http://www.hybridcars.com/one-million-global-plug-in-sales-milestone-reached/ |date=2015-09-17 }}.''</ref>

{{Multiple image
| direction         = vertical
| align             = right
| image1            = Porsche 918 Spyder at 2014 NY Auto Show.jpg
| image2            = BMW i8 in Berlin trimmed.jpg
| width             = 220
| caption1          = Sales of the [[Porsche 918 Spyder]] began in Europe in May 2014.
| caption2          = The [[BMW i8]] was released in Europe in June 2014.
}}

In February 2016, BMW announced the introduction of the "iPerformance" model designation, which will be given to all BMW plug-in hybrid vehicles from July 2016. The aim is to provide a visible indicator of the transfer of technology from [[BMW i]] to the BMW core brand. The new designation will be used first on the plug-in hybrid variants of the new [[BMW 7 Series]], the [[BMW 740e iPerformance]],<ref>{{cite press release |url=https://www.press.bmwgroup.com/global/pressDetail.html?title=bmw-at-the-86th-geneva-international-motor-show-2016&outputChannelId=6&id=T0253602EN&left_menu_item=node__803 |title=BMW at the 86th Geneva International Motor Show 2016 |publisher=BMW Group PressClub Global |location=Munich |date=2016-02-12 |access-date=2016-02-12 |archive-date=2021-11-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211123225428/https://www.press.bmwgroup.com/global/article/detail/T0253602EN/bmw-at-the-86th-geneva-international-motor-show-2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> and the [[BMW 3 Series|3 Series]], the [[BMW 330e iPerformance]].<ref name=US330e>{{cite news |url=http://www.autoblog.com/2016/03/22/bmw-330e-iperformance-new-name-44695-phev/ |title=BMW 330e iPerformance brings new name to $44,695 PHEV |first=Sebastian |last=Blanco |work=Autoblog.com |date=2016-03-22 |access-date=2016-03-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160323062316/http://www.autoblog.com/2016/03/22/bmw-330e-iperformance-new-name-44695-phev/ |archive-date=2016-03-23 |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Hyundai Motor Company]] made the official debut of its three model [[Hyundai Ioniq]] line-up at the 2016 [[Geneva Motor Show]].<ref name=KoreaTimes>{{cite news |url=https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/biz/2016/02/127_195469.html |title=Hyundai launches Ioniq hybrid compact |first=Park |last=Jin-hai |newspaper=The Korea Times |date=2016-01-14 |access-date=2016-03-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306124100/http://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/biz/2016/02/127_195469.html |archive-date=2016-03-06 |url-status=live }}</ref> The Ioniq family of [[electric drive vehicle]]s includes the [[Hyundai Ioniq Plug-in|Ioniq Plug-in]], which is expected to achieve a fuel economy of {{convert|125|mpge|kWh/100 mi+kWh/100 km|abbr=on}} in all-electric mode.<ref name=GCG032016>{{cite web|url=http://www.greencarcongress.com/2016/03/20160324-ioniq.html |title=Hyundai unveils Ioniq HEV, PHEV and EV for US market at New York show |first=Mike |last=Millikin |publisher=Green Car Congress |date=2016-03-24 |access-date=2016-03-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160327112750/http://www.greencarcongress.com/2016/03/20160324-ioniq.html |archive-date=2016-03-27 |url-status=live}}</ref> The Ioniq Plug-in is scheduled to be released in the U.S. in the fourth quarter of 2017.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://insideevs.com/hyundai-ioniq-has-a-28-kwh-battery-105-miles-real-range/ |title=Hyundai IONIQ Electric Has A 28 kWh Battery, 105 Miles Real Range |first=Jay |last=Cole |website=InsideEVs.com |date=2016-02-21 |access-date=2016-03-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304032744/http://insideevs.com/hyundai-ioniq-has-a-28-kwh-battery-105-miles-real-range/ |archive-date=2016-03-04 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The second generation Prius plug-in hybrid, called [[Toyota Prius Prime|Prius Prime]] in the U.S. and Prius PHV in Japan,<ref name=Prime_PHV>{{cite news | url=http://www.japantoday.com/category/business/view/toyota-gets-bullish-on-plug-in-hybrids-with-new-prius-prime | title=Toyota gets bullish on plug-in hybrids with new Prius Prime | first=Yuri | last=Kageyama | work=Japan Today | date=2016-06-17 | access-date=2016-06-17 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160617150418/http://www.japantoday.com/category/business/view/toyota-gets-bullish-on-plug-in-hybrids-with-new-prius-prime | archive-date=2016-06-17 | url-status=live }}</ref> was unveiled at the 2016 [[New York International Auto Show]]. Retail deliveries of the Prius Prime began in the U.S. in November 2016,<ref name=PrimeUSA>{{cite web | url=http://insideevs.com/several-plug-ins-hit-new-2016-highs-as-november-ev-sales-in-us-rise-sharply/ | title=Several Plug-Ins Hit New 2016 Highs, As November EV Sales In US Rise Sharply | first=Jay | last=Cole | website=InsideEVs.com | date=2016-12-02 | access-date=2016-12-02 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161203123710/http://insideevs.com/several-plug-ins-hit-new-2016-highs-as-november-ev-sales-in-us-rise-sharply/ | archive-date=2016-12-03 | url-status=live }}</ref> and is scheduled to be released Japan by the end of 2016.<ref name=Prime_PHV/><ref name=PriusPrime1>{{cite news |url= http://www.autoblog.com/2016/03/23/toyota-prius-prime-new-york-official/ |title= Toyota Prius Prime plugs in with 22 EV miles |first= Sebastian |last= Blanco |website=Autoblog.com |date= 2016-03-23 |access-date= 2016-03-24 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160324041401/http://www.autoblog.com/2016/03/23/toyota-prius-prime-new-york-official/ |archive-date= 2016-03-24 |url-status= live }}</ref> The Prime has an EPA-rated all-electric range of {{convert|25|mi|abbr=on}}, over twice the range of the first generation model, and an EPA rated fuel economy of {{convert|133|mpge|abbr=on}} in [[all-electric mode]] (EV mode), the highest [[miles per gallon equivalent|MPGe]] rating in EV mode of any vehicle rated by EPA.<ref name=2017PrimeMPGe>{{cite news| url=http://www.hybridcars.com/2017-prius-prime-offers-industrys-best-mpge-and-25-miles-electric-range/ | title=2017 Prius Prime Offers Industry's Best 'MPGe' and 25 Miles Electric Range | first=Jon | last=LeSage |website=HybridCars.com | date=2016-10-05 | access-date=2016-10-15 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161012175810/http://www.hybridcars.com/2017-prius-prime-offers-industrys-best-mpge-and-25-miles-electric-range/ | archive-date=2016-10-12 | url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{ cite news |url=http://www.greencarreports.com/news/1106568_at-133-mpge-toyota-prius-prime-wallops-bmw-i3-on-energy-efficiency |title=At 133 MPGe, Toyota Prius Prime wallops BMW i3 on energy efficiency |first=John |last=Voelcker |work=Green Car Reports |date=2016-10-10 |access-date=2016-10-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161015062846/http://www.greencarreports.com/news/1106568_at-133-mpge-toyota-prius-prime-wallops-bmw-i3-on-energy-efficiency |archive-date=2016-10-15 |url-status=live }}</ref> Unlike its predecessor, the Prime runs entirely on electricity in EV mode.<ref name=PriusPrime3>{{cite news |url=http://www.greencarreports.com/news/1103052_2016-toyota-prius-prime-details-on-120-mpge-plug-in-hybrid-all-electric-mode/page-2 |title=2016 Toyota Prius Prime: details on 120 MPGe plug-in hybrid, all-electric mode |first=Bengt |last=Halvorson |work=Green Car Reports |date=2016-03-24 |access-date=2016-03-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160327073137/http://www.greencarreports.com/news/1103052_2016-toyota-prius-prime-details-on-120-mpge-plug-in-hybrid-all-electric-mode/page-2 |archive-date=2016-03-27 |url-status=live }}</ref> Global sales of the Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV passed the 100,000 unit milestone in March 2016.<ref name=Outlander100K>{{cite news |url= http://www.hybridcars.com/mitsubishi-sells-100000th-outlander-phev/ |title=Mitsubishi Sells 100,000th Outlander PHEV |first=Jeff |last=Cobb |work=HybridCars.com |date=2016-05-03 |access-date=2016-05-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160504135034/http://www.hybridcars.com/mitsubishi-sells-100000th-outlander-phev/ |archive-date=2016-05-04 |url-status=live }}'' {{As of |2016|03}}, the world's top selling plug-in electric cars are the Nissan Leaf (over 218,000), Tesla Model S (about 120,000), Chevrolet Volt and Ampera variants (over 110,000), Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV (over 100,000), and Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid (75,000). All figures cumulative global sales since market launch.''</ref><ref name=OutlanderPHEV100K>{{cite press release | url=http://www.mitsubishi-matters.co.uk/2016/05/19/global-mitsubishi-outlander-phev-sales-pass-100000-mark/ | title=Global Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV Sales Pass the 100,000 Mark | publisher=Mitsubishi Motors UK | location=UK | date=2016-05-19 | access-date=2016-05-22 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160624105004/http://www.mitsubishi-matters.co.uk/2016/05/19/global-mitsubishi-outlander-phev-sales-pass-100000-mark/ | archive-date=2016-06-24 | url-status=dead }}'' {{As of |2016|03}}, a total of 65,529 units have been sold in Europe (21,052 in the UK and 44,477 in the rest of Europe), 33,730 in Japan, 2,015 in Australia and 259 in the rest of the world, for a total of 101,533 units sold worldwide.''</ref> [[BYD Qin]] sales in China reached the 50,000 unit milestone in April 2016, becoming the fourth plug-in hybrid to pass that mark.<ref name=Qin50K>{{cite news | url=http://www.hybridcars.com/chinas-byd-qin-phev-sells-50000th-unit-as-quickly-as-did-the-chevy-volt/ |title=China's BYD Qin PHEV Sells 50,000th Unit As Quickly As Did The Chevy Volt |first=Jeff |last=Cobb |website=HybridCars.com |date=2016-05-19 |access-date=2016-05-19 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160520114955/http://www.hybridcars.com/chinas-byd-qin-phev-sells-50000th-unit-as-quickly-as-did-the-chevy-volt/ |archive-date=2016-05-20 | url-status=live }}</ref>

In June 2016, Nissan announced it will introduce a compact [[range extender (vehicle)|range extender]] car in Japan before March 2017. The series plug-in hybrid will use a new hybrid system, dubbed e-Power, which debuted with the Nissan Gripz [[concept car|concept]] crossover showcased at the 2015 [[Frankfurt Auto Show]].<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.autonews.com/article/20160625/OEM05/306279981/nissans-to-do-list-range-autonomy |title=Nissan's to-do list: Range, autonomy |first=Hans |last=Greimel |work=Automotive News |date=2016-06-25 |access-date=2016-06-27}}</ref>

In January 2016, Chrysler debuted its plug-in hybrid minivan, the [[Chrysler Pacifica Hybrid]], with an EPA rated electric-only range of {{convert|30|miles|km|0|order=flip|abbr=in}}.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chrysler introduces Pacifica plug-in hybrid minivan; 80 mpge city, 30-mile AER |url=https://www.greencarcongress.com/2016/01/20160111-pacifica.html |publisher=Green Car Congress |access-date=26 January 2021 |date=11 January 2016 |archive-date=28 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201128023326/https://www.greencarcongress.com/2016/01/20160111-pacifica.html |url-status=live}}</ref> This was the first hybrid minivan of any type. It was first sold in the United States, Canada, and Mexico in 2017.

In December 2017, Honda began retail deliveries of the [[Honda Clarity|Honda Clarity Plug-In Hybrid]] in the United States and Canada, with an EPA rated electric-only range of {{convert|47|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=in|0}}.<ref>{{Cite press release|url=http://news.honda.com/newsandviews/article.aspx?id=10052-en |title=2018 Honda Clarity Plug-in Hybrid Pricing to Start at $33,400 |website=Honda.com |location=US |date=2017-11-16 |access-date=2017-12-28 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20171228171713/http://news.honda.com/newsandviews/article.aspx?id=10052-en |archive-date=2017-12-28 |url-status=live}}</ref>

==Technology==
===Powertrains===
{{main|Hybrid vehicle drivetrains}}
[[File:Chevrolet Volt charging WAS 2011 833.jpg|thumb|The [[Chevrolet Volt]] operates primarily as a [[series hybrid]].]]PHEVs are based on the same three basic powertrain architectures of conventional hybrids; a ''series hybrid'' is propelled by electric motors only, a ''parallel hybrid'' is propelled both by its internal combustion engine and by electric motors operating concurrently, and a ''series-parallel hybrid'' operates in either mode. While a plain hybrid vehicle charges its [[Electric-vehicle battery|battery]] from its engine only, a plug-in hybrid can obtain a significant amount of the energy required to recharge its battery from external sources.{{cn|date=February 2024}}

====Dual plug-in hybrids====
These contain two different energy recovery systems.

The [[Mercedes-AMG ONE]] is a plug-in [[dual hybrid]].

The [[Mercedes-Benz C-Class (W206)]] and the [[Mercedes-Benz_GLC#Second_generation_(X254/C254;_2022)|Mercedes C254/X254]] also have an [[electrically assisted turbocharger]]/[[MGU-H]].<ref name="ams-2021-02">{{cite web|last=Holger Wittich, Patrick Lang|date=2021-02-22|title=Neue Mercedes C-Klasse (W206)|url=https://www.auto-motor-und-sport.de/neuheiten/mercedes-c-klasse-w206-infos-daten-marktstart-preise|publisher=[[auto motor und sport]]}}</ref><ref name="mgu-h">{{cite web |url=https://www.roadandtrack.com/car-culture/a42821665/how-electric-turbochargers-are-changing-internal-combustion/ |title=How Electric Turbochargers Are Changing Internal Combustion |first=Chris |last=Perkins |work=Rand and Track |location=US |date=2023-02-11 |access-date=2024-05-19}}</ref>

====Fuel cell plug-in hybrid====
[[File:Honda CR-V e：FCEV (ZBA-ZC8) front.jpg|thumb|The [[Honda CR-V e:FCEV]] is a plug-in hybrid that pairs a battery, an electric motor, hydrogen tank and a [[fuel cell]].]]
The [[Honda CR-V e:FCEV]] is a plug-in hybrid electric, [[Fuel cell vehicle|fuel cell]] vehicle. It is equipped with a front-mounted electric motor, two high-pressure [[hydrogen tank]]s with a total capacity of {{convert|4.3|kg|lb|1|abbr=on}}, a 17.7 kWh battery with plug-in charging capability with no internal combustion engine.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Parikh |first=Sagar |date=2024-06-08 |title=Honda CR-V e:FCEV production begins in the US |url=https://www.electrive.com/2024/06/08/honda-cr-v-efcev-production-us/ |access-date=2024-06-08 |website=electrive.com |language=en-US}}</ref>

===Charging systems===
The battery charger can be on-board or external to the vehicle. The process for an on-board charger is best explained as AC power being converted into DC power, resulting in the battery being charged.<ref name="Tilsley-2018-04-30">{{cite web |last=Tilsley |first=Rachelle |date=2017-03-07 |title=What is the difference between AC and DC Charging? |url=https://charge.net.nz/faq/what-is-the-difference-between-ac-and-dc-charging/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180507222445/https://charge.net.nz/faq/what-is-the-difference-between-ac-and-dc-charging/ |archive-date=2018-05-07 |access-date=2018-04-30 |website=Electric Vehicle Charging Network}}</ref> On-board chargers are limited in capacity by their weight and size, and by the limited capacity of general-purpose AC outlets. Dedicated off-board chargers can be as large and powerful as the user can afford, but require returning to the charger; high-speed chargers may be shared by multiple vehicles.

Using the electric motor's inverter allows the motor windings to act as the transformer coils, and the existing high-power inverter as the AC-to-DC charger. As these components are already required on the car, and are designed to handle any practical power capability, they can be used to create a very powerful form of on-board charger with no significant additional weight or size. [[AC Propulsion]] uses this charging method, referred to as "reductive charging".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.acpropulsion.com/products-reductive.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110107062236/http://www.acpropulsion.com/products-reductive.html|url-status=dead|title="AC Propulsion's Reductive Charger"|archivedate=January 7, 2011}}</ref>

===Modes of operation===
A plug-in hybrid operates in [[charge-depleting]] and [[charge-sustaining]] modes. Combinations of these two modes are termed [[blended mode]] or mixed-mode. These vehicles can be designed to drive for an extended range in [[all-electric mode]], either at low speeds only or at all speeds. These modes manage the vehicle's battery discharge strategy, and their use has a direct effect on the size and type of battery required:<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.greencarcongress.com/2006/09/plugins_progres.html |title=Plug-ins Progress |work=Green Car Congress |date=2006-09-29 |access-date=2017-12-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171205042028/http://www.greencarcongress.com/2006/09/plugins_progres.html |archive-date=2017-12-05 |url-status=live }}</ref>

'''Charge-depleting mode''' allows a fully charged PHEV to operate exclusively (or depending on the vehicle, almost exclusively, except during hard acceleration) on electric power until its battery state of charge is depleted to a predetermined level, at which time the vehicle's internal combustion engine or fuel cell will be [[wikt:engaged|engaged]]. This period is the vehicle's all-electric range. This is the only mode that a [[battery electric vehicle]] can operate in, hence their limited range.<ref name="energy">{{cite conference |url= http://www.nrel.gov/vehiclesandfuels/vsa/pdfs/40970.pdf |title=Energy Management Strategies for Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles |first1=J. |last1=Gonder |first2=T. |last2=Markel |conference=SAE World Congress |location=Detroit |id=NREL/CP-540-40970 |date=2007-04-16 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070925221144/http://www.nrel.gov/vehiclesandfuels/vsa/pdfs/40970.pdf |archive-date=2007-09-25 }}</ref>

'''Mixed mode''' describes a trip using a combination of multiple modes. For example, a car may begin a trip in low-speed charge-depleting mode, then enter onto a freeway and operate in blended mode. The driver might exit the freeway and drive without the internal combustion engine until all-electric range is exhausted. The vehicle can revert to a charge sustaining-mode until the final destination is reached. This contrasts with a charge-depleting trip that would be driven within the limits of a PHEV's all-electric range.

Most PHEV's also have two additional charge sustaining modes:

'''Battery hold'''; the electric motor is locked out and the vehicle operates exclusively on combustion power, so that whatever charge is left in the battery remains for when mixed mode or full electric operation are re-engaged, whilst [[regenerative braking]] will still be available to boost the battery charge.  On some PHEVs, vehicle services that use the traction battery (such as heating and air conditioning) are placed in a low power consumption mode to further conserve the remaining battery charge.  The lock-out of the electric motor is automatically overridden (charge permitting) should full acceleration be required.

'''Self charge'''; the electric motor's armature is engaged to the transmission, but is connected to the battery so that it runs as a generator and therefore recharges the battery whilst the car is in motion, although this comes at the expense of higher fuel consumption, as the combustion engine has to both power the vehicle itself and charge the battery.  This is useful for 'charging on the move' when there are limited places to plug the vehicle in.

===Electric power storage===
{{Further|Electric vehicle battery|Charging station}}
The optimum battery size varies depending on whether the aim is to reduce fuel consumption, running costs, or emissions, but a 2009 study<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cmu.edu/me/ddl/publications/2009-EP-Shiau-Samaras-Hauffe-Michalek-PHEV-Weight-Charging.pdf |last1=Shiau |first1=C.-S. |first2=C. |last2=Samaras |first3=R. |last3=Hauffe |first4=J.J. |last4=Michalek |year=2009 |title=Impact of battery weight and charging patterns on the economic and environmental benefits of plug-in hybrid vehicles |access-date=2010-11-27 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110608165411/http://www.cmu.edu/me/ddl/publications/2009-EP-Shiau-Samaras-Hauffe-Michalek-PHEV-Weight-Charging.pdf |archive-date=2011-06-08 |url-status=live }}</ref> concluded that "The best choice of PHEV battery capacity depends critically on the distance that the vehicle will be driven between charges. Our results suggest that for urban driving conditions and frequent charges every 10 miles or less, a low-capacity PHEV sized with an AER (all-electric range) of about 7 miles would be a robust choice for minimizing gasoline consumption, cost, and greenhouse gas emissions. For less frequent charging, every 20–100 miles, PHEVs release fewer GHGs, but [[Hybrid electric vehicle|HEV]]s are more cost effective."

PHEVs typically require deeper [[Battery (electricity)|battery]] charging and discharging cycles than conventional hybrids. Because the number of full cycles influences battery life, this may be less than in traditional HEVs, which do not deplete their batteries as fully. Nonetheless, some authors argue that PHEVs will soon become standard in the automobile industry.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.calcars.org/sci-am-romm-frank-apr06.pdf |title=Hybrid Vehicles Gain Traction |first1=Joseph J. |last1=Romm |first2=Andrew A. |last2=Frank |magazine=Scientific American |pages=72–79 |date=April 2006 |access-date=2017-12-30 |via=The California Cars Initiative |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181019144658/http://www.calcars.org/sci-am-romm-frank-apr06.pdf |archive-date=2018-10-19 |url-status=live }}</ref> Design issues and trade-offs against battery life, capacity, heat dissipation, weight, costs, and safety need to be solved.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.technologyreview.com/s/406201/are-lithium-ion-electric-cars-safe/ |title=Are Lithium-Ion Electric Cars Safe? |first=Kevin |last=Bullis |journal=Technology Review |publisher=MIT |location=Cambridge, Mass. |date=2006-08-03 |access-date=2017-12-30 |archive-date=2021-11-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211123225428/https://www.technologyreview.com/2006/08/03/228500/are-lithium-ion-electric-cars-safe/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Advanced battery technology is under development, promising greater energy densities by both mass and volume,<ref>{{cite news |url= http://wistechnology.com/article.php?id=3228 |title=Johnson Controls partnership wins new contract |first=Chris |last=Fleissner |work=Wisconsin Technology Network |date=2006-08-14 |access-date=2017-12-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070311114746/http://wistechnology.com/article.php?id=3228 |archive-date=2007-03-11 |url-status=live }}</ref> and battery life expectancy is expected to increase.<ref>{{cite press release |url=http://www.nsti.org/press/PRshow.html?id=1312 |title=Altair Nanotechnologies Details Long Life Features of its Nano Titanate Battery |work=Business Wire |publisher=Nano Science and Technology Institute |date=2006-09-07 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927051743/http://www.nsti.org/press/PRshow.html?id=1312 |archive-date=2007-09-27}}</ref>

The cathodes of some early 2007 lithium-ion batteries are made from lithium–cobalt metal oxide. This material is expensive, and cells made with it can release oxygen if overcharged. If the cobalt is replaced with [[Lithium iron phosphate battery|iron phosphates]], the cells will not burn or release oxygen under any charge. At early 2007 gasoline and electricity prices, the break-even point is reached after six to ten years of operation. The payback period may be longer for plug-in hybrids, because of their larger, more expensive batteries.<ref name="ieee">{{cite journal |url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/jan07/4848 |title=Lithium Batteries for Hybrid Cars |first=John |last=Voelcker |journal=IEEE Spectrum |date=2007-01-02 |access-date=2017-12-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070122164916/https://spectrum.ieee.org/jan07/4848 |archive-date=2007-01-22 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Nickel–metal hydride and lithium-ion batteries can be recycled; Toyota, for example, has a recycling program in place under which dealers are paid a US$200 credit for each battery returned.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.toyota.ca/toyota/en/hybrids/how-hybrids-work |title=How hybrids work |publisher=Toyota |location=Canada |year=2016 |access-date=2016-07-07 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160628024050/http://www.toyota.ca/toyota/en/hybrids/how-hybrids-work |archive-date=2016-06-28 |url-status=live }}</ref> Plug-in hybrids typically use larger battery packs than comparable conventional hybrids, however, and thus require more resources. [[Pacific Gas and Electric Company]] (PG&E) has suggested that utilities could purchase used batteries for backup and load leveling purposes. They state that while these used batteries may be no longer usable in vehicles, their residual capacity still has significant value.<ref name="woody">Woody, Todd. [https://web.archive.org/web/20080208091638/http://blogs.business2.com/greenwombat/2007/06/photo_green_wom.html "PG&E's Battery Power Plans Could Jump Start Electric Car Market".] (Blog). ''Green Wombat'', 2007-06-12. Retrieved 2007-08-19.</ref> More recently, [[General Motors]] (GM) has said it has been "approached by utilities interested in using recycled Volt batteries as a power storage system, a secondary market that could bring down the cost of the Volt and other plug-in vehicles for consumers".<ref name="jansen">Jansen, Matt. [http://tech.blorge.com/Structure:%20/2008/06/16/toyota-laughs-while-chevy-volt-battery-power-is-ripped-in-half "Toyota laughs while Chevy Volt battery power is ripped in half".] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080617182856/http://tech.blorge.com/Structure%3A%20/2008/06/16/toyota-laughs-while-chevy-volt-battery-power-is-ripped-in-half/ |date=2008-06-17 }} (Blog). ''tech.blorge'', 2008-6-16. Retrieved 2008-6-17.</ref>

[[Ultracapacitor]]s (or "supercapacitors") are used in some plug-in hybrids, such as [[AFS Trinity]]'s concept prototype, to store rapidly available energy with their high [[power density]], in order to keep batteries within safe resistive heating limits and extend battery life.<ref name=NYTXH>{{cite news |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/13/automobiles/13ULTRA.html |title=Closing the Power Gap Between a Hybrid's Supply and Demand |first=M. L. |last=Wald |newspaper=The New York Times |date=2008-01-13 |access-date=2009-01-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090410093752/http://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/13/automobiles/13ULTRA.html |archive-date=2009-04-10 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=Trinity>{{cite news |url=http://www.sacbee.com/101/story/955111.html |title=Plug-in hybrids promise more power, greater efficiency |first=Jim |last=Downing |work=The Sacramento Bee |date=2008-05-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080528225108/http://www.sacbee.com/101/story/955111.html |archive-date=2008-05-28 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The CSIRO's [[UltraBattery]] combines a [[Electric double-layer capacitor|supercapacitor]] and a lead–acid battery in a single unit, creating a hybrid car battery that lasts longer, costs less and is more powerful than current technologies used in plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs).<ref>[http://www.csiro.au/resources/Ultra-Battery-FAQs.html "UltraBattery FAQs"] {{Webarchive|url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110415182923/http://www.csiro.au/resources/Ultra-Battery-FAQs.html |date=2011-04-15 }}, 2010-05-06</ref>

===Conversions of production vehicles===
[[File:WanacheBuild88large.JPG|thumb|right|15 [[lead–acid batteries]], PFC charger, and [[battery regulator|regulators]] installed into WhiteBird, a PHEV-10 conversion of a Toyota Prius]]
{{Further|Electric vehicle conversion}}
{{See also|CalCars}}

There are several companies that are converting [[fossil fuel]] non-hybrid vehicles to plug-in hybrids:<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.calcars.org/calcars-news/1045.html |title=Can Congress Hear From 6,692 Plug-In Supporters Today? |website=Calcars.org |access-date=2009-04-11 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090604171009/http://www.calcars.org/calcars-news/1045.html |archive-date=2009-06-04 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.calcars.org/calcars-beyond-new-plug-ins.pdf |title=Calcars.org |access-date=2010-11-27 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20101126050240/http://calcars.org/calcars-beyond-new-plug-ins.pdf |archive-date=2010-11-26 |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Aftermarket (automotive)|Aftermarket conversion]] of an existing production hybrid to a plug-in hybrid<ref name="calcars.org">{{cite web |url=http://www.calcars.org/calcars-news/1061.html |title=Calcars.org |website=Calcars.org |access-date=2010-11-27 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20101126004020/http://calcars.org/calcars-news/1061.html |archive-date=2010-11-26 |url-status=live }}</ref> typically involves increasing the capacity of the vehicle's [[battery pack]] and adding an on-board AC-to-DC charger. Ideally, the vehicle's powertrain software would be reprogrammed to make full use of the battery pack's additional energy storage capacity and power output.

Many early plug-in hybrid [[electric vehicle conversion]]s have been based on the [[Toyota Prius]].<ref>California Cars Initiative (2007) [http://www.calcars.org/where-phevs-are.html "Where Plug-In Hybrid Conversions (mostly Priuses) Are"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070714215221/http://www.calcars.org/where-phevs-are.html |date=2007-07-14 }}. Retrieved July 8, 2007.</ref> Some of the systems have involved replacement of the vehicle's original NiMH battery pack and its electronic control unit. Others add an additional battery back onto the original battery pack.<ref>A123 Systems, Inc. (May 3, 2007) [http://autos.groups.yahoo.com/group/calcars-news/message/757 A123Systems Battery Co Acquires Hymotion Conversion Co] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20120707002556/http://autos.groups.yahoo.com/group/calcars-news/message/757 |date=2012-07-07 }} ''Business Wire'' press release</ref>

==Target market==
In recent years, demand for all- electric vehicles, especially in the United States market, has been driven by government incentives through subsidies, lobbyists, and taxes.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Stewart |first1=James |title=Electric Vehicle Tax Credit Survives, but G.M. and Tesla Aren't Cheering |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2018/01/11/business/electric-vehicles-taxes-tesla-gm.html |work=The New York Times |date=2018-01-11 |access-date=2018-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180507224709/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/01/11/business/electric-vehicles-taxes-tesla-gm.html |archive-date=2018-05-07 |url-status=live }}</ref> In particular, American sales of the [[Nissan Leaf]] have depended on generous incentives and special treatment in the [[Georgia (U.S. state)|state of Georgia]], the top selling Leaf market.<ref>{{cite news|title=Atlanta's Incentives Lift Electric Car Sales Tax Credit, Cheap Power Help Make Georgia Capitol a Hotbed for Battery Buggies |url= https://online.wsj.com/articles/why-electric-cars-click-for-atlanta-1401922534|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140606150238/http://online.wsj.com/articles/why-electric-cars-click-for-atlanta-1401922534|url-status=dead|archive-date=6 June 2014|newspaper=The Wall Street Journal|access-date=13 October 2014|ref=WSJ_Leaf_Georgia|date=4 June 2014|quote=Atlanta has been the top U.S. market for Nissan's Leaf car for eight of the past 10 months}}</ref> According to international market research, 60% of respondents believe a battery driving range of less than {{convert|160|km|abbr=on}} is unacceptable even though only 2% drive more than that distance per day.<ref>{{cite web|title=Gauging interest for plug-in hybrid and electric vehicles in select markets: Alternative powertrain survey highlights|url=http://www.ey.com/GL/en/Industries/Automotive/Gauging-interest-for-plug-in-hybrid-and-electric-vehicles-in-select-markets---Alternative-powertrain-survey-highlights|publisher=EY|access-date=13 October 2014|ref=EY_alt|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150924022248/http://www.ey.com/GL/en/Industries/Automotive/Gauging-interest-for-plug-in-hybrid-and-electric-vehicles-in-select-markets---Alternative-powertrain-survey-highlights|archive-date=24 September 2015|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Among popular current all-electric vehicles, only the Tesla (with the most expensive version of the [[Model S]] offering a {{convert|265|mi|km}} range in the [[U.S. Environmental Protection Agency]] 5-cycle test) significantly exceeds this threshold. In 2021, for the 2022 model year, the Nissan Leaf has an EPA rated range of {{convert|212|mi|km}} for the 60 kWh model.

[[File:All-electric range for 2013-14 plug in hybrids observed in Popular Mechanics magazine test.png|thumb|upright=1.35|[[All-electric range]], in miles, for several popular model year 2013 plug-in hybrids, as observed in testing by ''[[Popular Mechanics]]'' magazine. Providing greater all-electric range adds cost and entails compromises, so different all-electric ranges may suit different customers' needs.]]

Plug-in hybrids provide the extended range and potential for refueling of conventional hybrids while enabling drivers to use battery electric power for at least a significant part of their typical daily driving. The average trip to or from work in the United States in 2009 was {{convert|11.8|mi|km}},<ref>{{cite web|title=Summary of Travel Trends: 2009 National Household Travel Survey|url=http://nhts.ornl.gov/2009/pub/stt.pdf|publisher=U.S. Department of Transportation – Federal Highway Administration|access-date=12 October 2014|ref=TravelTrends|page=13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141031214258/http://nhts.ornl.gov/2009/pub/stt.pdf|archive-date=31 October 2014|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref> while the average distance commuted to work in England and Wales in 2011 was slightly lower at {{convert|15|km|abbr=out|order=flip}}.<ref>{{cite web|title=2011 Census Analysis, Distance Travelled to Work|url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/census/2011-census-analysis/distance-travelled-to-work/index.html|publisher=Office for National Statistics (UK)|access-date=12 October 2014|date=26 March 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924114858/http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/census/2011-census-analysis/distance-travelled-to-work/index.html|archive-date=24 September 2015|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Since building a PHEV with a longer all-electric range adds weight and cost, and reduces cargo and/or passenger space, there is not a specific all-electric range that is optimal. The accompanying graph shows the observed all-electric range, in miles, for four popular U.S. market plug-in hybrids, as tested by ''[[Popular Mechanics]]'' magazine.<ref>{{cite magazine|last1=Austin|first1=Michael|title=4 Top Plug-in Hybrids, Tested|url= http://www.popularmechanics.com/cars/reviews/comparisons/4-top-plug-in-hybrids-tested#slide-1|magazine=Popular Mechanics|access-date=12 October 2014|ref=PMmag|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20141018020732/http://www.popularmechanics.com/cars/reviews/comparisons/4-top-plug-in-hybrids-tested#slide-1|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

A key design parameter of the Chevrolet Volt was a target of {{convert|40|mi|km}} for the all-electric range, selected to keep the battery size small and lower costs, and mainly because research showed that 78% of daily [[commuting|commuters]] in the U.S. travel {{convert|40|mi|abbr=on}} or less. This target range would allow most travel to be accomplished electrically driven and the assumption was made that charging will take place at home overnight. This requirement translated using a [[lithium-ion battery]] pack with an energy storage capacity of {{val|16|ul=kWh}} considering that the battery would be used until the [[state of charge]] (SOC) of the battery reached 30%.<ref>{{Cite book|last= Edsall |first=Larry |editor1-last=Endres |editor1-first=Chris |year=2010 |title=Chevrolet Volt: Charging into the Future |others=Foreword by [[Bob Lutz (businessman)|Bob Lutz]] |location=Minneapolis, Minnesota |publisher=Quarto Group Motorbooks |isbn=978-0-7603-3893-3 |pages=91–16}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna16503845|title=GM to unveil Volt electric concept car|agency=Associated Press|publisher=NBC News|date=2007-01-07|access-date=2011-05-15|archive-date=2016-03-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305080504/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/16503845/|url-status=live}}</ref>

In October 2014 General Motors reported, based on data collected through its [[OnStar]] [[telematics]] system since Volt deliveries began, and with over 1 billion miles (1.6 billion km) traveled, that Volt owners drive about 62.5% of their trips in [[all-electric mode]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://insideevs.com/chevy-volt-owners-pass-1-billion-total-miles/ |title=Chevy Volt Owners Pass 1 Billion Total Miles |first=Eric |last=Loveday |website=InsideEVs.com |date=2014-10-03 |access-date=2014-10-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141007231156/http://insideevs.com/chevy-volt-owners-pass-1-billion-total-miles/ |archive-date=2014-10-07 |url-status=live }}</ref> In May 2016, Ford reported, based on data collected from more than 610 million miles (976 million km) logged by its electrified vehicles through its telematics system, that drivers of these vehicles run an average of {{convert|13,500|mi|abbr=on}} annually on their vehicles, with about half of those miles operating in all-electric mode. A breakdown of these figures show an average daily commute of {{convert|42|mi|abbr=on}} for Ford Energi plug-in hybrid drivers. Ford notes that with the enhanced electric range of the 2017 model year model, the average [[Ford Fusion Energi|Fusion Energi]] commuter could go the entire day using no gasoline, if the car is fully charged both, before leaving for work and before leaving for home. According to Ford data, currently most customers are likely charging their vehicles only at home.<ref>{{ cite web|url=http://www.greencarcongress.com/2016/05/2060527-ford.html |title=2017 Ford Fusion Energi PHEV boosts total range to 610 miles |first=Mike |last=Millikin |publisher=Green Car Congress |date=2016-05-27 |access-date=2016-05-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160528134939/http://www.greencarcongress.com/2016/05/2060527-ford.html |archive-date=2016-05-28 |url-status=live}}</ref>

The 2015 edition of the EPA's annual report "''Light-Duty Automotive Technology, Carbon Dioxide Emissions, and Fuel Economy Trends''" estimates the following utility factors for 2015 [[model year]] plug-in hybrids to represent the percentage of miles that will be driven using electricity by an average driver, whether in electric only or blended modes: 83% for the [[BMW i3 REx]], 66% for the Chevrolet Volt, 45% for the [[Ford Fusion Energi|Ford Energi models]], 43% for the [[McLaren P1]], 37% for the [[BMW i8]], and 29% for the [[Toyota Prius PHV]].<ref name=EPAtrends2015>{{cite web|url=https://www3.epa.gov/fueleconomy/fetrends/1975-2015/420r15016.pdf |title=Light-Duty Automotive Technology, Carbon Dioxide Emissions, and Fuel Economy Trends: 1975 Through 2015 |publisher=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency |date=December 2015 |access-date=2016-05-15 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160602082748/https://www3.epa.gov/fueleconomy/fetrends/1975-2015/420r15016.pdf |archive-date=2016-06-02}} ''See Table 7.2 – MY 2015 Alternative Fuel Vehicle Powertrain and Range.''</ref> A 2014 analysis conducted by the [[Idaho National Laboratory]] using a sample of 21,600 all-electric cars and plug-in hybrids, found that Volt owners traveled on average 9,112 miles in all-electric mode (e-miles) per year, while Leaf owners traveled 9,697 e-miles per year, despite the Volt's shorter all-electric range, about half of the Leaf's.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.autonews.com/article/20150328/OEM05/303309999/calif.-considers-a-plea-for-plug-in-hybrids|title=Calif. considers a plea for plug-in hybrids |first=Gabe |last=Nelson |work=Automotive News |date=2015-03-28 |access-date=2015-03-28}}</ref>

==Comparison to non-plug-in hybrids==
===Fuel efficiency and petroleum displacement===
{{Main|Energy conversion efficiency|Well-to-wheel}}
{{See also|Plug-in hybrid car energy efficiency|Fuel efficiency}}
{{Multiple image|direction=vertical|align=right|image1=Erev PHEVseries 98mpg 500px.jpg|image2=Phev-blended paralell 65mpge 500px.jpg|width=220|caption1=Typical [[Fuel economy and environment label|fuel economy label]] for [[series hybrid|series]] plug-in hybrid or extended range electric vehicle|caption2=Typical [[Fuel economy and environment label|fuel economy label]] for blended or [[Hybrid vehicle drivetrain#Power-split or series-parallel hybrid|series-parallel]] plug-in hybrid}}

Plug-in hybrids have the potential to be even more efficient than conventional hybrids because a more limited use of the PHEV's internal combustion engine may allow the engine to be used at closer to its maximum efficiency. While a [[Toyota Prius]] is likely to convert fuel to motive energy on average at about 30% efficiency (well below the engine's 38% peak efficiency), the engine of a PHEV with {{Convert|70|km|mi|abbr=on}} of electric range would be likely to operate far more often near its peak efficiency because the batteries can serve the modest power needs at times when the combustion engine would be forced to run well below its peak efficiency.<ref name="energy" /> The actual efficiency achieved depends on losses from electricity generation, inversion, battery charging/discharging, the motor controller and motor itself, the way a vehicle is used (its [[duty cycle]]), and the opportunities to recharge by connecting to the electrical grid.

Each [[kilowatt hour]] of battery capacity in use will displace up to {{convert|50|USgal|sp=us}} of [[petroleum fuel]]s per year ([[gasoline]] or [[Diesel fuel|diesel]]).<ref>International Humanities Center (September 24, 2008) [http://www.calcars.org/calcars-news/1004.html "Senate OKs Plug-In Credits, Toyota Frets; Free Press Lyrical about Plug-Ins"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100919044532/http://calcars.org/calcars-news/1004.html|date=2010-09-19}} ''California Cars Initiative''</ref> Also, electricity is multi-sourced and, as a result, it gives the greatest degree of [[energy resilience]].<ref>Grove, Andy (July/August 2008) [http://www.american.com/archive/2008/july-august-magazine-contents/our-electric-future "Our Electric Future"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140825064622/http://www.american.com/archive/2008/july-august-magazine-contents/our-electric-future/ |date=2014-08-25 }} ''The American'' (American.com)</ref>

The actual [[fuel economy in automobiles|fuel economy]] for PHEVs depends on their powertrain's operating modes, the all-electric range, and the amount of driving between charges. If no gasoline is used the [[miles per gallon gasoline equivalent]] (MPG-e) depends only on the efficiency of the electric system. The first [[mass production]] PHEV available in the U.S. market, the 2011 [[Chevrolet Volt]], with an EPA rated all-electric range of {{cvt|35|mi}} and an additional gasoline-only extended range of {{cvt|344|mi}}, has an EPA combined city/highway fuel economy of 93 MPG-e in [[all-electric mode]], and {{cvt|37|mpgus}} in gasoline-only mode, for an overall combined gas-electric fuel economy rating of {{cvt|60|mpgus}} equivalent (MPG-e).<ref name=EPAmpge>{{cite web|url=http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/phevsbs.shtml|title=2011 Chevrolet Volt|website=Fueleconomy.gov|author=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Department of Energy |date=2011-05-27|access-date=2011-05-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721040717/http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/phevsbs.shtml|archive-date=2011-07-21|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=GCCEPAVolt>{{cite web|url=http://www.greencarcongress.com/2010/11/volt-20101124.html#more|title=Volt receives EPA ratings and label: 93 mpg-e all-electric, 37 mpg gas-only, 60 mpg-e combined|publisher=Green Car Congress|date=2010-11-24|access-date=2011-05-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110615172720/http://www.greencarcongress.com/2010/11/volt-20101124.html#more|archive-date=2011-06-15|url-status=live}}</ref> The EPA also included in the Volt's [[fuel economy label]] a table showing fuel economy and electricity consumed for five different scenarios: 30, 45, 60 and {{cvt|75|mi|km}} driven between a full charge, and a never charge scenario.<ref name=GCCEPAVolt/> According to this table the fuel economy goes up to {{cvt|168|mpgus}} equivalent (MPG-e) with {{cvt|45|mi}} driven between full charges.<ref name=EPAmpge/>

For the more comprehensive [[fuel economy and environment label]] that will be mandatory in the U.S. beginning in [[model year]] 2013, the [[National Highway Traffic Safety Administration]] (NHTSA) and [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA) issued two separate fuel economy labels for plug-in hybrids because of their design complexity, as PHEVS can operate in two or three operating modes: all-electric, blended, and gasoline-only.<ref name=GCC2013>{{cite web|url=http://www.greencarcongress.com/2011/05/felabel-20110525.html|title=EPA, DOT unveil the next generation of fuel economy labels|publisher=Green Car Congress|date=2011-05-25|access-date=2011-05-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110529151254/http://www.greencarcongress.com/2011/05/felabel-20110525.html|archive-date=2011-05-29|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=EPA2013>{{cite web|url=http://www.epa.gov/otaq/carlabel/420f11017.htm|title=Fact Sheet: New Fuel Economy and Environment Labels for a New Generation of Vehicles |publisher=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency |date=May 2011|access-date=2011-05-31|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110529061246/http://www.epa.gov/otaq/carlabel/420f11017.htm|archive-date=2011-05-29|url-status=live}}''EPA-420-F-11-017''</ref> One label is for series hybrid or extended range electric vehicle (like the Chevy Volt), with all-electric and gasoline-only modes; and a second label for blended mode or [[hybrid vehicle drivetrain#Power-split or series-parallel hybrid|series-parallel hybrid]], that includes a combination of both gasoline and plug-in electric operation; and gasoline only, like a conventional hybrid vehicle.<ref name=GCC2013/><ref name=EPA2013/>

The [[Society of Automotive Engineers]] (SAE) developed their recommended practice in 1999 for testing and reporting the fuel economy of hybrid vehicles and included language to address PHEVs. An SAE committee is currently working to review procedures for testing and reporting the fuel economy of PHEVs.<ref>US Department of Energy (September 18, 2007) [http://www.eere.energy.gov/afdc/vehicles/plugin_hybrids_conversions.html "Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicle Conversions"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071031020235/http://www.eere.energy.gov/afdc/vehicles/plugin_hybrids_conversions.html |date=2007-10-31 }} ''Alternative Fuels and Advanced Vehicles Data Center'' Retrieved November 8, 2007.</ref> The Toronto Atmospheric Fund tested ten retrofitted plug-in hybrid vehicles that achieved an average of 5.8 litres per 100 kilometre or 40.6 miles per gallon over six months in 2008, which was considered below the technology's potential.<ref name=hamilton>Hamilton, Tyler. [https://www.thestar.com/Business/article/439557 $3.83 to power hybrid plug-in for 6 days] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121019161146/http://www.thestar.com/Business/article/439557 |date=2012-10-19 }}. June 9, 2008</ref>

In real world testing using normal drivers, some Prius PHEV conversions may not achieve much better fuel economy than HEVs. For example, a plug-in Prius fleet, each with a {{convert|30|mi|sp=us}} all-electric range, averaged only {{convert|51|mpgus|abbr=on}} in a {{convert|17000|mi|adj=on|sp=us}} test in Seattle,<ref>Westneat, D. (February 22, 2009) [http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/dannywestneat/2008771363_danny22.html Reality check on plug-in cars] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090225175946/http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/dannywestneat/2008771363_danny22.html|date=2009-02-25}}</ref> and similar results with the same kind of conversion battery models at [[Google.org|Google]]'s [[RechargeIT]] initiative. Moreover, the additional battery pack costs {{USD|10,000}}–{{USD|11,000}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.google.org/recharge/partners.html |title=RechargeIT.org |website=Google.org |access-date=2009-04-11 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090308080120/http://www.google.org/recharge/partners.html |archive-date=2009-03-08 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.google.org/recharge/dashboard |title=Google.org |website=Google.org |access-date=2009-04-11 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090321163631/http://www.google.org/recharge/dashboard |archive-date=2009-03-21 }}</ref>

===Operating costs===
A study published in 2014 by researchers from [[Lamar University]], [[Iowa State University]] and [[Oak Ridge National Laboratory]] compared the operating costs of PHEVs of various electric ranges (10, 20, 30, and 40 miles) with conventional gasoline vehicles and non-plugin hybrid-electric vehicles (HEVs) for different payback periods, considering different charging infrastructure deployment levels and gasoline prices. The study concluded that:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.greencarcongress.com/2014/03/20140311-lin.html|title=Study finds energy savings of PHEVs relative to HEVs dependent on charging coverage and daily VMT|author1=Xing Wu|author2=Jing Dong|author3=Zhenhong Lin|publisher=Green Car Congress|date=2014-03-11|access-date=2014-03-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140323080219/http://www.greencarcongress.com/2014/03/20140311-lin.html|archive-date=2014-03-23|url-status=live}} ''For more details see: Xing Wu, Jing Dong, Zhenhong Lin (2014) Cost analysis of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles using GPS-based longitudinal travel data, Energy Policy, Volume 68, Pages 206–217, doi: 10.1016/j.enpol.2013.12.054''</ref>
* PHEVs save around 60% or 40% in energy costs, compared with conventional gasoline vehicles and HEVs, respectively. For drivers with significant daily vehicle miles traveled (DVMT), however, hybrid vehicles may be even a better choice than plug-in hybrids with a range of {{convert|40|mi|abbr=on}}, particularly when there is a lack of public charging infrastructure.
* The incremental battery cost of large-battery plug-in hybrids is difficult to justify based on the incremental savings of PHEVs' operating costs unless a subsidy is offered for large-battery PHEVs.
* When the price of gasoline increases from {{USD|4}} per gallon to {{USD|5}} per gallon, the number of drivers who benefit from a larger battery increases significantly. If the gas price is {{USD|3}}, a plug-in hybrid with a range of {{convert|10|mi|abbr=on}} is the least costly option even if the battery cost is $200/kWh.
* Although [[charging station#Sites|quick charger]]s can reduce charging time, they contribute little to energy cost savings for PHEVs, as opposed to [[Level 1, 2, and 3 charging|Level-2 charger]]s.

===Cost of batteries===
{{Main|Electric vehicle battery}}
Disadvantages of PHEVs include the additional cost, weight and size of a larger [[battery pack]]. According to a 2010 study by the [[United States National Research Council|National Research Council]], the cost of a [[lithium-ion]] battery pack is about {{USD|1,700}}/[[kW·h]] of usable energy, and considering that a PHEV with {{Convert|10|km|mi|abbr=on}} of electric range requires about 2.0&nbsp;kW·h and a PHEV with {{Convert|40|km|mi|abbr=on}} of electric range about 8&nbsp;kW·h, the estimated manufacturer cost of the battery pack for a PHEV with {{Convert|10|km|mi|abbr=on}} of electric range is around {{USD|3,000}} and it goes up to {{USD|14,000}} for a PHEV with {{Convert|40|km|mi|abbr=on}} of electric range.<ref name=NRC09_1>{{cite book|url=http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=12826&page=2|title=Transitions to Alternative Transportation Technologies—Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles|publisher=The National Academies Press|author=National Research Council|year=2010|doi=10.17226/12826|isbn=978-0-309-14850-4|access-date=2010-03-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607033206/http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=12826&page=2|archive-date=2011-06-07|url-status=live|author-link=United States National Research Council}}</ref><ref name=NYT1209>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/15/business/15hybrid.html?_r=2&scp=8&sq=plug-in%20hybrid&st=cse|title=Study Says Big Impact of the Plug-In Hybrid Will Be Decades Away|newspaper=The New York Times|date=2009-12-14|access-date=2010-03-04|author1=Jad Mouawad|author2=Kate Galbraith|name-list-style=amp|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140810110846/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/15/business/15hybrid.html?_r=2&scp=8&sq=plug-in%20hybrid&st=cse|archive-date=2014-08-10|url-status=live}}</ref> According to the same study, even though costs are expected to decline by 35% by 2020, market penetration is expected to be slow and therefore PHEVs are not expected to significantly impact oil consumption or carbon emissions before 2030, unless a fundamental breakthrough in battery technologies occurs.<ref name=NRC09_1/><ref name=NYT1209/><ref name=NRC09_2>{{cite web|url=http://www8.nationalacademies.org/onpinews/newsitem.aspx?RecordID=12826|title=Plug-In Hybrid Vehicle Costs Likely to Remain High, Benefits Modest for Decades|publisher=U.S. National Academy of Sciences |author=National Research Council|date=2009-12-14|access-date=2010-03-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100201212515/http://www8.nationalacademies.org/onpinews/newsitem.aspx?RecordID=12826|archive-date=2010-02-01|url-status=dead|author-link=United States National Research Council}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto"
|+Cost comparison between a PHEV-10 and a PHEV-40<ref name=NRC09_1/><ref name=NRC09_2/><br />(prices for 2010)
|-style="text-align:center;"
| style="background:#cfc;"| '''Plug-in<br />type by<br />EV range''' || style="background:#cfc;"|'''Similar<br />production<br /> model''' || style="background:#cfc;"|'''Type of<br />[[Hybrid vehicle drivetrain|drivetrain]]''' || style="background:#cfc;"| '''Manufacturer <br />additional cost <br />compared to conventional<br />non-hybrid [[Mid-size car|mid-size]]''' || style="background:#cfc;"| '''Estimated cost <br /> of battery pack''' || style="background:#cfc;"|'''Cost of<br />electric system<br />upgrade at home'''|| style="background:#cfc;"|'''Expected<br />gasoline<br />savings<br />compared<br />to a HEV'''|| style="background:#cfc;"|'''Annual<br />gasoline<br />savings<br />compared<br />to a HEV<sup>(2)</sup>'''
|-
| PHEV-10 <br /> {{center|{{cvt|10|miles|km|0|disp=out}}}} ||style="text-align:center;"|[[Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid|Prius Plug-in]]<sup>(1)</sup>|| {{center|[[Parallel hybrid|Parallel]]}} || {{center|{{USD|6,300}}}} ||{{center|{{USD|3,300}}}} ||{{center|More than {{USD|1,000}}}} ||{{center|20%}}||{{center|{{cvt|70|USgal|L USgal impgal|order=out}}}}
|-
| PHEV-40 <br /> {{center|{{cvt|40|miles|km|0|disp=out}}}} || {{center|[[Chevy Volt]]}}|| {{center|[[Series hybrid|Series]]}}||{{center|{{USD|18,100}}}} ||{{center|{{USD|14,000}}}} ||{{center|More than {{USD|1,000}}}}||{{center|55%}}||{{center|{{cvt|200|USgal|L USgal impgal|order=out}}}}
|-
| colspan="8" style="text-align:left;"|<small>Notes: (1) Considers the HEV technology used in the [[Toyota Prius]] with a larger battery pack. The Prius Plug-in estimated all-electric range is {{convert|14.5|mi|km|0|abbr=in|order=flip}}<ref name=NYT122009>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/15/business/global/15toyota.html|title=Toyota to Sell Plug-In Hybrid in 2011 |newspaper=The New York Times |first=Hiroko |last=Tabuchi |author-link=Hiroko Tabuchi |date=2009-12-14 |access-date=2010-02-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202031434/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/15/business/global/15toyota.html?_r=1 |archive-date=2016-02-02 |url-status=live}}</ref><br />(2) Assuming {{convert|15,000|miles|km|abbr=in|order=flip}} per year.</small>
|}

According to the 2010 NRC study, although a mile driven on electricity is cheaper than one driven on gasoline, lifetime fuel savings are not enough to offset plug-ins' high upfront costs, and it will take decades before the break-even point is achieved.<ref name=NRC09_2/> Furthermore, hundreds of billions of dollars in government subsidies and incentives are likely to be required to achieve rapid plug-in market penetration in the U.S.<ref name=NYT1209/><ref name=NRC09_2/>

A 2013 study by the [[American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy]] reported that battery costs came down from {{USD|1,300}} per kilowatt hour in 2007 to {{USD|500}} per kilowatt hour in 2012. The [[U.S. Department of Energy]] has set cost targets for its sponsored battery research of {{USD|300}} per kilowatt hour in 2015 and {{USD|125}} per kilowatt hour by 2022. Cost reductions through advances in battery technology and higher production volumes will allow plug-in electric vehicles to be more competitive with conventional internal combustion engine vehicles.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.aceee.org/sites/default/files/publications/researchreports/t133.pdf|title=Plug-in Electric Vehicles: Challenges and Opportunities|author1=Siddiq Khan|author2=Martin Kushler|name-list-style=amp|publisher=American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy |date=June 2013|access-date=2013-07-09|archive-url= http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20160512070636/http%3A//aceee.org/sites/default/files/publications/researchreports/t133.pdf|archive-date=2016-05-12|url-status=live}} ''ACEEE Report Number T133''.</ref>

A study published in 2011 by the [[Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs|Belfer Center]], [[Harvard University]], found that the gasoline costs savings of PHEVs over the vehicles' lifetimes do not offset their higher purchase prices. This finding was estimated comparing their lifetime [[net present value]] at 2010 purchase and operating costs for the U.S. market, and assuming no [[Government incentives for plug-in electric vehicles#United States|government subidies]].<ref name=KSG11/><ref name=KSGpdf>
{{cite web|url= http://belfercenter.ksg.harvard.edu/files/Lee%20Lovellette%20Electric%20Vehicles%20DP%202011%20web.pdf|title=WillElectricCars Transform the U.S. Vehicle Market?|author1=Henry Lee|author2=Grant Lovellette|name-list-style=amp |publisher=Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs, Kennedy School of Government |date=July 2011|access-date=2011-08-07|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110801194906/http://belfercenter.ksg.harvard.edu/files/Lee%20Lovellette%20Electric%20Vehicles%20DP%202011%20web.pdf|archive-date=2011-08-01|url-status=live}} Discussion Paper #2011-08.
</ref> According to the study estimates, a PHEV with {{Convert|40|km|mi|abbr=on}} of electric range is {{USD|5,377}} more expensive than a conventional internal combustion engine, while a [[battery electric vehicle]] (BEV) is {{USD|4,819}} more expensive. The study also examined how this balance will change over the next 10 to 20 years, assuming that battery costs will decrease while gasoline prices increase. Under the future scenarios considered, the study found that BEVs will be significantly less expensive than conventional cars ({{USD|1,155}} to {{USD|7,181}} cheaper), while PHEVs, will be more expensive than BEVs in almost all comparison scenarios, and only less expensive than conventional cars in a scenario with very low battery costs and high gasoline prices. BEVs are simpler to build and do not use liquid fuel, while PHEVs have more complicated powertrains and still have gasoline-powered engines.<ref name=KSG11>{{cite web|url=http://belfercenter.ksg.harvard.edu/publication/21216/will_electric_cars_transform_the_us_vehicle_market.html?hq_e=el&hq_m=1303999&hq_l=5&hq_v=4613decb42|title=Will Electric Cars Transform the U.S. Vehicle Market?|author1=Henry Lee|author2=Grant Lovellette|name-list-style=amp|publisher=Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs, Kennedy School of Government |date=July 2011|access-date=2011-08-07|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110812132454/http://belfercenter.ksg.harvard.edu/publication/21216/will_electric_cars_transform_the_us_vehicle_market.html?hq_e=el&hq_m=1303999&hq_l=5&hq_v=4613decb42|archive-date=2011-08-12|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Emissions shifted to electric plants===
Increased [[pollution]] is expected to occur in some areas with the adoption of PHEVs, but most areas will experience a decrease.<ref name=knipping>Knipping, E. and Duvall, M. (June 2007) [https://web.archive.org/web/20071128130530/http://www.epri-reports.org/Volume2Part1R2.pdf "Environmental Assessment of Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles Volume 2: United States Air Quality Analysis Based on AEO-2006 Assumptions for 2030"] ''[[Electric Power Research Institute]] and [[Natural Resources Defense Council]]''. Retrieved July 21, 2007.</ref> A study by the ACEEE predicts that widespread PHEV use in heavily coal-dependent areas would result in an increase in local net [[sulfur dioxide]] and [[mercury (element)|mercury]] emissions, given emissions levels from most coal plants currently supplying power to the grid.<ref>Clayton, M. (September 25, 2006) [http://www.csmonitor.com/2006/0925/p03s02-usgn.html "A reality check on plug-in hybrids"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061005024552/http://www.csmonitor.com/2006/0925/p03s02-usgn.html |date=2006-10-05 }} ''The Christian Science Monitor''</ref> Although [[clean coal technology|clean coal technologies]] could create power plants that supply grid power from coal without emitting significant amounts of such pollutants, the higher cost of the application of these technologies may increase the price of coal-generated electricity. The net effect on pollution is dependent on the fuel source of the electrical grid (fossil or renewable, for example) and the pollution profile of the power plants themselves. Identifying, regulating and upgrading single point pollution source such as a power plant—or replacing a plant altogether—may also be more practical. From a human health perspective, shifting pollution away from large urban areas may be considered a significant advantage.<ref>{{cite news|last=Kanellos |first=M. |date=2006-04-28 |url=http://news.com.com/Plug |title=Plug in your hybrid, pollute less? |work=CNET News |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120714233237/http://news.com.com/Plug+in+your+hybrid,+pollute+less/2100-11389_3-6066360.html |archive-date=2012-07-14 }}</ref>

According to a 2009 study by The National Academy of Science, "Electric vehicles and grid-dependent (plug-in) hybrid vehicles showed somewhat higher nonclimate damages than many other technologies."<ref>{{cite news |work=National Academy of Science |date=2009-10-19 |url=http://www8.nationalacademies.org/onpinews/newsitem.aspx?RecordID=12794 |title=Hidden Costs of Energy: Unpriced Consequences of Energy Production and Use |access-date=2010-05-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100525135202/http://www8.nationalacademies.org/onpinews/newsitem.aspx?RecordID=12794 |archive-date=2010-05-25 |url-status=live }}</ref> Efficiency of plug-in hybrids is also impacted by the overall efficiency of [[electric power transmission]]. Transmission and distribution losses in the USA were estimated at 7.2% in 1995<ref>[http://climatetechnology.gov/library/2003/tech-options/tech-options-1-3-2.pdf ''Technology Options 2003.''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080216021420/http://climatetechnology.gov/library/2003/tech-options/tech-options-1-3-2.pdf |date=2008-02-16 }} (2003). US Climate Change Technology Program.</ref> and 6.5% in 2007.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/ask/electricity_faqs.asp#electric_rates2 |title=Question: Where can I find data on electricity transmission and distribution losses? |date=2009-11-19 |work=Frequently Asked Questions – Electricity |publisher=U.S. Energy Information Administration |access-date=2010-03-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100401003650/http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/ask/electricity_faqs.asp#electric_rates2 |archive-date=2010-04-01 |url-status=dead }}</ref> By life cycle analysis of air pollution emissions, natural gas vehicles are currently the lowest emitter{{Citation needed|date=May 2010}}.

===Tiered rate structure for electric bills===
The additional electrical consumption to recharge the plug-in vehicles could push many households in areas that do not have off-peak tariffs into the higher priced tier and negate financial benefits.<ref>{{cite news |last=Bullis |first=K. |date=2006-12-21 |url=http://www.technologyreview.com/Energy/17930/?a=f |title=How Plug-in Hybrids Will Save the Grid |work=Technology Review}}</ref> Customers under such tariffs could see significant savings by being careful about when the vehicle was charged, for example, by using a timer to restrict charging to off-peak hours. Thus, an accurate comparison of the benefit requires each household to evaluate its current electrical usage tier and tariffs weighed against the cost of gasoline and the actual observed operational cost of electric mode vehicle operation.

==Greenhouse gas emissions==
{{See also|Plug-in electric vehicle#Air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions|l1=Greenhouse gas emissions in plug-in electric vehicles}}
The effect of PHEVs on greenhouse emissions is complex. Plug-in hybrid vehicles operating on [[all-electric mode]] do not emit harmful [[motor vehicle emissions|tailpipe pollutants]] from the onboard source of power. The clean air benefit is usually local because depending on the source of the electricity used to recharge the batteries, air pollutant emissions are shifted to the location of the generation plants.<ref name=TwoBillion>{{cite book|author-link=Daniel Sperling |last1=Sperling |first1=Daniel |first2=Deborah |last2=Gordon |title=Two billion cars: driving toward sustainability | year = 2009 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/twobillioncarsdr00sper_0/page/22 22 to 26 and 114–139] | publisher=Oxford University Press, New York | isbn = 978-0-19-537664-7 | url = https://archive.org/details/twobillioncarsdr00sper_0/page/22 }}</ref> In the same way, PHEVs do not emit [[greenhouse gases]] from the onboard source of power, but from the point of view of a [[Tank-to-wheel|well-to-wheel assessment]], the extent of the benefit also depends on the fuel and technology used for [[electricity generation]]. From the perspective of a full [[life cycle analysis]], the electricity used to recharge the batteries must be generated from zero-emission sources such as renewable (e.g. [[wind power]], [[solar energy]] or [[hydroelectricity]]) or [[nuclear power]] for PEVs to have almost none or zero well-to-wheel emissions.<ref name=TwoBillion/><ref name=PEVs>{{cite book|title=Plug-In Electric Vehicles: What Role for Washington?|editor=[[David B. Sandalow]]|year=2009|publisher=The Brookings Institution |isbn=978-0-8157-0305-1 |edition=1st. |url= http://www.brookings.edu/press/Books/2009/pluginelectricvehicles.aspx|access-date=2019-01-04|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190328104012/https://www.brookings.edu/press/Books/2009/pluginelectricvehicles.aspx/|archive-date=2019-03-28|url-status=live}} pages=2–5</ref> On the other hand, when PEVs are recharged from [[coal]]-fired plants, they usually produce slightly more greenhouse gas emissions than [[internal combustion engine]] vehicles.<ref name=TwoBillion/> In the case of plug-in hybrid electric vehicle when operating in hybrid mode with assistance of the internal combustion engine, tailpipe and greenhouse emissions are lower in comparison to conventional cars because of their higher [[fuel economy in automobiles|fuel economy]].<ref name=PEVs/>

==Life cycle energy and emissions assessments==
===Argonne===
In 2009, researchers at [[Argonne National Laboratory]] adapted their [[GREET model]] to conduct a full [[life cycle assessment|well-to-wheels]] (WTW) analysis of energy use and [[greenhouse gas emissions|greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions]] of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles for several scenarios, considering different on-board fuels and different sources of electricity generation for recharging the vehicle batteries. Three US regions were selected for the analysis, [[California]], [[New York (state)|New York]], and [[Illinois]], as these regions include major metropolitan areas with significant variations in their energy generation mixes. The full cycle analysis results were also reported for the US generation mix and renewable electricity to examine cases of average and clean mixes, respectively<ref name=Argonne>{{cite web|url=http://www.transportation.anl.gov/pdfs/TA/559.pdf|title=Well-to-Wheels Energy Use and Greenhouse Gas Emissions Analysis of Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles|publisher=Center for Transportation Research, Argonne National Laboratory |author1=A. Elgowainy|author2=A. Burnham|author3=M. Wang|author4=J. Molburg|author5=A. Rousseau|name-list-style=amp|date=February 2009|access-date=2006-06-01|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090507011530/http://www.transportation.anl.gov/pdfs/TA/559.pdf|archive-date=2009-05-07|url-status=live}} Report ANL/ESD/09-2</ref> This 2009 study showed a wide spread of petroleum use and GHG emissions among the different fuel production technologies and grid generation mixes. The following table summarizes the main results:<ref name=Argonne/>

{| class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto"
! colspan="4" style="text-align:center; background:#abcdef;"| PHEV [[life cycle assessment|well-to-wheels]] Petroleum energy use and greenhouse gas emissions<br />for an all-electric range between {{convert|10|and|40|mi|sp=us}} with different on-board fuels.<sup>(1)</sup><br /> (as a % relative to an [[internal combustion engine]] vehicle that uses fossil fuel gasoline)
|-
! style="background:#abcdef;"| Analysis || style="background:#abcdef;"| [[Reformulated gasoline]]<br />and [[ultra-low-sulfur diesel]] || style="background:#abcdef;"| [[gasohol#E85|E85 fuel]] from<br />[[Maize|corn]] and [[switchgrass]] || style="background:#abcdef;"| [[Fuel cell]]<br />[[hydrogen vehicle|hydrogen]]
|-
|Petroleum energy use reduction||{{center|40–60%}} ||{{center|70–90%}} ||{{center|more than 90%}}
|-
|GHG emissions reduction<sup>(2)</sup>|| {{center|30–60%}} ||{{center|40–80%}} || {{center|10–100%}}
|-
| colspan="6" |<small>Source: Center for Transportation Research, [[Argonne National Laboratory]] (2009). See Table 1.<ref name=Argonne/> Notes: (1) Simulations for year 2020<br />with PHEV model year 2015. (2) No direct or [[indirect land use change impacts of biofuels|indirect land use changes]] included in the WTW analysis for bio-mass fuel feedstocks.<ref name="Searchinger08">{{cite journal |title=Use of U.S. Croplands for Biofuels Increases Greenhouse Gases Through Emissions from Land-Use Change |first=Timothy |last=Searchinger |journal=Science |volume=319 |issue=5867 |pages=1238–1240 |doi=10.1126/science.1151861 |date=2008-02-29 |pmid=18258860 |bibcode=2008Sci...319.1238S |s2cid=52810681 |display-authors=etal |doi-access=free }} Originally published online in Science Express on 2008-02-07. See Letters to ''Science'' by Wang and Haq. There are critics to these findings for assuming a worst-case scenario.</ref><ref name="Fargione08">{{cite journal|title= Land Clearing and the Biofuel Carbon Debt|first1= Joseph|last1= Fargione|journal= Science|volume= 319|issue= 5867|pages= 1235–1238|date= 2008-02-29|doi= 10.1126/science.1152747|pmid= 18258862|last2= Hill|first2= Jason|last3= Tilman|first3= D|last4= Polasky|first4= S|last5= Hawthorne|first5= P|bibcode= 2008Sci...319.1235F|s2cid= 206510225|display-authors= etal}} Originally published online in Science Express on 2008-02-07. There are rebuttals to these findings for assuming a worst-case scenario</ref></small>
|}

The Argonne study found that PHEVs offered reductions in petroleum energy use as compared with regular hybrid electric vehicles. More petroleum energy savings and also more GHG emissions reductions were realized as the all-electric range increased, except when electricity used to recharge was dominated by coal or oil-fired power generation. As expected, electricity from renewable sources realized the largest reductions in petroleum energy use and GHG emissions for all PHEVs as the all-electric range increased. The study also concluded that plug-in vehicles that employ biomass-based fuels (biomass-E85 and -hydrogen) may not realize GHG emissions benefits over regular hybrids if power generation is dominated by fossil sources.<ref name=Argonne/>

===Oak Ridge===
A 2008 study by researchers at [[Oak Ridge National Laboratory]] analyzed oil use and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of plug-in hybrids relative to hybrid electric vehicles under several scenarios for years 2020 and 2030.<ref name=ORNL>{{cite web |url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/assets/zemi/files/pdf/regional_phev_analysis.pdf |title=Potential Impacts of Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles on Regional Power Generation |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |first1=Stanton W. |last1=Hadley |first2=Alexandra |last2=Tsvetkova |name-list-style=amp |date=January 2008 |access-date=2010-08-23 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20121015035606/http://www.scientificamerican.com/assets/zemi/files/pdf/regional_phev_analysis.pdf |archive-date=2012-10-15 |url-status=live }} Report ORNL/TM-2007/150</ref> The study considered the mix of power sources for 13 U.S. regions that would be used during recharging of vehicles, generally a combination of coal, natural gas and nuclear energy, and to a lesser extent renewable energy.<ref name=ORNL/><ref name=SciMag1>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=the-dirty-truth-about-plug-in-hybrids |title=The Dirty Truth about Plug-in Hybrids |first=Michael |last=Moyer |magazine=Scientific American |date=July 2010 |access-date=2010-08-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100625000207/http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=the-dirty-truth-about-plug-in-hybrids |archive-date=2010-06-25 |url-status=live }}</ref> A 2010 study conducted at [[Argonne National Laboratory]] reached similar findings, concluding that PHEVs will reduce oil consumption but could produce very different greenhouse gas emissions for each region depending on the energy mix used to generate the electricity to recharge the plug-in hybrids.<ref name=Argonne0810_1>{{cite web|url= http://www.anl.gov/Media_Center/News/2010/news100817a.html |title=Different energy mixes will fuel plug-in hybrid cars |publisher=Argonne National Laboratory |date=2010-08-17|access-date=2010-08-23|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100824221415/http://www.anl.gov/Media_Center/News/2010/news100817a.html|archive-date=2010-08-24|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=Argonne0810_2>{{cite web |url=http://www.transportation.anl.gov/pdfs/TA/629.PDF |title=Well-to-Wheels Analysis of Energy Use and Greenhouse Gas Emissions of Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles |publisher=Argonne National Laboratory |author1=Amgad Elgowainy |author2=J. Han |author3=L. Poch |author4=M. Wang |author5=A. Vyas |author6=M. Mahalik |author7=A. Rousseau |name-list-style=amp |date=June 2010 |access-date=2010-08-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716135011/http://www.transportation.anl.gov/pdfs/TA/629.PDF |archive-date=2011-07-16 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Environmental Protection Agency===
{{Update|part=section|date=December 2023}}
In October 2014, the [[U.S. Environmental Protection Agency]] published the 2014 edition of its annual report ''Light-Duty Automotive Technology, Carbon Dioxide Emissions, and Fuel Economy Trends''. For the first time, the report presents an analysis of the impact of [[alternative fuel vehicle]]s, with emphasis in [[plug-in electric vehicle]]s because as their market share is approaching 1%, PEVs began to have a measurable impact on the U.S. overall new vehicle fuel economy and {{CO2}} emissions.<ref name=EPA1975_2014>{{cite web|url=https://www3.epa.gov/fueleconomy/fetrends/1975-2014/420r14023a.pdf|title=Light-Duty Automotive Technology, Carbon Dioxide Emissions, and Fuel Economy Trends: 1975 Through 2014|publisher=EPA|author=U. S. Environmental Protection Agency|date=October 2014|access-date=2014-10-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402131603/http://www.epa.gov/fueleconomy/fetrends/1975-2014/420r14023a.pdf|archive-date=2015-04-02|url-status=live}} ''See table 7.3 - Overall fuel economy (mpg-e), pp. 100.''</ref><ref name=GCCtrends>{{cite web |url=http://www.greencarcongress.com/2014/10/20141011-trends.html |title=EPA Trends on EVs and PHEVs; beginning of a "measurable and meaningful impact" on new vehicle fuel economy and emissions |first=Mike |last=Millikin |publisher=Green Car Congress |date=2014-10-11 |access-date=2014-10-11 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20141016021346/http://www.greencarcongress.com/2014/10/20141011-trends.html |archive-date=2014-10-16 |url-status=live }}</ref>

EPA's report included the analysis of 12 all-electric passengers cars and 10 plug-in hybrids available in the market as [[model year]] 2014. For purposes of an accurate estimation of emissions, the analysis took into consideration the differences in operation between those PHEVs like the Chevrolet Volt that can operate in [[all-electric mode]] without using gasoline, and those that operate in a blended mode like the [[Toyota Prius PHV]], which uses both energy stored in the battery and energy from the gasoline tank to propel the vehicle, but that can deliver substantial all-electric driving in blended mode. In addition, since the all-electric range of plug-in hybrids depends on the size of the battery pack, the analysis introduced a utility factor as a projection, on average, of the percentage of miles that will be driven using electricity (in electric only and blended modes) by an average driver. The following table shows the overall EV/hybrid fuel economy expressed in terms of [[miles per gallon gasoline equivalent]] (mpg-e) and the utility factor for the ten MY2014 plug-in hybrids available in the U.S. market. The study used the utility factor (since in pure EV mode there are no tailpipe emissions) and the EPA best estimate of the {{CO2}} [[tailpipe emissions]] produced by these vehicles in real world city and highway operation based on the EPA 5-cycle label methodology, using a weighted 55% city/45% highway driving. The results are shown in the following table.<ref name=EPA1975_2014/>

In addition, the EPA accounted for the upstream {{CO2}} emissions associated with the production and distribution of electricity required to charge the PHEVs. Since electricity production in the United States varies significantly from region to region, the EPA considered three scenarios/ranges with the low end of the range corresponding to the California powerplant emissions factor, the middle of the range represented by the national average powerplant emissions factor, and the upper end of the range corresponding to the powerplant emissions factor for the Rockies. The EPA estimates that the electricity GHG emission factors for various regions of the country vary from 346 g {{CO2}}/kW-hr in California to 986 g {{CO2}}/kW-hr in the Rockies, with a national average of 648 g {{CO2}}/kW-hr.<ref name=EPA1975_2014/> The following table shows the tailpipe emissions and the combined tailpipe and upstream emissions for each of the 10 MY 2014 PHEVs available in the U.S. market.

{| class=" wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto"
! colspan="7" style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"|Comparison of tailpipe and upstream {{CO2}} emissions<sup>(1)</sup> estimated by EPA<br /> for the MY 2014 plug-in hybrids available in the U.S. market {{as of|2014|09|lc=y}}<ref name=EPA1975_2014/>
|-
! style="background:#cfc;" rowspan="2"| Vehicle || style="background:#cfc;" rowspan="2"| EPA rating<br /> combined<br /> EV/hybrid<br />([[Miles per gallon gasoline equivalent|mpg-e]])||style="background:#cfc;" rowspan="2"|Utility<br />factor<sup>(2)</sup><br />(share EV<br />miles)||style="background:#cfc;" rowspan="2"| Tailpipe {{CO2}}<br />(g/mi) ||style="background:#cfc;" colspan="3"|Tailpipe + Total Upstream {{CO2}}
|- style="text-align:center;"
!style="background:#cfc;"|Low<br />(g/mi) || style="background:#cfc;"|Avg<br />(g/mi)||style="background:#cfc;"|High<br />(g/mi)

|- style="text-align:center;"
| align=left|[[BMW i3 REx]]<sup>(3)</sup>||88||0.83 ||40|| 134||207 || 288
|- style="text-align:center;"
| align=left|Chevrolet Volt||62||0.66 ||81 ||180 ||249 ||326
|- style="text-align:center;"
| align=left|[[Cadillac ELR]]||54||0.65 ||91||206 ||286 ||377
|- style="text-align:center;"
| align=left|[[Ford C-Max Energi]]||51||0.45 ||129 ||219 ||269 ||326
|- style="text-align:center;"
| align=left|[[Ford Fusion Energi]]||51||0.45 ||129 ||219 ||269 ||326
|- style="text-align:center;"
| align=left|[[Honda Accord Plug-in Hybrid]]||57 ||0.33 ||130 ||196 ||225 ||257
|- style="text-align:center;"
| align=left|[[Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid]]||58 ||0.29||133 ||195 || 221||249
|- style="text-align:center;"
| align=left|[[BMW i8]]||37||0.37 ||198 ||303 ||351 ||404
|- style="text-align:center;"
| align=left|[[Porsche Panamera S E-Hybrid]]||31 ||0.39 ||206 ||328 ||389 ||457
|- style="text-align:center;"
| align=left|[[McLaren P1]]||17|| 0.43||463||617 ||650 ||687
|- style="text-align:center;"
!style="background:#f0f0ff;" | Average gasoline car||style="background:#f0f0ff;" |24.2 ||style="background:#f0f0ff;" |0 ||style="background:#f0f0ff;" |367 ||style="background:#f0f0ff;" |400||style="background:#f0f0ff;" |400||style="background:#f0f0ff;" |400
|-
|colspan="7" style="text-align:left; background:#cfc;"|<small>Notes: (1) Based on 45% highway and 55% city driving. (2) The utility factor represents, on average, the percentage of miles that will be driven using electricity (in electric only and blended modes) by an average driver. (3) The EPA classifies the i3 REx as a series plug-in hybrid<ref name=EPA1975_2014/><ref name=EPA2014>{{cite web|url=http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/pdfs/guides/FEG2014.pdf|title=Model Year 2014 Fuel Economy Guide – Electric vehicles & Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (updated September 2014)|website=fueleconomy.gov|author=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Department of Energy |date=2014-09-10|access-date=2014-09-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141014235323/http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/pdfs/guides/FEG2014.pdf|archive-date=2014-10-14|url-status=live}} ''pp. 33–36''</ref></small>
|}

===National Bureau of Economic Research===
Most emission analysis use average emissions rates across regions instead of marginal generation at different times of the day. The former approach does not take into account the generation mix within interconnected electricity markets and shifting load profiles throughout the day.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/news/science-and-technology/21634544-are-zero-emission-vehicles-cleaner-petrol-cars-it-all-depends-zevs-invisible|title=The ZEV's invisible tailpipe – Are zero-emission vehicles cleaner than petrol cars? It all depends...|newspaper=The Economist |date=2014-11-24|access-date=2014-12-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141207222853/http://www.economist.com/news/science-and-technology/21634544-are-zero-emission-vehicles-cleaner-petrol-cars-it-all-depends-zevs-invisible|archive-date=2014-12-07|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=NBER2014>{{cite journal|title=Spatial and temporal heterogeneity of marginal emissions: Implications for electric cars and other electricity-shifting policies|first1=Joshua S.|last1=Graff Zivina|first2=Matthew J.|last2=Kotchenb|first3=Erin T.|last3=Mansur|journal=[[Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization]]|volume=107|issue=Part A|pages=248–268|date=November 2014|doi=10.1016/j.jebo.2014.03.010|url=http://www.nber.org/papers/w18462.pdf|access-date=2019-07-01|archive-date=2018-06-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180602042522/http://www.nber.org/papers/w18462.pdf|url-status=live}} Published on line 2014-03-24. See pp. 251</ref> An analysis by three economist affiliated with the [[National Bureau of Economic Research]] (NBER), published in November 2014, developed a methodology to estimate marginal emissions of electricity demand that vary by location and time of day across the United States. The study used emissions and consumption data for 2007 through 2009, and used the specifications for the Chevrolet Volt (all-electric range of {{convert|35|mi|abbr=on}}). The analysis found that marginal emission rates are more than three times as large in the [[Upper Midwest]] compared to the [[Western U.S.]], and within regions, rates for some hours of the day are more than twice those for others.<ref name=NBER2014/> Applying the results of the marginal analysis to plug-in electric vehicles, the NBER researchers found that the emissions of charging PEVs vary by region and hours of the day. In some regions, such as the Western U.S. and Texas, {{CO2}} emissions per mile from driving PEVs are less than those from driving a hybrid car.  In other regions, such as the Upper Midwest, charging during the recommended hours of midnight to 4 a.m. implies that PEVs generate more emissions per mile than the average car currently on the road. The results show a fundamental tension between electricity load management and environmental goals as the hours when electricity is the least expensive to produce tend to be the hours with the greatest emissions. This occurs because coal-fired units, which have higher emission rates, are most commonly used to meet base-level and off-peak electricity demand; while natural gas units, which have relatively low emissions rates, are often brought online to meet peak demand. This pattern of fuel shifting explains why emission rates tend to be higher at night and lower during periods of peak demand in the morning and evening.<ref name=NBER2014/>

==Production and sales==
{{Update|part=section|date=December 2023}}

===Production models===
[[File:2016 Chevrolet Volt NAIAS 2015 trimmed.jpg|thumb|The [[Chevrolet Volt]] was the world's top selling plug-in hybrid until September 2018.<ref name=Top5Global102018/>]]

Since 2008, plug-in hybrids have been commercially available from both specialty manufacturers and from mainstream producers of internal combustion engine vehicles. The [[BYD F3DM|F3DM]], released in China in December 2008, was the first production plug-in hybrid sold in the world.<ref name=F3DM/><ref name=bwf3dm/><ref name=GCC1208/> The [[Chevrolet Volt]], launched in the U.S. in December 2010, was the first [[series production|mass-production]] plug-in hybrid by a major carmaker.<ref name=Volt1stDelivery/>

===Sales and main markets===
There were 1.2&nbsp;million plug-in hybrid cars on the world roads at the end of 2017.<ref name=Outlook2018/> The stock of plug-in hybrids increased to 1.8&nbsp;million in 2018, out of a global stock of about 5.1&nbsp;million [[plug-in electric car|plug-in electric passenger cars]].<ref name=Top20Global2018/><ref name=Outlook2018/> {{As of|2017|12}}, the United States ranked as the world's largest plug-in hybrid car market with a stock of 360,510 units, followed by China with 276,580 vehicles, Japan with 100,860 units, the Netherlands with 98,220, and the UK with 88,660.<ref name=Outlook2018>{{cite web |url=https://webstore.iea.org/download/direct/1045?fileName=Global_EV_Outlook_2018.pdf |title=Global EV Outlook 2017: 3 million and counting |author=International Energy Agency (IEA), Clean Energy Ministerial, and Electric Vehicles Initiative (EVI) |publisher=IEA Publications |date=May 2018 |access-date=2018-12-16 |archive-date=2020-06-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200616050109/https://webstore.iea.org/login?ReturnUrl=%2fdownload%2fdirect%2f1045%3ffilename%3dglobal_ev_outlook_2018.pdf&filename=global_ev_outlook_2018.pdf |url-status=live }} ''See pp. 9–10, 19–23, 29–28, and Statistical annex, pp. 107–113''.</ref>

Global sales of plug-in hybrids grew from over 300 units in 2010 to almost 9,000 in 2011, jumped to over 60,000 in 2012, and reached almost 222,000 in 2015.<ref name=Outlook2016>{{cite web |url=https://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/Global_EV_Outlook_2016.pdf |title=Global EV Outlook 2016: Beyond one million electric cars |author=International Energy Agency (IEA), Clean Energy Ministerial, and Electric Vehicles Initiative (EVI) |publisher=IEA Publications |date=May 2016 |access-date=2016-09-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160824165154/https://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/Global_EV_Outlook_2016.pdf |archive-date=2016-08-24 |url-status=dead }} ''See pp. 4–5, and 24–25 and Statistical annex, pp. 34–37''.</ref> {{As of|2015|12}}, the United States was the world's largest plug-in hybrid car market with a stock of 193,770 units.<ref name=Outlook2016/> About 279,000 light-duty plug-in hybrids were sold in 2016,<ref name=GlobalSales2016>{{cite web | url=http://ev-sales.blogspot.com.br/2017/01/world-top-20-december-2016.html | title=World Top 20 December 2016 (Updated) | last=Jose | first=Pontes | publisher=EVSales.com | date=2017-01-31 | access-date=2017-02-05 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170205182233/http://ev-sales.blogspot.com.br/2017/01/world-top-20-december-2016.html | archive-date=5 February 2017 | url-status=live | df=dmy-all }} ''Global light-duty plug-in vehicles sales totaled almost 775,000 units in 2016, of which, 36% were plug-in hybrids.''</ref> raising the global stock to almost 800,000 highway legal plug-in hybrid electric cars at the end of 2016.<ref name=Global2016>{{ cite web | url=http://www.ev-volumes.com/news/global-plug-in-sales-for-2016/ | title=Global Plug-in Sales for 2016 |work=EV-Volumes.com | date=February 2017 | access-date=2017-02-05 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170205071920/http://www.ev-volumes.com/news/global-plug-in-sales-for-2016/ | archive-date=2017-02-05 | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=Global2mi>{{cite news | url=http://www.hybridcars.com/the-world-just-bought-its-two-millionth-plug-in-car/ | title=The World Just Bought Its Two-Millionth Plug-in Car | first=Jeff | last=Cobb | work=HybridCars.com | date=2017-01-16 | access-date=2017-01-17 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118051641/http://www.hybridcars.com/the-world-just-bought-its-two-millionth-plug-in-car/ | archive-date=2017-01-18 | url-status=live }} ''An estimated 2,032,000 highway-legal plug-in passenger cars and vans have been sold worldwide at the end of 2016. The top selling markets are China (645,708 new energy cars, including imports), Europe (638,000 plug-in cars and vans), and the United States (570,187 plug-in cars). The top European country markets are Norway (135,276), the Netherlands (113,636), France (108,065), and the UK (91,000). Total Chinese sales of domestically produced new energy vehicles, including buses and truck, totaled 951,447 vehicles. China was the top selling plug-in car market in 2016, and also has the world's largest stock of plug-in electric cars.''</ref> A total of 398,210 plug-in hybrid cars were sold in 2017, with China as the top selling country with 111,000 units, and the global stock of plug-in hybrids passed the one&nbsp;million unit milestone by the end of 2017.<ref name=Outlook2018/>

[[File:Ratio BEV to PHEV global annual sales since 2011.png|thumb|300x300px|Evolution of the ratio between global sales of BEVs and PHEVs between 2011 and 2024<ref name=Top20Global2018>{{cite web| url=http://ev-sales.blogspot.com/2019/01/global-top-20-december-2018.html| title=Global Top 20 - December 2018| last=Jose| first=Pontes| website=EVSales.com| date=2019-01-31| access-date=2019-02-02| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190201013624/http://ev-sales.blogspot.com/2019/01/global-top-20-december-2018.html| archive-date=2019-02-01| url-status=live}} "Global sales totaled 2,018,247 plug-in passenger cars in 2018, with a BEV:PHEV ratio of 69:31, and a market share of 2.1%. The world's top selling plug-in car was the Tesla Model 3, and Tesla was the top selling manufacturer of plug-in passenger cars in 2018, followed by BYD."</ref><ref name=EVImckinsey2017>{{cite web |url=https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/automotive-and-assembly/our-insights/the-global-electric-vehicle-market-is-amped-up-and-on-the-rise |title=The global electric-vehicle market is amped up and on the rise |first1=Patrick |last1=Hertzke |first2=Nicolai |last2=Müller |first3=Stephanie |last3=Schenk |first4=Ting |last4=Wu |work=[[McKinsey & Company]] |date=May 2018 |access-date=2019-01-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190128083117/https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/automotive-and-assembly/our-insights/the-global-electric-vehicle-market-is-amped-up-and-on-the-rise |archive-date=2019-01-28 |url-status=live }} ''See Exhibit 1: Global electric-vehicle sales, 2010-17''.</ref><ref name=Top20Global2019>{{cite web | url=http://ev-sales.blogspot.com/2020/01/global-top-20-december-2019.html | title=Global Top 20 - December 2019 | last=Jose | first=Pontes | website=EVSales.com | date=2020-01-31 | access-date=2020-05-10 | archive-date=2020-12-27 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201227074824/http://ev-sales.blogspot.com/2020/01/global-top-20-december-2019.html | url-status=live }} "Global sales totaled 2,209,831 plug-in passenger cars in 2019, with a BEV to PHEV ratio of 74:26, and a global market share of 2.5%. The world's top selling plug-in car was the Tesla Model 3 with 300,075 units delivered, and Tesla was the top selling manufacturer of plug-in passenger cars in 2019 with 367,820 units, followed by BYD with 229,506."</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/data-tools/global-ev-data-explorer|title=Global EV Data Explorer – Data Tools|website=IEA}}</ref><ref>[https://autovista24.autovistagroup.com/news/what-are-the-global-ev-markets-most-successful-brands/ Autovista Group]</ref>]]

Global sales of [[plug-in electric vehicle]]s have been shifting for several years towards fully electric battery cars. The global ratio between all-electrics (BEVs) and plug-in hybrids (PHEVs) went from 56:44 in 2012, to 60:40 in 2015, to 66:34 in 2017, and rose to 69:31 in 2018.<ref name=Top20Global2018/><ref name=EVImckinsey2017/> In 2023, the ratio was 70:30, an increase for plug-in hybrids from the previous 73:27 in 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Global EV Sales for 2023 |url=https://ev-volumes.com/news/ev/global-ev-sales-for-2023/#:~:text=BEVs%20(11,1%20%25)%20and,and%20USA%209,4%20%25. |access-date=2024-12-06 |website=EV Volumes |language=en-GB}}</ref>

China's contribution towards global plug-in hybrids share ranged from 30% to 50% in 2017–2018, and fell to 25% in 2020. In 2021, China's share of global plug-in hybrids was 32.3%, rising to 55.5% in 2022, and 69.3% in 2023. From January to August 2024, the share rose to 775%, of which the third quarter reached 82.8%.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Chen |first=Dong Yi |date=2024-10-04 |title=Chinese car accounted for 67% of the world's new energy vehicles sales, January – August 2024 |url=https://carnewschina.com/2024/10/04/chinese-car-accounted-for-67-of-the-worlds-new-energy-vehicles-sales-january-august-2024/ |access-date=2024-12-06 |website=CarNewsChina.com |language=en-US}}</ref> Meanwhile, Europe's plug-in hybrid share rose from 28% in 2018 to 65% in 2020, and then fell to 15% in 2024.<ref name="PHEVshare">{{Cite web |date=2024-10-01 |title=2024年1-8月中国占世界新能源车份额67%_乘用车_销量_走势 |trans-title=China accounts for 67% of the world's new energy vehicle market share from January to August 2024 |url=https://www.sohu.com/a/813266870_115312?scm=10001.325_13-109000.0.10140.5_32&spm=smpc.channel_248.block3_308_NDdFbm_1_fd.1.1728015349897SZ3KVoV_324 |access-date=2024-12-06 |website=www.sohu.com}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|+Countries and regions by contribution of global plug-in hybrid sales<ref name="PHEVshare" />
! colspan="2" |Region
!2019
!2020
!2021
!2022
!2023
!2024 (Q1–Q3)
|-
! colspan="2" |{{Flag|China}}
|41.9%
|24.6%
|32.3%
|55.5%
|68.9%
|76.6%
|-
! rowspan="8" |Europe
|{{Flag|Germany}}
|9.2%
|25.6%
|18.0%
|13.2%
|4.4%
|3.2%
|-
|{{Flag|UK}}
|5.9%
|6.9%
|7.1%
|3.8%
|3.5%
|2.8%
|-
|{{Flag|France}}
|3.9%
|9.0%
|8.0%
|4.7%
|4.1%
|2.4%
|-
|{{SWE}}
|5.5%
|7.1%
|4.3%
|2.5%
|1.5%
|1.1%
|-
|{{Flag|Italy}}
|1.2%
|2.6%
|5.2%
|3.4%
|1.7%
|1.0%
|-
|{{Flag|Norway}}
|3.9%
|3.3%
|2.1%
|0.6%
|0.3%
|0.1%
|-
|Other Europe
|7.3%
|10.7%
|11.5%
|6.9%
|6.4%
|4.8%
|-
|''Europe total''
|''36.9%''
|''65.5%''
|''56.1%''
|''35.1%''
|''21.9%''
|''15.4%''
|-
! rowspan="3" |North America
|{{Flag|United States}}
|16.9%
|7.5%
|9.2%
|6.9%
|7.0%
|5.8%
|-
|Other North America
|0.6%
|0.1%
|0.0%
|0.0%
|0.0%
|0.0%
|-
|''North America total''
|''17.6%''
|''7.6%''
|''9.2%''
|''6.9%''
|''7.1%''
|''5.8%''
|-
! rowspan="4" |Asia (except China)
|{{Flag|Japan}}
|3.0%
|1.3%
|1.3%
|1.4%
|1.3%
|1.3%
|-
|{{Flag|South Korea}}
|0.6%
|1.0%
|1.0%
|0.4%
|0.2%
|0.1%
|-
|Other Asia
|0.0%
|0.1%
|0.1%
|0.6%
|0.4%
|0.2%
|-
|''Asia total''
|''3.6%''
|''2.4%''
|''2.3%''
|''2.4%''
|''1.9%''
|''1.6%''
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Southern Hemisphere]]
|0.1%
|0.0%
|0.1%
|0.0%
|0.2%
|0.4%
|}

====By manufacturer====
Between 2014 and 2019, the global market share of plug-in hybrids were largely led by [[BYD Auto]], which saw its global plug-in hybrid market share increasing from 6.0% in 2020 to 36.7% in 2024. [[Geely Holding]] was the second largest plug-in hybrid vehicle manufacturer in the world in 2024, maintaining a 8.1% share.

Due to the rapid growth of the plug-in hybrid vehicle market in China, manufacturers from outside China experienced decline in global plug-in hybrid market share. Volkswagen Group's global plug-in hybrid share peaked at 16.4% in 2020 before declining steadily to 4.2% in 2024. BMW's share followed a similar pattern, dropping from 9.8% in 2021 to 2.2% in 2024. Stellantis reached its highest share of 8.1% in 2021 but fell to 4.3% in 2024. Toyota's share of plug-in hybrids decreased over time, from 9.9% in 2019 to 2.4% in 2024. Hyundai's share fell from 6.4% in 2019 to 1.7% in 2024. General Motors share of plug-in hybrids remained low, peaking at 1.4% in 2019 and decreasing to 0.4% in 2024.<ref name="PHEVshare" />

{| class="wikitable"
|+Manufacturers by global plug-in hybrid market share<ref name="PHEVshare" />
!Manufacturer
!2019
!2020
!2021
!2022
!2023
!2024 (Q1–Q3)
|-
|[[BYD Auto]]
|14.6%
|6.0%
|15.5%
|35.5%
|36.2%
|36.7%
|-
|[[Geely Holding]]
|11.6%
|11.3%
|9.3%
|7.6%
|7.3%
|8.1%
|-
|[[Li Auto]]
|0.2%
|3.8%
|5.1%
|5.0%
|9.4%
|7.7%
|-
|[[Changan Automobile]]
|0.0%
|0.0%
|1.6%
|5.3%
|5.0%
|5.2%
|-
|[[Great Wall Motor]]
|0.1%
|0.1%
|1.0%
|3.9%
|4.0%
|3.9%
|-
|[[Stellantis]]
|1.1%
|6.2%
|8.1%
|7.4%
|6.4%
|4.3%
|-
|[[Volkswagen Group]]
|4.5%
|16.4%
|14.7%
|7.0%
|5.6%
|4.2%
|-
|[[Chery]]
|0.1%
|0.1%
|0.1%
|1.4%
|2.7%
|2.9%
|-
|[[SAIC Motor]]
|11.6%
|6.3%
|5.0%
|3.5%
|2.2%
|2.8%
|-
|[[Mercedes-Benz Group]]
|5.2%
|13.6%
|8.5%
|4.8%
|3.0%
|2.4%
|-
|[[Toyota]]
|9.9%
|4.2%
|5.4%
|2.4%
|2.3%
|2.4%
|-
|[[BMW]]
|11.9%
|12.4%
|9.8%
|6.2%
|3.8%
|2.2%
|-
|[[Dongfeng Motor Group]]
|0.4%
|0.2%
|0.9%
|3.9%
|1.2%
|2.1%
|-
|[[Hyundai Motor Group]]
|6.4%
|6.4%
|5.7%
|4.4%
|2.7%
|1.7%
|-
|[[Leapmotor]]
|0.9%
|0.9%
|0.9%
|0.9%
|1.2%
|1.0%
|-
|[[GAC Group]]
|0.6%
|0.0%
|0.1%
|0.3%
|0.8%
|0.9%
|-
|[[General Motors]]
|1.4%
|0.0%
|0.0%
|0.0%
|0.0%
|0.4%
|}

====By country====
{{Update|part=section|date=December 2024}}

The Netherlands, Sweden, the UK, and the United States have the largest shares of plug-in hybrid sales as percentage of total plug-in electric passenger vehicle sales. The Netherlands has the world's largest share of plug-in hybrids among its plug-in electric passenger car stock, with 86,162 plug-in hybrids registered at the end of October 2016, out of 99,945 plug-in electric cars and vans, representing 86.2% of the country's stock of light-duty plug-in electric vehicles.<ref name=Dutch100K>{{cite news| url=http://www.hybridcars.com/the-netherlands-becomes-sixth-country-to-buy-100000-plug-in-vehicles/| title=The Netherlands Becomes Sixth Country To Buy 100,000 Plug-in Vehicles| first=Jeff| last=Cobb| work=HybridCars.com| date=2016-11-17| access-date=2016-11-18| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161118141530/http://www.hybridcars.com/the-netherlands-becomes-sixth-country-to-buy-100000-plug-in-vehicles/| archive-date=2016-11-18| url-status=live}}</ref>

Sweden ranks next with 16,978 plug-in hybrid cars sold between 2011 and August 2016, representing 71.7% of total plug-in electric passenger car sales registrations.<ref name=SwedenSales2012>{{cite web |url=http://www.best-selling-cars.com/hybrid/2012-full-year-sweden-best-selling-electric-cars-plug-in-hybrid-models/ |title=2012 (Full Year) Sweden: Best-Selling Electric Cars & Plug-In Hybrid Models |website=BestSellingCars.com |date=2013-04-02 |access-date=2013-07-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605112521/http://www.best-selling-cars.com/hybrid/2012-full-year-sweden-best-selling-electric-cars-plug-in-hybrid-models/ |archive-date=2013-06-05 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=SwedenSales2013>{{cite web|url=http://www.bilsweden.se/statistik/arkiv-nyregistrering_per_manad_2013/nyregistreringar-december-2013-prel|title=Nyregistreringar december 2013 prel|language=sv|trans-title=New registrations in December 2013 prel|publisher=Bil Sweden|date=2014-01-02|access-date=2014-01-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140103172406/http://www.bilsweden.se/statistik/arkiv-nyregistrering_per_manad_2013/nyregistreringar-december-2013-prel|archive-date=2014-01-03|url-status=live}} Download file "Nyregistreringar December 2013 prel.pdf" see table "NYREGISTRERADE SUPERMILJÖBILAR DECEMBER 2013" with summary of PEV sales by model for 2013 and 2012.</ref><ref name=SwedenSales2014>{{cite web|url=http://www.bilsweden.se/statistik/arkiv-nyregistrering_per_manad_2014/nyregistreringar-december-2014-(prel)|title=Nyregistreringar december 2014 (prel)|language=sv|trans-title=New registrations in December 2014 (preliminar)|publisher=Bil Sweden|date=2015-01-02|access-date=2015-01-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150104034320/http://www.bilsweden.se/statistik/arkiv-nyregistrering_per_manad_2014/nyregistreringar-december-2014-(prel)|archive-date=2015-01-04|url-status=live}} ''Download file "Nyregistreringar december 2014 (prel)" see tables: "Nyregistrerade supermiljöbilar december 2014" with summary of plug-in passenger car registrations by model for 2013 (revised) and 2014, and table "Nyregistrerade eldrivna lätta lastbilar (högst 3,5 ton) per modell:" for plug-in utility vans registrations for the same two years. A total of 303,866 new passenger vehicles were registered in 2014, and a total of 4,656 super clean cars, resulting in a PEV market share of 1.53% of new car sales.''</ref><ref name=Sweden2014_2015>{{cite web |url=http://www.bilsweden.se/statistik/arkiv-nyregistrering-per-manad-2015/nyregistreringar-december-2015-def |title=Nyregistreringar december 2015 def |language=sv |trans-title=New Registrations December 2015 (final) |publisher=Bil Sweden |date=2016-01-04 |access-date=2016-04-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160415205046/http://www.bilsweden.se/statistik/arkiv-nyregistrering-per-manad-2015/nyregistreringar-december-2015-def |archive-date=2016-04-15 |url-status=live }} ''Download the pdf file "Nyregistreringar december 2015 def" (PressRel1512_def.pdf) See table: Nyregistrerade miljöpersonbilar december 2015.''</ref><ref name=Sweden082016>{{cite web |url=http://www.bilsweden.se/statistik/arkiv-nyregistrering-per-manad-2016/nyregistreringar-augusti-2016-(ii) |title=Nyregistreringar augusti 2016 (II) |language=sv |trans-title=New Registrations August 2016 (II) |publisher=Bil Sweden |date=2016-09-01 |access-date=2016-09-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160919150158/http://www.bilsweden.se/statistik/arkiv-nyregistrering-per-manad-2016/nyregistreringar-augusti-2016-(ii) |archive-date=2016-09-19 |url-status=live }} ''Download the pdf file "Nyregistreringar augusti 2016 (II)" (PressRel1608II.pddf) See table: "Nyregistrerade miljöbilar per typ augusti 2016." A total of 6,129 plug-in hybrids and 1,627 all-electric cars were registered during the first eight months of 2016.''</ref> Plug-in hybrid registrations in the UK between up to August 2016 totaled 45,130 units representing 61.6% of total plug-in car registrations since 2011.<ref name=UK2012_2013>{{cite web|url=http://www.smmt.co.uk/2014/01/december-2013-ev-registrations/|title=December 2013 – EV and AFV registrations|work=Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders (SMMT) |date=2014-01-07|access-date=2014-01-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140118114750/http://www.smmt.co.uk/2014/01/december-2013-ev-registrations/|archive-date=2014-01-18|url-status=live}} ''A total of 992 plug-in hybrids were registered during 2012 and 1,072 in 2013''.</ref> In the United States, plug-in hybrids represent 47.2% of the 506,450 plug-in electric cars sold between 2008 and August 2016.<ref name=US500k>{{cite news |url=http://www.hybridcars.com/americans-buy-their-half-millionth-plug-in-car/ |title=Americans Buy Their Half-Millionth Plug-in Car |first=Jeff |last=Cobb |work=HybridCars.com |date=2016-09-01 |access-date=2016-09-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160903172036/http://www.hybridcars.com/americans-buy-their-half-millionth-plug-in-car/ |archive-date=2016-09-03 |url-status=live }} ''See details in captions and graphs.''</ref>

In November 2013 the Netherlands became the first country where a plug-in hybrid topped the monthly ranking of new car sales. During November sales were led by the [[Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV|Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV]] with 2,736 units, capturing a market share of 6.8% of new passenger cars sold that month.<ref name=NEDrecord1/> Again in December 2013 the Outlander PHEV ranked as the top selling new car in the country with 4,976 units, representing a 12.6% market share of new car sales.<ref name=NEDrecord2>{{cite web |url=http://www.ev-sales.blogspot.ca/2014/01/netherlands-december-2013.html |title=Netherlands December 2013 |first=Jose |last=Pontes |publisher=EV Sales |date=2014-01-04 |access-date=2014-01-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140106033048/http://www.ev-sales.blogspot.ca/2014/01/netherlands-december-2013.html |archive-date=2014-01-06 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://bestsellingcarsblog.com/2014/01/03/netherlands-december-2013-mitsubishi-outlander-at-12-7-share-volvo-v40-and-v60-on-podium/|title=Netherlands November 2013: Mitsubishi Outlander shoots up to pole position!|first=Mat|last=Gasnier|publisher=Best Selling Cars Blog|date=2013-12-04|access-date=2013-12-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140106030711/http://bestsellingcarsblog.com/2014/01/03/netherlands-december-2013-mitsubishi-outlander-at-12-7-share-volvo-v40-and-v60-on-podium|archive-date=2014-01-06|url-status=live}}</ref> These record sales allowed the Netherlands to become the second country, after Norway, where plug-in electric cars have topped the monthly ranking of new car sales.<ref name=NEDrecord1>{{cite web |url=http://www.eagleaid.com/AID-Newsletter-preorder-1323i-Mitsubishi-Outlander-PHEV-top-seller.htm |title=Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV top seller |work=Automotive Industry Data (AID) |date=2013-12-17 |access-date=2013-12-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131220093837/http://www.eagleaid.com/AID-Newsletter-preorder-1323i-Mitsubishi-Outlander-PHEV-top-seller.htm |archive-date=2013-12-20 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://bestsellingcarsblog.com/2013/12/04/netherlands-november-2013-mitsubishi-outlander-shoots-up-to-pole-position/|title=Netherlands December 2013: Mitsubishi Outlander at 12.7% share, Volvo V40 and V60 on podium|first=Mat|last=Gasnier|publisher=Best Selling Cars Blog|date=2014-01-03|access-date=2014-01-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140108022842/http://bestsellingcarsblog.com/2013/12/04/netherlands-november-2013-mitsubishi-outlander-shoots-up-to-pole-position/|archive-date=2014-01-08|url-status=live}}</ref> {{As of|2013|12}}, the Netherlands was the country with highest plug-in hybrid market concentration, with 1.45 vehicles registered per 1,000 people.<ref name=Top6Global2013>{{cite web | url=http://www.hybridcars.com/top-6-plug-in-car-adopting-countries/7/ | title=Top 6 Plug-In Vehicle Adopting Countries | first=Jeff | last=Cobb | website=HybridCars.com | date=2014-01-16 | access-date=2016-08-29 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160510003046/http://www.hybridcars.com/top-6-plug-in-car-adopting-countries/7/ | archive-date=2016-05-10 | url-status=live }} ''Around 1,800 Tesla Roadsters and 1,600 Fisker Karmas had been sold in the U.S. by the end of 2013.''</ref>

The following table presents the top ranking countries according to its plug-in hybrid segment market share of total new car sales in 2013:

{| class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto"
! colspan="6" align=center style="background-color: #ffdead;" | Top 10 countries by plug-in hybrid market share<br />of new car sales in 2013
|-
! style="background:#ffdead;"| Ranking
! style="background:#ffdead;"|Country
! style="background:#ffdead;"| PHEV<br />market<br /> share<sup>(1)</sup><br />(%)
! style="background:#ffdead;"| Ranking
! style="background:#ffdead;"|Country
! style="background:#ffdead;"| PHEV<br />market<br /> share<sup>(1)</sup><br />(%)

|-align=center
| 1 ||align=left|{{NED}} |||4.72% || 6||align=left|{{flag|Iceland}} || 0.25%
|-align=center
| 2 ||align=left| {{SWE}} || 0.41% || 7||align=left| {{FIN}} || 0.13%
|-align=center
| 3 ||align=left| {{JAP}} || 0.40% || 8|| align=left|{{UK}} || 0.05%
|-align=center
| 4 ||align=left| {{NOR}} || 0.34% ||9||align=left| {{FRA}} || 0.05%
|-align=center
| 5 ||align=left|{{USA}} || 0.31% || 10||align=left| {{SWI}} || 0.05%
|-
|colspan="6" style="background-color: #ffdead;" | <small> '''Note:''' (1) Market share of highway-capable plug-in hybrids as percentage of total new car sales in the country in 2013.</small>
|}

====By model====
{{Update|part=section|date=December 2024}}

According to [[JATO Dynamics]], in December 2018 the [[Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV]] was the world's all-time best selling plug-in hybrid.<ref name=MOPHEV200k>{{cite press release | url= https://www.mitsubishi-motors.com/en/newsrelease/2019/detail1180.html | title=Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV Hits 200,000 Global Sales Milestones | publisher=Mitsubishi Motors Corporation (MMC) | location=Tokyo | date=2019-04-11 | access-date=2019-04-12 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190412214242/https://www.mitsubishi-motors.com/en/newsrelease/2019/detail1180.html | archive-date=2019-04-12 | url-status=live }}</ref> Since inception, 290,000 units have been sold worldwide through September 2021.<ref name=MOPHEV290k>{{cite press release | url=https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/mitsubishi-motors-launches-the-all-new-outlander-phev--phev-model-of-flagship-suv-combines-leading-electrification-and-all-wheel-control-technologies-301410531.html | title=Mitsubishi Motors Launches the All-New Outlander PHEV - PHEV Model of Flagship SUV Combines Leading Electrification and All-Wheel Control Technologies | publisher=PR Newswire | author=Mitsubishi Motors Corporation | location=Tokyo | date=2021-10-27 | access-date=2021-11-08 | quote=After the PHEV model was added to the previous generation in Japan in 2013, it was sequentially launched in regions including Europe, Oceania, North America and ASEAN, and has become a leader in the PHEV category with around 290,000 total units sold thus far. (As of September 2021) | archive-date=2021-11-09 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211109051948/https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/mitsubishi-motors-launches-the-all-new-outlander-phev--phev-model-of-flagship-suv-combines-leading-electrification-and-all-wheel-control-technologies-301410531.html | url-status=live }}</ref> Europe is the Outlander PHEV leading market with 126,617 units sold through January 2019,<ref name=MOPHEVEU0119>{{cite web |url=https://insideevs.com/outlander-phev-best-selling-mitsubishi-europe/ |title=Outlander PHEV Is Best-Selling Mitsubishi In Europe |first=Mark |last=Kane |website=InsideEVs.com |date=2019-03-13 |access-date=2019-04-12 |archive-date=2019-04-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190416120706/https://insideevs.com/outlander-phev-best-selling-mitsubishi-europe/ |url-status=live }}</ref> followed by Japan 42,451 units through March 2018.<ref name=MOPHEV032018/> European sales are led by the UK with 50,000 units by April 2020,<ref name=UK50K>{{cite web | url=https://insideevs.com/news/407790/mitsubishi-outlander-phev-sales-uk/ | title=Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV Racks Up 50,000 UK Sales | first=James | last=Fossdyke | website=InsideEVs.com | date=2020-04-20 | access-date=2020-06-16 | archive-date=2020-06-17 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200617021932/https://insideevs.com/news/407790/mitsubishi-outlander-phev-sales-uk/ | url-status=live }}</ref> followed by the Netherlands with 25,489 units, and Norway with 14,196, both through March 2018.<ref name=MOPHEV032018>{{cite press release |url=http://www.2018-mitsubishi-motors.eu/Files/Documents/EN/new_MY19_OutlanderPHEV.pdf |title=New (MY19) Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV - Summer 2018 |publisher=Mitsubishi Motors |year=2018 |access-date=2018-10-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181030090729/http://www.2018-mitsubishi-motors.eu/Files/Documents/EN/new_MY19_OutlanderPHEV.pdf |archive-date=2018-10-30 |url-status=live }} ''See tables in pp. 3-4.''</ref>

Combined global sales of the Chevrolet Volt and its variants totaled about 186,000 units by the end of 2018,<ref name=USsales2018Volt/><ref name=LeafBest250K/><ref name=VoltSalesCanada/><ref name=CanadaSales/><ref name=Velite5SalesChina/> including about 10,000 Opel/Vauxhall Amperas sold in Europe through June 2016,<ref name=SixYears>{{cite news |url= http://www.hybridcars.com/chevy-volt-and-nissan-leaf-celebrate-their-sixth-year-anniversary/ |title=Chevy Volt and Nissan Leaf Celebrate Their Sixth-Year Anniversary |first=Jeff |last=Cobb |work=HybridCars.com |date=2016-12-12 |access-date=2016-12-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161214163005/http://www.hybridcars.com/chevy-volt-and-nissan-leaf-celebrate-their-sixth-year-anniversary/ |archive-date=2016-12-14 |url-status=live }} ''Global cumulative sales of plug-in electric vehicles totaled about 1.9 million units through November 2016. The Nissan Leaf is the world's leading plug-in car with more than 240,000 units delivered. {{As of|2016|11}}, the Tesla Model S ranks next with over 151,000, followed by the Vollt/Ampera family of vehicles with 130,500 vehicles sold including over 10,000 Opel/Vauxhall Amperas sold in Europe, the Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV with about 116,500 units, and the Toyota Prius PHV with about 76,200.''</ref> and over 4,300 [[Buick Velite 5]]s sold only in China (rebadged [[Chevrolet Volt (second generation)|second generation Volt]]) through December 2018.<ref name=Velite5SalesChina/> Volt sales are led by the United States with 152,144 units delivered through December 2018,<ref name=USsales2018Volt/> followed by Canada with 17,311 units through November 2018.<ref name=VoltSalesCanada/><ref name=CanadaSales>{{cite web| url=http://www.goodcarbadcar.net/2011/01/chevrolet-volt-sales-figures.html| title=Chevrolet Volt Sales Figures| first=Timothy| last=Cain| work=Good Car Bad Car| date=October 2018| access-date=2018-12-01| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170910074628/http://www.goodcarbadcar.net/2011/01/chevrolet-volt-sales-figures.html| archive-date=2017-09-10| url-status=live}}</ref> Until September 2018, the [[Chevrolet Volt]] was the world's top selling plug-in hybrid.<ref name=Top5Global102018>{{cite web |url=http://ev-sales.blogspot.com/2018/11/global-all-time-top-5-until-oct-18.html |title=Global All-Time Top 5 (Until Oct. '18 - Updated) |last=Pontes |first=Jose |website=EVSales.com |date=2018-11-30 |access-date=2019-02-01 |quote=The sure values Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV and Chevrolet Volt follow (''the Tesla Model S''), with the Japanese SUV surpassing the GM hatchback |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181202024750/http://ev-sales.blogspot.com/2018/11/global-all-time-top-5-until-oct-18.html |archive-date=2018-12-02 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Ranking third is the [[Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid]] ([[Toyota Prius Prime]]) with about 174,600 units sold worldwide of both generations through December 2018.<ref name=Top20Global2018/><ref name=TMC11miHEVs>{{cite press release |title=Toyota sells 1.52 million electrified vehicles in 2017, three years ahead of 2020 target |url= https://newsroom.toyota.co.jp/en/corporate/20966057.html?adid=ag478_mail&padid=ag478_mail |publisher=Toyota |location=Japan |date=2018-02-02 |access-date=2018-10-29 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181023024552/https://newsroom.toyota.co.jp/en/corporate/20966057.html?adid=ag478_mail&padid=ag478_mail |archive-date=2018-10-23 |url-status=live }}</ref> The United States is the leading market with over 93,000 units delivered through December 2018.<ref name=USsales2018Volt/> Japan ranks next with about 61,200 units through December 2018,<ref name=Japan2018>{{cite web |url=http://ev-sales.blogspot.com/2019/01/japan-december-2018.html |title=Japan December 2018 |last=Pontes |first=Jose |website=EVSales.com |date=2019-01-29 |access-date=2019-02-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190130110400/http://ev-sales.blogspot.com/2019/01/japan-december-2018.html |archive-date=2019-01-30 |url-status=live }} ''A total of 52,013 plug-in cars were sold in Japan in 2018, with a market share of 1.0%. The Nissan Leaf was the top selling plug-in model with 25,722 units, followed by the Prius PHEV with 12,401 units.''</ref><ref name=TMC11miHEVs/> followed by Europe with almost 14,800 units through June 2018.<ref name=TMC11miHEVs/><ref name=TMC1H2018Europe>{{cite press release | url=https://newsroom.toyota.eu/46-of-toyota-motor-europe-tme-sales-in-h1-are-self-charging-hybrid-electric-vehicles/ | title=46% of Toyota Motor Europe (TME) sales in H1 are self-charging hybrid electric vehicles | publisher=Toyota Europe Newsroom | location=Brussels | date=2018-07-11 | access-date=2019-02-01 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190202095444/https://newsroom.toyota.eu/46-of-toyota-motor-europe-tme-sales-in-h1-are-self-charging-hybrid-electric-vehicles/ | archive-date=2019-02-02 | url-status=live }} ''Toyota sold 1,693 Prius PHEV during the first half of 2018.''</ref>

The following table presents plug-in hybrid models with cumulative global sales of around or more than 100,000 units since the introduction of the first modern production plug-in hybrid car, the [[BYD F3DM]], in 2008 up until December 2020:

{|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto"
! colspan="6" style="text-align:center; background:#abcdef;"|Top selling highway legal plug-in hybrid electric cars <br /> between 2008 and 2020
<!--The table includes only plug-in hybrid with around or more than 75,000 units sold by the end of September 2018 (the intent is to have a table with those models with over 100K sales). In the future this lower limit might be raised to keep the table within a reasonable size.-->
|-

! style="background:#ABCDEF;" rowspan="2"|Model || style="background:#abcdef;" rowspan="2"|Market<br/>launch ||style="background:#abcdef;" colspan="2"|Global sales|| style="background:#abcdef;" rowspan="2"|Cumulative <br />sales through || style="background:#abcdef;" rowspan="2"|Sources
|- align=center
! style="background:#ABCDEF;"| Since inception || style="background:#ABCDEF;"|2018

|- align=center
| align=left| [[Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV]]|| Jan 2013 || 290,000 || - || Sep 2021 || align=left|<ref name=MOPHEV290k/>

|- align=center
| align=left|[[Chevrolet Volt]]<sup>(1)</sup>|| Dec 2010 || ~186,000 || 25,108 || Dec 2018 ||align=left|<ref name=USsales2018Volt>{{cite web | url=https://insideevs.com/top-three-phev-u-s-in-2018/ | title=Top 3 Plug-In Hybrid Cars In U.S. In 2018: Prius Prime, Clarity, Volt | first=Mark | last=Kane | website=InsideEVs.com | date=2019-01-25 | access-date=2019-01-27 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190126012756/https://insideevs.com/top-three-phev-u-s-in-2018/ | archive-date=2019-01-26 | url-status=live }} ''The Chevrolet Volt is the best selling plug-in electric car in the U.S. with 152,144 units sold through the end of 2018. American sales totaled 20,349 units in 2017 and 18,306 in 2018. Combined sales of both generations of the Toyota Prius plug-in hybrid totaled more than 93,000 units''</ref><ref name=LeafBest250K>{{ cite news | url=http://www.hybridcars.com/nissans-quarter-millionth-leaf-means-its-the-best-selling-plug-in-car-in-history/ | title=Nissan's Quarter-Millionth Leaf Means It's The Best-Selling Plug-in Car In History | first=Jeff | last=Cobb | work=HybridCars.com | date=2017-01-09 | access-date=2017-01-10 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170111185050/http://www.hybridcars.com/nissans-quarter-millionth-leaf-means-its-the-best-selling-plug-in-car-in-history/ | archive-date=2017-01-11 | url-status=live }} ''{{As of|2016|12}}, the Nissan Leaf is the world's best-selling plug-in car in history with more than 250,000 units delivered, followed by the Tesla Model S with over 158,000 sales, and the Volt/Ampera family of vehicles with 134,500 vehicles sold.''</ref><ref name=VoltSalesCanada>{{cite web| url=http://gmauthority.com/blog/gm/chevrolet/volt/chevrolet-volt-sales-numbers/| title=Chevrolet Volt Sales Numbers| work=GM Authority| date=January 2019| access-date=2019-02-01| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190131110758/http://gmauthority.com/blog/gm/chevrolet/volt/chevrolet-volt-sales-numbers/| archive-date=2019-01-31| url-status=live}} ''Canadian sales totaled 4,313 units in 2017 and 4,114 in 2018 through November.''</ref><ref name=Velite5SalesChina>{{cite web | url=http://carsalesbase.com/china-car-sales-data/buick/buick-velite-5/ | title=Buick Velite 5 (Chinese Car Sales Data) | work=Car Sales Base | date=17 May 2017 | access-date=2019-02-01 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180720144821/http://carsalesbase.com/china-car-sales-data/buick/buick-velite-5/ | archive-date=2018-07-20 | url-status=live }} ''[[Buick Velite 5]] sales in China totaled 1,629 units in 2017 and 2,688 in 2018.''</ref>

|- align=center
| align=left| [[Toyota Prius PHV]]||Jan 2012|| 174,586 || 45,686 ||Dec 2018 ||align=left|<ref name=Top20Global2018/><ref name=TMC11miHEVs/>

|- align=center
| align=left| [[BYD Qin]]<sup>(2)</sup>|| Dec 2013 || 136,818 || 47,425 ||Dec 2018 ||align=left|<ref name="Top10PEVs2016">{{cite news |last=Cobb |first=Jeff |date=2017-01-26 |title=Tesla Model S Is World's Best-Selling Plug-in Car For Second Year In A Row |url=http://www.hybridcars.com/tesla-model-s-is-worlds-best-selling-plug-in-car-for-second-year-in-a-row/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126165815/http://www.hybridcars.com/tesla-model-s-is-worlds-best-selling-plug-in-car-for-second-year-in-a-row/ |archive-date=2017-01-26 |access-date=2017-01-26 |website=HybridCars.com}} ''See also detailed 2016 sales and cumulative global sales in the two graphs.''</ref><ref name=BYD2018TopModels/><ref name=Top2017BYD>{{cite web| url=https://insideevs.com/byd-1-world-plug-in-electric-car-sales-beats-tesla/| title=BYD #1 In World For Plug-In Electric Car Sales In 2017, Beats Tesla Again| first=Mark| last=Kane| website=InsideEVs.com| date=2018-01-26| access-date=2018-10-31| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180813070601/https://insideevs.com/byd-1-world-plug-in-electric-car-sales-beats-tesla/| archive-date=2018-08-13| url-status=live}} ''During 2017, BYD Qin sales totaled 20,738 units and BYD Tang totaled 14,592 units.''</ref>

|- align=center
| align=left| [[BYD Tang]]<sup>(2)</sup>||Jun 2015|| 101,518 || 37,146 ||Dec 2018 || align=left|<ref name=BYD2018TopModels>{{cite web| url=https://insideevs.com/byd-sold-record-electric-cars-december-2018/| title=BYD Sold Record 37,000 Electric Cars In December 2018| first=Mark| last=Kane| website=InsideEVs.com| date=2019-01-14| access-date=2019-01-14| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190114170516/https://insideevs.com/byd-sold-record-electric-cars-december-2018/| archive-date=2019-01-14| url-status=live}} ''BYD Auto sold in China 227,152 plug-in cars, up 109% from 2017. During 2018 BYD Qin sales totaled 47,425 units and BYD Tang sales totaled 37,146 units.''</ref><ref name=Top2017BYD/><ref name=ChinaTopEVs2016>{{cite web |url=http://chinaautoweb.com/2017/01/best-selling-china-made-evs-in-2016/ |title=Best-selling China-made EVs in 2016 |work=China Auto Web |date=2017-01-19 |access-date=2017-01-25 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170125183528/http://chinaautoweb.com/2017/01/best-selling-china-made-evs-in-2016/ |archive-date=2017-01-25 |url-status=live }} ''Three BYD Auto models topped the Chinese ranking of best-selling new energy passenger cars in 2016. The BYD Tang SUV was the top selling plug-in electric car in China in 2016 with 31,405 units sold, followed by the BYD Qin with 21,868 units sold, and ranking third overall in 2016 was the BYD e6 with 20,605 units.''</ref><ref name=China122015>{{cite web |url= http://chinaautoweb.com/2016/01/best-selling-china-made-suvs-in-2015/ |title=Best-selling China-made SUVs in 2015 |work=China Auto Web |date=2016-02-13 |access-date=2016-01-17 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160116183939/http://chinaautoweb.com/2016/01/best-selling-china-made-suvs-in-2015/ |archive-date=2016-01-16 |url-status=live }} ''A total of 18,375 Tangs were sold in China in 2015.''</ref>
<!--
|- align=center
| align=left| [[Ford Fusion Energi]]<sup>(3)</sup>||Feb 2013|| 61,127 ||align=left| Sep 2016<ref name=Sales2015US/><ref name=Sales2014US>{{cite news |url=http://www.hybridcars.com/december-2014-dashboard/ |title=December 2014 Dashboard |first=Jeff |last=Cobb |work=HybridCars.com and Baum & Associates |date=2015-01-06 |access-date=2015-01-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150107031240/http://www.hybridcars.com/december-2014-dashboard/ |archive-date=2015-01-07 |url-status=live }} ''See sections: "December 2014 Plug-in Hybrid Car Sales Numbers" and "December 2014 Battery Electric Car Sales Numbers" ''</ref><ref name=CanadianEVsales>{{cite web |first=Matthew |last=Klippenstein |url=https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1dLFJwZVdvNLRpmZqPznlzz6PB9eHMe5b-bai_ddRsNg/edit#gid=25 |title=Canadian Plug-in Electric Vehicle Sales |publisher=Green Car Reports |date=February 2016 |access-date=2017-02-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161128142747/https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1dLFJwZVdvNLRpmZqPznlzz6PB9eHMe5b-bai_ddRsNg/edit#gid=25 |archive-date=2016-11-28 |url-status=live }}''Tesla Model S sales figures from IHS data.''</ref><ref name=Sales2016US/><ref name=Sales2013US/>

|- align=center
| align=left| [[BYD Song]]<sup>(2)</sup>|| Apr 2017 || 59,450 ||align=left| Sep 2018<ref name=Global092018/>
-->
|-
|colspan="6" style="background:#ABCDEF;"|<small>'''Notes:''' (1) In addition to the Volt model sold in North America, combined sales of the [[Volt/Ampera family]] includes <br />about 10,000 Vauxhall/Opel Ampera and 1,750 Volts sold in Europe,<ref name=Ampera10K>{{cite news | url=http://www.autohaus.de/nachrichten/ampera-e-opel-bringt-2017-neues-elektroauto-1754252.html | title=Opel bringt 2017 neues Elektroauto | language=de | trans-title=Opel brings new electric car in 2017 |work=Autohaus.de | date=2016-02-11 | access-date=2019-02-01 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180620030202/https://www.autohaus.de/nachrichten/ampera-e-opel-bringt-2017-neues-elektroauto-1754252.html | archive-date=2018-06-20 | url-status=live }} ''About 10,000 Opel Amperas were sold in Europe by the end of 2015.''</ref><ref name=Volt100K/> 246 Holden Volt sold in Australia,<ref name=Volt2Aust>{{cite news|url= http://www.caradvice.com.au/350518/the-holden-volt-is-dead/|title=The Holden Volt is dead|first=Mike |last=Costello|work=Car Advice|date=2015-04-25|access-date=2019-02-01|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180926090001/https://www.caradvice.com.au/350518/the-holden-volt-is-dead/|archive-date=2018-09-26|url-status=live}}</ref> <br />and 4,317 units of the [[Buick Velite 5]] sold only in China (rebadged [[Chevrolet Volt (second generation)|second generation Volt]]).<ref name=Velite5SalesChina/><br />(2) Sales in China only. BYD Qin total does not include sales of the all-electric variant (Qin EV300).<!-- (3) Sales in the U.S. and Canada only.--></small>
|}
{{Clear}}

===Government support and public deployment===
{{Update|part=section|date=December 2024}}

====Subsidies and economic incentives====
{{Main|Government incentives for plug-in electric vehicles}}
Several countries have established [[Government incentives for plug-in electric vehicles|grants and tax credits]] for the purchase of new [[plug-in electric vehicle]]s (PEVs) including plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, and usually the economic incentive depends on battery size. The U.S. offers a [[Government incentives for plug-in electric vehicles#United States|federal income tax credit]] up to {{USD|7,500}},<ref name=IRS2009>{{cite web|url=https://www.irs.gov/irb/2009-48_IRB/ar09.html|title=Notice 2009–89: New Qualified Plug-in Electric Drive Motor Vehicle Credit|publisher=Internal Revenue Service|date=2009-11-30|access-date=2010-04-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100328102104/http://www.irs.gov/irb/2009-48_IRB/ar09.html|archive-date=2010-03-28|url-status=live}}</ref> and several states have additional incentives.<ref name=PluginAm>{{cite web|url= http://action.pluginamerica.org/t/5960/content.jsp?content_KEY=5545|title=State and Federal Incentives for EVs, PHEVs and Charge Stations|publisher=Plug In America|access-date=2010-05-29|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110727180836/http://action.pluginamerica.org/t/5960/content.jsp?content_KEY=5545|archive-date=2011-07-27|url-status=live}}</ref> The UK offers a [[Government incentives for plug-in electric vehicles#United Kingdom|Plug-in Car Grant]] up to a maximum of {{GBP|5,000}} ({{USD|7,600}}).<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/motoring/green-motoring/7316351/5000-grant-to-buy-plug-in-electric-cars.html |title=£5,000 grant to buy plug-in electric cars |newspaper=The Daily Telegraph |first=Paul |last=Hudson |date=2010-02-28 |access-date=2010-04-23 |location=London |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100601141715/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/motoring/green-motoring/7316351/5000-grant-to-buy-plug-in-electric-cars.html |archive-date=2010-06-01 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dft.gov.uk/adobepdf/163944/ulcc.pdf|title=Ultra-low carbon cars: Next steps on delivering the £250 million consumer incentive programme for electric and plug-in hybrid cars|publisher=Department for Transport|date=July 2009|access-date=2010-04-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091212135454/http://www.dft.gov.uk/adobepdf/163944/ulcc.pdf|archive-date=2009-12-12|url-status=live}}</ref> As of April 2011, 15 of the 27 [[European Union member states]] provide tax incentives for electrically chargeable vehicles, which includes all [[Western Europe]]an countries plus the [[Czech Republic]] and [[Romania]]. Also 17 countries levy [[greenhouse gas emissions|carbon dioxide]] related taxes on passenger cars as a disincentive. The incentives consist of tax reductions and exemptions, as well as of bonus payments for buyers of all-electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles, hybrid vehicles, and some [[alternative fuel vehicle]]s.<ref name=NYT072911>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/07/31/automobiles/europes-incentive-plans-for-spurring-ev-sales.html?_r=1&emc=eta1 |title=Europe's Incentive Plans for Spurring E.V. Sales |first=Paul |last=Hockenos |newspaper=The New York Times |date=2011-07-29 |access-date=2011-07-31 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150123180503/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/07/31/automobiles/europes-incentive-plans-for-spurring-ev-sales.html?_r=1&emc=eta1 |archive-date=2015-01-23 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=ACEA2>{{cite web|url= http://www.acea.be/images/uploads/files/20110330_EV_tax_overview.pdf |title=Overview of Purchase and Tax Incentives for Electric Vehicles in the EU |publisher=European Automobile Manufacturers Association |date=2011-03-14 |access-date=2011-07-31 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927060852/http://www.acea.be/images/uploads/files/20110330_EV_tax_overview.pdf |archive-date=2011-09-27 }}</ref>

====Other government support====
; United States
[[File:Bush-feb07.jpg|thumb|[[George W. Bush|President Bush]] with [[A123Systems]] [[CEO]] on the [[South Lawn (White House)|White House South Lawn]] examining a [[Toyota Prius]] converted to plug-in hybrid with [[Hymotion]] technology]]

Incentives for the development of PHEVs are included in the [[Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007]].<ref>Evarts, E. (January 11, 2008) [http://blogs.consumerreports.org/cars/2008/01/plug-in-hybrids.html "Charge! Fuel economy law promotes plug-in hybrids,"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080113055917/http://blogs.consumerreports.org/cars/2008/01/plug-in-hybrids.html |date=2008-01-13 }} ''Consumer Reports Cars Blog''. Retrieved January 15, 2008.</ref> The [[Energy Improvement and Extension Act of 2008]], signed into law on October 3, 2008, grants a tax credits for the purchase of PHEVs. President [[Barack Obama]]'s [[New Energy for America]] calls for deployment of 1 million plug-in hybrid vehicles by 2015,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://my.barackobama.com/page/content/newenergy |title=Barack Obama and Joe Biden: The Change We Need &#124; New Energy for America |website=My.barackobama.com |date=2008-06-22 |access-date=2009-04-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090411181834/http://my.barackobama.com/page/content/newenergy |archive-date=2009-04-11 |url-status=dead }}</ref> and on March 19, 2009, he announced programs directing $2.4 billion to electric vehicle development.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/news/progress_alerts.cfm/pa_id=152 |title=President Obama Announces $2.4 Billion for Electric Vehicles |website=Apps1.eere.energy.gov |access-date=2010-11-27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716123227/http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/news/progress_alerts.cfm/pa_id%3D152 |archive-date=2011-07-16 }}</ref>

The [[American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://thomas.loc.gov/home/h1/Recovery_Bill_Div_B.pdf |title=Loc.gov |access-date=2010-11-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101111060305/http://thomas.loc.gov/home/h1/Recovery_Bill_Div_B.pdf |archive-date=2010-11-11 |url-status=live }}</ref> modifies the tax credits, including a new one for plug-in electric drive [[Electric vehicle conversion|conversion kit]]s and for 2 or 3 wheel vehicles.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.calcars.org/calcars-news/1046.html |title=Conference Results: Stunning Expansion of Plug-In Tax Credits |website=Calcars.org |date=2009-02-12 |access-date=2009-04-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090331225804/http://calcars.org/calcars-news/1046.html |archive-date=2009-03-31 |url-status=live }}</ref> The ultimate total included in the Act that is going to PHEVs is over $6 billion.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.calcars.org/calcars-news/1048.html |title=Do You Realize Plug-Ins Get $5–$10+ Billion in Stimulus Package? |website=Calcars.org |date=2008-12-31 |access-date=2009-04-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090404054953/http://www.calcars.org/calcars-news/1048.html |archive-date=2009-04-04 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In March 2009, as part of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act, the [[US Department of Energy]] announced the release of two competitive solicitations for up to $2 billion in federal funding for competitively awarded cost-shared agreements for manufacturing of advanced batteries and related drive components as well as up to $400 million for [[transportation electrification]] demonstration and deployment projects. This announcement will also help meet the President [[Barack Obama]]'s goal of putting one million plug-in hybrid vehicles on the road by 2015.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/news/daily.cfm/hp_news_id=159 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090320042721/http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/news/daily.cfm/hp_news_id%3D159 |url-status=dead |archive-date=2009-03-20 |title=EERE News: President Obama Announces $2.4 Billion for Electric Vehicles |website=Apps1.eere.energy.gov |date=2009-03-19 |access-date=2009-04-11 }}</ref>

[[File:Barack Obama drives Chevy Volt.jpg|thumb|President [[Barack Obama]] behind the wheel of a [[Chevy Volt]] during his tour of the [[Detroit/Hamtramck Assembly|General Motors Auto Plant in Hamtramck]], [[Michigan]]]]

Public deployments also include:
* [[USDOE]]'s [[FreedomCAR]]. [[US Department of Energy]] announced it would dole out $30 million in funding to three companies over three years to further the development of plug-in hybrids<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.energy.gov/news/6337.htm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080613222130/http://www.energy.gov/news/6337.htm|url-status=dead|title=Department of Energy – DOE Announces $30 Million for Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle Projects|archivedate=June 13, 2008}}</ref>
* [[USDOE]] announced the selection of Navistar Corporation for a cost-shared award of up to $10 million to develop, test, and deploy plug-in hybrid electric (PHEV) school buses.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/news/news_detail.cfm/news_id=12463 |title=Energy.gov |website=Apps1.eere.energy.gov |access-date=2010-11-27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527230255/http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/news/news_detail.cfm/news_id%3D12463 |archive-date=2010-05-27 }}</ref>
* DOE and [[Sweden]] have a [[Memorandum of understanding|MOU]] to advance market integration of plug-in hybrid vehicles<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.energy.gov/news/6385.htm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080714193737/http://www.energy.gov/news/6385.htm|url-status=dead|title=Department of Energy and Sweden Sign MOU to Advance Market Integration of Plug-in Hybrid Vehicles|archivedate=July 14, 2008}}</ref>
* [[PHEV Research Center]]
* [[San Francisco]] Mayor [[Gavin Newsom]], [[San Jose, California|San Jose]] Mayor [[Chuck Reed]] and [[Oakland, California|Oakland]], California Mayor [[Ron Dellums]] announced a nine-step policy plan for transforming the Bay Area into the "Electric Vehicle (EV) Capital of the U.S."<ref name="sfgov.org">{{cite web |publisher=San Francisco Office of the Mayor |date=2008-11-20 |url=http://www.sfgov.org/site/mayor_index.asp?id=93399 |title=Mayors Aim to Make San Francisco Bay Area the Electric Vehicle Capital of the U.S. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091003192345/http://www.sfgov.org/site/mayor_index.asp?id=93399 |archive-date=2009-10-03}}</ref> and of the world<ref name="calcars1">{{cite web |url=http://www.calcars.org/calcars-news/1047.html |title=SF Plug-In Vehicle Bonanza:Watch Video, Read About It |website=Calcars.org |access-date=2009-04-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090606144336/http://www.calcars.org/calcars-news/1047.html |archive-date=2009-06-06 |url-status=live }}</ref> There are partnerships with [[Coulomb]], [[Better Place (company)|Better Place]] and others are also advancing. The first charging stations went up in San Jose<ref name=calcars1/> (more information in [[Plug-in hybrids in California]]).
* [[Washington (state)|Washington state]] PHEV Pilot Project<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ecy.wa.gov/climatechange/washington_electrifytransportation.htm |title=Climate Change – What are we doing about it in Washington State? – Electrify Transportation |website=Ecy.wa.gov |access-date=2010-11-27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110612043355/http://www.ecy.wa.gov/climatechange/washington_electrifytransportation.htm |archive-date=2011-06-12 }}</ref>
* Texas Governor [[Rick Perry]]'s proposal for a state $5,000 tax credit for PHEVs in "non-attainment" communities
* [[Seattle]], that includes City's public fleet converted vehicles, the [[Port of Seattle]], [[King County, Washington|King County]] and the [[Puget Sound Clean Air Agency]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.greencarcongress.com/2008/05/seattle-mayor-i.html |title=Seattle Mayor Introduces City's First PHEV |publisher=Green Car Congress |date=2008-05-31 |access-date=2010-11-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101231030042/http://www.greencarcongress.com/2008/05/seattle-mayor-i.html |archive-date=2010-12-31 |url-status=live }}</ref>

; European Union
[[Electrification of transport]] ([[electromobility]]) is a priority in the [[European Union Research Programme]]. It also figures prominently in the [[European Economic Recovery Plan]] presented November 2008, in the frame of the Green Car Initiative. [[Directorate-General for Mobility and Transport (European Commission)|DG TREN]] will support a large European "electromobility" project on electric vehicles and related infrastructure with a total budget of around €50 million as part of the Green Car Initiative.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/transport/urban/vehicles/road/electric_en.htm |title=Ec.europa.eu |publisher=European Commission |access-date=2010-11-27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110319033116/http://ec.europa.eu/transport/urban/vehicles/road/electric_en.htm |archive-date=2011-03-19 }}</ref>

===Supportive organizations===
Organizations that support plug-in hybrids include the [[World Wide Fund for Nature]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.panda.org/index.cfm?uNewsID=129321 |title=Cars should plug-in to a new future |publisher=World Wildlife Foundation |date=2008-04-02 |access-date=2008-12-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090514073018/http://www.panda.org/index.cfm?uNewsID=129321 |archive-date=2009-05-14 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[National Wildlife Federation]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.calcars.org/calcars-news/1052.html |title=Obama's Briefing; Sandalow To DOE; Automaker News; Nat'l Wildlife Federation Embraces PHEVs |website=Calcars.org |date=2009-03-27 |access-date=2009-04-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090604171038/http://www.calcars.org/calcars-news/1052.html |archive-date=2009-06-04 |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[CalCars]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.calcars.org/calcars-news/1040.html |title=Plug-In Endorsements: Inauguration + Senate '09 Freedom Act |website=Calcars.org |date=2009-01-16 |access-date=2009-04-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090605025720/http://www.calcars.org/calcars-news/1040.html |archive-date=2009-06-05 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Other supportive organizations are [[Plug In America]], the [[Alliance for Climate Protection]], [[Friends of the Earth]], the [[Rainforest Action Network]], [[Rocky Mountain Institute]] (Project Get Ready),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.calcars.org/calcars-news/1043.html |title=Senate Alert/GM Reaches Out/EDTA/Tracking Carmakers/TED/Wellinghoff |website=Calcars.org |access-date=2009-04-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090606144331/http://www.calcars.org/calcars-news/1043.html |archive-date=2009-06-06 |url-status=live }}</ref> the San Francisco [[Bay Area Council]],<ref name="sfgov.org"/> the Apollo Alliance, the [[Set America Free Coalition]], the [[Silicon Valley Leadership Group]], and the [[Plug-in Hybrid Electric School Bus Project]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.advancedenergy.org/corporate/initiatives/heb/ |title=Plug-in Hybrid Electric School Bus |website=Advancedenergy.org |access-date=2010-11-27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100711114236/http://www.advancedenergy.org/corporate/initiatives/heb/ |archive-date=2010-07-11 }}</ref>

FPL and Duke Energy has said that by 2020 all new purchases of fleet vehicles will be plug-in hybrid or all-electric.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20090924005148/en |title=Businesswire.com |website=Businesswire.com |date=2009-09-24 |access-date=2010-11-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110606060537/http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20090924005148/en |archive-date=2011-06-06 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Cars|Energy}}
{{div col|colwidth=12em}}
* {{annotated link|Advanced Technology Vehicles Manufacturing Loan Program}}
* {{annotated link|Electric transportation technology}}
* {{annotated link|Electric TM4}}
* {{annotated link|Fuel economy-maximizing behaviors}}
* {{annotated link|Glossary of automotive design}}
* {{annotated link|Government incentives for plug-in electric vehicles}}
* {{annotated link|Green vehicle}}
* {{annotated link|History of the electric vehicle}}
* {{annotated link|Hymotion}}
* {{annotated link|Hypercar (concept car)|Hypercar}}
* {{annotated link|Inductive charging}}
* {{annotated link|Patent encumbrance of large automotive NiMH batteries}}
* {{annotated link|Phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles}}
* {{annotated link|Plug In America}}
* {{annotated link|Plug-in electric vehicle}} (PEV)
* {{annotated link|Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle Research Center}}
* {{annotated link|Range anxiety}}
* {{annotated link|List of hybrid vehicles|List of hybrid and plug-in hybrid vehicles}}
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* [[American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy]], [http://www.aceee.org/sites/default/files/publications/researchreports/t133.pdf Plug-in Electric Vehicles: Challenges and Opportunities], June 2013
* [[Argonne National Laboratory]], [https://greet.es.anl.gov/publication-c2g-2016-report Cradle-to-Grave Lifecycle Analysis of U.S. Light-Duty Vehicle-Fuel Pathways: A Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Economic Assessment of Current (2015) and Future (2025–2030) Technologies] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200812172041/https://greet.es.anl.gov/publication-c2g-2016-report |date=2020-08-12 }} (includes estimated cost of avoided GHG emissions from BEVs and PHEVs), June 2016.
* {{cite book|title=Plug-in Hybrids: The Cars that will Recharge America|edition=1st|last=Boschert|first=Sherry|year=2007|publisher=New Society Publishers|isbn=9780865715714|oclc=74524214|url=https://archive.org/details/pluginhybridscar00bosc}}
* International Council on Clean Transportation, [http://theicct.org/sites/default/files/publications/ICCT_EV-fiscal-incentives_20140506.pdf Driving Electrification – A Global Comparison of Fiscal Incentive Policy for Electric Vehicles], May 2014
* [[International Energy Agency]] (IEA) and Electric Vehicles Initiative (April 2013), [https://web.archive.org/web/20130423003013/http://www.iea.org/publications/globalevoutlook_2013.pdf Global EV Outlook 2013 – Understanding the Electric Vehicle Landscape to 2020]
* [[International Energy Agency]] (IEA) – IA-HEV (May 2013), [http://www.ieahev.org/assets/1/7/IA-HEV_Annual_Report_May_2013_3MB.pdf Hybrid and Electric Vehicles – The Electric Drive Gains Traction] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210226235212/http://www.ieahev.org/assets/1/7/IA-HEV_Annual_Report_May_2013_3MB.pdf |date=2021-02-26 }}
* Lee, Henry, and Grant Lovellette (2011).[https://www.belfercenter.org/publication/will-electric-cars-transform-us-vehicle-market Will Electric Cars Transform the U.S. Vehicle Market?] [[Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs|Belfer Center]], Harvard University
* {{cite book|title=Two Cents per Mile: Will President Obama Make it Happen With the Stroke of a Pen?|first=Cefo|last=Nevres |year=2009|publisher=Nevlin |isbn=9780615293912 |oclc=463395305}}
* {{cite book|title=Plug-In Electric Vehicles: What Role for Washington?|editor-first=David B.|editor-last=Sandalow|year=2009|publisher=The Brookings Institution|isbn=9780815703051|edition=1st.|oclc=895434772|url=http://www.brookings.edu/press/Books/2009/pluginelectricvehicles.aspx}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.greencarcongress.com/2015/02/20150218-michalek.html |title=CMU team finds regional temperature differences have significant impact on EV efficiency, range and emissions |first=Jeremy |last=Michalek |work=Green Car Congress |date=February 2015 }}
* [[Joseph J. Romm|Romm, Joseph J.]] and Fox-Penne, Peter. (2007). [https://web.archive.org/web/20080216081335/http://www.ppionline.org/documents/Plug-In_030607.pdf Plugging into the Grid: How Plug-In Hybrid-Electric Vehicles Can Help Break America's Oil Addiction and Slow Global Warming]. [[Progressive Policy Institute]].
* [[U.S. Environmental Protection Agency]], [http://www.epa.gov/dfe/pubs/projects/lbnp/final-li-ion-battery-lca-report.pdf Application of Life-Cycle Assessment to Nanoscale Technology: Lithium-ion Batteries for Electric Vehicles], April 2013.
* US [[Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy]]
** [http://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/pdfs/phev_study_final_report.pdf Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicle Value Proposition Study] Final Report, July 2010.
** [https://afdc.energy.gov/vehicles/electric_basics_phev.html Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles].
** [https://afdc.energy.gov/vehicles/electric_basics_phev.html Alternative Fuels and Advanced Vehicles Data Center (AFDC)], including list of books and publications.
* US [[National Highway Traffic Safety Administration]]
** [http://www.nhtsa.gov/staticfiles/nvs/pdf/InterimGuide_Consumers_011912_v2a.pdf Interim Guidance Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles Equipped with High Voltage Batteries – Vehicle Owner/General Public] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131209221917/http://www.nhtsa.gov/staticfiles/nvs/pdf/InterimGuide_Consumers_011912_v2a.pdf |date=2013-12-09 }}
** [http://www.nhtsa.gov/staticfiles/nvs/pdf/InterimGuide_EmergencyResponse_012012_v3.pdf Interim Guidance Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles Equipped with High Voltage Batteries – Law Enforcement/Emergency Medical Services/Fire Department] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131209222354/http://www.nhtsa.gov/staticfiles/nvs/pdf/InterimGuide_EmergencyResponse_012012_v3.pdf |date=2013-12-09 }}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Plug-in electric hybrid-powered vehicles}}
{{Wikiquote}}
* [https://pluginamerica.org Plug In America] – Non-profit advocacy group.
* [http://energy.gov/articles/egallon-what-it-and-why-it-s-important eGallon Calculator: Compare the costs of driving with electricity]. [[U.S. Department of Energy]].

{{Electric vehicles}}
{{Alternative propulsion}}
{{Automobile configuration}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Plug-In Hybrid}}
[[Category:Plug-in hybrid vehicles| ]]
[[Category:Automotive technologies]]
[[Category:Electric vehicle conversion]]
[[Category:Electric vehicles]]