View source for Plantation of Ulster

{{Short description|17th-century colonisation of northern Ireland}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2023}}
{{Use British English|date=June 2013}}
[[File:Plantation of Ulster.png|thumb|right|300px|The counties of [[Ulster]] (modern boundaries) that were colonised during the plantations. This map is a simplified one, as the amount of land actually colonised did not cover the entire shaded area.]]

The '''Plantation of Ulster''' ({{langx|ga|Plandáil Uladh}}; [[Ulster Scots dialects|Ulster Scots]]: {{lang|sco|Plantin o Ulstèr}})<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.doeni.gov.uk/niea/moneacastleus.pdf |title=Monea Castle and Derrygonnelly Church: Ulster-Scots translation |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110830193417/http://www.doeni.gov.uk/niea/moneacastleus.pdf |archive-date=30 August 2011 |date=2011 |work=DoENI.gov.uk |publisher=[[Northern Ireland Environment Agency]], [[Department of the Environment (Northern Ireland)|Department of the Environment]]}}</ref> was the organised [[Settler colonialism|colonisation]] (''[[Plantation (settlement or colony)|plantation]]'') of [[Ulster]]{{spaced ndash}}a [[Provinces of Ireland|province]] of [[Ireland]]{{spaced ndash}}by people from [[Great Britain]] during the reign of King [[James VI and I]].<!--in England and Ireland he's James I--> 

Small privately funded plantations by wealthy landowners began in 1606,<ref name="Stewart 38">{{harvp|Stewart|1989|p=38}}.</ref><ref name="Falls 156-7">{{harvp|Falls|1996|pp=156–157}}.</ref><ref name="Perceval-Maxwell 55">{{harvp|Perceval-Maxwell|1999|p=55}}.</ref> while the official plantation began in 1609. Most of the land had been confiscated from the native [[Irish nobility|Gaelic chiefs]], several of whom [[Flight of the Earls|had fled Ireland]] for mainland Europe in 1607 following the [[Nine Years' War (Ireland)|Nine Years' War]] against [[Kingdom of Ireland|English rule]]. The official plantation comprised an estimated half a million [[Irish acre|acres]] (2,000&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>) of [[arable land]] in counties [[County Armagh|Armagh]], [[County Cavan|Cavan]], [[County Fermanagh|Fermanagh]], [[County Tyrone|Tyrone]], [[County Donegal|Donegal]], and [[County Londonderry|Londonderry]].{{sfnp||Jackson|1973|p=51}} Land in counties [[County Antrim|Antrim]], [[County Down|Down]], and [[County Monaghan|Monaghan]] was privately colonised with the king's support.<ref name="Stewart 38" /><ref name="Falls 156-7" /><ref name="Perceval-Maxwell 55" />

Among those involved in planning and overseeing the plantation were King James, the [[Lord Deputy of Ireland]], [[Arthur Chichester, 1st Baron Chichester|Arthur Chichester]], and the [[Attorney-General for Ireland]], [[John Davies (poet, born 1569)|John Davies]].<ref name="MacRaild Smith 142">{{harvp|MacRaild|Smith|2012|p=142}}: "Advisors to King James VI/I, notably Arthur Chichester, Lord Deputy from 1604, and Sir John Davies, the lawyer, favoured the plantation as a definitive response to the challenges of ruling Ireland.&nbsp;... Undertakers, servitors and natives were granted large blocks of land as long as they planted English-speaking Protestants".</ref> They saw the plantation as a means of controlling, [[anglicising]],<ref>{{harvp|Lenihan|2007|p=43}}: "According to the Lord Deputy Chichester, the plantation would 'separate the Irish by themselves&nbsp;... [so they would], in heart in tongue and every way else become English"</ref> and "civilising" Ulster.<ref>{{harvp|Bardon|2011|p=214}}: "To King James the Plantation of Ulster would be a civilising enterprise which would 'establish the true religion of Christ among men&nbsp;... almost lost in superstition'. In short, he intended his grandiose scheme would bring the enlightenment of the Reformation to one of the most remote and benighted provinces in his kingdom. Yet some of the most determined planters were, in fact, Catholics."</ref> The province was almost wholly [[Gaels|Gaelic]], [[Roman Catholicism in Ireland|Catholic]], rural, and had been the region most resistant to English control. The plantation was also meant to sever the ties of the Gaelic clans of Ulster with those from the [[Scottish Highlands]],<ref name="Ellis, p.2962">{{cite book |last=Ellis |first=Steven |title=The Making of the British Isles: The State of Britain and Ireland, 1450-1660 |date=2014 |publisher=Routledge |page=296}}</ref> as it meant a strategic threat to England.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=2. The Plantations: Sowing the seeds of Ireland's religious geographies |url=https://www.lancaster.ac.uk/troubledgeogs/chap2.htm#ulster |access-date=31 December 2024 |website=Troubled Geographies: A Spatial History of Religion and Society in Ireland}}</ref> The [[colonists]] (or "British tenants")<ref name="Curtis 198">{{harvp|Curtis|2000|p=198}}.</ref>{{sfnp|Moody|Martin|1984|p=190}} were required to be English-speaking, [[Protestant]],<ref name="MacRaild Smith 142" /><ref>{{Cite web |url= https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/plantation/planters/es09.shtml |title=BBC History – The Plantation of Ulster – Religion |access-date=25 December 2019 |archive-date=4 December 2019 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20191204114125/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/plantation/planters/es09.shtml |url-status=live}}</ref> and loyal to the king. Some of the landlords and settlers, however, were Catholic.<ref>{{harvp|Bardon|2011|pp=ix–x}}: "Many will be surprised that three amongst the most energetic planters were Catholics. Sir Randall MacDonell, Earl of Antrim,&nbsp;... George Tuchet, 18th Baron Audley,&nbsp;... Sir George Hamilton of Greenlaw, together with his relatives&nbsp;... made his well-managed estate in the Strabane area a haven for Scottish Catholics".</ref><ref>{{harvp|Bardon|2011|p=214}}: "The result was that over the ensuing decades many Catholic Scots&nbsp;... were persuaded to settle in this part of Tyrone [Strabane]".</ref><ref name="Blaney">{{Cite book |last=Blaney |first=Roger |title=Presbyterians and the Irish Language |publisher=Ulster Historical Foundation |date=2012 |isbn=978-1-908448-55-2 |pages=6–16}}</ref> The Scottish settlers were mostly [[Presbyterianism|Presbyterian]] [[Scottish Lowlands|Lowlanders]] and the English settlers were mostly [[Anglican]] [[Northern England|Northerners]]; their cultures differed from [[Gaelic Ireland|that of the native Irish]].<ref name="Curtis 198" /> Although some "loyal" natives were granted land, the native Irish reaction to the plantation was generally hostile,<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC History – The Plantation of Ulster – Reaction of the natives |url= https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/plantation/planters/es05.shtml |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20191231190907/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/plantation/planters/es05.shtml |archive-date=31 December 2019}}</ref> and native writers lamented what they saw as the decline of Gaelic society and the influx of foreigners.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Horning |first=Audrey |title=Ireland in the Virginian Sea: Colonialism in the British Atlantic |publisher=[[University of North Carolina Press]] |date=2013 |pages=179}}</ref>

The Plantation of Ulster was the biggest of the [[plantations of Ireland]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dorney |first=John |date=2 June 2024 |title=The Plantation of Ulster: A Brief Overview |url=https://www.theirishstory.com/2024/06/02/the-plantation-of-ulster-a-brief-overview/ |access-date=30 December 2024 |website=The Irish Story}}</ref> It led to the founding of many of Ulster's towns and created a lasting [[Ulster Protestant]] community in the province with ties to Britain. It also resulted in many of the native Irish nobility losing their land and led to centuries of [[ethnic conflict|ethnic]] and [[sectarian violence|sectarian]] animosity, which at times [[List of Irish uprisings|spilled into conflict]], notably in the [[Irish Rebellion of 1641]] and, more recently, [[the Troubles]].

==Ulster before plantation==
[[File:17th Century Barony Maps c.1609 - Tyrone etc. (27484911573).jpg|thumb|300px|A map of southern Ulster c.1609, just before the Plantation]]
Before the plantation, [[Ulster]] had been the most [[Gaels|Gaelic]] province of Ireland, as it was the least anglicised and the most independent of English control.{{sfnp|Madden|1857|p=2–5}} The region was almost wholly rural and had few towns or villages.{{sfnp|Falls|1996|pp=11–12}}<ref name="Robinson 28">{{harvp|Robinson|2000|p=28}}.</ref> Throughout the 16th century, Ulster was viewed by the English as being "underpopulated" and undeveloped.{{sfnp|Bardon|2005|p=75}}{{sfnp|Chart|1928|p=18}} The economy of Gaelic Ulster was overwhelmingly based on agriculture, especially cattle-raising. Many of the Gaelic Irish practised "creaghting" or "booleying", a kind of [[transhumance]] whereby some of them moved with their cattle to upland pastures during the summer months and lived in temporary dwellings during that time. This often led outsiders to mistakenly believe the Gaelic Irish were nomadic.<ref>{{harvp|Bardon|2011|p=}}: "The economy was overwhelmingly dependent on agriculture.&nbsp;... The English consistently underestimated the importance of arable farming in Gaelic Ulster, but there is no doubt that cattle raising was the basis of the rural economy.&nbsp;... This form of transhumance, known as 'booleying', often led outsiders to conclude mistakenly that the Gaelic Irish lived a nomadic existence."</ref>{{Page needed|date=December 2023}}

The population of Ulster before the Plantation has been estimated to be around 180,000-200,000.{{sfnp|Kennedy|Miller|Gurrin|2012|pp=58–59}} This was after the destruction caused by the devastating famine and warfare at the end of the Nine Years War. Michael Perceval-Maxwell estimated that by 1600 Ulster's total adult population was only 25,000-40,000.{{sfnp|Perceval-Maxwell|1999|p=17}} The war fought between the native Irish Confederacy and the English Crown undoubtedly contributed to depopulation, with 60,000 reported dead by famine and attacks on the civilian population.{{sfnp|Bardon|2005|pp=76–83}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC History – The Plantation of Ulster – Reaction of the Natives – Professor Nicholas Canny |url= https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/plantation/transcripts/es05_t03.shtml |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210308060729/https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/plantation/transcripts/es05_t03.shtml |archive-date=8 March 2021}}</ref>

The [[Tudor conquest of Ireland]] began in the 1540s, during the reign of [[Henry VIII]] (1509–1547), and concluded in the reign of [[Elizabeth I]] (1558–1603) sixty years later, breaking the power of the semi-independent Irish chieftains.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lecky |first=William Edward |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofireland01leckuoft/mode/2up |title=A History of Ireland in the Eighteenth Century |publisher=[[Longmans, Green & Co.]] |orig-date=1892 |date=1913 |volume=I |pages=4–6 |author-link=William Edward Hartpole Lecky}}</ref> As part of the conquest, [[Plantation (settlement or colony)|plantations]] (colonial settlements) were established in Queen's County and King's County ([[County Laois|Laois]] and [[County Offaly|Offaly]]) in the 1550s as well as [[Munster]] in the 1580s, and in 1568 Warham St Leger and Richard Grenville established Joint stock/Cooperate colonies in Cork, although these were not very successful.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rowse |first=A. L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w8f3WXpsJGoC&dq=1568+Warham+St+Leger+and+Richard+Grenville,+cork&pg=PT38 |title=Sir Richard Grenville of the Revenge |date=2013-02-21 |publisher=Faber & Faber |isbn=978-0-571-30043-3 |language=en}}</ref>

In the 1570s, Elizabeth I authorised a privately funded [[Enterprise of Ulster|plantation of eastern Ulster]], led by [[Thomas Smith (diplomat)|Thomas Smith]] and [[Walter Devereux, 1st Earl of Essex]]. This was a failure and sparked violent conflict with the local Irish lord, in which Lord Deputy Essex [[Betrayal of Clannabuidhe|killed]] many of the lord of [[Clandeboy]]'s kin.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Heffernan |first=David |url= https://www.historyireland.com/volume-27/essexs-enterprise/ |url-status=live |title=Essex's 'Enterprise' |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200927143113/https://www.historyireland.com/volume-27/essexs-enterprise/ |archive-date=27 September 2020 |journal=[[History Ireland]] |volume=27 |issue=2 |date=March–April 2019}}</ref>

In the Nine Years' War of 1594–1603, an alliance of northern Gaelic chieftains—led by [[Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone|Hugh O'Neill]] of [[Earl of Tyrone|Tyrone]], [[Hugh Roe O'Donnell]] of [[Tyrconnell]], and [[Hugh Maguire (Lord of Fermanagh)|Hugh Maguire]] of [[Fermanagh]]—resisted the imposition of English government in Ulster and sought to affirm their own control. Following an extremely costly series of campaigns by the English the war ended in 1603 with the [[Treaty of Mellifont]].{{sfnp|Lenihan|2007|pp=18–23}} The terms of surrender granted to what remained of O'Neill's forces were considered generous at the time.{{sfnp|Lennon|1995|p=301–302}}

After the Treaty of Mellifont, the northern chieftains attempted to consolidate their positions, whilst some within the [[Dublin Castle administration|English administration]] attempted to undermine them. In 1607, O'Neill and his primary allies left Ireland to seek Spanish help for a new rebellion to restore their privileges, in what became known as the [[Flight of the Earls]]. King James issued a proclamation declaring their action to be [[treason]], paving the way for the [[Forfeiture (law)|forfeiture]] of their lands and titles.<ref>{{Citation |title=A Proclamation touching the Earles of Tyrone and Tyrconnell |date=15 November 1607 |url=https://celt.ucc.ie/published/E600001-002/text001.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181231230742/https://celt.ucc.ie/published/E600001-002/text001.html |archive-date=31 December 2018 |url-status=live |place=London |publisher=Robert Barker}}</ref>

==Planning the plantation==
[[File:ArthurChichester BaronChichesterOfBelfast Belfast Harbour Commissioners.jpg|thumb|Arthur Chichester, Lord Deputy of Ireland, one of the main planners of the Plantation]]
A colonization of Ulster had been proposed since the end of the [[Nine Years' War (Ireland)|Nine Years' War]]. The original proposals were smaller, involving planting settlers around key military posts and on church land, and would have included large land grants to native Irish lords who sided with the English during the war, such as [[Niall Garve O'Donnell]]. However, in 1608 Sir [[Cahir O'Doherty]] of [[Inishowen]] launched [[O'Doherty's Rebellion|a rebellion]], capturing and [[Burning of Derry|burning the town of Derry]]. The brief rebellion was ended by Sir [[Richard Wingfield]] at the [[Battle of Kilmacrennan]]. The rebellion prompted [[Arthur Chichester, 1st Baron Chichester|Arthur Chichester]], the [[Lord Deputy of Ireland]], to plan a much bigger plantation and to [[expropriate]] the legal titles of all native landowners in the province.{{sfnp|Lenihan|2007|pp=44–45}} [[John Davies (poet, born 1569)|John Davies]], the [[Attorney-General for Ireland]], used the law as a tool of conquest and colonization. Before the Flight of the Earls, the English administration had sought to minimise the personal estates of the chieftains, but now they treated the chieftains as sole owners of their whole territories, so that all the land could be confiscated. Most of this land was deemed to be forfeited (or [[escheat]]ed) to the Crown because the chieftains were declared to be [[Bill of attainder|attainted]].<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Connolly |first=S. J. |url=https://archive.org/details/contestedislandi0000conn |title=Contested Island: Ireland 1460-1630 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |date=2007 |pages=296 |isbn=978-0-19-956371-5 |author-link=Sean Connolly (academic) |url-access=registration}}</ref> English judges had also [[Judicial activism|declared]] that titles to land held under [[Gavelkind in Ireland|gavelkind]], the native Irish custom of inheriting land, had no standing under English law.<ref name=":4" /> Davies used this as a means to confiscate land, when other means failed.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pawlisch |first=Hans Scott |url=https://archive.org/details/sirjohndaviescon0000pawl |title=Sir John Davies and the conquest of Ireland: a study in legal imperialism |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |date=1985 |pages=73–80 |isbn=978-0-521-25328-4 |url-access=registration}}</ref>

The Plantation of Ulster was presented to [[James VI and I|James I]] as a joint "British", or English and Scottish, venture to 'pacify' and 'civilise' Ulster, with half the settlers to be from one country. James had been King of Scotland before he also became King of England and wanted to reward his Scottish subjects with land in Ulster to assure them they were not being neglected now that he had moved his court to London. Long-standing contacts between Ulster and the west of Scotland meant that Scottish participation was a practical necessity.{{sfnp|Canny|2001|pp=196–198}} James saw the [[Gaels]] as barbarous and rebellious,<ref name=":0">{{harvp|Ellis|2007|p=296}}.</ref> and believed Gaelic culture should be wiped out.<ref>{{cite book |last=Szasz |first=Margaret |date=2007 |title=Scottish Highlanders and Native Americans |publisher=[[University of Oklahoma Press]] |page=48}}</ref> For centuries, Scottish Gaelic mercenaries called [[gallowglass]] ({{lang|ga|gallóglaigh}}) had been migrating to Ireland to serve under the Irish chiefs. Another goal of the plantation was to sever the ties of the Gaelic clans of Ulster with those from the Highlands of Scotland,<ref name="Ellis, p.2962" /> as these ties posed a strategic threat to England.<ref name=":1" />

Six counties were involved in the official plantation{{spaced ndash}}[[County Donegal|Donegal]], [[County Londonderry|Londonderry]], [[County Tyrone|Tyrone]], [[County Fermanagh|Fermanagh]], [[County Cavan|Cavan]] and [[County Armagh|Armagh]]. In the two officially unplanted counties of [[County Antrim|Antrim]] and [[County Down|Down]], substantial Presbyterian Scots settlement had been underway since 1606.<ref name="Stewart 38" />

The plan for the plantation was determined by two factors. One was the wish to make sure the settlement could not be destroyed by rebellion as the first [[Plantation of Munster|Munster Plantation]] had been in the Nine Years' War. This meant that, rather than settling the planters in isolated pockets of land confiscated from the Irish, all of the land would be confiscated and then redistributed to create concentrations of British settlers around new towns and garrisons.{{sfnp|Canny|2001|pp=189–200}}

What was more, the new landowners were explicitly banned from taking Irish tenants and had to import workers from England and Scotland. The remaining Irish landowners were to be granted one quarter of the land in Ulster. The peasant Irish population was intended to be relocated to live near garrisons and Protestant churches. Moreover, the planters were barred from selling their lands to any Irishman and were required to build defences against any possible rebellion or invasion. The settlement was to be completed within three years. In this way, it was hoped that a defensible new community composed entirely of loyal British subjects would be created.{{sfnp|Lenihan|2007|pp=48–49}}

The second major influence on the Plantation was the negotiation among various interest groups on the British side. The principal landowners were to be "Undertakers", wealthy men from England and Scotland who undertook to import tenants from their own estates. They were granted around 3000 acres (12&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>) each, on condition that they settle a minimum of 48 adult males (including at least 20 families), who had to be English-speaking and Protestant. Veterans of the Nine Years' War (known as "Servitors") led by [[Arthur Chichester]] successfully lobbied to be rewarded with land grants of their own.

Since these former officers did not have enough private capital to fund the colonisation, their involvement was subsidised by the twelve great guilds. [[Livery Company|Livery companies]] from the [[City of London]] were coerced into investing in the project, as were City of London guilds which were granted land on the west bank of the [[River Foyle]], to build their own city on the site of [[Derry]] (renamed Londonderry after them) as well as lands in County Coleraine. They were known jointly as [[The Honourable The Irish Society]]. The final major recipient of lands was the Protestant [[Church of Ireland]], which was granted all the churches and lands previously owned by the Roman Catholic Church. The British government intended that clerics from England and [[the Pale]] would convert the native population to Anglicanism.{{sfnp|Canny|2001|p=202}}

==Implementing the plantation==
[[File:The plat of the Cittie of Londonderrie as it stands built and fortyfied (27114684854).jpg|thumb|300px|A plan of the new city of Londonderry, c.1622]]
Since 1606, there had been substantial lowland Scots settlement on disinhabited land in north Down, led by [[Hugh Montgomery, 1st Viscount Montgomery|Hugh Montgomery]] and [[James Hamilton, 1st Viscount Claneboye|James Hamilton]].{{sfnp|Perceval-Maxwell|1999|p=55}} In 1607, [[Randal MacDonnell, 1st Earl of Antrim|Sir Randall MacDonnell]] settled 300 Presbyterian Scots families on his land in Antrim.{{sfnp|Elliott|2001|p=88}}

From 1609 onwards, British Protestant colonists arrived in Ulster through direct importation by Undertakers to their estates and also by a spread to unpopulated areas, through ports such as Derry and Carrickfergus. In addition, there was much internal movement of settlers who did not like the original land allotted to them.{{sfnp|Robinson|2000|pp=118–119, 125–128}} Some planters settled on uninhabited and unexploited land, often building up their farms and homes on overgrown terrain that has been variously described as "wilderness" and "virgin" ground.<ref>{{harvp|Stewart|1989|pp=40–41}}. Raymond Gillespie: [https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/plantation/transcripts/es05_t02.shtml "Reaction of the Natives"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308142651/https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/plantation/transcripts/es05_t02.shtml |date=8 March 2021}}, BBC.<!--accessed May 13, 2009--> {{harvp|Bardon|2005|p=178, 314}}. {{harvp|Perceval-Maxwell|1999|pp=29, 132}}. {{harvp|Hanna|1902|p=182}}. {{harvp|Falls|1996|p=201}}.</ref> In 1612, [[William Cole (planter)|William Cole]] received a grant of land to establish a settler town at [[Enniskillen]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dib.ie/biography/cole-sir-william-a1830 |title=Cole, Sir William |last=Clavin |first=Terry |date=October 2009 |website=Dictionary of Irish Biography |access-date=19 February 2023}}</ref>

By 1622, a survey found that there were 6,402 British adult males on Plantation lands, of whom 3,100 were English and 3,700 Scottish – indicating a total adult planter population of around 12,000. However, another 4,000 Scottish adult males had settled in unplanted Antrim and Down, giving a total settler population of about 19,000.<ref>All previous figures from: {{harvp|Canny|2001|p=211}}.</ref>

Despite the fact that the Plantation had decreed that the Irish population be displaced, this did not generally happen in practice. Firstly, some 300 native landowners who had taken the English side in the Nine Years' War were rewarded with land grants.{{sfnp|Lenihan|2007|p=46}} Secondly, the majority of the Gaelic Irish remained in their native areas, but were now only allowed worse land than before the plantation. They usually lived close to and even in the same townlands as the settlers and the land they had farmed previously.<ref>{{harvp|Elliott|2002}}. {{harvp|Stewart|1989|pp=24–25}}. {{harvp|Bardon|2005|p=131}}. {{harvp|Falls|1996|p=221}}. {{harvp|Perceval-Maxwell|1999|p=66}}. {{harvp|Elliott|2001|p=88}}. {{harvp|Robinson|2000|p=100}}</ref> The main reason for this was that Undertakers could not import enough English or Scottish tenants to fill their agricultural workforce and had to fall back on Irish tenants.{{sfnp|Canny|2001|pp=233–235}} However, in a few heavily populated lowland areas (such as parts of north Armagh) it is likely that some population displacement occurred.{{sfnp|Elliott|2001|p=93}}

However, the Plantation remained threatened by the attacks of bandits, known as "[[Kern (soldier)|wood-kern]]", who were often Irish soldiers or dispossessed landowners. In 1609, Chichester had 1,300 former Gaelic soldiers deported from Ulster to serve in the [[Swedish Army]].{{sfnp|Elliott|2001|p=119}}{{sfnp|Canny|2001|pp=205–206}} As a result, military garrisons were established across Ulster and many of the Plantation towns, notably Derry, were fortified. The settlers were also required to maintain arms and attend an annual military 'muster'.{{sfnp|Lenihan|2007|pp=52–53}}

There had been very few towns in Ulster before the Plantation.{{sfnp|Falls|1996|pp=11}}<ref name="Robinson 28" /> Most modern towns in the province can date their origins back to this period. Plantation towns generally have a single broad main street ending in a square in a design often known as a "diamond",{{sfnp|Robinson|2000|pp=169, 170}} which can be seen in communities like [[The Diamond, Donegal]].

===Failures===
The plantation was a mixed success from the point of view of the settlers. About the time the Plantation of Ulster was planned, the [[Plantations of New England|Virginia Plantation]] at [[Jamestown, Virginia|Jamestown]] in 1607 started. The London guilds planning to fund the Plantation of Ulster switched and backed the [[London Virginia Company]] instead. Many British Protestant settlers went to [[Virginia]] or [[New England]] in America rather than to Ulster.

By the 1630s, there were 20,000 adult male British settlers in Ulster, which meant that the total settler population could have been as high as 80,000. They formed local majorities of the population in the [[River Finn (County Donegal)|Finn]] and [[River Foyle|Foyle]] valleys (around modern County Londonderry and east Donegal), in north Armagh and in east Tyrone. Moreover, the unofficial settlements in Antrim and Down were thriving.{{sfnp|Bardon|2011|p=123}} The settler population grew rapidly, as just under half of the planters were women.

The attempted conversion of the Irish to Protestantism was generally a failure. One problem was language difference. The Protestant clerics imported were usually all [[monoglot]] English speakers, whereas the native population were usually monoglot Irish speakers. However, ministers chosen to serve in the plantation were required to take a course in the Irish language before ordination, and nearly 10% of those who took up their preferments spoke it fluently.<ref>Padraig Ó Snodaigh.</ref>{{Page needed|date=September 2010}} Nevertheless, conversion was rare, despite the fact that, after 1621, Gaelic Irish natives could be officially classed as British if they converted to Protestantism.{{sfnp|Lenihan|2007|pp=48–49}} Of those Catholics who did convert to Protestantism, many made their choice for social and political reasons.{{sfnp|Elliott|2001|p=}}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}

The reaction of the native Irish to the plantation was generally hostile. Chichester wrote in 1610 that the native Irish in Ulster were "generally discontented, and repine greatly at their fortunes, and the small quantity of land left to them". That same year, English army officer [[Toby Caulfeild, 1st Baron Caulfeild|Toby Caulfield]] wrote that "there is not a more discontented people in Christendom" than the Ulster Irish.<ref>Rafferty, Oliver. ''Catholicism in Ulster, 1603–1983''. University of South Carolina Press, 1994. p.12</ref> Irish Gaelic writers bewailed the plantation. In an entry for the year 1608, the ''[[Annals of the Four Masters]]'' states that the land was "taken from the Irish" and given "to foreign tribes", and that Irish chiefs were "banished into other countries where most of them died". Likewise, an early 17th-century poem by the Irish [[Irish bardic poetry|bard]] [[Lochlann Óg Ó Dálaigh]] laments the plantation, the displacement of the native Irish, and the decline of Gaelic culture.<ref>Gillespie, Raymond. "Gaelic Catholicism and the Plantation of Ulster", in ''Irish Catholic Identities'', edited by Oliver Rafferty. Oxford University Press, 2015. p.124</ref> It asks "Where have the Gaels gone?", adding "We have in their stead an arrogant, impure crowd, of foreigners' blood".<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC - History - Wars and Conflicts - Plantation of Ulster - Bardic Poetry - A Poem on the Downfall of the Gaoidhil |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/plantation/bardic/poem08.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112012627/https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/plantation/bardic/poem08.shtml |archive-date=12 November 2020 |access-date=10 December 2023 |website=BBC}}</ref>

Historian [[Thomas Bartlett (historian)|Thomas Bartlett]] suggests that Irish hostility to the plantation may have been muted in the early years, as there were much fewer settlers arriving than expected. Bartlett writes that a hatred for the planters grew with the influx of settlers from the 1620s, and the increasing marginalization of the Irish.<ref>Bartlett, Thomas. ''Ireland: A History''. Cambridge University Press, 2010. p.104</ref> Historian Gerard Farrell writes that the plantation stoked a "smoldering resentment" in the Irish, among whom "a widespread perception persisted that they and the generation before them had been unfairly dispossessed of their lands by force and legal chicanery". Petty violence and sabotage against the planters was rife, and many Irish came to identify with the wood-kern who attacked settlements and ambushed settlers. Ferrell suggests it took many years for an Irish uprising to happen because there was depopulation, because many native leaders had been removed, and those who remained only belatedly realised the threat of the plantation.<ref>Farrell, Gerard. ''The 'Mere Irish' and the Colonisation of Ulster, 1570–1641''. Springer, 2017, pp. 277–279</ref>

==Wars of the Three Kingdoms==
{{Further|Wars of the Three Kingdoms|Irish Confederate Wars}}

By the 1630s it is suggested that the plantation was settling down with "tacit religious tolerance", and in every county Old Irish were serving as royal officials and members of the Irish Parliament.{{sfnp|Elliott|2001|p=97}} However, in the 1640s, the Ulster Plantation was thrown into turmoil by [[Wars of the Three Kingdoms|civil wars that raged in Ireland, England and Scotland]]. The wars saw Irish rebellion against the planters, twelve years of bloody war, and ultimately the re-conquest of the province by the English parliamentary [[New Model Army]] that confirmed English and Protestant dominance in the province.{{sfnp|Canny|2001|pp=577–578}}

After 1630, Scottish migration to Ireland waned for a decade. In the 1630s, Presbyterians in Scotland [[Bishops' Wars|staged a rebellion]] against Charles I for trying to impose Anglicanism. The same was attempted in Ireland, where most Scots colonists were Presbyterian. A large number of them returned to Scotland as a result. Charles I subsequently raised an army largely composed of Irish Catholics, and sent them to Ulster in preparation to invade Scotland. The English and Scottish parliaments then threatened to attack this army. In the midst of this, Gaelic Irish landowners in Ulster, led by [[Felim O'Neill of Kinard|Felim O'Neill]] and [[Rory (Roger) O'Moore|Rory O'More]], planned a rebellion to take over the administration in Ireland.{{sfnp|Lenihan|2007|pp=91–92}}

On 23 October 1641, the Ulster Catholics [[Irish Rebellion of 1641|staged a rebellion]]. The mobilised natives turned on the British colonists, massacring about 4,000 and expelling about 8,000 more. [[Marianne Elliott (historian)|Marianne Elliott]] believes that "1641 destroyed the Ulster Plantation as a mixed settlement".{{sfnp|Elliott|2001|p=102}} The initial leader of the rebellion, Felim O'Neill, had actually been a beneficiary of the Plantation land grants. Most of his supporters' families had been dispossessed and were likely motivated by the desire to recover their ancestral lands.  Many colonists who survived rushed to the seaports and went back to Great Britain.<ref>MacCuarta, Brian, ''Age of Atrocity'', p. 155; {{harvp|Canny|2001|p=177}}.</ref>

The massacres made a lasting impression on psyche of the Ulster Protestant population. [[A. T. Q. Stewart]] states that "The fear which it inspired survives in the Protestant subconscious as the memory of the Penal Laws or the Famine persists in the Catholic."{{sfnp|Stewart|1989|p=49}} He also believed that "Here, if anywhere, the mentality of siege was born, as the warning bonfires blazed from hilltop to hilltop, and the beating drums summoned men to the defence of castles and walled towns crowded with refugees."{{sfnp|Stewart|1989|p=52}}

In the summer of 1642, the [[Parliament of Scotland|Scottish Parliament]] sent some 10,000 soldiers to quell the Irish rebellion. In revenge for the massacres of Scottish colonists, the army committed many atrocities against the Catholic population. Based in [[Carrickfergus]], the Scottish army fought against the rebels until 1650, although much of the army was destroyed by the Irish forces at the [[Battle of Benburb]] in 1646. In the northwest of Ulster, the colonists around Derry and east Donegal organised the [[Laggan Army]] in self-defence. The British forces fought an inconclusive war with the Ulster Irish led by [[Owen Roe O'Neill]]. All sides committed atrocities against civilians in this war, exacerbating the population displacement begun by the Plantation.{{sfnp|Lenihan|2007|p=111}}

In addition to fighting the Ulster Irish, the British settlers fought each other in 1648–49 over the issues of the [[English Civil War]]. The Scottish Presbyterian army sided with the King and the Laggan Army sided with the English Parliament. In 1649–50, the New Model Army, along with some of the British colonists under [[Sir Charles Coote, 1st Baronet|Charles Coote]], defeated both the Scottish forces and the Ulster Irish.{{sfnp|Ó Siochrú|2008|pp=99, 128, 144}}

As a result, the [[Roundhead|English Parliamentarians]] (or [[Oliver Cromwell|Cromwell]]ians) were generally hostile to Scottish Presbyterians after they [[Cromwellian conquest of Ireland|re-conquered Ireland]] from the Catholic [[Confederate Ireland|Confederates]] in 1649–53. The main beneficiaries of the postwar [[Act for the Settlement of Ireland 1652|Cromwellian settlement]] were English Protestants like Sir Charles Coote, who had taken the Parliament's side over the King or the Scottish Presbyterians. The Wars eliminated the last major Catholic landowners in Ulster.{{sfnp|Lenihan|2007|pp=136–137}}

==Continued migration from Scotland and England to Ulster==
Most Scottish planters came from southwest Scotland, but many also came from the unstable regions along the border with England. The plan was that moving Borderers (see [[Border Reivers]]) to Ireland (particularly to [[County Fermanagh]]) would both solve the Border problem and tie down Ulster. This was of particular concern to [[James VI of Scotland]] when he became King of England, since he knew Scottish instability could jeopardise his chances of ruling both kingdoms effectively.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bell |first=Robert |date=1994 |title='Sheep stealers from the north of England': the Riding Clans in Ulster |url=https://www.historyireland.com/sheep-stealers-from-the-north-of-england-the-riding-clans-in-ulster-by-robert-bell/ |journal=[[History Ireland]] |volume=2 |issue=4 |access-date=9 August 2024}}</ref>

Another wave of Scottish immigration to Ulster took place in the 1690s, when tens of thousands of Scots fled [[Seven Ill Years|a famine (1696–1698)]] in the border region of Scotland. It was at this point that Scottish Presbyterians became the majority community in the province. Whereas in the 1660s, they made up some 20% of Ulster's population (though 60% of its British population) by 1720 they were an absolute majority in Ulster, with up to 50,000 having arrived during the period 1690–1710.{{sfnp|Cullen|2010|pp=176–179}} There was continuing [[English migration]] throughout this period, particularly the 1650s and 1680s, notably amongst these settlers were the [[Quakers]] from Northern England, who contributed greatly to the cultivation of flax and linen. In total, during the half century between 1650 and 1700, 100,000 British settlers migrated to Ulster, with around half being English, however Scots were numerically superior overall.{{sfnp|Kennedy|Ollerenshaw|2012|p=143}}

Despite the fact that Scottish Presbyterians strongly supported the [[Williamite]]s in the [[Williamite war in Ireland]] in the 1690s, they were excluded from power in the postwar settlement by the Anglican [[Protestant Ascendancy]]. During the 18th century, rising Ulster Scots resentment over religious, political and economic issues fueled their emigration to the [[American colonies]], beginning in 1717 and continuing up to the 1770s. Scots-Irish from Ulster and Scotland and British from the borders region comprised the most numerous group of immigrants from Great Britain and Ireland to the colonies in the years before the [[American Revolution]]. An estimated 150,000 left Ulster. They settled first mostly in [[Pennsylvania]] and [[western Virginia]], from where they moved southwest into the backcountry of the [[Upland South]], the [[Ozarks]] and the [[Appalachian Mountains]].<ref>[[David Hackett Fischer]], ''[[Albion's Seed: Four British Folkways in America]]'', [[Oxford University Press]], 1989, pp. 608–611.</ref>

==Legacy==
[[File:Scaoileadh Creidimhin in UlaidhReligious Division of Ulster.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Percentage of Catholics in each electoral division in Ulster. Based on census figures from 2001 ([[United Kingdom|UK]]) and 2006 ([[Republic of Ireland|ROI]]).<br />0–10% dark orange, 10–30% mid orange,<br />30–50% light orange, 50–70% light green,<br />70–90% mid green, 90–100% dark green]]
[[File:Ireland Protestants 1861-2011.jpg|thumb|450px|Ireland Protestants 1861–2011 (The (dark) blue areas include other non-Catholics and non-religious).]]
The legacy of the Plantation remains disputed. According to one interpretation, it created a society segregated between native Catholics and settler Protestants in Ulster and created a Protestant and British concentration in north-east Ireland. This argument therefore sees the Plantation as one of the long-term causes of the [[Partition of Ireland]] in 1921, as the north-east remained as part of the United Kingdom in [[Northern Ireland]].<ref>{{cite journal |url= https://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/UNTS/LON/Volume%2026/v26.pdf#page=9 |title=Treaty between Great Britain and Ireland, signed at London, 6&nbsp;December 1921 |journal=League of Nations Treaty Series |volume=26 |pages=9–19 |number=626 |access-date=14 June 2020 |archive-date=17 November 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20151117023808/https://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/UNTS/LON/Volume%2026/v26.pdf#page=9 |url-status=live}}</ref>

The densest Protestant settlement took place in the eastern counties of Antrim and Down, which were not part of the Plantation, whereas Donegal, in the west, was planted but did not become part of Northern Ireland.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Interview with Dr. John McCavitt, 'Ulster Plantation' |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/northernireland/talkni/ask_ulster_plantation.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121113191530/http://www.bbc.co.uk/northernireland/talkni/ask_ulster_plantation.shtml |archive-date=13 November 2012 |access-date=10 December 2023 |website=BBC}}</ref>

Therefore, it is also argued that the Plantation itself was less important in the distinctiveness of the north-east of Ireland than natural population flow between Ulster and Scotland. [[A. T. Q. Stewart]], a protestant from Belfast, concluded: "The distinctive Ulster-Scottish culture, isolated from the mainstream of Catholic and Gaelic culture, would appear to have been created not by the specific and artificial plantation of the early seventeenth century, but by the continuous natural influx of Scottish settlers both before and after that episode&nbsp;...."{{sfnp|Stewart|1989|p=39}}

The Plantation of Ulster is also widely seen as the origin of mutually antagonistic Catholic/Irish and Protestant/British identities in Ulster. [[Richard English]], an expert on the [[Irish Republican Army]], has written that: "not all of those of British background in Ireland owe their Irish residence to the Plantations&nbsp;... yet the Plantation did produce a large British/English interest in Ireland, a significant body of Irish Protestants who were tied through religion and politics to English power."{{sfnp|English|2006|p=59}}

Genetic analysis has revealed that, "The distribution [of southwestern Scottish ancestry] in Northern Ireland mirrors the distributions of the Plantations of Ireland throughout the 17th century. Thus the cluster will have experienced some genetic isolation by religion from adjacent Irish populations in the intervening centuries."<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Gilbert | first1 = Edmund | last2 = O'Reilly | first2 = Seamus | last3 = Merrigan | first3 = Michael | display-authors = etal | title = The genetic landscape of Scotland and the Isles | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 116 | issue = 38 | publisher =  National Academy of Sciences | location = Washington, D.C. | date = September 3, 2019 | pages = 19064–19070 | language = English | issn = 1091-6490 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1904761116 | doi-access = free | pmid = 31481615 | bibcode = 2019PNAS..11619064G | pmc = 6754546 }}</ref>

The settlers also left a legacy in terms of language. The strong [[Ulster Scots dialects|Ulster Scots dialect]] originated through the speech of Lowland Scots settlers evolving and being influenced by both [[Hiberno-English]] dialect and the [[Irish language]].{{sfnp|Macafee|1996|p=xi}} Seventeenth-century English settlers also contributed colloquial words that are still in current use in Ulster.{{sfnp|Falls|1996|pp=231–233}}

==See also==
* [[Scotch-Irish Americans]]
* [[Scottish names in Ulster]]
{{clear}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{Cite book |last=Bardon |first=Jonathan |author-link=Jonathan Bardon |title=A History of Ulster |edition=New Updated |location=Belfast |publisher=[[Blackstaff Press]] |orig-date=1992 |date=2005 |isbn=978-0-85640-764-2 |url= https://archive.org/details/historyofulster00jona |via=Internet Archive |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book |last=Bardon |first=Jonathan |author-link=Jonathan Bardon |title=The Plantation of Ulster |date=2011 |publisher=[[Gill & Macmillan]] |isbn=978-0-7171-4738-0}}
* {{Cite book |last=Beckett |first=J. C. |author-link=J. C. Beckett |title=The Making of Modern Ireland, 1603–1923 |publisher=Faber & Faber |location=London |orig-date=1966 |date=1981 |isbn=978-0-5711-8036-3}}
* {{Cite book |last=Canny |first=Nicholas |author-link=Nicholas Canny |title=Making Ireland British, 1580–1650 |date=2001 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-820091-8 |url= https://archive.org/details/makingirelandbri00cann |via=Internet Archive |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book |last=Chart |first=David Alfred |title=A History of Northern Ireland |date=1928 |publisher=Educational Company of Ireland}}
* {{Cite book |last=Cullen |first=Karen J. |title=Famine in Scotland: The 'Ill Years' of the 1690s |date=2010 |series="Scottish Historical Review Monographs" series |publisher=[[Edinburgh University Press]] |jstor=10.3366/j.ctt1r279x |isbn=978-0-7486-4184-0 |url= https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3366/j.ctt1r279x  |url-access=subscription}}
* {{Cite book |last=Curtis |first=Edmund |title=A History of Ireland: From Earliest Times to 1922 |edition=6th |date=2000 |orig-date=1936 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=0-415-27949-6}} A newer edition (8th, 2002) is available.
* {{Cite book |last=Elliott |first=Marianne |author-link=Marianne Elliott (historian) |title=The Catholics of Ulster: A History |date=2001 |location=New York |publisher=[[Basic Books]]}}
* {{cite web |last=Elliott |first=Marianne |author-link=Marianne Elliott (historian) |url= https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/plantation/perspective/pp03.shtml |title=Personal Perspective |date=20 June 2002<!--Date was hidden in the page source.--> |work=Wars & Conflict: The Plantation of Ulster |publisher=[[BBC History]] |access-date=13 May 2009}}
* {{Cite book |last=Ellis |first=Steven |title= The Making of the British Isles: The State of Britain and Ireland, 1450-1660 |date=2007 |publisher=Routledge}}
* {{Cite book |last=English |first=Richard |author-link=Richard English |title=Irish Freedom: The History of Nationalism in Ireland |date=2006 |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan|Macmillan]] |location=London}}
* {{Cite book |last=Falls |first=Cyril |author-link=Cyril Falls |title=The Birth of Ulster |location=London |publisher=[[Constable & Co.]] |date=1996 |isbn=978-0-09-476610-5 |orig-date=1936|url= https://archive.org/details/birthofulster0000fall |via=Internet Archive |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book |last=Hanna |first=Charles A. |title=The Scotch-Irish: Or, The Scot in North Britain, North Ireland, and North America |date=1902 |publisher=[[G. P. Putnam's Sons]]}}
* {{cite book |last1=Jackson |first1=T.A. |author-link=Thomas A. Jackson |title=Ireland Her Own: An Outline History of the Irish Struggle for National Freedom and Independence |date=1973 |orig-date=1947 |publisher=[[International Publishers]] |location=New York |url=https://archive.org/details/irelandherown/mode/2up|via=Internet Archive }}
* {{Cite book |last=Lenihan |first=Pádraig |title=Consolidating Conquest: Ireland 1603–1727 |location=Harlow, Essex |publisher=[[Pearson Longman]] / [[Routledge]] |date=2007 |isbn=9780582772175}} Various newer versions exist but appear to be reprintings not revised editions.
* {{Cite book |last=Lennon |first=Colm |title=Sixteenth-Century Ireland: The Incomplete Conquest |date=1995 |orig-date=1994 |publisher=[[St. Martin's Press]] |location=New York |isbn=978-0-312-12462-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/sixteenthcentury0000lenn |via=Internet Archive |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book |editor1-last=Kennedy |editor1-first=Liam |editor2-last=Ollerenshaw |editor2-first=Philip |title=Ulster Since 1600: Politics, Economy, and Society |date=2012<!--Amazon & OUP site says 2012, a different Oxford site says 2013, biblio databases range from 2012 to 2014, but if Amz was selling it by 2012, use 2012.--> |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=9780199583119}}
* {{cite book |last1=Kennedy |first1=Liam |author1-link=Liam Kennedy (historian) |last2=Miller |first2=Kerby A. |author2-link=Kerby A. Miller |last3=Gurrin |first3=Brian |chapter=Chapter 4: People and population change, 1600–1914 |date=2012<!--See main cite above for note about date.--> |editor1-last=Kennedy |editor1-first=Liam |editor2-last=Ollerenshaw |editor2-first=Philip |title=Ulster Since 1600: Politics, Economy, and Society |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=9780199583119}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Macafee |editor-first=Caroline I. |title=Concise Ulster Dictionary |date=1996 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=9780198600596}}
* {{Cite book |last1=MacRaild |first1=Donald M. |last2=Smith |first2=Malcolm<!--Not a Malcolm Smith we have an article on.--> |contribution=Migration and Emigration, 1600–1945 |date=2012<!--See main cite above for note about date.--> |editor1-last=Kennedy |editor1-first=Liam |editor1-link=Liam Kennedy (historian) |editor-last2=Ollerenshaw |editor-first2=Philip |title=Ulster Since 1600: Politics, Economy, and Society |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=9780199583119}}
* {{Cite book |last=Madden |first=Richard Robert |author-link=Richard Robert Madden |title=The United Irishmen, Their Lives and Times |volume=I |edition=1st Series, 2nd |date=1857 |orig-date=1846 |publisher=[[James Duffy (Irish publisher)|James Duffy]] |location=Dublin |pages=2–5 |url= https://archive.org/details/s1unitedirishmen01madduoft/ |via=Internet Archive}}
* {{Cite book |editor1-last=Moody |editor1-first=T. W. |editor1-link=Theodore William Moody |editor2-last=Martin |editor2-first=F. X. |editor2-link=F. X. Martin |title=The Course of Irish History |edition=Revised & enlarged 2nd |date=1984 |orig-date=1967 |location=Dublin |publisher=[[Radio Telefís Éireann]] / [[Mercier Press]] |isbn=9780853427100}} A newer edition exists (5th, 2012).
* {{Cite book |last=Ó Siochrú |first=Micheál |title=God's Executioner: Oliver Cromwell and the Conquest of Ireland |date=2008 |publisher=[[Faber & Faber]] |location=London |isbn=9780571241217}}
* {{Cite book |last=Ó Snodaigh |first=Pádraig |author-link=Pádraig Ó Snodaigh |title=[[Hidden Ulster, Protestants and the Irish language]] |date=1995 |orig-date=1973 |publisher=[[Lagan Press]] |location=Londonderry |isbn=9781873687352}}
* {{Cite book |last=Perceval-Maxwell |first=Michael |title=The Scottish Migration to Ulster in the Reign of James I |location=Belfast |publisher=Ulster Historical Foundation |date=1999 |orig-date=1973 |oclc=633735099}}
* {{Cite book |last=Robinson |first=Philip |title=The Plantation of Ulster: British Settlement in an Irish Landscape, 1600–1670 |date=2000 |publisher=Ulster Historical Foundation |location=Belfast}}
* {{Cite book |last=Stewart |first=A. T. Q. |author-link=A. T. Q. Stewart |title=The Narrow Ground: The Roots of Conflict in Ulster |edition=Revised |date=1989 |orig-date=1977 |location=London |publisher=[[Faber & Faber]] |url= https://archive.org/details/thenarowgroundstewart/mode/2up |via=Internet Archive}}
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
* {{Cite book |last=Adamson |first=Ian |author-link=Ian Adamson |title=The Identity of Ulster: The Land, the Language and the People |orig-year=1982 |date=1987<!--We don't care about later dates of impressions/printings.--> |edition=2nd |publisher=Pretani Press / [[Colourpoint Books]] |location=Newtownards, Co. Down |isbn=9780948868047}}
* {{Cite book |last=Kaufmann |first=Eric P. |title=The Orange Order: A Contemporary Northern Irish History |date=2009 |orig-date=2007 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=9780199532032}}

==External links==
{{EB1911 Poster|Plantation|Plantation of Ulster}}
* {{Cite web |title=Movement of British Settlers into Ulster in the 17th Century by Dr William Macafee |url=https://ulsterhistoricalfoundation.com/ulster-plantation/movement-of-british-settlers}}
* {{Cite web |url= https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/plantation/ |title=Wars & Conflict: The Plantation of Ulster |work=History |date=18 September 2014 |publisher=[[BBC]]}}
* {{Cite web |url= https://celt.ucc.ie/published/E600001-004/index.html |title=Discourse on the Mere Irish of Ireland |author=Anonymous |date=2010 |orig-date=c. 1608 |editor1-first=Hiram |editor1-last=Morgan |editor2-first=Kenneth W. |editor2-last=Nicholls |via=[[Corpus of Electronic Texts|CELT: Corpus of Electronic Texts]], [[University College Cork]]}}

{{Kingdom of Ireland}}
{{Ireland topics}}

[[Category:17th century in Ireland]]
[[Category:17th century in England]]
[[Category:17th century in Scotland]]
[[Category:1606 establishments in England]]
[[Category:1609 establishments in England]]
[[Category:1609 in politics]]
[[Category:Plantations in Ireland|Ulster]]
[[Category:England–Ireland relations]]
[[Category:Ireland–Scotland relations]]
[[Category:History of agriculture in Ireland]]