View source for Piper cubeba

{{Short description|Species of flowering plant}}
{{redirect|Cubeb|the [[West Africa]]n pepper ''Piper guineense''|West African pepper}}
{{good article}}
{{Speciesbox
|name = Cubeb
|image = Piper cubeba muda.jpg
|genus = Piper
|species = cubeba
|authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus the Younger|L.f.]]
}}

'''''Piper cubeba''''', '''cubeb''' or '''tailed pepper''' is a plant in [[genus]] ''[[Piper (plant)|Piper]]'', cultivated for its [[fruit]] and [[essential oil]]. It is mostly grown in [[Java (island)|Java]] and [[Sumatra]], hence sometimes called '''Java pepper'''. The fruits are gathered before they are ripe, and carefully dried. Commercial cubeb consists of the dried [[berries]], similar in appearance to [[black pepper]], but with stalks attached &ndash; the "tails" in "tailed pepper".  The dried [[pericarp]] is wrinkled, and its color ranges from grayish brown to black. The [[seed]] is hard, white and oily. The odor of cubeb is described as agreeable and [[aroma]]tic and the taste as pungent, acrid, slightly bitter and persistent.  It has been described as tasting like [[allspice]], or like a cross between allspice and black pepper.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p=607}}

Cubeb came to Europe via [[India]] through the trade with the Arabs. The name ''cubeb'' comes from [[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''{{Transliteration|ar|ISO|kabāba}}'' ({{lang|tg-Arab|كبابة}})<ref name="Katzer_1">{{Harv|Katzer|1998}}</ref> by way of [[Old French]] ''quibibes''.<ref name="Hess_1">{{Harv|Hess|1996|p=395}}</ref> Cubeb is mentioned in [[alchemy|alchemical writings]] by its Arabic name. In his ''Theatrum Botanicum'', [[John Parkinson (botanist)|John Parkinson]] tells that the king of Portugal (Possibly either [[Philip IV of Spain]] or [[John IV of Portugal]], as that year was marked by the start of the [[Portuguese Restoration War]]) prohibited the sale of cubeb to promote [[black pepper]] (''Piper nigrum'') around 1640. It experienced a brief resurgence in 19th-century Europe for medicinal uses, but has practically vanished from the European market since. It continues to be used as a [[Flavoring|flavoring agent]] for [[gin]]s and [[Flavored tobacco#Flavored cigarettes|cigarette]]s in the West, and as a seasoning for food in [[Indonesia]].

==History==
[[File:Piper cubeba - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-244.jpg|thumb|right|''Piper cubeba'', from ''[[Köhler's Medicinal Plants]]'' (1887)]]
In the fourth century BC, [[Theophrastus]] mentioned ''komakon'', including it with [[cinnamon]] and [[Cinnamomum aromaticum|cassia]] as an ingredient in aromatic confections. [[Guillaume Budé]] and [[Claudius Salmasius]] have identified ''komakon'' with cubeb, probably due to the resemblance which the word bears to the [[Javanese language|Javanese]] name of cubeb, ''kumukus''. This is seen as a curious evidence of Greek trade with Java in a time earlier than that of Theophrastus.<ref name="Cordier, Yule_1">{{Harv|Cordier|Yule|1920}} Chapter XXV.</ref> It is unlikely Greeks acquired them from somewhere else, since Javanese growers protected their [[monopoly]] of the trade by sterilizing the berries by scalding, ensuring that the vines were unable to be cultivated elsewhere.<ref name="Katzer_1"/>

In the [[Tang dynasty]], cubeb was brought to China from [[Srivijaya]]. In India, the spice came to be called ''kabab chini'', that is, "Chinese cubeb", possibly because the Chinese had a hand in its trade, but more likely because it was an important item in the trade with China. In China, this pepper was called both ''vilenga'' and ''viḍaṅga'' {{lang|sa|विडङ्ग}} (the cognate Sanskrit word), which had denoted [[embelia ribes]] before being used to denote the Malayan cubeb ({{lang-zh||t=蓽澄茄|s=[[w:zh:荜澄茄|荜澄茄]]|p=bì chéng qié}}<ref>Wiseman, Nigel (2022) ''Chinese-English Dictionary of Chinese Medical Terms''. [https://books.google.com/books?id=ROJ8EAAAQBAJ&pg=PT96 link to unnumbered page]</ref>).<ref name="Schafer_1"/><ref>{{cite web|title=विडङ्ग viḍaṅga|website=Dictionnaire Héritage du Sanscrit|url=https://sanskrit.inria.fr/DICO/59.html#vi.dafga|quote= m. bio. bot. Embelia Ribes, arbuste primulacée, aux fruits rouge-noirs ; c'est une plante médicinale importante — n. son fruit, employé comme vermifuge.}}</ref> Li Hsun thought it grew on the same tree as black pepper. Tang physicians administered it to restore appetite, cure "demon vapors", darken the hair, and perfume the body. However, there is no evidence showing that cubeb was used as a condiment in China.<ref name="Schafer_1">{{Harv|Schafer|1985|p=151}}</ref>

In his 1827 dictionary, ''Nhật dụng thường đàm'' ({{lang|zh|日用常談}}; {{literal|Common Words Used Daily}}), Vietnamese [[scholar-official]] Phạm Đình Hổ glossed {{lang|zh|蓽䔲茄}} "cubeb" ([[Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary|Sino-Vietnamese]]: ''tất đăng gia'') as 乙 ''{{lang|vi|ớt}}'', which currently denotes [[chilli pepper]] from the [[Americas]].<ref>Phạm Đình Hổ (author) (1827), 日用常談 (''Nhật dụng thường đàm'' "Common Words Used Daily"); textually studied and transliterated by Lê Văn Cường. [http://www.nomfoundation.org/common/show.php?detail=1202&uiLang=en entry "ớt"]: [[Chữ Hán|Hán]]-[[Chữ Nôm|Nôm]] text: (蓽䔲茄羅乙); [[Vietnamese alphabet|Quốc Ngữ]]: "tất đăng gia là ớt". Giáp Thị Hải Chi's English gloss: "chilli"; [https://lib.nomfoundation.org/collection/1/volume/862/page/29 p. 29 of 121], 3rd column from right.</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=ớt|website= Hồ Ngọc Đức's Vietnamese dictionary|url=https://www.informatik.uni-leipzig.de/~duc/TD/td/index.php?word=%E1%BB%9Bt&db=ve}}</ref>

''[[The Book of One Thousand and One Nights]]'', compiled in the 9th century, mentions cubeb as a remedy for infertility, showing it was already used by Arabs for medicinal purposes. Cubeb was introduced to [[Arab cuisine|Arabic cuisine]] around the 10th century.<ref name="Hal_2">{{Harv|Hal|2002|p=32}}</ref> ''[[The Travels of Marco Polo]]'', written in late 13th century, describes Java as a producer of cubeb, along with other valuable spices.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mongols in World History {{!}} Asia for Educators |url=http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/mongols/pop/menu/class_marco.htm |access-date=2022-06-07 |website=afe.easia.columbia.edu}}</ref>

In the 14th century, cubeb was imported into Europe from the [[Grain Coast]], under the name of pepper, by merchants of [[Rouen]] and [[County of Lippe|Lippe]].{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p=607}} Cubeb eventually came to be thought of as repulsive to demons by the people of Europe. [[Ludovico Maria Sinistrari]], a [[Holy Orders|Roman Catholic priest]] who wrote about methods of [[exorcism]] in the late 17th century, includes cubeb as an ingredient in an incense to ward off an [[Incubus (demon)|incubus]].<ref name="Sinistrari_1">{{Harv|Sinistrari|2003|pp=56–57}}. "...Incubus none the less persisted in appearing to her constantly, in the shape of an exceptionally handsome young man. At last, among other learned men, whose advice had been taken on the subject, was a very profound Theologian who, observing that the maiden was of a thoroughly phlegmatic temperament, surmised that that Incubus was an aqueous Demon (there are in fact, as is testified by Guazzo (''Compendium Maleficarum, I. 19''), igneous, aerial, phlegmatic, earthly, and subterranean demons who avoid the light of day), and so he prescribed a continual suffumigation in the room. A new vessel, made of earthenware and glass, was accordingly introduced, and filled with sweet calamus, cubeb seed, roots of both aristolochies, great and small cardamom, ginger, long-pepper, caryophylleae, cinnamon, cloves, mace, nutmegs, calamite storax, benzoin, aloes-wood and roots, one ounce of fragrant sandal, and three quarts of half brandy and water; the vessel was then set on hot ashes in order to force forth and upwards the fumigating vapour, and the cell was kept closed. As soon as the suffumigation was done, the Incubus came, but never dared enter the cell."</ref>

After the prohibition of its sale in Portugal in 1640, culinary use of cubeb decreased dramatically in Europe, and only its medicinal application continued to the 19th century. In the early 20th century, cubeb was regularly shipped from Indonesia to Europe and the United States. The trade gradually diminished to an average of {{convert|135|t|abbr=on|lk=on}} annually, and practically ceased after 1940.<ref name="Weiss_1">{{Harv|Weiss|2002|p=180}}.</ref>

==Chemistry==
[[File:Α-Cubebene.svg|right|thumb|120px|Chemical structure of α-cubebene]]
The dried cubeb berries contain essential oil comprising [[monoterpene]]s ([[sabinene]] 50%, α-[[thujene]], and [[carene]]) and [[sesquiterpene]]s ([[caryophyllene]], [[copaene]], [[cubebene|α- and β-cubebene]], δ-[[cadinene]], [[germacrene]]), the oxides 1,4- and 1,8-[[cineole]] and the alcohol [[cubebol]].

About 15% of a [[volatile oil]] is obtained by [[distilling]] cubeb with water. Cubebene, the liquid portion, has the formula{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p=607}} C<sub>15</sub>H<sub>24</sub> and comes in two forms, α- and β-.  They differ only in the position of the [[alkene]] [[moiety (chemistry)|moiety]], with the double-bond being endocyclic (part of the five-membered ring) in α-cubebene, as shown, but [[exocyclic]] in β-cubebene. It is a pale green viscous liquid with a warm woody, slightly camphoraceous odor.<ref name="Lawless_1">{{Harv|Lawless|1995|p=201}}</ref> After rectification with water, or on keeping, this deposits [[Rhombus|rhombic]] crystals of [[camphor]] of cubeb.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p=607}}

Cubebin (C<sub>20</sub>H<sub>20</sub>O<sub>6</sub>) is a crystalline organic compound isolated from cubeb [[oilcake]], and can be [[Chemical synthesis|chemically synthesized]] from [[cubebene]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/117443|title= Cubebin Compound Summary|publisher= PubChem, US National Library of Medicine|date=28 September 2024|accessdate=30 September 2024}}</ref> It was discovered by [[Eugène Soubeiran]] and Hyacinthe Capitaine in 1839, and irritates the [[mucous membrane]]s.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p=607}}

==Uses==

=== History in folk medicine ===

Physicians in the [[Islamic Golden Age]] distilled "water of ''al butm''" ([[turpentine]]) from a mixture of [[Herb|herbal products]], including cubeb.{{Sfn|Patai|1995|p=315}}

In Victorian and Edwardian England, cubeb was an antiseptic for [[gonorrhea]] treatment.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p=607}} [[William Wyatt (settler)|William Wyatt]] Squire wrote in 1908 that cubeb berries "act specifically on the genitourinary [[mucous membrane]]. (They are) given in all stages of [[gonorrhea]]"{{Sfn|Squire|1908|p=462}} and ''The National Botanic Pharmacopoeia'' printed in 1921 stated that cubeb was "an excellent remedy for flour albus or whites".{{Sfn|Scurrah|1921|p=34}}  A [[tincture]] of the compound appeared in the ''[[British Pharmacopoeia]]'', and a [[Natural gum|gum]] with 1% cubebin, roughly equivalent to 30-60 [[Grain (measure)|grains]] of cubeb fruit, had become standardized as a [[Medication|drug]], also called ''cubeb''.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p=607}}

===Culinary===
In Europe, cubeb was one of the valuable spices during the Middle Ages. It was ground as a [[seasoning]] for meat or used in sauces.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p=607}} A medieval recipe includes cubeb in making ''sauce sarcenes'', which consists of [[almond milk]] and several spices.<ref name="Hieatt_1">{{Harv|Hieatt|1988}} "Make a thykke mylke of almondys, do hit in a pot with floure of rys, safron, gynger, macys, ''quibibis'', canel, sygure: and rynse the bottom of the disch with fat broth. Boyle the sewe byfore, and messe hit forth."</ref> As an aromatic confectionery, cubeb was often candied and eaten whole.<ref>Candied cubeb is mentioned in [[Thomas Pynchon]]'s ''[[Gravity's Rainbow]]'', set in the 1940s: "Under its tamarind glaze, the [[Mills bomb]] turns out to be luscious pepsin-flavored nougat, chock-full of tangy candied cubeb berries, and a chewy camphor-gum center. It is unspeakably awful. Slothrop's head begins to reel with camphor fumes, his eyes are running, his tongue's a hopeless holocaust. Cubeb? He used to ''smoke'' that stuff." {{Harv|Pynchon|1973|p=118}}</ref> Ocet Kubebowy, a [[vinegar]] infused with cubeb, cumin and garlic, was used for meat [[marinade]]s in [[Poland]] during the 14th century {{Harv|Dembinska|1999|p=199}}. Cubeb can be used to enhance the flavor of savory soups.

Cubeb reached Africa by way of the Arabs. In [[Moroccan cuisine]], cubeb is used in savory dishes and in pastries like ''makrouts'', little diamonds of [[semolina]] with honey and dates.<ref name="Hal_2" /> It also appears occasionally in the list of ingredients for the famed spice mixture ''[[Ras el hanout]]''. In [[Indonesian cuisine]], especially in Indonesian [[gulai|gulés (curries)]], cubeb is frequently used.

===Cigarettes and spirits===<!-- This section is linked from [[The Music Man]] -->
[[File:CubebCigarettes.jpg|thumb|320px|A Victorian advertisement for ''Dr. Perrin's Medicated Cubeb Cigarettes'']]

Cubeb, combined with [[Datura stramonium|stramonium]], [[eucalyptus]], and other plant extracts, was once, beginning in the 1880s, frequently used in the form of [[cigarette]]s for [[asthma]], chronic [[pharyngitis]], and [[hay fever]].{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p=607}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/medical-history/article/divine-stramonium-the-rise-and-fall-of-smoking-for-asthma/32206210B3A3F72335066F847BAD4929 |title="Divine Stramonium": The Rise and Fall of Smoking for Asthma |last=Jackson |first=Mark |date=7 December 2011 |website=Cambridge University Press |access-date=14 December 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cincinnatimagazine.com/article/remember-when-cincinnatis-best-cure-for-colds-was-smoking/ |title=Remember When Cincinnati’s Best Cure for Colds Was Smoking? |last=Hand |first=Greg |date=19 October 2021 |website=Cincinnati Magazine |access-date=14 December 2024}}</ref> [[Edgar Rice Burroughs]], being fond of smoking cubeb cigarettes, said humorously that if he had not smoked so many, there might never have been ''[[Tarzan]]''. Marshall's Prepared Cubeb Cigarettes was a popular brand, with enough sales to still be made during World War II.<ref name="Shaw_1">{{Harv|Shaw|1998}}.</ref>

In 2000, cubeb oil was included in the [[list of additives in cigarettes|list of ingredients found in cigarettes]], published by the Tobacco Prevention and Control Branch of [[North Carolina]]'s Department of Health and Human Services.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.stepupnc.com/know/ingredients.shtm | title = Cigarette Ingredients | access-date = 2006-02-11 | date = 2000 | publisher = Tobacco Prevention and Control Branch, North Carolina Department of Health and Human Services }}</ref>

[[Bombay Sapphire]] gin is flavored with botanicals including cubeb and [[grains of paradise]]. The brand was launched in 1987, but its maker claims that it is based on a secret recipe dating to 1761. [[Horilka|Pertsivka]], a dark brown Ukrainian pepper-flavoured [[horilka]] with a burning taste, is prepared by infusion with cubeb and [[capsicum|chiles]].<ref name="Grossman_1">{{Harv|Grossman|1983|p=348}}</ref>

===Other===
[[File:John Varvatos Vintage.jpg|thumb|upright|John Varvatos Vintage uses cubeb as one of the ingredients for fragrance.]]
Cubeb is sometimes used to [[adulterant|adulterate]] the [[essential oil]] of [[patchouli]], which requires caution for patchouli users.<ref name="Long_1">{{Harv|Long|2002|p=78}}</ref> In turn, cubeb is adulterated by ''[[Piper baccatum]]'' (also known as the "climbing pepper of Java") and ''[[Piper caninum]]''.<ref name="Seidemann_1">{{Harv|Seidemann|2005|p=290}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Domesticated plants and animals of Austronesia]]

== References ==

=== Notes ===
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'''Attribution'''
* {{EB1911 |wstitle=Cubebs |volume=7 |page=607 }}
{{refend}}

{{Herbs & spices}}{{African cuisine}}{{Taxonbar|from=Q161927}}

[[Category:African cuisine]]
[[Category:Arab spices]]
[[Category:Edible nuts and seeds]]
[[Category:Flora of the Lesser Sunda Islands]]
[[Category:Indonesian cuisine]]
[[Category:Medicinal plants of Asia]]
[[Category:Medieval cuisine]]
[[Category:Spices]]
[[Category:Piper (plant)|cubeba]]
[[Category:Austronesian agriculture]]